Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning

Norbert M. Seel (Ed.)

Encyclopedia of
the Sciences of Learning
With 312 Figures and 68 Tables
Editor
Prof. Dr. Norbert M. Seel
Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences
Department of Education
University of Freiburg
79085 Freiburg
Germany

ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-1428-6

DOI 10.1007/ 978-1-4419-1428-6
ISBN Bundle 978-1-4419-5503-6
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934763

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Preface

Learning is existential, and so its study must be complex and interdisciplinary. Over the past centuries, researchers
from different fields have posited many theories to explain how humans and animals learn and behave, i.e., how
they acquire, organize, and deploy knowledge and skills. Basically, learning is defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior and/or in mental associations due to experience. Learning is a response to environmental
requirements and different from biological maturation, which, however, is a fundamental basis for learning.
From a historical point of view, learning had been an issue of epistemology and philosophy since ancient times.
Nevertheless, the twentieth century may be considered as the century of psychology of learning and related fields of
interest, such as motivation, cognition, and metacognition. It is really fascinating to see the various currents of the
twentieth century research in learning, remembering, and forgetting. And it is interesting to see that many basic
assumptions of early theories have survived the paradigm shifts of psychology and epistemology that occurred
during the twentieth century. Beyond folk psychology and naı̈ve theories of learning, psychological learning
theories can be grouped into several basic categories, such as behaviorist and connectionist learning theories,
cognitive learning theories, and social learning theories.
However, learning theories are not limited to psychology and related fields but can be traced back to ancient
philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It is certainly true that the topic of learning also played
a significant role in the philosophy of the Middle Ages (e.g., St. Thomas Aquinas), and in the modern era
philosophers such as Descartes, Hume, Locke, Kant, and many others were interested in the topic. The same
holds true for philosophers of the twentieth century, who were highly interested in learning.
It is noteworthy that the so-called fathers of psychology as a discipline, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) and
William James (1842–1910), were both originally professors of philosophy. In the 1880s, Wundt began studying
rote learning of lists of nonsense verbal items, and a short time later, James foreshadowed many aspects of modern
neurobiology of learning and even connectionist theory. Whereas Wundt and James remained closely aligned with
the field of philosophy and the application of introspective self-observation, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)
began studying human memory and higher cognitive processes (such as meaningful learning) by means of
experimental methods. This transported the study of learning and remembering out of philosophy and into the
realm of empirical research, providing valuable tools until today. Ebbinghaus’ seminal work on learning and
remembering can be considered as the beginning of systematic psychological research on learning and remem-
bering for the twentieth century. Another strong influence was Pavlov’s reflexology and his experiments with
animals. This can be considered as the beginning of research on animal learning, which was also characteristic, to
a large extent, of the emerging fields of associative psychology (e.g., Thorndike) and Gestalt psychology (e.g.,
Köhler). At the beginning of the twentieth century, these two sources – associative psychology and reflexology –
gave rise to connectionism and the idea of learning by trial and error, whose most prominent supporter became
Thorndike (1874–1949).
Clearly, the first half of this century was strongly influenced by connectionism (and behaviorism) and Gestalt
psychology, whereas the second half can be considered as the period of the emergence of cognitive and construc-
tivist conceptions of learning. Psychologists and biologists have studied learning in animals and humans within the
realm of both paradigms. Nowadays, animal and human learning and cognition are separate but related fields of
study within psychology and biology, each with an identifiable history that is often intertwined with the other.
Beyond psychology and biology, disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and education focused on the topic of
human learning in the course of the past centuries. However, one of the most important innovations for research
on learning resulted from the emerging computer sciences and their focus on machine learning.
vi Preface

Informatics struck a chord in the second half of the twentieth century and machine learning became a most
promising field of the sciences of learning in general. Briefly put, a machine learns whenever it changes its
structure, program, or data in such a manner that its expected future performance improves. Machine learning
usually refers to changes in systems that perform tasks associated with artificial intelligence (AI). Many techniques
in machine learning are derived from the efforts of psychologists to make their theories of animal and human
learning more precise through computational models. Conversely, it seems that the concepts and techniques being
explored in the field of machine learning also illuminate certain aspects of the biology of learning. Accordingly,
closely related to machine learning is also the study of human and animal learning in psychology, neuroscience,
and related fields.
Textbooks on psychology usually attribute central significance to the neurobiological foundations of learning
and thinking and discuss them at length. The authors of these books expect neurobiology to provide conclusive
answers to the questions of how the brain functions and how nerve cells produce thinking, learning, and acting.
Indeed, the neurosciences have made tremendous progress in the past 20 years: For instance, new methodologies in
magnetic resonance imaging have made it possible to measure processes which were formerly matters of pure
speculation, such as how information is taken in by the senses and passed on to neural subsystems or how it is
stored and retrieved. Neurobiologists are interested in the physical structure of the carrier organs responsible for
learning and retaining, thinking, and acting, while psychologists study the physical functions of these phenomena.
Accordingly, there are many parallels between human and animal learning on the one side and machine learning
on the other side. However, it is easy to find some critical comments in the related literature to the effect that the
contributions to machine learning from research on human learning are less relevant than those from statistics and
computer science. Sometimes this is traced back to the insufficient state of research on human learning in general.
As a final point of this introduction it must be emphasized that human and animal learning is always embedded
in particular social contexts. Consequently, biological and psychological research on learning must be
complemented by anthropological and sociocultural studies with their tradition of fieldwork-based research.
Learning as seen from the various disciplines is evidently a multifaceted topic. However, the sciences of learning
in general have become more specialized and complex, and the fields of interest are widely spread and separated
from each other. As a consequence, there is no comprehensive overview on the learning sciences and their central
theoretical concepts, methodologies, and research findings.
In consequence, the mission of this project is to provide a unique and comprehensive reference work for the
sciences of learning with a particular emphasis on animal, human, and machine learning from their beginnings
until today. The content on learning from these fields of research will be comprehensive and well balanced because
the overall objective of the encyclopedia is to produce a solid work of reference that provides the user with the
established information in the particular field of interest. Usually, the areas of animal, human, and machine
learning are separated from each other in the related literature. Thus, this encyclopedia will be the first reference
work to cover the separate areas of the learning sciences. Accordingly, not only psychological theories and
traditions will be at the center of this encyclopedia, but rather also theories and conceptions from biology,
neurosciences, computer sciences, information science, communication research, philosophy, anthropology,
and sociology, as well as particular fields of application such as instruction, psychiatry, and robotics.
The Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning provides an up-to-date, broad, and authoritative coverage
of theories and philosophies used in the sciences of learning and adjacent sciences from their very beginnings to
the present. This modern compendium is an indispensable source of information for scientists, educators,
engineers, and technical staff active in all fields related to the learning of animals, humans, or machines.
More specifically, the encyclopedia provides fast access to the most relevant theoretical terms without the need
to consult a lot of textbooks and edited volumes. It supplies clear and precise explanations of the theoretical terms,
cross-references to related content, and up-to-date references to important research and publications; it also
contains short biographical notes about scholars who have made substantial contributions to the sciences of
learning.
 Preface vii

The entries are written by a distinguished panel of researchers in the various fields of the learning sciences; the
contributions for each of the topics will have to be of the highest standard in order to ensure that the work becomes
a “standard” for future research and theory construction.
The Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning is the result of a long-term project initiated by Marie Sheldon,
a former manager of Springer New York, and the editor-in-chief. For me it was a pleasure and inspiring experience
to collaborate closely with Daniel Quinones (Springer Heidelberg) and his team – it was really great to work with
them. It was also a great pleasure and source of inspiration to collaborate with a panel of distinguished researchers
who contributed greatly to the success of the project as associate editors.
Last but not least, my special thanks go to Jung Mi Lee, who served as my editorial assistant – and did a fantastic
job of it.
As a scientist of the twentieth century, I dedicate this encyclopedia to the generations of the twenty-first
century. I consider Jakob and Anna, Amira, and Elia to be excellent representatives of the future.

Norbert M. Seel
Freiburg, Summer of 2011
Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Dr. Norbert M. Seel

Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences
Department of Education
University of Freiburg
79085 Freiburg
Germany
Associate Editors

The Associate Editors worked closely with the Editor-in-Chief to achieve the overall execution and success of the
Encyclopedia.

Amy Adcock
Professor of Instructional Design and Technology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia - AAdcock@
odu.edu
Section: Educational Psychology

Linda Bol
Professor in the Educational Foundations and Leadership Department, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
Virginia - lbol@odu.edu
Section: Educational Psychology
xii Associate Editors

Philip Barker
Professor of Applied Computing within the School of Computing and Mathematics at the University of Teesside,
Middlesbrough, UK - P.G.Barker@tees.ac.uk
Section: Cognitive Psychology / Cognitive Science

Raja Chatila
Professor and Director of Laboratory for Analysis and Architecture of Systems at CNRS, Toulouse, France -
Raja.Chatila@laas.fr
Section: Robot Learning and Artificial Learning
 Associate Editors xiii

Michael Domjan
Professor of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, College of Liberal Arts, Austin, TX - domjan@psy.
utexas.edu
Section: Comparative Psychology

Jan Elen
Professor, Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium -
jan.elen@ped.kuleuven.be
Section: Instructional Psychology and Information Technology
xiv Associate Editors

Claude Frasson
Director of GRITI, Inter-university Research Group in Intelligent Tutors, Director of the HERON laboratory,
Informatique et Recherche Opérationnelle, University of Montreal; Centre-ville Montréal, Québec, Canada -
frasson@iro.umontreal.ca
Section: Informatics: Artificial Intelligence, Knowledge Engineering, and Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Jeremie Jozefowiez
Instituto de Educação e Psicologia, Universidade do Minho, 4710 Braga, Portugal - jeremie@iep.uminho.pt
Section: Neurosciences, Neurophysiology, Neuropsychology
 Associate Editors xv

Andrei Podolskiy
Professor, Department of Developmental Psychology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia - apodolskij@
mail.ru
Section: Developmental Psychology, Social and cultural Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology

Zhanna Reznikova
Professor, Head of laboratory of behavioural ecology of animal communities, Institute of Systematics and Ecology
of Animals, Siberian Branch RAS, Head of Department of Comparative Psychology, Novosibirsk State University,
Novosibirsk, Russia - zhanna@reznikova.net
Section: Animal Learning
xvi Associate Editors

J. Michael Spector
Professor, Learning and Performance Support Laboratory University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia - mspector@
uga.edu
Section: Philosophy and Epistemology

Janusz Wojtusiak II
Professor, Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory, College of Health and Human Services, George Mason
University - jwojt@mli.gmu.edu
Section: Informatics: Machine Learning
Fundamental Chapters

Fundamental chapters
History of the Sciences of Learning (Page 1433–1442) Seel, Norbert M.
Analytical Psychology and Learning (Page 241–243) Matthews, Robert Samuel & Liu, Charlotte
Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learning Classes (Page 247–249) Reznikova, Zhanna
Anthropology of Learning and Cognition (Page 255–261) Hasse, Cathrine
Assessment in Learning (Page 316–321) Baker, Eva L.
Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning (Page 461–463) Domjan, Mike
Comparative Psychology and Ethology (Page 658–661) Greenberg, Gary
Development and Learning (Page 944–950) Podolskiy, Andrei
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning (Page 961–966) Anna Matejko & Daniel Ansari
Discourse and the Production of Knowledge (Page 1001–1006) Teun A. van Dijk
Evolution of Learning (Page 1188–1192) Papini, Mauricio
Learning Technology (Page 1980–1981) Elen, Jan & Clarebout, Geraldine
Machine Learning (Page 2082–2083) Wojtusiak, Janusz
Naturalistic Epistemology (Page 2433–2435) Spector, J. Michael
Neuropsychology of Learning (Page 2459–2468) Jozefowiez, Jeremie
Philosophy of Learning (Page 2615–2621) Strasser, Anna & Friedland, Ellen
Psychology of Learning (Page 2727–2731) Ormrod, Jeanne
Robot Learning (Page 2869–2871) Sigaud, Olivier & Peters, Jan
Overview chapters
Methodologies of Learning Research: Overview (Page 2255–2259) Seel, Norbert M.
Qualitative Learning Research – Overview (Page 2741–2744) Gläser-Zikuda, Michaela
List of Contributors

HENK AARTS MAURO ADENZATO

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Utrecht University Center for Cognitive Science
Utrecht University of Turin
The Netherlands Turin
Italy

KIRSTEN ABBOT-SMITH
School of Psychology OLUWADAMILARE S. ADEYERI
University of Kent Bowling Green State University
Canterbury, Kent Bowling Green, OH
UK USA

BRUCE ABERNETHY YAEL ADINI

School of Human Movement Studies Department of Neurobiology
The University of Queensland The Weizmann Institute of Science
Brisbane Rehovot
Australia Israel

JULIAN ABICH HYO-SUNG AHN

Institute for Simulation and Training-3100 Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology
Technology Buk-gu, Gwangju
University of Central Florida Korea
Orlando, FL
USA KENNETH S. AIGEN
Temple University
Philadelphia, PA
STÉPHANE ADAM
USA
Clinical Psychology of Aging Unit
Department of Psychology
University of Liège MARY AINLEY
Liège Psychological Sciences
Belgium University of Melbourne
Melbourne, VIC
Australia
AMY ADCOCK
Department of STEM Education and Professional
Studies SARAH E. AINSWORTH
Old Dominion University Darden College of Department of Psychology
Education Florida State University
Norfolk, VA Tallahassee, FL
USA USA
xx List of Contributors

SHAARON AINSWORTH DANIEL L. ALKON

School of Psychology Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute
University of Nottingham Rockville, MD
Nottingham, Nottinghamshire USA
UK and
Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute
NAZAR AKRAMI Morgantown, WV
Department of Psychology USA
Uppsala University
Uppsala
Sweden MELISSA L. ALLEN
Psychology Department Fylde College
Lancaster University
RIIKKA ALANEN
Lancaster
Centre for Applied Language Studies
UK
University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä
Finland
REEM AL-MAHMOOD
Melbourne Graduate School of Education
DIETRICH ALBERT The University of Melbourne
Knowledge Management Institute Melbourne, Victoria
Graz University of Technology Australia
Graz
Austria
JESÚS ALONSO-TAPIA
SABINE AL-DIBAN University Autónoma of Madrid
Institut für Pädagogische Psychologie und Madrid
Entwicklungspsychologie Spain
Technical University Dresden
Dresden
Germany MICHAL AL-YAGON
School of Education
CAROL R. ALDOUS Tel-Aviv University
School of Education, Flinders University Tel-Aviv
Adelaide, SA Israel
Australia
MARIJE VAN AMELSVOORT
MAIZAM ALIAS Tilburg center for Cognition and Communication
Faculty of Technical Education (TiCC)
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Tilburg University
Johor Darul Takzim Tilburg
Malaysia The Netherlands

FABIO ALIVERNINI
Italian National Institute for the Evaluation of the CRAIG A. ANDERSON
Education System (INVALSI) Iowa State University
Frascati, Roma Ames, Iowa
Italy USA
 List of Contributors xxi

HEIDI L. ANDRADE THOMAS ANTWI BOSIAKOH

University at Albany Department of Sociology
State University of New York University of Ghana
Albany, NY Legon, Accra
USA Ghana

ALBERT ANDRADE
Siena College KENN APEL
Loudonville, NY School of Communication Science and Disorders
USA Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL
USA
MARCELO H. ANG, JR.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore
GERHARD APFELTHALER
Singapore
School of Business
California Lutheran University
JOAQUIN A. ANGUERA Thousand Oaks, CA
Departments of Neurology and Physiology USA
University of California
San Francisco, CA
USA L. GREGORY APPELBAUM
Center for Cognitive Neuroscience
DANIEL ANSARI Duke University
Department of Psychology Durham, NC
The University of Western Ontario USA
London
Canada
J. SCOTT ARMSTRONG
The Wharton School
MARK H. ANSHEL
University of Pennsylvania
Department of Health and Human Performance
Philadelphia, PA
Middle Tennessee State University
USA
Murfreesboro, TN
USA

JASON ARNDT
MARTIN ANTHONY Department of Psychology
Department of Mathematics 5605 Middlebury College
London School of Economics Middlebury, VT
London USA
UK

ALESSANDRO ANTONIETTI PAMELA L. ARNOLD

Department of Psychology The Center for Educational Partnerships
Cognitive Psychology Laboratory Darden College of Education
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart Old Dominion University
Milano Norfolk, VA
Italy USA
xxii List of Contributors

