DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental Science Is

REVIEWER Multidisciplinary – human development is

the vast topic that requires theories, research
The Life-Span Perspective
methods and knowledge.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIFE-
Development Is Contextual – development
SPAN DEVELOPMENT
occurs in many context > family, schools and
Development - the pattern of change that peer group.
begins at conception and continues through
- three types of influences (Baltes, 2003):
the life span.
 Normative age-graded influences –
Life-span Perspective - the perspective that
these are influences that are similar
development is lifelong, multidimensional,
for individuals in a particular age
multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary,
group.
and contextual; involves growth,
 Normative history graded
maintenance, and regulation; and is
influences – influences that are
constructed through biological, sociocultural,
common to people of a particular
and individual factors working together.
generation because of historical
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN circumstances.
PERSPECTIVE  Non-normative life events – unusual
occurrences that have a major impact
Development Is Lifelong – no single age is
on an individual’s life.
more crucial, characterizes, or dominates
human development Development Involves Growth,
Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss –
Development Is Multidimensional – 3
dimensions: Development Is a Co-Construction of
Biology, Culture, and the Individual –
 Physical – height, weight, nervous
system etc. SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
 Cognitive – intelligence, wisdom,
Health and Well-Being - Health
perceptions.
professionals today recognize the power of
 Social – emotions etc.
life-styles and psychological states in health
-a change in one domain may cascade and and well-being.
prompt changes in other domains.
Parenting and Education - analyze child
Development Is Multidirectional – human care, the effects of divorce, parenting styles,
change in many directions. We may show child maltreatment, intergenerational
gains in some ways of development, while relationships, early childhood education,
showing losses in other areas. relationships between childhood poverty and
education, bilingual education, new
Development Is Plastic – ability to change educational efforts to improve lifelong
and that many of our characteristics are learning, and many other issues related to
malleable. parenting and education.
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity - Connections to extended
Health, parenting, and education—like supportive
development itself—are all shaped by their family networks
sociocultural context. To analyze this context, Extrafamilial Bonds to caring adults outside
four concepts are especially useful: Context the family
Connections to positive
 Culture – the behavior patterns, organizations
beliefs, and all other products of a Attending effective schools
group that are passed on from
generation to generation.
 Cross-cultural studies – comparison The Nature of Development
of one culture with one or more other BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
cultures. SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
 Ethnicity – a characteristic based on
cultural heritage, nationality Biological processes – changes in an
characteristics, race, religion, and individual’s physical nature.
language. Cognitive processes – changes in an
 Socioeconomic status (SES) – refers individual’s thought, intelligence, and
to the grouping of people with similar language.
occupational, educational, and
economic characteristics. Socioemotional processes – changes in an
 Gender – the characteristics of individual’s relationships with other people,
people as males or females. emotions, and personality.

Social Policy – a national government’s Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and

course of action designed to promote the Socioemotional Processes
welfare of its citizens.  Developmental cognitive
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESILIENT neuroscience- which explores links
CHILDREN AND THEIR CONTEXTS between development, cognitive
processes, and the brain
Source Characteristics  developmental social neuroscience-
Individual Good intellectual functioning which examines connections between
Appealing, sociable, easygoing socio-emotional processes,
disposition
development, and the brain.
Self-confidence, high self-
esteem
Talents PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Faith
Family Close relationship to caring The prenatal period – conceptions, major of
parent figure body is forming.
Authoritative parenting:
Infancy - from birth to 18 or 24 months;
warmth, structure,
high expectations many psychological activities—language,
Socioeconomic advantages symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination, and social learning.
Early childhood - from the end of infancy to Connections Across Periods of
age 5 or 6; “preschool years.” – learn to Development
become more self-sufficient and to care for
 A key aspect in the study of life-span
themselves, develop school readiness skills.
development is how development in
Middle and late childhood - from about 6 to one period is connected to
11 years of age; the fundamental skills of development in another period.
reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE
Achievement and self-control increase.
Adolescence - approximately 10 to 12 years Conceptions of Age
of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age;  Chronological age – year since birth
dramatic physical change/puberty. is not the only way we can
Early adulthood - begins in the early 20s and conceptualize age.
lasts through the 30s; time of establishing  Biological age – how quickly the
personal and economic independence, career body is aging
development, and starting a family.  Psychological age – psychologically
adaptive capacity compared to others
Middle adulthood - from approximately 40 of our chronological age.
years of age to about 60; expanding personal  Social age – based on social norms of
and social involvement and responsibility our culture and the expectations of
and reaching and maintaining satisfaction in our culture has for people of our age
a career. group.
Late adulthood - begins in the 60s or 70s and DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
lasts until death. It is a time of life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social Nature-nurture issue involves the extent to
roles involving decreasing strength and which development is influenced by nature
health. and by nurture.