KARL-HEINZ ARNOLD MICHAL AYALON

Department of Applied Educational Science Department of Science Teaching
Institute of Education The Weizmann Institute of Science
University of Hildesheim Rehovot
Hildesheim Israel
Germany
ALADDIN AYESH
Department of Informatics
ARTUR ARSÉNIO De Montfort University
Instituto Superior Técnico Leicester
Technical University of Lisbon UK
Lisbon
Portugal JOHN J. B. AYRES
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience
University of Massachusetts
MURAT ATAIZI Amherst, MA
School of Communication USA
Department of Communication
Anadolu University PAUL AYRES
Eskisehir School of Education
Turkey University of New South Wales
Sydney
Australia
ADAM A. AUGUSTINE
Department of Psychology
ROGER AZEVEDO
Washington University in St. Louis
Department of Educational and Counselling
St. Louis, MO
Psychology
USA
McGill University
Montreal, QC
JOSEPH L. AUSTERWEIL Canada
Department of Psychology
University of California SHAHRAM AZIZI GHANBARI
Berkeley, CA Department of University Teaching and E-Learning
USA International University Institute Zittau
Zittau
Germany
NORSIMAH MAT AWAL
School of Language Studies & Linguistics ROBERT BABUSKA
Faculty of Social Sciences and Human Delft Center for Systems and Control
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Delft University of Technology
Bangi, Selangor DE Delft, CD
Malaysia The Netherlands

ERDOGAN BADA
GERARDO AYALA Department of English Language Teaching
Universidad de las Américas Puebla Cukurova University
Puebla, Puebla Adana
México Turkey
 List of Contributors xxiii

STEFANIE BADENHORST JASON D. BAKER

Ego State Therapy Training Unit South Africa School of Education
Strand, Western Cape Regent University
South Africa Virginia Beach, VA
USA

FRANZ BAERISWYL
FRANCESC BALAGUÉ
Universität Freiburg/Schweiz
Universitat de Barcelona
Regina Mundi
Barcelona
Fribourg
Spain
Switzerland

MICHELA BALCONI
FRANK BAEYENS Department of Psychology
Center for the Psychology of Learning and Catholic University of Milan
Experimental Psychopathology Milan
Department of Psychology Italy
University of Leuven
Leuven MARIA TERESA BALDASSARRE
Belgium Department of Informatics
University of Bari
Bari
ALINA BAKALA Italy
The Kingswood Centre
Central and North West London NHS Foundation
Trust CHRISTIAN BALKENIUS
London Cognitive Science
UK Lund University
Lund
Sweden
AARON BAKER
University of California LINDEN J. BALL
Los Angeles, CA Department of Psychology
USA Lancaster University
Lancaster
UK
RYAN SHAUN JOAZEIRO DE BAKER
Department of Social Science and Policy Studies
MARIA BANNERT
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Instructional Media
Worcester, MA
University of Wuerzburg
USA
Wuerzburg
Germany
EVA L. BAKER
National Center for Research on Evaluation, PHILIP BARKER
Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST) School of Computing
University of California Teesside University
Los Angeles, CA Middlesbrough, Cleveland
USA UK
xxiv List of Contributors

RACHEL BARR MARTINE BATT

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Georgetown University University of Nancy
Washington, DC Nancy, Cedex
USA France

ANN MARIE BARRY BENJAMIN B. BECK

Department of Communication Great Ape Trust
Boston College Des Moines, IA
Chestnut Hill, MA USA
USA and
Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute
ROBERT J. BARRY Washington, DC
School of Psychology USA
University of Wollongong and
Wollongong, NSW Iowa State University
Australia Ames, IA
USA
ROMAN BARTÁK
Faculty of Mathematics and Physics DANNY R. BEDGOOD, JR
Charles University in Prague School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences
Prague Charles Sturt University
Czech Republic Wagga Wagga, NSW
Australia
BENJAMIN K. BARTON
Department of Psychology & Communication GREGORY Z. BEDNY
Studies Essex County College
University of Idaho Essex, NJ
Moscow, ID USA
USA
SIAN L. BEILOCK
MICHAEL D. BASIL Department of Psychology
University of Lethbridge University of Chicago
Lethbridge, AB Chicago, IL
Canada USA

ELLEN J. BASS MARC BEKOFF

Department of Systems and Information Engineering Ecology and Environmental Biology
University of Virginia University of Colorado
Charlottesville, VA Boulder, CO
USA USA

W. ROBERT BATSELL, JR. BARBARA BELFI

Department of Psychology The Education and Training Research Group
Kalamazoo College K.U. Leuven
Kalamazoo, MI Leuven
USA Belgium
 List of Contributors xxv

RAYMOND ANGELO BELLIOTTI JONTE BERNHARD

Department of Philosophy Engineering Education Research Group, ITN
SUNY Fredonia Linköping University
Fredonia, NY Norrköping
USA Sweden

DANIEL M. BERNSTEIN
ANDREW G. BENNETT Department of Psychology
Center for Quantitative Education Kwantlen Polytechnic University
Department of Mathematics Surrey, BC
Kansas State University Canada
Manhattan, KS
USA
KIRSTEN BERTHOLD
Department of Psychology
MICHAEL J. BERAN University of Bielefeld
Language Research Center Bielefeld
Georgia State University Germany
University Plaza
Atlanta, GA RICK A. BEVINS
USA Department of Psychology
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Burnett
19A Lincoln, NE
ZANE L. BERGE USA
Department of Education
University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) NATHALIE BIER
Baltimore, MD School of Rehabilitation and Research Center of the
USA Montreal Geriatric University Institute
University of Montreal
Montreal, QC
MICHELE BERNASCONI Canada
Department of Economics
University “Ca’ Foscari” Venice JOHN BIGGS
Venice University of Hong Kong
Italy Hong Kong
China
EVA BERNAT
School of Education, Goodsell 109 AUDE BILLARD
The University of New South Wales LASA laboratory
Sydney, New South Wales EPFL – Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne
Australia Lausanne
Switzerland

SANDRA BERNEY STEPHEN BILLETT

TECFA - FPSE School of Education and Professional Studies
University of Geneva Griffith University
Geneva 4, GE Mount Gravatt, QLD
Switzerland Australia
xxvi List of Contributors

PARVIZ BIRJANDI NAOMI BLOCH

Department of Applied Linguistics Graduate School of Library and Information Science
Islamic Azad University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Science & Research Branch Champaign, IL
Tehran USA
Iran

JACOB J. BLOOMBERG
JENNIFER L. BITTNER Neuroscience Laboratories
Department of Psychology Human Adaptation and Countermeasures Division,
Indiana University NASA/Johnson Space Centre
Bloomington, IN Houston, TX
USA USA

AARON P. BLAISDELL JEFFREY W. BLOOM

Department of Psychology Department of Teaching and Learning
University of California College of Education
Los Angeles, CA Northern Arizona University
USA Flagstaff, AZ
USA

EMMANUEL G. BLANCHARD
Department of Computer Science and Operations SUSAN BLUCK
Research Department of Psychology
University of Montréal University of Florida
Montréal, QC Gainesville, FL
Canada USA
and
Department of Educational and Counselling
Psychology (ECP) PATRICK BLUMSCHEIN
McGill University Department of School Education
Montréal, QC University of Education
Canada Freiburg
Germany

PAUL BLENKIRON
Hull-York Medical School OTMAR BOCK
Bootham Park Hospital German Sport University
York, North Yorkshire Institute of Physiology and Anatomy
UK Köln
Germany

ELIZA BLISS-MOREAU
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences OTMAR LEO BOCK
California National Primate Research Center, Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln
University of California Institut für Physiologie und Anatomie
Davis, CA Köln
USA Germany
 List of Contributors xxvii

ALEXANDER BODEN MICHAEL BORICH

Information Systems and New Media University of British Columbia
University of Siegen Vancouver, BC
Siegen Canada
Germany
JAN BORN
RICCARDO BOERO Department of Medical Psychology and Behavioral
Department of Economics and Public Finance “G. Neurobiology
Prato” University of Tübingen
Università di Torino Tübingen
Turin Germany
Italy
PAUL BOUCHARD
JIN BO Department of Education Educational Studies and
Psychology Department Adult Education
Eastern Michigan University Concordia University
Ypsilanti, MI Montreal, QC
USA Canada

LINDA BOL
Y-LAN BOUREAU
Educational Foundations and Leadership
Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences
Old Dominion University
New York University
Norfolk, VA
New York
USA
USA
and
TREVOR G. BOND
INRIA – Willow project–team (INRIA/ENS/CNRS UMR
School of Education
8548)
James Cook University
Paris
Townsville, Qld
France
Australia

MIMI BONG MARK E. BOUTON

Department of Education Department of Psychology
Korea University University of Vermont, College of Arts and Sciences
Anam-dong Burlington, VT
Seoul USA
South Korea
LARA BOYD
JAN BOOM University of British Columbia
Department of Developmental Psychology Vancouver, BC
University of Utrecht Canada
Utrecht The Netherlands
DAVID W. BRAITHWAITE
ROONGRASAMEE BOONDAO Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences
Ubon Ratchathani University Indiana University
Warinchamrap, Ubon Ratchathani Bloomington, IN
Thailand USA
xxviii List of Contributors

SERGE BRAND GENE BREWER

Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Basel Department of Psychology
Basel, CH The University of Georgia
Switzerland Athens, GA
USA
SASKIA BRAND-GRUWEL
Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies GERHARD BREWKA
Open Universiteit Nederland Computer Science Department
DL Heerlen Institut für Informatik
The Netherlands University of Leipzig
Leipzig
ELIZABETH M. BRANNON Germany
Center for Cognitive Neuroscience
Duke University JESSYE BRICK
Durham, NC Department of Psychology
USA Washington University
Saint Louis, MO
DANIEL A. BRAUN USA
Computational and Biological Learning Lab,
Department of Engineering
SVEND BRINKMANN
University of Cambridge
Department of Communication and Psychology
Cambridge
Aalborg University
UK
Aalborg
Denmark
ISABEL BRAUN
Department of Educational Science
NATALIE BRITO
University of Freiburg
Department of Psychology
Freiburg
Georgetown University
Germany
Washington, DC
USA
PAVEL B. BRAZDIL
LIAAD-INESC Porto L.A.
Faculdade de Economia DAVID R. BRODBECK
Universidade do Porto Department of Psychology
Porto Algoma University
Portugal Sault Ste. Marie, ON
Canada
CATERINA BREITENSTEIN
Department of Neurology ERIN M. BRODHAGEN
University of Muenster Department of Educational Psychology
Muenster University of Wisconsin-Madison
Germany Madison, WI
USA
JOOST BREUKER
Leibniz Center for Law JOOST BROEKENS
Universit of Amsterdam Delft University of Technology
Amsterdam Delft
Netherlands The Netherlands
 List of Contributors xxix

RAINER BROMME IVAR BRÅTEN

Institute of Psychology Department of Educational Research
University of Muenster University of Oslo
Muenster Oslo
Germany Norway

CYRIL BROM BERTRAM C. BRUCE

Department of Software and Computer Science Graduate School of Library and Information Science
Education University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Charles University in Prague Champaign, IL
Prague 1 USA
Czech Republic
GIANNI BRUNO
GEORGIA C. BROOKE Department of Informatics
University at Albany, State University of New York University of Bari
Albany, NY Bari
USA Italy

SIMON P. BROOKS MIREILLE BÉTRANCOURT

Brain Repair Group TECFA - FPSE
Cardiff University University of Geneva
Cardiff, Wales Geneva 4, GE
UK Switzerland

D. CODY BROOKS MONICA BUCCIARELLI

Department of Psychology Center for Cognitive Science and Department of
Denison University Psychology
Granville, OH University of Turin
USA Turin
Italy
ADAM BROWN
School of Education BARBARA C. BUCKLEY
Elementary Education WestEd
St. Bonaventure University Redwood City, CA
St. Bonaventure, NY USA
USA
DEBORAH ELY BUDDING
JAMIE BROWN Private Practice
Department of Experimental Psychology Manhattan Beach, CA
University of Cambridge USA
Cambridge
UK THOMAS BUGNYAR
Department of Cognitive Biology, Konrad Lorenz
SOLLY BROWN Research Station & Department of Neurobiology and
School of Computer Science and Engineering Cognition Research
The University of New South Wales University of Vienna
Sydney Vienna
Australia Austria
xxx List of Contributors

GORDON M. BURGHARDT GEORGE W. BURNS

Departments of Psychology and Ecology & Milton H Erickson Institute of Western Australia
Evolutionary Biology Darlington, WA
University of Tennessee Australia
Knoxville, TN
USA
MIKHAIL S. BURTSEV
JOHN BURGOYNE Department of Non–linear Dynamics
Department of Management Learning and Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics of RAS
Leadership Moscow
Lancaster University Management School Russian Federation
Lancaster University and
Lancaster, Lancashire Department of Systems Development
UK Anokhin Institute of Normal Physiology of RAMS
Moscow
JOHN R. BURI Russian Federation
Department of Psychology and
University of St. Thomas Department of Neuroscience
Saint Paul, MN Kurchatov NBIC–Centre
USA Moscow
Russian Federation
CHRISTIAN BURKE
School of Medicine
JEROME R. BUSEMEYER
University of California San Francisco
Psychological and Brain Sciences
San Francisco, CA
Indiana University
USA
Bloomington, IN
USA
PAMELA BURNARD
Faculty of Education
University of Cambridge
MICHELYN C. BUTLER
Cambridge
Department of Educational Psychology
UK
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI
BERNARD BURNES
USA
Manchester Business School
University of Manchester
Manchester MARTIN V. BUTZ
UK Department of Cognitive Psychology III
University of Würzburg
PAUL C. BURNETT Würzburg
Queensland University of Technology Germany
Brisbane, QLD
Australia
and LYNDA BYRD-POLLER
Division of Research and Commercialisation Darden College of Education
Queensland University of Technology Old Dominion University
Kelvin Grove, QLD Norfolk, VA
Australia USA
 List of Contributors xxxi

LISA A. BYRGE JOHN CAMPBELL

Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences University of Canberra
Indiana University Canberra
Bloomington, IN Australia
USA
ANGELO CANGELOSI
Centre for Robotics and Neural Systems
ANDREW BYRNE
University of Plymouth
Family Health Centers of San Diego
Plymouth
San Diego, CA
UK
USA

MARK D. CANNON
DANILO CAIVANO Department of Leadership, Policy, and Organizations
Department of Informatics Vanderbilt University
University of Bari Nashville, TN
Bari USA
Italy
ELIAS G. CARAYANNIS
LAWRENCE G. CALHOUN Global and Entrepreneurial Finance Research
Department of Psychology Institute (GEFRI)
University of North Carolina at Charlotte School of Business
Charlotte, NC George Washington University
USA Washington, DC
USA

HASAN CALISKAN RONAN CARBERY

School Of Communication Sciences Department of Personnel and Employment Relations
Anadolu University Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick
Eskisehir Limerick
Turkey Ireland

AIMEE A. CALLENDER JAIME CARBONELL

Department of Psychology Language Technologies Institute
Auburn University Carnegie Mellon University
Auburn, AL Pittsburgh, PA
USA USA

VINCENZA CARCHIOLO
JOSEP CALL
Department of Electric
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
Electronic and Informatics Engineering (DIEEI)
Leipzig
University of Catania
Germany
Catania
Italy
MARTIN CAMMAROTA
Memory Center, Brain Institute AMILCAR CARDOSO
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul University of Coimbra
Porto Alegre, RS Coimbra
Brazil Portugal
xxxii List of Contributors

ROBERT M. CARINI GONZALO DE LA LUIS CASA

Department of Sociology Department of Experimental Psychology
University of Louisville University of Seville
Louisville, KY Seville
USA Spain

GUSTAVO CARLO SERGIO LUIS CASTILLO

Department of Psychology Circuito Arco Sur S/N
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Universidad Anáhuac Xalapa
Lincoln, NE Xalapa, Veracruz
USA México

JOHN S. CARLSON ANDRÉS CATENA

College of Education Erickson Hall Departamento de Psicologı́a Experimental
Michigan State University Universidad de Granada
East Lansing, MI Granada
USA Spain

RICHARD A. CARLSON
RICHARD CATRAMBONE
Department of Psychology
School of Psychology
The Pennsylvania State University
Georgia Institute of Technology
University Park, PA
Atlanta, GA
USA
USA

MALINDA CARPENTER
RICARDO A. CATTAFI
Department of Developmental and Comparative
Universidad Central de Venezuela
Psychology
Caracas
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
Venezuela
Leipzig
Germany
TRISTAN CAZENAVE
SHANA K. CARPENTER LAMSADE
Department of Psychology Université Paris-Dauphine
Iowa State University Paris, Cedex 16
Ames, IA France
USA
KATHERINE S. CENNAMO
VIVIENNE B. CARR Department of Learning Sciences and Technologies
College of Education and Human Services School of Education, Virginia Tech
Seton Hall University Blacksburg, VA
South Orange, NJ USA
USA
STEFANO A. CERRI
ANNEMAREE CARROLL Montpellier Laboratory of Informatics
School of Education Robotics and Microelectronics (LIRMM)
The University of Queensland University Montpellier2 & CNRS
Brisbane, QLD Montpellier Cedex 5
Australia France
 List of Contributors xxxiii

SOUMAYA CHAFFAR YI-CHUN CHEN

School of Information Technology and Engineering Graduate Institute of Science Education
University of Ottawa National Taiwan Normal University
Ottawa, ON Taipei
Canada Taiwan

HELEN L. CHEN
REBECCA A. CHANDLER
Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (SCIL)
University of Oxford
Wallenberg Hall, Office of the Registrar
Oxford
Stanford University
UK
Stanford, CA
USA
STEVE CHANDLER
Department of English YANGQUAN CHEN
University of Idaho Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Moscow, ID Center for Self-Organizing and Intelligent Systems
USA (CSOIS) Utah State University
Logan, UT
USA
HENRY W. CHASE
School of Psychology
University of Nottingham SONIA CHERNOVA
Nottinghamshire, Nottingham Worcester Polytechnic Institute
UK Worcester, MA
USA

MOHAMED AMINE CHATTI JESSIE CHIN

Informatik 5 Department of Educational Psychology
RWTH Aachen University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Aachen Urbana-Champaign, IL
Germany USA

JENNIFER S. CHEAVENS HOON CHOI

Department of Psychology Boston University
The Ohio State University Boston, MA
Columbus, OH USA
USA
METTE KROGH CHRISTENSEN
Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics
WENLI CHEN
University of Southern Denmark
National Institute of Education
Odense M
Nanyang Technological University
Denmark
Singapore

RUSSELL M. CHURCH
WENLI CHEN Department of Psychology
National Institute of Education Brown University
Nanyang Technological University Providence, RI
Singapore USA
xxxiv List of Contributors

GABRIELE CIERNIAK HAMISH COATES

Knowledge Media Research Centre Higher Education Research Program
Tübingen Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)
Germany Camberwell, VIC
Australia

FIORELLA DE CINDIO
Department of Informatics and Communication JOSEPHINE COCK
University of Milan Department of Psychology
Milan University of Bern
Italy Bern
Switzerland
GERALDINE CLAREBOUT
Department of Educational Sciences
Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology, MICHAEL H. COEN
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Departments of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics;
Leuven Computer Sciences; and Zoology
Belgium University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine
and Public Health, 6785 Medical Sciences Center
(MSC)
ROY B. CLARIANA Madison, WI
Instructional Systems USA
Dept. of Learning + Performance Systems
College of Education
The Pennsylvania State University DANIEL COHEN
University Park, PA Department of Neurology
USA Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain
Stimulation
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
HEATHER M. CLAYPOOL Harvard Medical School
Department of Psychology Boston, MA
Miami University USA
Oxford, OH
USA
DANIELLE C. COLAS-ZELIN
NICOLA S. CLAYTON Department of Psychology, Program in Behavioral
Department of Experimental Psychology Neuroscience
University of Cambridge Rutgers University
Cambridge Piscataway, NJ
UK USA

MELISSA W. CLEARFIELD SINDY COLE

Department of Psychology School of Psychology
Whitman College University of New South Wales
Walla Walla, WA Sydney, NSW
USA Australia
 List of Contributors xxxv

CHRISTIAN COLLET W. TIMOTHY COOMBS

Center of Research and Innovation in Sport Nicholson School of Communication
University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of Central Florida
University of Lyon Orlando, FL
Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material USA
Performance
Villeurbanne
France RICHARD P. COOPER
Department of Psychological Sciences
Birkbeck
BARBARA COLOMBO
University of London
Department of Psychology
London
Cognitive Psychology Laboratory Catholic University
UK
of the Sacred Heart
Milan
Italy
SHERVA ELIZABETH COORAY
The Kingswood Centre
HANS COLONIUS Central and North West London NHS Foundation
Department of Psychology Trust
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg London
Oldenburg UK
Germany and
Department of Medicine
Imperial College
MARCIA CONNER
London
Bricolrs
UK
Staunton, VA
USA
DANYA M. CORKIN
VITO NICOLA CONVERTINI Department of Educational Psychology
Department of Informatics University of Houston
University of Bari Houston, Texas
Bari USA
Italy

JEFFREY H. D. CORNELIUS-WHITE
CHRISTOPHER M. CONWAY
Department of Counseling, Leadership, and Special
Department of Psychology
Education
222 Shannon Hall Saint Louis University
Missouri State University
St. Louis, MO
Springfield, MO
USA
USA

DAVID A. COOK
Office of Education Research FREDERIK CORNILLIE
College of Medicine ITEC-IBBT
Mayo Clinic K.U.Leuven Kulak
Rochester, MN Kortrijk
USA Belgium
xxxvi List of Contributors

ERIK DE CORTE JACQUELYN CRANNEY

Department of Education School of Psychology
Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology University of New South Wales
(CIP&T), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Sydney, NSW
Leuven Australia
Belgium
MICHELLE G. CRASKE
Department of Psychology
CHRIS L. S. CORYN UCLA Anxiety Disorders Research Center
The Evaluation Center University of California
Western Michigan University Los Angeles, CA
Kalamazoo, MI USA
USA
SUSAN CRAW
IDEAS Research Institute
JULIE C. COULTAS Robert Gordon University
Department of Psychology Aberdeen
University of Sussex UK
Brighton, Sussex
UK
FABIO CRESTANI
University of Lugano
JULIEN COURTIN Lugano
INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Switzerland
Bordeaux
France THOMAS S. CRITCHFIELD
Psychology Department
Illinois State University
PATRICIA A. COUVILLON Normal, IL
Department of Psychology & Bèkèsy Laboratory of USA
Neurobiology
Pacific Biosciences Research Center KATHERINE A. CRONIN
University of Hawaii at Manoa Comparative Cognitive Anthropology Group
Honolulu, HI Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
USA Nijmegen
The Netherlands
NELSON COWAN
Department of Psychological Sciences EMILY S. CROSS
University of Missouri-Columbia Department of Psychology
Columbia, MO Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive & Brain
USA Sciences
Leipzig
Germany
SCOTTY D. CRAIG and
Department of Psychology/IIS Department of Social & Cultural Psychology
The University of Memphis Radboud University Nijmegen
Memphis, TN Nijmegen
USA The Netherlands
 List of Contributors xxxvii

WIM E. CRUSIO NEGIN DAHYA

Centre de Neurosciences Intégratives et Cognitives Faculty of Education
UMR5287 York University
Université de Bordeaux and CNRS Toronto, ON
Talence Canada
France
BENITO PEREIRA DAMASCENO
Department of Neurology, Medical School
JEAN CÔTÉ State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) Cidade
School of Kinesiology and Health Studies Universitária “Zeferino Vaz”
Queen’s University Campinas, SP
Kingston, ON Brazil
Canada
JAN VAN DAMME
PATRICK K. CULLEN The Education and Training Research Group
Kent State University K.U. Leuven
Kent, OH Leuven
USA Belgium

DAVID DANKS
DARA CURRAN Department of Philosophy
Computer Science Department Carnegie Mellon University
Cork Constraint Computation Centre (4C) Pittsburgh, PA
University College Cork USA
Cork and
Ireland Institute for Human & Machine Cognition
Pensacola, FL
USA
JESSE D. CUSHMAN
Department of Psychology BHASKAR DASGUPTA
University of California Department of Computer Science
Los Angeles, CA University of Illinois
USA Chicago, IL
USA
ILARIA CUTICA
Department of Geography and Human ALEXANDRE D’ASPREMONT
Environmental Sciences Department of Operations Research and Financial
University of Milan Engineering ORFE
Milan Princeton University Bendheim Center for Finance
Italy Princeton, NJ
USA

ANDREAS DAFFERTSHOFER FRANK M. DATTILIO

Research Institute MOVE Department of Psychiatry
VU University Amsterdam Harvard Medical School
Amsterdam Boston, MA
The Netherlands USA
xxxviii List of Contributors

EDDY J. DAVELAAR JAN DE HOUWER

Department of Psychological Sciences Ghent University
Birkbeck College Ghent
University of London Belgium
London
UK BERT DE SMEDT
Parenting and Special Education Research Group,
Department of Educational Sciences
KATIE DAVIS Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Harvard Graduate School of Education Leuven
Cambridge, MA Belgium
USA
ERICA DE VRIES
HUGH C. DAVIS Laboratory for Educational Sciences
Web and Internet Science group, Electronics and Pierre-Mendès-France University of Grenoble II
Computer Science Grenoble, Cedex 9
University of Southampton France
Southampton
UK JAMIE DECOSTER
Institute for Social Science Research
University of Alabama
MICHAEL DAVISON Tuscaloosa, AL
Department of Psychology USA
The University of Auckland
Auckland JÜRGEN DEEG
New Zealand Chair of Business Administration, Leadership &
Organization
University of Hagen
FRANCO DAVOLI Hagen
National Inter-University Consortium for Germany
Telecommunications (CNIT)/DIST-University of
Genova DONALD D. DESHLER
Genova Department of Special Education
Italy University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS
CHRISTOPHER DAY USA
School of Education
University of Nottingham PIET DESMET
Jubilee Campus ITEC-IBBT
Nottingham K.U.Leuven Kulak
UK Kortrijk
Belgium

ERIC ANTHONY DAY DONALD A. DEWSBURY

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Oklahoma University of Florida
Norman, OK Gainesville, FL
USA USA
 List of Contributors xxxix

NANCY DIB ROBERTO G. DOMÍNGUEZ

Department of Psychology Department of Languages
Queens College and The Graduate Center University of Guantánamo
Flushing, NY Guantánamo
USA Cuba

ADELE DIEDERICH WEI DONG

Jacobs University Bremen Computer Science and Human Factors
Bremen University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Germany Urbana-Champaign, IL
USA

JUSTIN DILLON
WIM VAN DOOREN
Department of Education & Professional Studies
Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology,
King’s College London
Department of Educational Sciences
London
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
UK
Leuven
Belgium
IVO D. DINOV
UCLA Statistics JON LOUIS DORBOLO
University of California Los Angeles Oregon State University
SOCR Resource Corvallis, OR
Los Angeles, CA USA
USA
MICHELE M. DORNISCH
SIDNEY D’MELLO School of Education
University of Memphis Long Island University C. W. Post Campus
Memphis, TN Brookville, NY
USA USA

BARBARA ANNE DOSHER

RAY DOLAN
Department of Cognitive Science
Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging
University of California
London
Irvine, CA
UK
USA

STEPHEN J. DOLLINGER KAREN E. DOYLE

Department of Psychology, Department of Psychology
Southern Illinois University Carbondale Kent State University
Life Sciences II Kent, OH
Carbondale, IL USA
USA
HENDRIK DRACHSLER
MICHAEL DOMJAN Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies
Department of Psychology (CELSTEC)
The University of Texas at Austin Open University of the Netherlands
Austin, TX Heerlen, DL
USA The Netherlands
xl List of Contributors

LEE C. DRICKAMER JENNIFER G. DY

Department of Biological Sciences Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Northern Arizona University Northeastern University
Flagstaff, AZ Boston, MA
USA USA

VÍTOR DUARTE TEODORO KLAUS P. EBMEIER

Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia University Department
Universidade Nova de Lisboa Warneford Hospital
Caparica University of Oxford
Portugal Oxford
UK
CURT DUDLEY-MARLING
Lynch School of Education AMY C. EDMONDSON
Boston College Harvard University
Chestnut Hill, MA Boston, MA
USA USA

REUVEN DUKAS
MICHAEL EID
Department of Psychology, Neuroscience &
Department of Education & Psychology
Behaviour
Freie Universität Berlin
Animal Behaviour Group
Berlin
McMaster University
Germany
Hamilton, ON
Canada
DOROTHEA EISENHARDT
Department of Biology/Chemistry/Pharmacy
ILHAN DULGER
Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, Freie Universität
Middle East Technical University (METU)
Berlin
Ankara
Berlin
Turkey
Germany

STEPHEN B. DUNNETT
Brain Repair Group FRANK EISNER
Cardiff University Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
Cardiff, Wales Nijmegen
UK The Netherlands

CARL J. DUNST NAOMI EKAS

Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute University of Miami
Asheville, NC Coral Gables, FL
USA USA

MARWAN A. DWAIRY BO EKEHAMMAR

Oranim Academic College, and Emek Yezreel Department of Psychology
Academic College Stockholm University
Nazerat Ellit Stockholm
Israel Sweden
 List of Contributors xli

JAN ELEN WIM VAN DER ELST

Department of Educational Sciences Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology
Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Maastricht University
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Maastricht
Leuven The Netherlands
Belgium
MAGNUS ENQUIST
SHAWN ELL Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution &
Department of Psychology Department of Zoology
Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Stockholm University
University of Maine Stockholm
Orono, ME Sweden
USA
NOEL J. ENTWISTLE
ANDREW J. ELLIOT University of Edinburgh
Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Ormiston, East Lothian
Psychology Scotland
University of Rochester
Rochester, NY
KIMMO ERIKSSON
USA
School of Education, Culture and Communication
Mälardalen University
JULIAN GEORGE ELLIOTT Västerås
School of Education Sweden
Durham University
Durham
UK RUHAMA EVEN
Department of Science Teaching
The Weizmann Institute of Science
JOHN ELLIOTT
Rehovot
School of Education and Lifelong Learning
Israel
Centre for Applied Research in Education
University of East Anglia
Norwich STEPHANIE D. H. EVERGREEN
UK The Evaluation Center
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI
SHAWN ELL
USA
Department of Psychology
Maine Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences,
University of Maine D. ERIK EVERHART
Orono, ME Department of Psychology
USA East Carolina University
Greenville, NC
EYVIND ELSTAD USA
Department of Teacher Education and School
Development CHARLES FADEL
University of Oslo 21st Century Learning LLC
Blindern, Oslo Boston, MA
Norway USA
xlii List of Contributors

HANMING FANG HENNING FERNAU

Department of Economics Abteilung Informatik und Wirtschaftsinformatik,
University of Pennsylvania Universität Trier
Philadelphia, PA Trier
USA Germany

GUILLÉN FERNÁNDEZ
MICHAEL S. FANSELOW Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour
Department of Psychology Radboud University Nijmegen
University of California Nijmegen
Los Angeles, CA The Netherlands
USA and
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience
Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre
JOAN M. FARRELL
Nijmegen
Indiana University School of Medicine
The Netherlands
Schema Therapy Institute – Midwest Indianapolis
Center
Indianapolis, IN DOLORES FIDISHUN
USA University Libraries and Scholarly Communications
and Great Valley School of Graduate Professional
Studies
JÓZSEF BALÁZS FEJES Pennsylvania State University
Institute of Education Malvern, PA
University of Szeged USA
Szeged
Hungary ANDREW FINCH
Department of English Education
Kyungpook National University Teachers’ College
DAVID F. FELDON Daegu City
Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Republic of Korea
Education
University of Virginia
DAVID J. FINTON
Charlottesville, VA
Boeing Research & Technology
USA
The Boeing Company
Seattle, WA
ROGER FELTMAN USA
Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in
Psychology RICKY FINZI-DOTTAN
University of Rochester The Louis and Gabi Weisfeld School of Social Work
Rochester, NY Bar–Ilan University
USA Ramat Gan
Israel
and
NICK FELTOVICH The Child & Adolescence Outpatient Clinic
University of Aberdeen Business School Geha Mental Health Center
Aberdeen Petah Tiqva
UK Israel
 List of Contributors xliii

MOIRA FISCHBACHER-SMITH J. D. FLETCHER

Department of Management Science and Technology Division
University of Glasgow Business School Institute for Defense Analyses
Glasgow, Scotland Alexandria, VA
UK USA