SUMMARY: Pre-natal period – infancy – - Refers to the debate about whether

early childhood – middle and late childhood development is primarily influenced by
– adolescence – early adulthood – middle nature or nurture. Nature refers to an
adulthood – late adulthood. organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to
its environmental experiences. The “nature
proponents” claim biological inheritance is
Four Ages the most important influence on
development; the “nurture proponents” claim
 First age: Childhood and adolescence that environmental experiences are the most
 Second age: Prime adulthood, 20s important.
through 50s
 Third age: Approximately 60 to 79  Nature – heredity plays the most
years of age important role in bringing about the
features.
 Fourth age: Approximately 80 years
and older
  Nurture – one’s environment is most Psychoanalytic theories [Sigmund Freud
significant in shaping the way we are. (1856–1939)].
Stability – change issue Involves the degree – describe development as primarily
to which we become older renditions of our unconscious and heavily colored by emotion.
early experience (stability) or whether we Behavior is merely a surface characteristic,
develop into someone different from who we and the symbolic workings of the mind have
were at an earlier point in development to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early
(change). experiences with parents are emphasized.
Continuity – discontinuity issue – focuses The ideas of an important revisionist of
on the extent to which development involves Freud’s ideas:
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or
distinct stages (discontinuity). Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
 Stage theories/discontinuous stage stage stage stage stage
development – development change
often occurs in distinct stage that are Infant’s Child’s Child’s Child A time of
different from each other pleasure pleasure pleasure represses sexual
 Continuous development – centers focuses focuses sexual reawakening;
development is more slow and on the on the on the interest source
gradual mouth. anus. genitals. and of sexual
develops pleasure
Theories of Development social and becomes
intellectual someone
Scientific method – an approach that can be skills. outside the
used to obtain accurate information. It family.
includes these steps:
Birth to 1 ½ to 3 3 to 6 6 Years to
(1) conceptualize the problem,
1 ½ Years Years Puberty Puberty
(2) collect data, Years onwards
(3) draw conclusions, and
(4) revise research conclusions and Erikson’s theory [Erik Erikson (1902–
theory. 1994)]
– includes eight stages of human
Theory – an interrelated, coherent set of
development. Each stage consists of a unique
ideas that helps to explain and make
developmental task that confronts individuals
predictions. with a crisis that must be resolved.
Hypotheses – specific assumptions and ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE SPAN
predictions that can be tested to determine STAGES:
their accuracy. Erikson’s Stages Developmental
Period
FIVE THEORITICAL ORIENTATIONS Integrity versus Late adulthood
TO DEVELOPMENT despair (60s onward)
Generativity versus Middle adulthood
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES stagnation (40s, 50s)
 Intimacy versus
Early adulthood
isolation (20s, 30s)
Identity versus
Adolescence
Identity confusion (10 to 20 years)
Industry versus
Middle and late
inferiority childhood
(elementary school
years, 6 years to
puberty)
Initiative versus Early childhood
guilt (preschool years,
3 to 5 years)
Autonomy versus Infancy Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive
shame and doubt (1 to 3 years) Theory [Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)]
Trust versus Infancy
mistrust (first year) - A sociocultural cognitive theory that
COGNITIVE THEORIES emphasizes how culture and social
interaction guide cognitive development.
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
[Piaget (1896–1980)] Information-processing theory –
-States that children actively construct their emphasizes that individuals manipulate
understanding of the world and go through information, monitor it, and strategize about
four stages of cognitive development. it. Central to this theory are the processes of
memory and thinking.
PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.  Robert Siegler (2006, 2007), a
leading expert on children’s
information processing, states that
thinking is information processing.
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning [B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990)]
 For Skinner the key aspect of
development is behavior, not thoughts
and feelings. He emphasized that
development consists of the pattern of
behavioral changes that are brought
about by rewards and punishments.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