DENIS FISCHBACHER-SMITH
Department of Management RĂZVAN V. FLORIAN
University of Glasgow Business School Center for Cognitive and Neural Studies (Coneural)
Glasgow, Scotland Romanian Institute of Science and Technology
UK Cluj-Napoca
Romania
CHRISTOPHER FISCHER
The Center for Educational Partnerships SOON FOOK FONG
Old Dominion University School of Educational Studies
Norfolk, VA University Sains Malaysia
USA Gelugor, Penang
Malaysia
SHALOM M. FISCH
MediaKidz Research and Consulting
Teaneck, NJ JAIME R. S. FONSECA
USA Higher Institute for Social and Political Sciences,
Centre for Public Administration and Policies
MICHAEL FITZGERALD Technical University of Lisbon
Department of Psychiatry Lisbon
Trinity College Dublin (TCD) Portugal
Dublin 2
Ireland
MICHAEL J. FORD
ANDREAS FLACHE Department of Instruction and Learning
Department of Sociology, ICS University of Pittsburgh
University of Groningen Pittsburgh, PA
TG Groningen USA
The Netherlands
STEPHEN B. FOUNTAIN
MARY FLANAGAN Department of Psychology
Clare Family Learning Project Kent State University
Adult Education Centre Kent, OH
Ennis, Co. Clare USA
Ireland

TIMOTHY M. FLEMMING DOROTHY FRAGASZY

Department of Psychology & Language Research Behavioral and Brain Sciences Program
Center Psychology Department
Georgia State University University of Georgia
Atlanta, GA Athens, GA
USA USA
xliv List of Contributors

AMY L. FRAHER RŪSIŅŠ FREIVALDS

Applied Aeronautics Department Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science
San Diego Miramar College University of Latvia
San Diego, CA Riga
USA Latvia

BIEKE DE FRAINE
The Education and Training Research Group HEATHER FRETWELL
K.U. Leuven Department of Psychiatry
Leuven Indiana University School of Medicine
Belgium Indianapolis, IN
USA

JOHN M. FRANCISCO
School of Education H. HARALD FREUDENTHALER
University of Massachusetts Department of Psychology
Amherst, MA University of Graz
USA Graz
Austria
BRIAN FRANCIS
Department of Psychology and the ERSC National
Centre for Research Methods ELLEN FRIDLAND
Lancaster University Berlin School of Mind and Brain
Lancaster Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
UK Berlin
Germany
SARAH A. FRASER
Department of Psychology
Centre de recherche de l’institut universitaire de JENNIFER N. FRITZ
gériatrie de Montréal School of Human Science and Humanities
Université du Québec à Montréal University of Houston – Clear Lake
Montréal, Québec Houston, TX
Canada USA

CLAUDE FRASSON JOHANNES FÜRNKRANZ

Département d’Informatique et de Recherche Knowledge Engineering Group
Opérationnelle TU Darmstadt
Université de Montréal Darmstadt
Montreal, QC Germany
Canada

DAYNE FREITAG SEAN A. FULOP

Artificial Intelligence Center Department of Linguistics
SRI International California State University
San Diego, California Fresno, CA
USA USA
 List of Contributors xlv

C. VICTOR FUNG THOMAS N. GARAVAN

Center for Music Education Research Department of Personnel and Employment Relations
School of Music Kemmy Business School
MUS 101, College of The Arts University of Limerick
University of South Florida Limerick
Tampa, FL Ireland
USA

FRANCESCA GARBARINI
JOACHIM FUNKE Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology Center for Cognitive Science, University of Turin
Heidelberg University Turin
Heidelberg Italy
Germany

ARTUR D’AVILA GARCEZ

WAI-TAT FU Department of Computing
Computer Science and Human Factors City University London
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign London
Urbana-Champaign, IL UK
USA

JOANNA K. GARNER
ATHANASIOS GAGATSIS Berks College Department of Psychology
Department of Education The Pennsylvania State University
University of Cyprus Reading, PA
Nicosia USA
Cyprus

ANTONELLA GASBARRI
MATTEO MARIA GALIZZI Department of Biomedical Sciences and
Department of Economics Technologies
University of Brescia University of L’Aquila
Brescia L’Aquila
Italy Italy

CHARLES R. GALLISTEL M. GARETH GASKELL

Cognitive Science and Behavioral Neuroscience Department of Psychology
Rutgers University University of York
New Brunswick, NJ Heslington, York
USA UK

PABLO GARAIZAR JAMES R. GAVELEK

DeusTo Tech, Departamento de Telecomunicaciones Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Universidad de Deusto University of Illinois at Chicago
Bilbao Chicago, IL
Spain USA
xlvi List of Contributors

DAVID C. GEARY POL GHESQUIÈRE

Department of Psychological Sciences Department of Educational Sciences
University of Missouri Parenting and Special Education Research Group
Columbia, MO Leuven
USA Belgium

PETER GEIBEL
JENNIFER M. GIDLEY
Fakultät IV - Elektrotechnik und Informatik
Global Cities Research Institute
Sekr. FR 5-8
RMIT University
Technische Universität Berlin
Melbourne, VIC
Berlin
Australia
Germany

VINCENT GEIGER DANIEL GILBERT

School of Education Principal, Learning Innovations, Inc
Australian Catholic University Omaha, NE
Brisbane, QLD USA
Australia

BILAL GENC PAUL GINNS

Department of English Language Teaching The University of Sydney
Inonu University Sydney, NSW
Malatya Australia
Turkey
CHRISTOPHE GIRAUD-CARRIER
ANDREJS GESKE Department of Computer Science
Faculty of Education and Psychology Brigham Young University
University of Latvia Provo, UT
Riga USA
Latvia
and
Sciences MARK GIROD
University of Latvia Western Oregon University
Riga Monmouth, OR
Latvia USA

MARIBETH GETTINGER
STEVEN GLAUTIER
Department of Educational Psychology
School of Psychology
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Southampton University
Madison, WI
Southampton
USA
UK

RONNY GEVA
Department of Psychology JUDITH GLÜCK
The Gonda Brain Research Center Institut für Psychologie
Bar Ilan University Alpen-Adria Universität Klagenfurt
Ramat Gan Klagenfurt
Israel Austria
 List of Contributors xlvii

MICHAELA GLÄSER-ZIKUDA ADAM M. GOODMAN

Department of Education Department of Psychology
Institute for Educational Science Auburn University
Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena Auburn, AL
Jena USA
Germany
USHA C. GOSWAMI
Centre for Neuroscience in Education
FERNAND GOBET University of Cambridge
Department of Psychology Cambridge
School of Social Sciences UK
Centre for the Study of Expertise
Brunel University DANIEL A. GOTTLIEB
Uxbridge, Middlesex Department of Psychology
UK Sweet Briar College
Sweet Briar, VA
USA
TAMARA VAN GOG
Institute of Psychology KRISTY GOULD
Erasmus University Rotterdam Luther College
Rotterdam Decorah, IA
The Netherlands USA

THOMAS J. GOULD
AYTAC GOGUS
Center for Substance Abuse Research and Director of
Center for Individual and Academic Development
the Neuroscience Program
Sabanci University
Temple University Area of Psychology
Istanbul
Weiss Hall Philadelphia, PA
Turkey
USA

ANU A. GOKHALE ROLAND H. GRABNER

Department of Technology Institute for Behavioral Sciences
Illinois State University Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich
Normal, IL Zürich
USA Switzerland

DAMIAN GRACE
ROBERT L. GOLDSTONE Department of Government and International
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Relations
Indiana University The University of Sydney
Bloomington, IN Sydney
USA Australia

SABINE GRAF
CECILIA GONZALEZ-CAMPO School of Computing and Information Systems
INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Athabasca University
Bordeaux Edmonton, AB
France Canada
xlviii List of Contributors

MELVA R. GRANT PHILIP GRISÉ

Darden College of Education The College of Communication and Information
Old Dominion University Studies
Norfolk, VA Florida State University
USA Tallahassee, FL
USA

JAMES GRAU STEFAN N. GROESSER

Department of Psychology Institute of Management
Texas A&M University University of St. Gallen
College Station, TX St. Gallen
USA Switzerland
and
System Dynamics Group
GARY GREENBERG
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Department of Psychology
Cambridge
Wichita State University
USA
Wichita, KS
USA
DANIEL GROLLMAN
LASA laboratory
KAROL GREGOR EPFL – Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne
Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences Lausanne
New York University Switzerland
New York
USA TIMOTHY J. GROULX
Department of Music
University of Evansville
THOMAS L. GRIFFITHS Evansville, IN
Department of Psychology USA
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, CA WAYNE A. GROVE
USA Department of Economics
Le Moyne College
Syracuse, NY
ELENA L. GRIGORENKO
USA
Department of Psychology
Department of Epidemiology & Public Health
Child Study Center HANS GRUBER
Yale University Institute of Educational Science
New Haven University of Regensburg
USA Regensburg, Bavaria
Germany

ANDRIS GRINFELDS MARCELLO GUARINI

Faculty of Education and Psychology Department of Philosophy
University of Latvia University of Windsor
Riga Windsor, Ontario
Latvia Canada
 List of Contributors xlix

ERIC GUERCI JOHANNES GURLITT

G.R.E.Q.A.M, Centre de la Vieille Charité Department of Educational Science
Marseille University of Freiburg
France Freiburg
Germany

FRANK GUERIN
Department of Computing Science THOMAS R. GUSKEY
University of Aberdeen College of Education
Aberdeen, Scotland University of Kentucky
UK Lexington, KY
USA
NATALIE GUERRERO
Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience
Pomona College MEHMET A. GUZEL
Claremont, CA School of Psychology
USA University of Southampton
Southampton
UK
NICOLAS GUÉGUEN
CRPCC-LESTIC
University of South Brittany JOSE PRADOS GUZMAN
Lorient School of Psychology
France University of Leicester
Leicester
UK
AYMERIC GUILLOT
Center of Research and Innovation in Sport
University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of MARIËTTE DE HAAN
Lyon Langeveld Institute for the Study of Education and
Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material Development in Childhood and Adolescence
Performance Utrecht University
Villeurbanne Utrecht, CS
France The Netherlands

MATTHEW J. GULLO
Institute of Psychology, Health and Society DOUGLAS J. HACKER
University of Liverpool Department of Educational Psychology
Eleanor Rathbone Building University of Utah
Liverpool Salt Lake City, UT
UK USA

AMY GUNTY LESTER HADSELL

Department of Psychology Department of Economics
University of Minnesota SUNY-College at Oneonta
Minneapolis, MN Oneonta, NY
USA USA
l List of Contributors

ALLYSON F. HADWIN MAUREEN T. HALLINAN

Department of Educational Psychology and Center for Research on Educational Opportunity
Leadership Studies University of Notre Dame
University of Victoria Notre Dame, IN
Victoria, BC USA
Canada
GEOFFREY HALL
PAUL J. HAGER Department of Psychology
University of Technology, Sydney University of York
Broadway, NSW York
Australia UK
and
School of Psychology
KAZUHIKO HAGIWARA
University of New South Wales
School of Languages and Linguistics
Australia
Griffith University
Nathan, QLD
Australia ULRIKE HALSBAND
Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology
University of Freiburg
BRIAN D. HAIG Freiburg
Department of Psychology Germany
University of Canterbury
Christchurch
New Zealand RICHARD HAMILTON
School of Teaching, Learning and Development
University of Auckland
SHALIN HAI-JEW Auckland
Information Technology Assistance Center (iTAC) New Zealand
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS
USA FRED H. HAMKER
Department of Artificial Intelligence
Faculty of Computer Science
KYLA HAIMOVITZ Chemnitz University of Technology
Department of Psychology Chemnitz
Reed College Germany
Portland, OR
USA
ÅSA HAMMAR
Department of Biological and Medical Psychology,
LYNNE HALL Clinical Neuropsychology
University of Sunderland University of Bergen
Sunderland, Tyne & Wear Bergen
UK Norway

MARC HALL NOBUYUKI HANAKI

University of Sunderland G.R.E.Q.A.M, Centre de la Vieille Charité
Sunderland, Tyne & Wear Marseille
UK France
 List of Contributors li

ULRIKE HANKE GILBERT HARMAN

Department of Educational Science Department of Philosophy
University of Freiburg Princeton University
Freiburg Princeton, NJ
Germany USA

JOSEPH A. HARRIS
MICHAEL J. HANNAFIN Center for Cognitive Neuroscience
Department of Educational Psychology & Duke University
Instructional Technology Durham, NC
University of Georgia USA
Athens, GA
USA RODRIGO HARRISON
Instituto de Economı́a
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
JUDITH LYNNE HANNA Macul, Santiago
University of Maryland Chile
College Park, MD
USA CATHERINE A. HARTLEY
Department of Psychology
New York University
MINNA M. HANNULA-SORMUNEN
New York, NY
Department of Teacher Education and Centre for
USA
Learning Research
University of Turku
PITOYO HARTONO
Turku
Department of Mechanics and Information
Finland
Technology
Chukyo University
POUL KYVSGAARD HANSEN Toyota, Aichi
Center for Industrial Production Japan
Aalborg University
Aalborg Oest TINA HASCHER
Denmark Department of Educational Research
University of Salzburg
Salzburg
GERRI HANTEN Austria
Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory
Dept. of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation MARK HASELGROVE
Baylor College of Medicine School of Psychology
Houston, TX The University of Nottingham
USA Nottingham
UK

ILONCA HARDY CRAIG HASSED

Department of Education Department of General Practice
Goethe-University Frankfurt Monash University
Frankfurt Notting Hill, VIC
Germany Australia
lii List of Contributors

CATHRINE HASSE JENNIFER HENDERLONG CORPUS

Department of Learning Department of Psychology
The Danish School of Education Reed College
University of Aarhus Portland, OR
Copenhagen, NV USA
Denmark
RICHARD N. A. HENSON
STEFFI HEIDIG (NÉE DOMAGK) MRC Cognition and Brain Science Unit
Learning and Interactive Media University of Cambridge
Department of Education Cambridge
University of Erfurt UK
Erfurt
Germany ALICIA HERAZ
University of Montreal
JANNICA HEINSTRÖM Montréal, Québec
Department of Information Studies Canada
Åbo Akademi University
Turku MICHAEL HERCZEG
Finland Institute for Multimedia and Interactive Systems
(IMIS)
University of Luebeck
JÜRGEN HELLER
Luebeck
Department of Psychology
Germany
University of Tübingen
Tübingen
Germany DIRK HERMANS
Center for the Psychology of Learning and
Experimental Psychopathology
JACK HELLER Department of Psychology
School of Music University of Leuven
University of South Florida Leuven
Tampa, FL Belgium
USA

PATRICK HERNLY
SCOTT H. HEMENOVER Center for Music Education Research
Western Illinois University School of Music
Macomb, IL College of The Arts, University of South Florida
USA Tampa, FL
USA
BARBARA HEMFORTH
Laboratoire de Psychologie et de Neuropsychologie ESTHER HERRMANN
Cognitives Department of Developmental and Comparative
UFR Institut de Psychologie CNRS Psychology
Université Paris Descartes Max Planck Institute for evolutionary Anthropology
Boulogne-Billancourt, Cedex Leipzig
France Germany
 List of Contributors liii

THOMAS HERRMANN JANETTE R. HILL

Information and Technology Management Lifelong Education, Administration, and Policy
Institute for Applied Work Sciences University of Georgia
University of Bochum Athens, GA
Bochum USA
Germany
ELI HINKEL
CYRIL HERRY Department of Anthropology
INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Seattle University
Bordeaux Seattle, WA
France USA

PETRA HERZMANN EYKE HÜLLERMEIER

Institute of General Didactics and School Research Philipps-Universität Marburg
University Cologne Marburg
Cologne Germany
Germany
IMRAN HO-ABDULLAH
School of Language Studies & Linguistics
MARIEKE VAN HEUGTEN
Faculty of Social Sciences and Human
Department of Psychology
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
University of Toronto at Mississauga
Bangi, Selangor DE
Mississauga, ON
Malaysia
Canada

BOBBY HOFFMAN
GAIL D. HEYMAN
Department of Educational Studies
Department of Psychology
University of Central Florida
University of California, San Diego
Orlando, FL
La Jolla, CA
USA
USA
MEGAN L. HOFFMAN
ERIN JONES HIGGINS Department of Psychology
Psychology Department Language Research Center
University of Illinois Georgia State University
Champaign, IL Atlanta, GA
USA USA

PHILIP A. HIGHAM GALIT HOFREE

School of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Southampton University of California
Southampton La Jolla, CA
UK USA

SII CHING HII KAREN L. HOLLIS

School of Educational Studies Department of Psychology
University Sains Malaysia Mount Holyoke College
Gelugor, Penang South Hadley, MA
Malaysia USA
liv List of Contributors

IAN D. HOLLOWAY HOLGER HORZ

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Western Ontario Educational Psychology and Head of
London, ON Interdisciplinary College of University Didactics
Canada Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University
Frankfurt
ROBERT C. HONEY Germany
School of Psychology
Cardiff University STEPHEN HOUGHTON
Cardiff, Wales Graduate School of Education
UK The University of Western Australia
Nedlands, WA
SIMON HOOPER Australia
College of Education
Pennsylvania State University ROBERT W. HOWARD
University Park, PA School of Education
USA University of New South Wales
Sydney
SIMON R. HOOPER Australia
Instructional Systems
Dept. of Learning + Performance Systems NADY HOYEK
College of Education Center of Research and Innovation in Sport
The Pennsylvania State University University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of
University Park, PA Lyon
USA Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material
Performance
H. ULRICH HOPPE Villeurbanne
University of Duisburg-Essen France
Duisburg
Germany CHUNG-YUAN HSU
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education
SHERRI L. HORNER National Taiwan University of Science and
Bowling Green State University Technology
Bowling Green, OH Taipei
USA Taiwan

AIDAN J. HORNER JUDY TZU HUANG

Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia National Open University
Research, Otto–von–Guericke University Magdeburg New Taipei City
Magdeburg Taiwan
Germany
and LUDWIG HUBER
Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University Department of Cognitive Biology
College London University of Vienna
London Vienna
UK Austria
 List of Contributors lv

THEO HUG FRANCES IHLE

Institute of Psychosocial Intervention and Department of Special Education
Communication Studies University of Kansas
University of Innsbruck Lawrence, KS
Innsbruck USA
Austria

JUDI HUMBERSTONEWOEI HUNG KAZUSHI IKEDA

College of Education and Human Development Graduate School of Information Science
University of North Dakota Nara Institute of Science and Technology
Grand Forks, ND Ikoma, Nara Prefecture
USA Japan

WOEI HUNG KNUD ILLERIS

College of Education and Human Development Department of Learning
University of North Dakota The Danish University School of Education
Grand Forks, ND Aarhus University
USA Copenhagen NV
Denmark
R. REED HUNT
Department of Psychology
University of Texas San Antonio YUKIKO INOUE
San Antonio, TX School of Education
USA University of Guam
Mangilao, Guam
ALMUT HUPBACH USA
Department of Psychology
Lehigh University
Bethlehem, PA PETER ISERBYT
USA Research Centre for Movement Education and Sport
Pedagogy
JOHN HURST Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Monash University Leuven
Melbourne, VIC Belgium
Australia
AZAHARI ISMAIL
STEVEN HUTCHINSON Department of Professional Development and
Department of Psychology Continuing Education
University of Maine Universiti Putra Malaysia
Orono, ME Serdang, Selangor
USA Malaysia

DIRK IFENTHALER
Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences, LUIS R. IZQUIERDO
Department of Education Departamento de Ingenierı́a Civil
University of Freiburg University of Burgos
Freiburg Burgos
Germany Spain
lvi List of Contributors

SEGISMUNDO S. IZQUIERDO MATTHIAS JARKE

University of Valladolid Informatik 5
Valladolid RWTH Aachen University
Spain Aachen
Germany
IVAN IZQUIERDO
Memory Center
Brain Institute ALLAN JEONG
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul Educational Psychology & Learning Systems
Porto Alegre, RS Florida State University
Brazil Tallahassee, FL
USA
BEVERLEY JACKLING
School of Accounting and Finance
Victoria University LI JIANMING
Melbourne, VIC Data Storage Institute
Australia Agency for Science, Technology and Research
(A-STAR)
MICHAEL JACKSON Singapore
Department of Government and International
Relations
The University of Sydney
RAÚL JIMÉNEZ
Sydney
Departamento de Estadı́stica
Australia
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Getafe
LANITA JACOBS
Spain
Department of Anthropology
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA
USA PUTAI JIN
School of Education
ISA JAHNKE The University of New South Wales
Department of Applied Educational Science Sydney, NSW
Interactive Media and Learning (IML)Umeå University Australia
Umeå
Sweden
BIRGER JOHANSSON
MARK A. JAMES Cognitive Science
Department of English Lund University
Arizona State University Lund
Tempe, AZ Sweden
USA

KAROLINA JANACSEK ELIZABETH JOHNSON

Institute of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Szeged University of Toronto at Mississauga
Szeged Mississauga, ON
Hungary Canada
 List of Contributors lvii

TRISTAN E. JOHNSON ELS JOOS

Learning Systems Institute & Department of Center for the Psychology of Learning and
Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Experimental Psychopathology
College of Education Department of Psychology University of Leuven
Florida State University Leuven
Tallahassee, FL Belgium
USA
HELEN JOSSBERGER
Center for Learning Sciences and Technologies
JELLE JOLLES
(CELSTEC)
VU University Amsterdam
Open Universiteit
Amsterdam
Heerlen
The Netherlands
The Netherlands

DAVID H. JONASSEN JEREMIE JOZEFOWIEZ

School of Information Science and Learning Escola de Psicologia
Technologies Universidade do Minho
University of Missouri Braga
Columbia, MO Portugal
USA
SANNA JÄRVELÄ
Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher
SARA J. JONES
Education
Department of Educational Psychology
University of Oulu
The University of Texas at Austin
Oulu
Austin, TX
Finland
USA

KAMARUZAMAN JUSOFF
MATT JONES Faculty of Forestry
University of Colorado Universiti Putra Malaysia
Boulder, CO Serdang, Selangor
USA Malaysia

CECILIA KA YUK CHAN

MICHAEL L. JONES
Centre for the Enhancement of Teaching and
Faculty of Commerce
Learning
University of Wollongong
University of Hong Kong
Wollongong, NSW
Hong Kong
Australia
China

TON DE JONG ERKKI KAILA

Faculty of Behavioral Sciences Department of Information Technology
University of Twente University of Turku
Enschede Turku
The Netherlands Finland
lviii List of Contributors

CHARLES KALISH KENNETH A. KAUFMAN

Department of Educational Psychology Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory
University of Wisconsin-Madison George Mason University
Madison, WI Fairfax, VA
USA USA

SLAVA KALYUGA KORAY KAVUKCUOGLU

School of Education Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences
University of New South Wales New York University
Sydney, NSW New York
Australia USA

MARJAANA KANGAS MATT C. KEENER

Department of Teacher Education Department of Educational Psychology
University of Helsinki University of Utah
Helsinki Salt Lake City, UT
Finland USA

THEMIS N. KARAMINIS
E. JAMES KEHOE
Department of Psychological Sciences
School of Psychology
Birkbeck College
University of New South Wales
University of London
Sydney, NSW
London
Australia
UK

AVI KARNI JOHN M. KELLER

Department of Human Biology & The E.J. Safra Brain Instructional Systems Program (Emeritus),
Research Center for the Study of Learning and Department of Educational Psychology & Learning
Learning Disabilities Systems
University of Haifa Florida State University
Mt Carmel Tallahassee, FL
Israel USA

JULIE DERGES KASTNER STEVE W. KELLY

College of Music Department of Psychology
Michigan State University University of Strathclyde
East Lansing, MI Glasgow, Scotland
USA UK

JEFFREY S. KATZ SEBASTIAN KEMPERT

Department of Psychology Department of Educational Sciences
Auburn University Goethe-University Frankfurt
Auburn, AL Frankfurt am Main
USA Germany
 List of Contributors lix

MICHAEL J. KENNEDY EVAN KIDD

Department of Special Education School of Psychological Sciences
University of Kansas University of Manchester
Lawrence, KS Manchester
USA UK

WILLIAM G. KENNEDY DOROTHE KIENHUES

Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study Institute of Psychology
George Mason University University of Muenster
Fairfax, VA Muenster
USA Germany

ELIZABETH A. KENSINGER SUNGHO KIM

Department of Psychology Department of Electronic Engineering
Boston College Yeungnam University
Chestnut Hill, MA Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do
USA South Korea

CHANMIN KIM
GABRIELE KERN-ISBERNER
The Department of Educational Psychology &
Department of Computer Science
Instructional Technology
TU Dortmund
The University of Georgia
Dortmund
Athens, GA
Germany
USA

ANDREAS KERREN SUNG-IL KIM

School of Computer Science, Physics and Department of Education
Mathematics (DFM) Brain and Motivation Research Institute
Linnaeus University Korea University
Växjö Seoul
Sweden South Korea

MARLIEKE T. R. VAN KESTEREN JAMES E. KING

Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour University of Arizona
Radboud University Nijmegen Tucson, AZ
Nijmegen USA
The Netherlands
and HEATHER KING
Department of Anatomy Department of Education & Professional Studies
Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre King’s College London
Nijmegen London
The Netherlands UK

LIESBETH KESTER KINSHUK

Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies School of Computing and Information Systems
Open University in the Netherlands Athabasca University
Heerlen Athabasca, AB
The Netherlands Canada
lx List of Contributors

OLIVER KIRCHKAMP ANDREW KITCHENHAM

Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät School of Education, College of Arts, Social, and
Universität Jena Health Sciences
Jena University of Northern British Columbia
Germany Prince George, BC
Canada

R. KIRK MAULDIN
Department of Sociology JAMES A. KITTS
Lake Superior State University Graduate School of Business
Sault Sainte Marie, MI Columbia University
USA New York, NY
USA

JAMIE KIRKLEY
Information in Place Inc. CEES KLAASSEN
Indiana University Research Park Department of Sociology
Bloomington, Indiana Radboud University
USA Nijmegen
The Netherlands

FEMKE KIRSCHNER
PAUL A. KLACZYNSKI
Institute of Psychology
Department of Psychological Sciences
Erasmus University Rotterdam
University of Northern Colorado
Rotterdam
Greeley, CO
Netherlands
USA

PAUL A. KIRSCHNER STEFAN KNECHT

Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies Neurocenter at Schön Klinik Hamburg Eilbek
(CELSTEC) Schön Klinik Hamburg-Eilbek
Open University of the Netherlands Hamburg
Heerlen, DL Germany
The Netherlands

SUSANNE KOERBER
DAVID H. KIRSHNER Department of Psychology
Department of Educational Theory, Policy, and University of Education Freiburg
Practice Freiburg
Louisiana State University Germany
Baton Rouge, LA
USA
ALICE Y. KOLB
Organization Behavior Department, Weatherhead
STEPHAN KIRSTEIN School of Management
Honda Research Institute Europe GmbH Case Western Reserve University
Offenbach Cleveland, OH
Germany USA
 List of Contributors lxi

DAVID A. KOLB WENDELIN KÜPERS

Organization Behavior Department, Weatherhead School of Management & International Business
School of Management Massey University (Albany Campus)
Case Western Reserve University Auckland
Cleveland, OH New Zealand
USA
LINDA KRAGELUND
INGO KOLLAR National Centre of Competence Development
Department of Psychology The Danish School of Education
University of Munich Aarhus University
Munich Copenhagen, NV
Germany Denmark

AILING KONG EMIEL KRAHMER

Department of Teacher Education Tilburg center for Cognition and Communication
Saint Joseph’s University (TiCC)
Philadelphia, PA Tilburg University
USA Tilburg
The Netherlands
FRÉDÉRIC KORICHE
JOHN H. KRANZLER
LIRMM, CNRS UMR 5506
College of Education
Université Montpellier II
University of Florida
Montpellier
Gainesville, FL
France
USA

NATE KORNELL
JOHN KRATUS
Department of Psychology
College of Music, Michigan State University
Williams College
East Lansing, MI
Williamstown, MA
USA
USA
HERMANN KÖRNDLE
LIEW KEE KOR Psychology of Learning and Instruction
Department of Mathematical Sciences TU Dresden
Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia Dresden
Merbok, Kedah Darulaman Germany
Malaysia
GEERT-JAN M. KRUIJFF
TIM KOVACS Language Technology Lab
Department of Computer Science German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence
University of Bristol Saarbrücken
Bristol Germany
UK
NATALIA N. KUDRYAVTSEVA
LEONARD F. KOZIOL Neurogenetics of Social Behavior Sector
Fielding Graduate Institute Institute of Cytology and Genetics SD RAS
Santa Barbara, CA Novosibirsk
USA Russia
lxii List of Contributors

ONDŘEJ KUŽELKA SUSANNE P. LAJOIE

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Department of Educational and Counselling
Czech Technical University Psychology (ECP)
Prague McGill University
Czech Republic Montreal, QC
Canada
JONAS KUHN
JANEEN LAMB
Institut für Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung
School of Education
Universität Stuttgart
Australian Catholic University
Stuttgart
Brisbane, QLD
Germany
Australia

SANJEEV KULKARNI LUIS C. LAMB

Department of Electrical Engineering Institute of Informatics
Princeton University Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Princeton, NJ Porto Alegre, RS
USA Brazil

ALEKSANDRA KUPAVSKAYA SHUI-FONG LAM

LITE College Department of Psychology
London University of Hong Kong
UK Hong Kong
China

SIMONE KURT SUSAN M. LAND

University of Ulm, Institute of Neurobiology Education Instructional Systems Program, The
Ulm Pennsylvania State University
Germany University Park, PA
USA
IN SO KWEON
Department of Electrical Engineering FRANCO LANDRISCINA
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Allianz
Daejeon E-Learning
South Korea Trieste
Italy

MIKKO-JUSSI LAAKSO
PETER C. R. LANE
Department of Information Technology
School of Computer Science, University of
University of Turku
Hertfordshire
Turku
Hatfield, Hertfordshire
Finland
UK

JOHAN N. M. LAGERLÖF H. CHAD LANE

Department of Economics Institute for Creative Technologies
University of Copenhagen University of Southern California
København K Los Angeles, CA
Denmark USA
 List of Contributors lxiii

INES LANGEMEYER YANN LECUN

InterMedia, Faculty of Education Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences
University of Oslo New York University
OSLO New York
Norway USA

ANNIE LANG JUNGMI LEE

Department of Telecommunications Department of Educational Science
Indiana University University of Freiburg
Bloomington, IN Freiburg
USA Germany

KENNON A. LATTAL
JAE MU LEE
Department of Psychology
Department of Computer Education
West Virginia University
University of Busan National University of Education
Morgantown, WV
Busan
USA
South Korea

ROBERT A. LAVINE
Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, and of LISA J. LEHMBERG
Neurology (ret.) Department of Music & Dance
The George Washington University School of University of Massachusetts
Medicine and Health Sciences Amherst, MA
Washington, DC USA
USA
and CHERYL LEMKE
Reston Psychological Center Metiri Group
Reston, VA Culver City, CA
USA USA

NATHALIE LAZARIC
ALES LEONARDIS
CNRS – GREDEG
University of Ljubljana
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis
Ljubljana
Valbonne, Sophia Antipolis
Slovenia
France

ERIC LE BOURG DOROTHEA C. LERMAN

Research Center on Animal Cognition School of Human Science and Humanities
University of Toulouse University of Houston – Clear Lake
Toulouse, Cedex 9 Houston, TX
France USA

DAVID B. LEAKE JAMES LESTER

School of Informatics and Computing Department of Computer Science
Indiana University North Carolina State University
Bloomington, IN Raleigh, NC
USA USA
lxiv List of Contributors

DETLEV LEUTNER SOH-LEONG LIM

Instructional Psychology Marriage and Family Therapy Program
School of Education, Duisburg-Essen University Department of Counseling and School Psychology
Essen San Diego State University
Germany San Diego, CA
USA
DORIS LEWALTER
TUM School of Education CHAP SAM LIM
Fachgebiet Gymnasialpädagogik School of Educational Studies
Technical University Munich Universiti Sains Malaysia
Munich Minden, Penang
Germany Malaysia