- American psychologist Albert Bandura
(1925–) is the leading architect of social
cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2004, 2007,
2008, 2009, 2010a, b) emphasizes that
cognitive processes have important links with beliefs, and all other products of a
the environment and behavior. group of people that are passed on
Social cognitive theory – the view of from generation to generation.
psychologists who emphasize behavior, 5. Chronosystem - consists of the
environment, and cognition as the key factors patterning of environmental events
in development. and transitions over the life course, as
well as sociohistorical circumstances.
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
For example, divorce is one
Ethology – stresses that behavior is strongly transition.
influenced by biology, is tied to evolution,
and is characterized by critical or sensitive AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL
periods. ORIENTATION

 Contributions of ethological theory - An orientation that does not follow any one
include a focus on the biological and theoretical approach, but rather selects from
each theory whatever is considered the best
evolutionary basis of development,
in it.
and the use of careful observations in
naturalistic settings. A COMPARISON OF THEORIES AND
ECOLOGICAL THEORY ISSUES IN LIFE SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory -
Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems
theory that focuses on five environmental
systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
1. Microsystem - is the setting in which
the individual lives. These contexts
include the person’s family, peers,
school, and neighborhood.
and teachers, for example.
2. Mesosystem - involves relations
between microsystems or connections
between contexts. Examples are
relation to experiences.
3. Exosystem - consists of links
between a social setting in which the
individual does not have an active
role and the individual’s immediate
context.
4. Macrosystem - involves the culture
in which individuals live. Remember
from earlier in the chapter that culture
refers to the behavior patterns,
 between two or more events or
characteristics.
Observed Correlation: As permissive
parenting increases, children’s self-control
decreases.