STEPHAN LEWANDOWSKY
School of Psychology JOHAN LIND
The University of Western Australia Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution &
Crawley, WA Department of Zoology
Australia Stockholm University
Stockholm
Sweden
CHARLIE N. LEWIS
Department of Psychology and the ERSC National
Centre for Research Methods SHANE LINDSAY
Lancaster University Department of Psychology
Lancaster University of York
UK Heslington, York
UK
RICHARD S. LEWIS
Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience
STEFANIE LINDSTAEDT
Pomona College
Division Manager Knowledge Services
Claremont, CA
Know-Center & Knowledge Management Institute,
USA
Graz University of Technology
Graz
RAMON LEYENDECKER Austria
University of Freiburg
Freiburg
Germany P. ALEX LINLEY
Centre of Applied Positive Psychology
CHUNYUAN LIAO The Venture Centre
FX Palo Alto Laboratory Coventry West Midlands
Palo Alto, CA UK
USA
CLAS LINNMAN
Q. VERA LIAO Department of Psychiatry
Computer Science and Human Factors Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Hospital
Urbana-Champaign, IL Charlestown, MA
USA USA
 List of Contributors lxv

KAREN M. LIONELLO-DENOLF DERONG LIU

University of Massachusetts Medical School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Shriver Center University of Illinois
Worcester, MA Chicago, IL
USA USA

HONGLI LI QING LIU

Department of Educational Policy Studies Behavioral and Brain Sciences Program
Georgia State University Psychology Department
Atlanta, GA University of Georgia
USA Athens, GA
USA
KAREN Z. H. LI
Department of Psychology ZHENG LIU
Center for Research in Human Development, Accenture
Concordia University China
Montréal, Québec
Canada QIONG LIU
FX Palo Alto Laboratory
ALEXANDRA LIST Palo Alto, CA
Department of Human Development USA
University of Maryland
College Park, MD KAY LIVINGSTON
USA School of Education
University of Glasgow
JORDAN A. LITMAN College of Social Sciences
Psychology Department Glasgow, Scotland
University of South Florida UK
Saint Petersburg, FL
USA JENNIFER LONG
Department of Psychology
DANIEL R. LITTLE Ohio State University
Psychological Sciences Columbus, OH
The University of Melbourne USA
Parkville, Victoria
Australia ALESSANDRO LONGHEU
Department of Electric
MICHAEL LITTMAN Electronic and Informatics Engineering (DIEEI)
Computer Science Department University of Catania
Rutgers University Catania
Piscataway, NJ Italy
USA
RICHARD W. LONGMAN
CHARLOTTE HUA LIU Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Education Columbia University The Fu Foundation School of
University of Canberra Engineering & Applied Science
Canberra, ACT New York, NY
Australia USA
lxvi List of Contributors

CHEE-KIT LOOI ZHONG-LIN LU

National Institute of Education Departments of Psychology
Nanyang Technological University University of Southern California
Singapore Los Angeles, CA
Singapore USA

JANET LOONEY HAYDÉE LUGO

Vital Insight Departamento de Economı́a
Paris Universidad Complutense de Madrid
France Madrid
Spain
SUSANA LÓPEZ ORNAT
Dpto. Psicologı̀a Básica II MAIKE LUHMANN
Facultad de Psicologı̀a Universidad Complutense de Department of Psychology
Madrid University of Chicago
Madrid Chicago, IL
Spain USA

BRADLEY C. LOVE
SHI LUPING
Department of Psychology
Data Storage Institute
The University of Texas at Austin
Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Austin, TX
(A-STAR)
USA
Singapore

RICHARD LOWE
ZHONG-LIN LU
School of Education
Departments of Psychology
Curtin University of Technology
University of Southern California
Bentley, WA
Los Angeles, CA
Australia
USA
RENAE LOW
School of Education MICHAEL LUSIGNAN
University of New South Wales Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy
Sydney, NSW University of Chicago
Australia Chicago, IL
USA
ROBERT E. LUBOW
Department of Psychology WOLFRAM LUTTERER
Tel Aviv University Department of Education
Ramat Aviv University of Freiburg
Israel Freiburg
Germany
ELLIOT A. LUDVIG
Princeton Neuroscience Institute KOEN LUWEL
3-N-12 Green Hall Center for Educational Research and Development
Princeton University Hogeschool–Universiteit Brussel
Princeton, NJ Brussels
USA Belgium
 List of Contributors lxvii

and SUSAN R. MADSEN

Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology Woodbury School of Business
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Utah Valley University
Leuven Orem, UT
Belgium USA

SHERRY D. LYONS BEA MAES

Continuing & Professional Studies - English Parenting and Special Education Research Group
Language Institute Catholic University of Leuven
University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) Leuven
Baltimore, MD Belgium
USA
CARLO MAGNO
Counseling and Educational Psychology Department
TG. NOR RIZAN TG. MOHD. MAASUM
De La Salle University
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Manila
Bangi, Selangor
Philippines
Malaysia
JOHN F. MAGNOTTI
MARGARET MACDOUGALL Department of Psychology
Centre for Population Health Sciences Auburn University
University of Edinburgh Medical School Auburn, AL
Teviot Place, Edinburgh USA
UK
CAROLYN A. MAHER
LUIS MACEDO Graduate School of Education
University of Coimbra Rutgers University
Coimbra New Brunswick, NJ
Portugal USA

TIAGO V. MAIA
COLIN M. MACLEOD
Department of Psychiatry
Department of Psychology
Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric
University of Waterloo
Institute
Waterloo, ON
New York, NY
Canada
USA

MICHAEL WALTON MACY CARMINE MAIELLO

Department of Sociology Research and Study Center for Education
Cornell University Social Dynamics Laboratory FSP University of Basel
Ithaca, NY Basel
USA Switzerland

W. T. MADDOX ANTONIO MALDONADO

Department of Psychology Departamento de Psicologı́a Experimental
University of Texas Universidad de Granada
Austin, TX Granada
USA Spain
lxviii List of Contributors

MICHELE MALGERI and

Department of Electric, Electronic and Informatics School of Social Studies
Engineering (DIEEI) Peres Academic Center
University of Catania Rechovot
Catania Israel
Italy
DANIEL MARGOLIASH
Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy
JOHN C. MALONE
University of Chicago
Department of Psychology
Chicago, IL
University of Tennessee
USA
Knoxville, TN
USA
CARRIE MARK
Special Education
GUY MANASTER Department of Special Education
Educational Psychology Department University of Kansas
The University of Texas at Austin Lawrence, KS
Austin, TX USA
USA
ZDRAVKO MARKOV
Central Connecticut State University
GIUSEPPE MANGIONI
New Britain, CT
Department of Electric, Electronic and Informatics
USA
Engineering (DIEEI)
University of Catania
HENRY MARKOVITS
Catania
Department of Psychology
Italy
Université du Québec à Montréal
Montreal, QC
NIPAN J. MANIAR Canada
School of Creative Technologies
University of Portsmouth SANDRA P. MARSHALL
Portsmouth, Hampshire Department of Psychology
UK San Diego State University
San Diego, CA
USA
ELIO MARCHIONE
CRESS: Centre for Research in Social Simulation,
JEFF C. MARSHALL
Department of Sociology
Moore School of Education
University of Surrey
Clemson University
Guildford, Surrey
Clemson, SC
UK
USA

MALKA MARGALIT BIRGIT MARTE

School of Education Department of Psychology
Tel–Aviv University University of Graz
Tel–Aviv Graz
Israel Austria
 List of Contributors lxix

GARRY L. MARTIN ANDREW MATTARELLA-MICKE

St. Paul’s College University of Manitoba Department of Psychology
Winnipeg, MB University of Chicago
Canada Chicago, IL
USA
ANDREW J. MARTIN
Faculty of Education and Social Work ROBERT SAMUEL MATTHEWS
University of Sydney School of Education
Sydney University of Adelaide
Australia Adelaide, South Australia
Australia
ANGÉLIQUE MARTIN
CRPCC-LESTIC KAREN MATTOCK
University of South Brittany Department of Psychology
Lorient Lancaster University
France Lancaster
UK
DOMINIC W. MASSARO
WHITNEY MATTSON
Perceptual Science Laboratory
University of Miami
University of California- Santa Cruz Social Sciences II
Coral Gables, FL
Santa Cruz, CA
USA
USA

HELENA MATUTE
GIANLUCA MASSEI
Departamento de Fundamentos y Métodos de la
National Inter-University Consortium for
Psicologı́a
Telecommunications (CNIT)
Universidad de Deusto
Naples
Bilbao
Italy
Spain

JULIE J. MASTERSON LOUIS D. MATZEL

Department of Communication Sciences and Department of Psychology
Disorders Program in Behavioral Neuroscience
Missouri State University Rutgers University
Springfield, MO Piscataway, NJ
USA USA

MARGO A. MASTROPIERI RICHARD E. MAYER

College of Education and Human Development Department of Psychology
George Mason University University of California
Fairfax, VA Santa Barbara, CA
USA USA

ANNA MATEJKO MATTHEW T. MCCRUDDEN

Department of Psychology School of Educational Psychology and Pedagogy
The University of Western Ontario Victoria University
London Wellington
Canada New Zealand
lxx List of Contributors

MARK A. MCDANIEL JAN VAN DER MEIJ

Department of Psychology Faculty of Behavioral Sciences
Washington University University of Twente
Saint Louis, MO Enschede
USA The Netherlands

FIONA MCDONALD ROGER L. MELLGREN

School of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of New South Wales University of Texas at Arlington
Sydney, NSW Arlington, TX
Australia USA

DENNIS M. MCINERNEY CHRISTOPH MENGELKAMP

Educational Psychology Psychological Studies Department of General and Educational Psychology
Department, Block D1, 2Fl, Room 15 University of Koblenz-Landau
The Hong Kong Institute of Education Landau
Tai Po Germany
Hong Kong
LINGQI MENG
BRUCE M. MCLAREN
Penn State Berks
Carnegie Mellon University
Reading, PA
Pittsburgh, PA
USA
USA

TAMARYN MENNEER
GAVAN P. MCNALLY
School of Psychology
School of Psychology
University of Southampton
University of New South Wales
Southampton
Sydney, NSW
UK
Australia

JORGE H. MEDINA RANDOLF MENZEL

Departamento de Fisiologia Department of Biology/Chemistry/Pharmacy
Universidad de Buenos Aires Institut für Biologie - Neurobiologie, Freie Universität
Buenos Aires Berlin
Argentina Berlin
Germany
BRAD MEHLENBACHER
Department of Leadership, Policy and Adult and J. G. VAN JEROEN MERRIËNBOER
Higher Education FHML, Department of Educational Development and
North Carolina State University Research
Raleigh, NC Maastricht University
USA Maastricht
The Netherlands
BEAT MEIER
Department of Psychology DANIEL S. MESSINGER
University of Bern University of Miami
Bern Coral Gables, FL
Switzerland USA
 List of Contributors lxxi

GIORGIO METTA MARCELO MILRAD

Department of Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Center for Learning and Knowledge Technologies
Sciences (CeLeKT)
Italian Institute of Technology School of Computer Science
Genoa Physics and Mathematics
Italy Linnaeus University
Växjö
CHRISTIANE METZNER Sweden
Universidad Central de Venezuela
Caracas
Venezuela THOMAS R. MINOR
Department of Psychology
THIERRY MEULEMANS UCLA, University of California
Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Cognitive Los Angeles, CA
Science USA
University of Liège
Liège NATHALIE MULLER MIRZA
Belgium Institute of Psychology
University of Lausanne
MARTINE MÉHEUT Lausanne
University Paris Est Créteil Switzerland
Brest
France
BELINDA B. MITCHELL
J. MICHAEL SPECTOR Special Education, Department of Special Education
Learning and Performance Support Laboratory University of Kansas
University of Georgia Lawrence, KS
Athens, GA USA
USA

MOHAMMED R. MILAD MICHAEL C. MITCHELMORE

Department of Psychiatry Department of Education
Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General Macquarie University
Hospital Sydney, NSW
Charlestown, MA Australia
USA
KATI HELENA MÄKITALO-SIEGL
MARIEL F. MILLER Finnish Institute for Educational Research
Department of Educational Psychology and University of Jyväskylä
Leadership Studies Finland
University of Victoria
Victoria, BC
Canada NOTGER G. MÜLLER
Department of Neurology
RALPH R. MILLER University of Magdeburg & German Center for
SUNY-Binghamton Neurodegenerative Diseases
Binghamton, NY Magdeburg
USA Germany
lxxii List of Contributors

IDA MOADAB KONRAD MORGAN

Department of Psychology University of Mauritius
University of Oregon Reduit
Eugene, OR Mauritius
USA
CLAYTON T. MORRISON
NOORIZAH MOHD. NOOR Department of Computer Science Gould-Simpson
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia The University of Arizona
Bangi, Selangor Tucson, AZ
Malaysia USA

KRISZTINA MOLNAR DAVID B. MORRIS

Department of Economics Department of Educational Studies
Norwegian School of Economics and Business St. Mary’s College of Maryland
Administration St. Mary’s City, MD
Bergen USA
Norway
J. BRUCE MORTON
MARIE-H. MONFILS Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology The University of Western Ontario
The University of Texas at Austin London, ON
Austin, TX Canada
USA
MAHENDRENATH MOTAH
GIANLUIGI MONGILLO School of Business, Management and Finance
Laboratory of Neurophysics and Physiology UTM
CNRS UMR8119 Pointe aux Sables
Paris Descartes University Mauritius
Paris
France RENATE MOTSCHNIG
Computer Science Didactics and Learning Research
ALFONSO MONTUORI Center
Department of Transformative Inquiry University of Vienna
California Institute of Integral Studies Vienna
San Francisco Austria
USA
BRADFORD MOTT
KEVIN L. MOORE Department of Computer Science
Colorado School of Mines North Carolina State University
Golden, Colorado Raleigh, NC
USA USA

ERIN MORAN VALÉRIE MÉRINDOL

College of Education Erickson Hall CERNA
Michigan State University Ecole des Mines
East Lansing, MI Paris
USA France
 List of Contributors lxxiii

MICHAEL MÄS JAMES S. NAIRNE

Department of Sociology/ICS Department of Psychological Sciences
University of Groningen Purdue University
Groningen West Lafayette, IN
The Netherlands USA

ETIENNE MULLET
Ethics and Work Laboratory LAURA NAISMITH
Institute of Advanced Studies (EPHE) Department of Educational and Counselling
Paris Psychology (ECP)
France McGill University
Montreal, QC
VERA S. MUNDE Canada
Department of Special Needs Education and Child
Care HEDIEH NAJAFI
University of Groningen Department of Curriculum
Groningen Teaching and Learning
The Netherlands Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
DANA LACOURSE MUNTEANU Toronto, ON
Ohio State University at Newark Canada
Newark, OH
USA
KAYVAN NAJARIAN
BRENDAN D. MURRAY Department of Computer Science
Department of Psychology Virginia Commonwealth University
Boston College Richmond, Virginia
Chestnut Hill, MA USA
USA

JOY MURRAY MINORU NAKAYAMA

School of Physics Tokyo Institute of Technology
University of Sydney Meguro, Tokyo
Sydney, NSW Japan
Australia
HAN NAKKEN
ROSEMARIE CHARIKLIA NAGEL Department of Special Needs Education and Child
Department of Economics Care
Universitat Pompeu Fabra University of Groningen
Barcelona Groningen
Spain The Netherlands

SOM NAIDU
Learning & Teaching Quality Enhancement and VICKI S. NAPPER
Evaluation Services Department of Teacher Education
Charles Sturt University Weber State University
Albury, NSW Ogden, UT
Australia USA
lxxiv List of Contributors

SUSANNE NARCISS ALJOSCHA C. NEUBAUER

Psychology of Learning and Instruction Department of Psychology
Technische Universitaet Dresden University of Graz
Dresden Graz
Germany Austria

NA’ILAH SUAD NASIR DELIA NEUMAN

Graduate School of Education & Department of College of Information Science and Technology
African American Studies Drexel University
University of California, Berkeley Philadelphia, PA
Berkeley, CA USA
USA
ALLEN NEURINGER
MATTHIAS NÜCKLES Department of Psychology
Department of Educational Science Reed College
University of Freiburg Portland, OR
Freiburg USA
Germany
RUI GOMES NEVES
Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
HEINZ NEBER
Universidade Nova de Lisboa
University of Munich (LMU)
Caparica
Munich
Portugal
Germany

EUGENIA M. W. NG
J. RON NELSON
Department of Mathematics and Information
Department of Special Education and
Technology
Communication Disorders
The Hong Kong Institute of Education
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Hong Kong SAR
Lincoln, NE
China
USA
NOËL NGUYEN
JAMES B. NELSON Laboratoire Parole et Langage
University of the Basque Country Université de Provence & CNRS
San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa Aix en Provence
Spain France

DEZSO NEMETH HELMUT M. NIEGEMANN

Institute of Psychology Department of Education
University of Szeged University of Erfurt
Szeged Erfurt
Hungary Germany