Research in Life-Span Development

Correlation coefficient – a number based on
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA statistical analysis that is used to describe the
Observation degree of association between two variables.
 Laboratory – a controlled setting in
Experimental Research – to study causality,
which many of the complex factors of
researchers turn to experimental research.
the “real world” are removed.
 Naturalistic observation - observing Experiment - is a carefully regulated
behavior in real-world settings. procedure in which one or more factors
believed to influence the behavior being
Survey and Interview – the best and
studied are manipulated while all other
quickest way to get information about people
factors are held constant.
is to ask them for it. One technique is to
interview them directly. -Two types of change-able factors, or
variables:
Standardized Test – A test with uniform
procedures for administration and scoring.  Independent variable - is
a manipulated, influential,
Case study – is an in-depth look at a single
experimental factor. This variable
individual.
can be manipulated independently of
Physiological Measures – researchers are other factors to determine its effect.
increasingly using physiological measures  Dependent variable - is a factor that
when they study development at different can change in an experiment, in
points in the life span. response to changes in the
independent variable; they measure
RESEARCH DESIGNS
the dependent variable for any
Descriptive Research - has the purpose of resulting effect.
observing and recording behavior.
Experimental and Control Groups
Correlational Research - the goal is to
 Experimental group - is a group
describe the strength of the relationship
whose experience is manipulated.
  Control group - is a comparison 4. Deception. In some circumstances,
group that is as much like the telling the participants beforehand
experimental group as possible and what the research study is about
that is treated in every way like the substantially alters the participants’
experimental group except for the behavior and invalidates the
manipulated factor (independent researcher’s data.
variable).
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
MINIMIZING BIAS
Cross-sectional approach - a research
Gender Bias - our society has had a strong
strategy in which individuals of different ages
gender bias a preconceived notion about the
are compared at one time.
abilities of women and men that prevented
Longitudinal approach – a research strategy individuals from pursuing their own interests
in which the same individuals are studied and achieving their potential.
over a period of time, usually several years or
Cultural and Ethnic Bias - the realization
more.
that research on life-span development needs
Cohort effects - effects due to a person’s to include more people from diverse ethnic
time of birth, era, or generation but not to groups has also been building.
actual age.
 Ethnic gloss - using an ethnic label
 cohort is a group of people who are such as African American or Latino in
born at a similar point in history and a superficial way that portrays an
share similar experiences as a result, ethnic group as being more
such as living through the Vietnam homogeneous than it really is.
War or growing up in the same city
around the same time.
CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
BEGINNINGS
1. Informed consent. All participants
The Evolutionary Perspective
must know what their research
participation will involve and what NATURAL SELECTION AND ADAPTIVE
risks might develop. BEHAVIOR
2. Confidentiality. Researchers are
responsible for keeping all of the data Natural selection – is the evolutionary
they gather on individuals completely process by which those individuals of a
confidential and, when possible, species that are best adapted are the ones that
completely anonymous. survive and reproduce.
3. Debriefing. After the study has been Adaptive behavior – is behavior that
completed, participants should be promotes an organism’s survival in the
informed of its purpose and the natural habitat (Johnson & Losos, 2010). For
methods that were used. example, attachment between a caregiver and
a baby ensures the infant’s closeness to a
caregiver for feeding and protection from Meiosis – a specialized form of cell division
danger, thus increasing the infant’s chances that occurs to form eggs and sperm (or
of survival. gametes).
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Fertilization – a stage in reproduction
whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a
Evolutionary psychology – emphasizes the
single cell, called a zygote.
importance of adaptation, reproduction, and
“survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior. Zygote – a single cell formed through
“Fit” in this sense refers to the ability to bear fertilization.
offspring that survive long enough to bear
Identical twins (also called monozygotic
offspring of their own.
twins) -develop from a single zygote that
Connecting Evolution and Life-Span splits into two genetically identical replicas,
Development each of which becomes a person.
As an example, consider Alzheimer disease, Fraternal twins (called dizygotic twins) -
an irreversible brain disorder characterized develop from separate eggs and separate
by gradual deterioration. This disease sperm, making them genetically no more
typically does not appear until age 70 or later. similar than ordinary siblings.
If it were a disease that struck 20-year-olds,
Mutated gene – produce when a mistake by
perhaps natural selection would have
cellular machinery, or damage from an
eliminated it eons ago.
environmental agent such as radiation, which
Genetic Foundations of Development. is a permanently altered segment of DNA
(Lewis, 2010).
THE COLLABORATIVE GENE
Susceptibility genes - those that make the
Chromosomes – threadlike structures that
individual more vulnerable to specific
come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair
diseases or acceleration of aging.
coming from each parent. Chromosomes
contain the genetic substance DNA. Longevity genes - those that make the
individual less vulnerable to certain diseases
DNA – a complex molecule that contains
and be more likely to live to an older age.
genetic information.
Genotype – a person’s genetic heritage; the
Genes – units of hereditary information
actual genetic material.
composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to
reproduce themselves and manufacture the Phenotype - the way an individual’s
proteins that maintain life. genotype is expressed in observed and
measurable characteristics.
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
GENETIC PRINCIPLES
Mitosis – cellular reproduction in which the
cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with two new Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle - one
cells being formed, each containing the same gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is
DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same dominant, overriding the potential influence
23 pairs of chromosomes. of the other gene, called the recessive gene.
This is the dominant-recessive genes chromosome, which becomes constricted and
principle. often breaks.
Sex-Linked Genes - When a mutated gene is Turner syndrome – a chromosome disorder
carried on the X chromosome, the result is in females in which either an X chromosome
called X-linked inheritance. The implications is missing, making the person XO instead of
for males may be very different from those XX, or the second X chromosome is partially
for females. deleted.
Genetic imprinting – occurs when the XYY syndrome – a chromosomal disorder in
expression of a gene has different effects which males have an extra Y chromosome.
depending on whether the mother or the
Phenylketonuria (PKU) – a genetic disorder
father passed on the gene.
in which an individual cannot properly
Polygenic Inheritance - Genetic metabolize an amino acid. PKU is now easily
transmission is usually more complex than detected but, if left untreated, results in
the simple examples we have examined thus mental retardation and hyperactivity.
far gene-gene interaction is increasingly used
Sickle-cell anemia – a genetic disorder that
to describe studies that focus on the
affects the red blood cells and occurs most
interdependence of two or genes
often in people of African descent.
Reproductive Challenges and Choices
PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
- ultrasound test is often conducted
seven weeks into a pregnancy and at
various times later in pregnancy.
Ultrasound sonography – is a prenatal
medical procedure in which high-frequency
sound waves are directed into the pregnant
woman’s abdomen.
Down syndrome – a chromosomally MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) - uses
transmitted form of mental retardation, a powerful magnet and radio images to
caused by the presence of an extra copy of generate detailed images of the body’s organs
chromosome. and structures.
Klinefelter syndrome – a chromosomal Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) - is a
disorder in which males have an extra X prenatal medical procedure in which a small
chromosome, making them XXY instead of sample of the placenta (the vascular organ
XY. that links the fetus to the mother’s uterus) is
Fragile X syndrome – a genetic disorder removed.
involving an abnormality in the X Amniocentesis - is a prenatal medical
procedure in which a sample of amniotic
fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for environment on individuals differences in
chromosomal or metabolic disorders. human traits and development.
Maternal blood screening - identifies Twin study – a study in which the behavioral
pregnancies that have an elevated risk for similarity of identical twins is compared with
birth defects such as spina bifida (a defect in the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
the spinal cord) and Down syndrome.
Triple screen - it measures three substances
in the mother’s blood; current blood test.
Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD) - is
increasingly being explored as an alternative
to such procedures as chorionic villus
Adoption study – a study in which
sampling and amniocentesis.
investigators seek to discover whether, in
INFERTILITY AND REPRODUCTIVE behavior and psychological characteristics,
TECHNOLOGY adopted children are more like their adoptive
parents, who provided a home environment,
In vitro fertilization (IVF) - in which eggs
or more like their biological parents, who
and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish.
contributed their heredity. Another form of
Meta-analysis - (a statistical technique that the adoption study is to compare adoptive and
combines the results of multiple studies to biological siblings.
determine the strength of the effect) revealed
Passive genotype-environment
that in vitro fertilization twins have a slight
correlations - correlations that exist when
increased risk of low birth weight (McDonald
the natural parents, who are genetically
& others, 2010) and another meta-analysis
related to the child, provide a rearing
found that in vitro fertilization singletons
environment for the child.
have a significant risk of low birth weight.
Evocative genotype-environment
ADOPTION
correlations -correlations that exist when the
Adoption - is the social and legal process by child’s genotype elicits certain types of
which a parent-child relationship is physical and social environments.
established between persons unrelated at
Active (niche-picking) genotype-
birth.
environment correlations - correlations that
- The Increased Diversity of Adopted exist when children seek out environments
Children and Adoptive Parents they find compatible and stimulating.
- Outcomes for Adopted Children
SHARED AND NONSHARED
Heredity and Environment Interaction: ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCES
The Nature-Nurture Debate
Shared environmental experiences -
BEHAVIOR GENETICS siblings’ common environmental
experiences, such as their parents’
Behavior genetics - the field that seeks to personalities and intellectual orientation, the
discover the influence of heredity and
family’s socioeconomic status, and the Embryonic period - the period of prenatal
neighborhood in which they live. development that occurs two to eight weeks
after
Nonshared environmental experiences -the conception. During the embryonic period, the
child’s own unique experiences, both within rate of cell diff erentiation intensifi es,
the family and outside the family, that are not support systems for the cells form, and organs
shared by another sibling. Thus, experiences appear.
occurring within the family can be part of the
“nonshared environment.” Amnion - The life-support system
that is a bag or envelope that contains
THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE X a clear fluid in which the developing
ENVIRONMENT (G X E) embryo floats.
INTERACTION
Umbilical cord - A life-support
Epigenetic view - emphasizes that system containing two arteries and
development is the result of an ongoing, one vein that connects the baby to the
bidirectional interchange between heredity placenta.
and environment.
Placenta - A life-support system that
Gene 3 environment (G x E) interaction –
consists of a disk-shaped group of
the interaction of a specific measured tissues in which small blood vessels
variation in the DNA and a specific measured from the mother and off spring
aspect of the environment. intertwine.