BERNHARD NETT KLAUS NIELSEN

Information Systems and New Media Department of Psychology
University of Siegen Aarhus University
Siegen Aarhus C
Germany Denmark
 List of Contributors lxxv

MARY NIEMCZYK LIN S. NORTON

Department of Technological Entrepreneurship & Faculty of Education
Innovation Management Liverpool Hope University
Arizona State University Liverpool, England
Mesa, AZ UK
USA
MARCO NOVARESE
HANNELE NIEMI Centre for Cognitive Economics – Dipartimento di
Institute of Behavioural Sciences Scienze Giuridiche ed Economiche
University of Helsinki Università del Piemonte Orientale Amedeo
Helsinki Avogadro
Finland Alessandria
Italy

RUTH E. NIEUWENHUIS-MARK LESLIE NOVOSEL

Department of Medical Psychology and Special Education, Department of Special Education
Neuropsychology University of Kansas
Tilburg University Lawrence, KS
Tilburg USA
The Netherlands

TEREZINHA NUNES
ANA ACEVEDO NISTAL Department of Education
Education and Training Research Group University of Oxford
Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology Oxford, Oxfordshire
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven UK
Leuven
Belgium JOHN A. NUNNERY
Darden College of Education, Old Dominion
JUAN P. NÚÑEZ PARTIDO University
Department of Psychology Norfolk, VA
Comillas University USA
Madrid
Spain ANDREW M. NUXOLL
Department of Computer Science
University of Portland
NOOREEN NOORDIN Portland, OR
Department of Language Education and Humanities USA
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, Selangor
Malaysia LARS NYBERG
Department of Integrative Medical Biology,
physiology
HANS M. NORDAHL Department of Radiation Sciences, Radiology
Department of Psychology UFBI (Umeå centre for Functional Brain Imaging)
Norwegian University of Science and Technology Umeå University
Trondheim Umeå
Norway Sweden
lxxvi List of Contributors

BENJAMIN D. NYE KEVIN OLIVER

Electrical and Systems Engineering Department Department of Curriculum & Instruction
University of Pennsylvania North Carolina State University
Philadelphia, PA Raleigh, NC
USA USA

TIM OATES ANDREAS OLSSON

University of Maryland Baltimore County Division of Psychology
Baltimore, MD Department of Clinical Neuroscience
USA Karolinska Institutet
Stockholm
EILEEN OBERWELLAND Sweden
Leiden University
The Netherlands
C.-J. OLSSON
Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences,
FERGAL O’BRIEN
section for Sports Medicine
Department of Accounting and Finance
UFBI (Umeå centre for Functional Brain Imaging)
Kemmy Business School
Umeå University
University of Limerick
Umeå
Limerick
Sweden
Ireland

STELLAN OHLSSON ALESSANDRO OLTRAMARI

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Illinois at Chicago Carnegie Mellon University
Chicago, IL Pittsburgh, PA
USA USA

ZUHAL OKAN JAMIE O’MALLY

ELT Department Department of Psychology
Çukurova University University of Alabama
Balcali, Adana Tuscaloosa, AL
Turkey USA

SANDRA Y. OKITA
Dept. of Mathematics, Science and Technology MARIA OPFERMANN
Teachers College Instructional Psychology
Columbia University School of Education, Duisburg-Essen University
New York, NY Essen
USA Germany

LORI OLAFSON JOHN E. OPFER

Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Nevada-Las Vegas The Ohio State University
Las Vegas, NV Columbus, OH
USA USA
 List of Contributors lxxvii

MARKAY ORGILL SAMI PAAVOLA

Department of Chemistry Institute of Behavioral Sciences
University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of Helsinki
Las Vegas, NV Helsinki
USA Finland

JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD TRACY PACKIAM ALLOWAY

School of Psychological Sciences (Emerita) Centre for Memory
University of Northern Colorado University of Stirling
Greeley, CO Stirling
USA UK

DANIEL OSHERSON SÉBASTIEN PACTON

Department of Psychology LPNCog/CNRS
Princeton University Université Paris-Descartes
Princeton, NJ Paris
USA France

PIERRE-YVES OUDEYER
MARJORY F. PALIUS
INRIA
Graduate School of Education
Talence
Rutgers University
France
New Brunswick, NJ
USA
HARRIET OVER
Department of Developmental and Comparative
Psychology DAVID C. PALMER
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Psychology Department
Leipzig Smith College
Germany Northampton, MA
USA

YONCA OZKAN
Department of English Language Teaching MARILYN PANAYI
Cukurova University City University
Adana London
Turkey UK
and
The School Room Paediatric Neurosciences
FRED PAAS
King’s College Hospital
Institute of Psychology
London
Erasmus University Rotterdam
UK
Rotterdam
Netherlands
and JOSEFA N. S. PANDEIRADA
Institute of Psychology Department of Education
University of Wollongong University of Aveiro
Wollongong Aveiro
Australia Portugal
lxxviii List of Contributors

CAROLYN P. PANOFSKY KAI PATA

Department of Educational Studies Center for Educational Technology, Institute of
Rhode Island College Informatics
Providence, RI Tallinn University
USA Tallinn
Estonia
ANDREAS PAPASALOUROS
Department of Mathematics JEAN-LUC PATRY
University of the Aegean Department of Education
Karlovassi, Samos University of Salzburg
Greece Salzburg
Austria
MAURICIO R. PAPINI
Department of Psychology CHARLES PATTON
Texas Christian University Center for Technology in Learning
Fort Worth, TX SRI International
USA Menlo Park, California
USA
LYNNE E. PARKER
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
JOSEPH J. PEAR
Science
Department of Psychology
University of Tennessee
University of Manitoba
Knoxville, TN
Winnipeg, MB
USA
Canada

ALVARO PASCUAL-LEONE
Department of Neurology SUSAN PEDERSEN
Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain Department of Educational Psychology
Stimulation Texas A&M University
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard College Station, TX
Medical School USA
Boston, MA
USA TRYPHENIA B. PEELE-EADY
College of Education, Department of Language,
VARVARA PASIALI Literacy & Sociocultural Studies
Department of Music Therapy University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
Queens University of Charlotte Albuquerque, NM
Charlotte, NC USA
USA
PHILIPPE PEIGNEUX
DON PASSEY UR2NF (Neuropsychology and Functional
Department of Educational Research Neuroimaging Research Unit)
Lancaster University Université Libre de Bruxelles
Lancaster Bruxelles
UK Belgium
 List of Contributors lxxix

REINHARD PEKRUN JAN PETERS

Department of Psychology Department of Schölkopf
University of Munich Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics
Munich Tübingen
Germany Germany

IRENE M. PEPPERBERG K. V. PETRIDES

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Harvard University, William James Hall University College London (UCL)
Cambridge, MA London
USA UK

CRISTIAN PERABONI MARK V. PEZZO

Department of Informatics and Communication Psychology Department
University of Milan University of South Florida
Milan Saint Petersburg, FL
Italy USA

JOSE C. PERALES
GIOVANNI PEZZULO
Departamento de Psicologı́a Experimental
Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale “Antonio
Universidad de Granada
Zampolli”, National Research Council
Granada
Pisa
Spain
Italy
and
FILIPO STUDZINSKI PEROTTO Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione,
Constructivist Artificial Intelligence Research Group National Research Council
Toulouse Roma
France Italy

LEONID I. PERLOVSKY ELIZABETH A. PHELPS

Harvard University and The Air Force Research Department of Psychology
Laboratory New York University
Boston, MA New York, NY
USA USA
and
NICOLE L. M. PERNAT Department of Neural Science
Kwantlen Polytechnic University New York University
Surrey, BC New York, NY
Canada USA

PIERRE PERRUCHET DENIS C. PHILLIPS

LEAD/CNRS School of Education and Department of Philosophy
Université de Bourgogne Stanford University
Dijon Stanford, CA
France USA
lxxx List of Contributors

SUSANNA PIETROPAOLO BERTRAM O. PLOOG

Centre de Neurosciences Intégratives et Cognitives Department of Psychology
UMR5287 Center for Developmental Neuroscience
Université de Bordeaux and CNRS College of Staten Island, and Graduate School of
Talence CUNY
France Staten Island, NY
USA
ARJA PIIRAINEN-MARSH
Department of Languages TRACI N. PLUMB
University of Jyväskylä Department of Psychology
Jyväskylä UCLA, University of California
Finland Los Angeles, CA
USA

AYALA M. PINES ANDREY I. PODOLSKIY

Department of Business Administration Department of Developmental Psychology
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Moscow State University
Beer-Sheva Moscow
Israel Russia

PABLO N. PIRNAY-DUMMER DMITRY PODOLSKIY

Department of Educational Science, Institut für Moscow State University
Erziehungswissenschaft Moscow
Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg Russia
Freiburg
Germany OLEG PODOLSKIY
Moscow State University
Moscow
JAN L. PLASS
Russia
Consortium for Research and Evaluation of
Advanced Technologies in Education (CREATE)
New York University ROBERTO POLI
New York Department of Sociology and Social Research
USA University of Trento
Trento
Italy
DARIUSZ PLEWCZYNSKI
ICM, Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and DANIEL T. POLLITT
Computational Modelling Special Education, Department of Special Education
University of Warsaw University of Kansas
Warsaw Lawrence, KS
Poland USA

ROLF PLOETZNER ANN N. PONCELET

Institute of Media in Education School of Medicine
University of Education University of California San Francisco
Freiburg San Francisco, CA
Germany USA
 List of Contributors lxxxi

CHI-SANG POON ANNA PRUDENTE

Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and School of Education, Elementary Education
Technology St. Bonaventure University
Massachusetts Institute of Technology St. Bonaventure, NY
Cambridge, MA USA
USA
JOSEPH PSOTKA
Basic Research Unit
BÉNÉDICTE POULIN-CHARRONNAT US ARMY Research Institute for the Behavioral and
LEAD/CNRS Social Sciences
Université de Bourgogne Arlington, VA
Dijon USA
France
KIRAN PURANDARE
The Kingswood Centre
SUSANNE PREDIGER Central and North West London NHS Foundation
IEEM – Institute for Development and Research in Trust
Mathematics Education London
TU Dortmund University UK
Dortmund
Germany JESSE E. PURDY
Department of Psychology
Southwestern University
SHANA PRIBESH
Georgetown, TX
The Center for Educational Partnerships
USA
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA
JOHANNA PÖYSÄ-TARHONEN
USA
Finnish Institute for Educational Research
University of Jyväskylä
DOMINIC R. PRIMÉ Jyväskylä
Counseling Psychology Finland
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ MELINDA RAAB
USA Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute
Asheville, NC
USA
ROBERT W. PROCTOR
Department of Psychological Sciences CAROLINE R. RABY
Purdue University Department of Experimental Psychology
West Lafayette, IN University of Cambridge
USA Cambridge
UK

ANTJE PROSKE ALI RADLOFF

Psychology of Learning and Instruction Higher Education Research Program
TU Dresden Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)
Dresden Camberwell, VIC
Germany Australia
lxxxii List of Contributors

HENRY RAILO MARC’AURELIO RANZATO

Department of Psychology Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences
University of Turku New York University
Turku New York
Finland USA
and
TEEMU RAJALA Computer Science
Department of Information Technology University of Toronto
University of Turku Toronto, ON
Turku Canada
Finland

DAVID N. RAPP
KIRUTHIKA RAMANATHAN
School of Education and Social Policy
Data Storage Institute
Department of Psychology
Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Northwestern University
(A-STAR)
Evanston, IL
Singapore
USA
Singapore

RICHARD RAMSEY INGVILL RASMUSSEN

School of Psychology InterMedia
University of Nottingham University of Oslo
Nottingham Oslo
UK Norway
and
Department of Psychology
Université catholique de Louvain GÉRALDINE RAUCHS
Louvain–La–Neuve Inserm-EPHE-University of Caen Basse-Normandie
Belgium Research unit U923, GIP Cyceron
Caen
CHRISTOPH RANDLER France
University of Education Heidelberg, Biology and
Didactics
OLGA M. RAZUMNIKOVA
Heidelberg
Cognitive Physiology Lab, Department of Pedagogy
Germany
and Psychology
Research Institute of Physiology SB RAMS,
CLINT RANDLES
Novosibirsk State Technical University
Center for Music Education Research
Novosibirsk
School of Music
Russia
College of The Arts, University of South Florida, MUS
101
Tampa, FL RIM RAZZOUK
USA Department of Educational Psychology and Learning
Systems, College of Education, Learning Systems
NEELIMA RANJITH Institute
Union Christian College Florida State University – Learning Systems Institute
Aluva, Ernakulam, Kerala Tallahassee, FL
India USA
 List of Contributors lxxxiii

N. SANJAY REBELLO JAMES REGGIA

Department of Physics, Physics Education Research Department of Computer Science
Group University of Maryland
Kansas State University College Park, MD
Manhattan, KS USA
USA
RONAN G. REILLY
Department of Computer Science
EDWARD S. REDHEAD NUI (National University of Ireland) Maynooth
School of Psychology Maynooth, Co., Kildare
University of Southampton Ireland
Southampton
UK GABI REINMANN
Learning and Teaching with Media
Universität der Bundeswehr Munich
THERESA REDMOND Germany
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Reich College of Education
THOMAS G. REIO, JR.
Appalachian State University
Department of Leadership and Professional Studies
Boone, NC
Florida International University
USA
Miami, FL
USA

STEPHEN K. REED
BIRGIT REISENHOFER
Department of Psychology
Department of Science Education and Teacher
San Diego State University
Training
San Diego, CA
University of Salzburg
USA
Salzburg
and
Austria
Center for Research in Math & Science Education
San Diego State University
San Diego, CA RAINER REISENZEIN
USA University of Greifswald
Greifswald
Germany
ROBERT A. REEVE
Developmental Psychology, Psychological Sciences ROBERT A. REISER
University of Melbourne Department of Educational Psychology and Learning
Melbourne, VIC Systems
Australia Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL
USA
THOMAS C. REEVES
Department of Educational Psychology and NEELE REISS
Instructional Technology Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
College of Education, University of Georgia University Medical Center Mainz
Athens, GA Mainz
USA Germany
lxxxiv List of Contributors

STEVEN REISS DAVID C. RICCIO

Department of Psychology Kent State University
The Ohio State University Kent, OH
Columbus, OH USA
USA
NICHOLA RICE COHEN
ALEXANDER RENKL Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis
University of Freiburg University
Freiburg Waltham, MA
Germany USA

K. ANN RENNINGER SABINE RICHTER

Department of Educational Studies University of Freiburg
Swarthmore College Freiburg
Swarthmore, PA Germany
USA
SCOTT RICK
CLAUS RERUP Department of Marketing
Organizational Behavior Area Group, Richard Ivey University of Michigan
School of Business Ann Arbor, MI
University of Western Ontario USA
North London, Ontario
Canada ANGELIKA RIEDER-BÜNEMANN
English Department
WILMA C. M. RESING University of Vienna
Department of Psychology Vienna
Department of Developmental and Educational Austria
Psychology
Leiden University CLARE RIGG
Leiden School of Business and Humanities
The Netherlands Institute of Technology Tralee
Tralee, County Kerry
REBECCA REVIERE Ireland
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Howard University MARK RIJPKEMA
Washington, DC Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour
USA Radboud University Nijmegen
Nijmegen
ZHANNA REZNIKOVA The Netherlands
Laboratory of Behavioural Ecology of Animal
Communities LANCE J. RIPS
Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Psychology Department
Siberian Branch RAS and Novosibirsk State University Northwestern University
Novosibirsk Evanston, IL
Russia USA
 List of Contributors lxxxv

EDWIN ROBERTSON BRIAN H. ROSS

Department of Neurology Psychology Department
Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Champaign, IL
Harvard Medical School USA
Boston, MA
USA BRIAN J. ROSS
Department of Computer Science
Brock University
DANIEL H. ROBINSON St. Catharines, ON
Department of Educational Psychology Canada
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
WILLIAM J. ROTHWELL
USA
College of Education
The Pennsylvania State University
PETER ROBINSON University Park, PA
Department of English USA
Aoyama Gakuin University
Tokyo DAPHNE ARI-EVEN ROTH
Japan Department of Communication Disorders
The Stanley Steyer School of Health Professions
Tel Aviv University
ANTHONY ROBINS Tel-Hashomer
Department of Computer Science Israel
University of Otago
Dunedin CAROLYN ROVEE-COLLIER
New Zealand Department of Psychology
Rutgers University
Piscataway, NJ
DAVID EDWARD ROSE USA
Philosophical Studies
Newcastle University JONATHAN ROWE
Newcastle upon Tyne Department of Computer Science
UK North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
USA
JONAS ROSE
The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
Massachusetts Institute of Technology DAVID M. ROY
Cambridge, MA London
USA UK