Organogenesis - Organ formation

CHAPTER 3: THE COURSE OF that takes place during the fi rst two
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (divided months of prenatal development
into 3 periods)
Fetal period - lasting about seven months,
Germinal period - the period of prenatal the prenatal period between two months after
development that takes place in the fi rst two conception and birth in typical pregnancies.
weeks after conception. It includes the
creation of the zygote, continued cell
division, and the attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall.

Blastocyst - the inner layer of cells

that develops during the germinal
period. These cells later develop into
the embryo.

Trophoblast - the outer layer of cells

that develops in the germinal period.
These cells provide nutrition and
support for the embryo.
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO milligrams of caffeine a day had an increased
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT risk of miscarriage.

Neurons - Nerve cells, which handle Alcohol - Heavy drinking by pregnant

information processing at the cellular level in women can be devastating to offspring.
the brain. •Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD) are a cluster of abnormalities
Teratogen - From the Greek word tera, and problems that appear in the
meaning “monster.” Any agent that causes a offspring of mothers who drink
birth defect. alcohol heavily during pregnancy.

-The field of study that investigates Nicotine - Cigarette smoking by pregnant

the causes of birth defects is called women can also adversely infl uence
teratology influence both the severity prenatal development, birth, and postnatal
of the damage to an embryo or fetus development (Blood-Siegfried &
and the type of defect: Rende, 2010).

• Dose. The dose effect is rather Cocaine - The most consistent finding is that
obvious—the greater the dose of an cocaine exposure during prenatal
agent, development is associated with reduced birth
such as a drug, the greater the effect. weight, length, and head circumference
(Smith & others, 2001).
• Genetic susceptibility. The type or
severity of abnormalities caused by a Methamphetamine - like cocaine, is a
teratogen is linked to the genotype of stimulant, speeding up an individual’s
the pregnant woman and the nervous system. Babies born to mothers who
genotype of the embryo or fetus use methamphetamine, or “meth,” during
(Lidral & Murray, 2005). pregnancy are at risk for a number of
problems, including high infant mortality,
• Time of exposure. Teratogens do low birth weight, and developmental and
more damage when they occur at behavioral problems (Forester & Merz,
some 2007).
points in development than at others
(Weiner & Buhimschi, 2009). Marijuana - An increasing number of
studies find that marijuana use by pregnant
Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs women also has negative outcomes for
offspring.
Psychoactive drugs - are drugs that act on
the nervous system to alter states of Heroin - it is well documented that
consciousness, modify perceptions, and infants whose mothers are addicted to
change moods. heroin show several behavioral
difficulties at birth (Steinhausen,
Caffeine - People often consume caffeine by Blattmann, & Pfund, 2007).
drinking coffee, tea, or colas, or by eating
chocolate. A recent study revealed that Incompatible Blood Types
pregnant women who consumed 200 or more - Incompatibility between the mother’s and
father’s blood types poses another risk to
prenatal development. Maternal Age - When possible
harmful effects on the fetus and infant
Environmental Hazards - Many aspects of are considered, two maternal ages are
our modern industrial world can endanger the of special interest: (1) adolescence,
embryo or fetus. Some specific hazards to the and (2) 35 years and older (Malizia,
embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic Hacker, & Penzias, 2009).
wastes, and other chemical pollutants •Down syndrome has distinctive
(O’Connor & Roy, 2008). facial characteristics, short limbs, and
retardation of motor and mental
Maternal diseases - and infections can abilities.
produce defects in offspring by crossing the
placental barrier, or they can cause damage Emotional States and Stress - When a
during birth. Rubella (German measles) is pregnant woman experiences intense fears,
one disease that can cause prenatal defects. anxieties, and other emotions or negative
Women who plan to have children should mood states, physiological changes occur that
have a blood test before they become may affect her fetus (Entringer & others,
pregnant to determine if they are immune to 2009; Leung & others, 2010).
the disease (Coonrod & others, 2008).
Paternal Factors - Men’s exposure to lead,
Syphilis (a sexually transmitted radiation, certain pesticides, and
infection) is more damaging later in petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in
prenatal development—four months sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases,
or more after conception. Damage such as childhood cancer (Cordier, 2008).
includes eye lesions, which can cause The father’s smoking during the mother’s
blindness, and skin lesions. pregnancy also can cause problems for the
offspring.
AIDS is a sexually transmitted
infection that is caused by the human THE BIRTH PROCESS
immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
which destroys the body’s immune Stages of Birth
system. A mother can infect her •The first stage is the longest of the three
offspring with HIV/AIDS in three stages. Uterine contractions are 15 to 20
ways: minutes apart at the beginning and last up to
a minute. These contractions cause the
Other Parental Factors - Here we will woman’s cervix to stretch and open
explore other characteristics of the mother •The second birth stage begins when the
and father that can affect prenatal and child baby’s head starts to move through the cervix
development, including nutrition, age, and and the birth canal.
emotional states and stress. •Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time
the placenta, umbilical cord, and other
Maternal Diet and Nutrition - A membranes are detached and expelled.
developing embryo or fetus depends
completely on its mother for nutrition,
which comes from the mother’s blood
(Shapira, 2008).
Childbirth Setting and Attendants methods and relaxation techniques
 Midwifery - is practiced in most during delivery.
countries throughout the world
(Wickham, 2009). Prepared childbirth ,or the Lamaze
 Doula - is a Greek word that means method - French obstetrician
“a woman who helps.” A doula is a Ferdinand Lamaze developed a
caregiver who provides continuous method similar to natural childbirth. It
physical, emotional, and educational includes a special breathing technique
support for the mother before, during, to control pushing in the final stages
and after childbirth of labor, as well as more detailed
education about anatomy and
Methods of Childbirth physiology.
Medication - three basic kinds of
drugs that are used for labor are Cesarean delivery - The baby is
analgesia, anes- removed from the mother’s uterus
thesia, and oxytocin/pitocin. through an incision made in her
abdomen.
Analgesia - is used to relieve pain. •breech position - The baby’s
Analgesics include tranquilizers, position in the uterus that
barbiturates, and narcotics (such as causes the buttocks to be the
Demerol). first part to emerge from the
vagina.
Anesthesia - is used in late fi rst-stage
labor and during delivery to block ASSESSING THE NEWBORN
sensation in an area of the body or to
block consciousness. (Lieberman & Apgar Scale - A widely used method to
others, 2005). assess the health of newborns at one and five
minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale
Oxytocin - is a synthetic hormone evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory
that is used to stimulate eff ort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex
contractions; pitocin is the most irritability.
widely used oxytocin. The benefi ts
and risks of oxy- Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral
tocin as a part of childbirth Assessment Scale (NBAS) - A measure that
continues to be debated is used in the first month of life to assess the
(Vasdev, 2008). newborn’s neurological development,
reflexes, and reactions to people and objects.
Natural and Prepared Childbirth
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Natural childbirth - is the method Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) - An “off
that aims to reduce the mother’s pain spring” of the NBAS, the NNNS provides an
by assessment of the newborn’s
decreasing her fear through education behavior,neurological and stress responses,
about childbirth and by teaching her and regulatory capacities
and her partner to use breathing PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT
INFANTS
 Low birth weight infants - An
infant that weighs less than 5½
pounds at birth.

Preterm infants- Those born before

the completion of 37 weeks of
gestation (the time between
fertilization and birth).

Small for date infants - Also called

small for gestational age infants, these
infants’ birth weights are below
normal when the length of pregnancy
is considered. Small for date infants
may be preterm or full term.

Extremely preterm infants - are

those born less than 28 weeks
preterm,and very preterm infants are
those born less than 33 weeks of
gestational age

Kangaroo care - Treatment for preterm

infants that involves skin-to-skin contact.