WIED RUIJSSENAARS
CLAUS ANDREAS FOSS ROSENSTAND Department of Special Needs Education and Child
Department of Communication and Psychology Care
Aalborg University University of Groningen
Aalborg Groningen
Denmark The Netherlands
lxxxvi List of Contributors

DIRK J. RUITER MAURICIO SALGADO

Department of Anatomy CRESS: Centre for Research in Social Simulation,
Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Department of Sociology
Nijmegen University of Surrey
The Netherlands Guildford, Surrey
UK

DUANE M. RUMBAUGH
Departments of Psychology and Biology MICHAEL MARTIN SALING
Language Research Center Department of Psychological Sciences
Georgia State University The University of Melbourne
Atlanta, GA Melbourne, Victoria
USA Australia

HELI RUOKAMO JEAN SALLANTIN

Centre for Media Pedagogy LIRMM: Laboratory of Informatics, Robotics and
University of Lapland Microelectronics
Rovaniemi University Montpellier & CNRS
Finland Montpellier Cedex 5
France

HENRIK SAALBACH
Institute for Behavioral Sciences, Research on CARLO SALVATO
Learning and Instruction Management Department
ETH Zurich University L. Bocconi
Zurich Milano
Switzerland Italy

DOV SAGI SITI AKMAR ABU SAMAH

Department of Neurobiology University Publication Centre
The Weizmann Institute of Science Universiti Teknologi MARA
Rehovot Shah Alam
Israel Malaysia

YASUAKI SAKAMOTO CLAUDE SAMMUT

Howe School of Technology Management School of Computer Science and Engineering
Stevens Institute of Technology The University of New South Wales
Hoboken, NJ Sydney
USA Australia

TAPIO SALAKOSKI MOHD AMIR MAT SAMSUDIN

Department of Information Technology College of Business
University of Turku Universiti Utara Malaysia
Turku Sintok, Kedah
Finland Malaysia
 List of Contributors lxxxvii

MAXI SAN MIGUEL TONY SAVAGE

IFISC, Instituto de Fı́sica Interdisciplinbdar y Sistemas School of Psychology
Complejos (CSIC-UIB) The Queens University
Palma de Mallorca Belfast
Spain North Ireland

DEANNA SANDMAN DOUGLAS J. SCATURO

Department of Psychology Syracuse VA Medical Center
University of Nebraska-Lincoln State University of New York Upstate Medical
Lincoln, NE University, Syracuse University
USA Syracuse, NY
USA

NADIA SANSONE
ANNEKATHRIN SCHACHT
Department of Psychology
CRC “Text Structures”
University Aldo Moro of Bari
University of Göttingen
Taranto
Göttingen
Italy
Germany

ROWENA SANTIAGO PAUL VAN SCHAIK

California State University San Bernardino School of Computing
San Bernardino, CA Teesside University
USA Middlesbrough, Cleveland
UK
PAULO E. SANTOS
Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica SAE SCHATZ
Centro Universitário da FEI Institute for Simulation and Training-3100
S. Paulo Technology
Brazil University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL
USA
F. H. SANTOS
Department of Experimental Psychology
THOMAS J. SCHEFF
UNESP, São Paulo State University
Department of Sociology
Assis, São Paulo
University of California at Santa Barbara
Brazil
Santa Barbara, CA
USA
KWAKU FREDERICK SARFO
Department of Educational Leadership OLIVER SCHEUER
University of Education, Winneba - Kumasi Campus Saarland University
Kumasi-Ashanti Saarbrücken
Ghana Germany

RAJIV SARIN ULRICH SCHIEFELE

Department of Economics Department of Psychology
Texas A&M University University of Potsdam
College Station, TX Potsdam
USA Germany
lxxxviii List of Contributors

KARL H. SCHLAG DAVID M. SCHNYER

Department of Economics Department of Psychology SEA 5.246
University of Vienna University of Texas at Austin
Vienna Austin, TX
Austria USA

FRANZ SCHOTT
JULIA SCHÜLER
Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology
Technical University Dresden
University of Zurich
Dresden
Zurich
Germany
Switzerland

GREGORY SCHRAW
NESTOR A. SCHMAJUK Department of Educational Psychology
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience University of Nevada-Las Vegas
Duke University Las Vegas, NV
Durham, NC USA
USA
ULRIK SCHROEDER
SUSANNE SCHMID Lehr- und Forschungsgebiet Informatik 9
Anatomy and Cell Biology RWTH Aachen University
Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry Aachen
London, ON Germany
Canada
MATTHEW J. SCHUELKE
Department of Psychology
ROBERT SCHMIDT University of Oklahoma
Department of Psychology Norman, OK
University of Michigan USA
Ann Arbor, MI
USA ROGER W. SCHVANEVELDT
Applied Psychology
MAREN SCHMIDT-KASSOW Arizona State University
Institute of Medical Psychology Mesa, AZ
Frankfurt am Main USA
Germany
CAROLYN E. SCHWARTZ
DeltaQuest Foundation, Inc.
JAMES R. SCHMIDT
Tufts University Medical School
Ghent University
Concord, MA
Ghent
USA
Belgium
RUTH N. SCHWARTZ
MICHAEL SCHNEIDER Consortium for Research and Evaluation of
Institute for Behavioral Sciences Advanced Technologies in Education (CREATE)
ETH Zurich New York University
Zurich New York
Switzerland USA
 List of Contributors lxxxix

JUDAH L. SCHWARTZ ERIN SEIF

Department of Education & Department of Physics Michigan State University
and Astronomy East Lansing, MI
Tufts University USA
Medford, MA
USA AARON R. SEITZ
Department of Psychology
JASON SCOFIELD University of California – Riverside
Department of Human Development and Family Riverside, CA
Studies USA
College of Human Environmental Sciences,
University of Alabama MOHAMAD HISYAM SELAMAT
Tuscaloosa, AL College of Business
USA Universiti Utara Malaysia
Sintok, Kedah
THOMAS E. SCRUGGS Malaysia
College of Education and Human Development
George Mason University ANDREW J. SELTZER
Fairfax, VA Department of Economics
USA Royal Holloway, University of London
Egham
WINSTON K.G. SEAH UK
School of Engineering and Computer Science
Victoria University of Wellington STEVEN SEMKEN
Wellington School of Earth and Space Exploration
New Zealand Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona
NORBERT M. SEEL USA
Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences,
Department of Education PRATIM SENGUPTA
University of Freiburg Department of Teaching and Learning, Peabody
Freiburg College
Germany Vanderbilt University
Nashville, TN
SCOTT SEIDER USA
Curriculum and Teaching Department
School of Education, Boston University DONG-OH SEO
Boston, MA Department of Psychology
USA The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX
RACHAEL D. SEIDLER USA
Department of Psychology, School of Kinesiology,
Neuroscience Program, and Institute of Gerontology PETER SEOW
University of Michigan National Institute of Education
Ann Arbor, MI Nanyang Technological University
USA Singapore
xc List of Contributors

BEN SEYMOUR ROBERT SHUMAKER

Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging Indianapolis Zoo
London Indianapolis, IN
UK USA
and
Drake University
ANNA SFARD
Des Moines, IA
Department of Mathematics Education
USA
University of Haifa
Haifa
Israel OLIVIER SIGAUD
Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotique
(CNRS UMR 7222)
ARASH SHABAN-NEJAD Université Pierre et Marie Curie
McGill Clinical & Health Informatics, Department of Paris
Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health France
McGill University
Montreal, QC
BARRY G. SILVERMAN
Canada
Electrical and Systems Engineering Department
University of Pennsylvania
KATRIN SHAMSHIRI Philadelphia, PA
Department of Language Education and Humanities USA
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, Selangor VASILIKI K. SIMINA
Malaysia University of Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology (UMIST)
CAIFENG SHAN Manchester
Philips Research UK
Eindhoven and
The Netherlands Thessaloniki
Greece

ALASTAIR SHARP
ROBERT-JAN P. SIMONS
Department of English
Utrecht University, IVLOS
Lingnan University
Utrecht
Hong Kong
Netherlands
China

ALI SIMSEK
CLARE SHEAHAN Institute of Communication Sciences
Clare Family Learning Project Anadolu University
Adult Education Centre Eskisehir
Ennis, Co. Clare Turkey
Ireland
EYLEM SIMSEK
JUDITHE SHEARD Department of Communication
Monash University Anadolu University
Melbourne, VIC Eskisehir
Australia Turkey
 List of Contributors xci

PARMJIT SINGH LINDA B. SMITH

University Technology MARA Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and
Shah Alam, Selangor Cognitive Science Program
Malaysia Indiana University
Bloomington, IN
USA
VIT SISLER
Institute of Information Studies and Librarianship
Charles University in Prague KENNY SMITH
Prague 5 Linguistics and English Language, School of
Czech Republic Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Scotland
DANIJEL SKOCAJ UK
University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana ROBERT EMERY SMITH
Slovenia Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (SCIL)
Wallenberg Hall, Office of the Registrar
Stanford University
ROYAL SKOUSEN Stanford, CA
Department of Linguistics and English Language USA
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT
USA CARLOS SOARES
LIAAD-INESC Porto L.A., Faculdade de Economia
Universidade do Porto
JAMES D. SLOTTA Porto
Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Portugal
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON HYO-JEONG SO
Canada National Institute of Education
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
BERT DE SMEDT
Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, HANNU SOINI
Department of Educational Sciences Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Education
Leuven University of Oulu
Belgium Oulu
Finland

ANDREW D. M. SMITH
Literature and Languages, School of Arts and FRIEDRICH T. SOMMER
Humanities Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience,
University of Stirling University of California
Stirling Berkeley
UK USA
xcii List of Contributors

WERNER SOMMER MANDYAM V. SRINIVASAN

Department of Psychology Queensland Brain Institute, School of Information
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Technology and Electrical Engineering
Germany University of Queensland
St. Lucia, QLD
FABIAN A. SOTO Australia
Department of Psychology and
Delta Center, University of Iowa Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in
Iowa City, IA Vision Science
USA University of Queensland
St. Lucia, QLD
PAOLA FRANCESCA SPADARO Australia
Department of Psychology
University Aldo Moro of Bari BRIGITTE STANGL
Bari Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies
Italy University of Economics and Business
WU Vienna
Vienna
JESSE R. SPARKS
Austria
School of Education and Social Policy
Northwestern University
ROBIN STARK
Evanston, IL
Institute of Education and Educational Psychology
USA
Saarland University
Saarbrücken
MARCUS SPECHT
Germany
Center for Learning Sciences and Technology
Open Universiteit Nederland
TATIANA STEFANENKO
Heerlen
Department of Social Psychology
The Netherlands
Moscow State University
Moscow
Russia
MICHAEL J. SPECTOR
Learning and Performance Support Laboratory CHRISTINA M. STEINER
University of Georgia Knowledge Management Institute
Athens, GA Graz University of Technology
USA Graz
Austria
MAARTEN SPEEKENBRINK
Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences NIGEL STEPP
University College London CESPA
London University of Connecticut
UK Storrs, CT
USA
GREGORY SPILLERS
Department of Psychology JOHN C. STEVENSON
The University of Georgia Griffith University-Mt Gravatt Campus
Athens, GA Brisbane, QLD
USA Australia
 List of Contributors xciii

MARY E. STEWART PETER STURMEY

Applied Psychology Department of Psychology
School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University Queens College and The Graduate Center
Edinburgh, Scotland Flushing, NY
UK USA

CIARA L. STIGEN
Department of Psychology EUGENE SUBBOTSKY
The Ohio State University Department of Psychology
Columbus, OH University of Lancaster Fylde College
USA Lancaster
UK
GREGOR STIGLIC
University of Maribor
Maribor HOI K. SUEN
Slovenia The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA
USA
ARMIN STOCK
Adolf-Würth-Center for the History of Psychology
University of Würzburg
ELKE SUMFLETH
Würzburg
University of Duisburg-Essen
Germany
Essen
Germany
ANNA STRASSER
Berlin School of Mind and Brain
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
CYNTHIA S. SUNAL
Berlin
College of Education
Germany
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL
SIDNEY STRAUSS USA
School of Education
Tel Aviv University
Tel Aviv RON SUN
Israel Cognitive Science Department
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
HELEN STREET Troy, NY
School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, USA
M521, Graduate School of Education, M428
University of Western Australia
Crawley, WA MIAO-KUN SUN
Australia Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute
Rockville, MD
HELGE I. STRØMSØ USA
Department of Educational Research and
University of Oslo Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute
Oslo Morgantown, WV
Norway USA
xciv List of Contributors

QI SUN SANDOR SZEDMAK

Adult and Post Secondary Education Institute für Informatik
Department of Professional Studies Leopold Franzens University of Innsbruck
College of Education, University of Wyoming Innsbruck
Laramie, WY Austria
USA
BETTY TABLEMAN
DANIEL D. SUTHERS School of Social Work Baker Hall
Department of Information and Computer Sciences Michigan State University
University of Hawaii at Manoa East Lansing, MI
Honolulu, HI USA
USA
JESSICA TALLET
MARILLA D. SVINICKI PRISSMH-LAPMA, EA 4561
Department of Educational Psychology Université Paul Sabatier – UFR STAPS
University of Texas at Austin Toulouse, Cedex 9
Austin, TX France
USA

CATHERINE TANG
RICHARD A. SWANSON
Educational Consultant
Human Resource Development and Adult Education
Sandy Bay
University of Minnesota
Tasmania
Minneapolis, MN
USA
KEOW NGANG TANG
School of Educational Studies
JOHN SWELLER
Universiti Sains Malaysia
School of Education
Minden, Penang
University of New South Wales
Malaysia
Sydney, NSW
Australia
STEPHANIE E. TANNINEN
EDWARD L. SWING Department of Psychology
Iowa State University Algoma University
Ames, Iowa Sault Ste. Marie, ON
USA Canada

UMAR SYED DANIEL J. TAYLOR

Department of Computer and Information Science Department of Educational Psychology
University of Pennsylvania University of Houston
Philadelphia, PA Houston, TX
USA USA

KATERYNA SYNYTSYA RICHARD TEDESCHI

International Research and Training Center for Department of Psychology
Information Technologies and Systems University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Kiev Charlotte, NC
Ukraine USA
 List of Contributors xcv

MARK TENNANT WILLIAM TIMBERLAKE

University of Technology Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences
Sydney Indiana University
Australia Bloomington, IN
USA
JENS C. THIMM
Department of Psychology
THANASSIS TIROPANIS
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and
Trondheim
Computer Science
Norway
University of Southampton
and
Southampton
Psychiatric centre
UK
Helgeland Hospital Trust
Mo i Rana
Norway FREDERICK TOATES
Department of Life Sciences
MICHAEL S. C. THOMAS The Open University
Department of Psychological Sciences Milton Keynes
Birkbeck College UK
University of London
London
UK TRAVIS P. TODD
Department of Psychology
University of Vermont, College of Arts and Sciences
ROGER K. THOMAS
Burlington, VT
Department of Psychology
USA
The University of Georgia
Athens, GA
USA CARLOS TOMAZ
Department of Physiological Sciences, Laboratory of
CLARISSA A. THOMPSON Neurosciences and Behavior, Institute of Biology
Department of Psychology University of Brası́lia
The University of Oklahoma Brası́lia, DF
Norman, OK Brazil
USA

LOWELL DEAN TONG

LAURA THOROGOOD
School of Medicine
EHLE Project
University of California San Francisco
Padova
San Francisco, CA
Italy
USA

CLAUDIA THURNER-SCHEUERER
Knowledge Services FRANÇOIS TONNEAU
Know-Center & Platform Knowledge Management Escola de Psicologia
(Plattform Wissensmanagement) Universidade do Minho
Graz Braga
Austria Portugal
xcvi List of Contributors

THOMAS C. TOPPINO ALAIN M. TROGNON

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Villanova University University of Nancy
Villanova, PA Nancy, Cedex
USA France

JOKE TORBEYNS DENISE L. TROMBINO

Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Military Career Transition Program, Darden College
Department of Educational Sciences of Education
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Old Dominion University
GROEP T - Leuven Education College Norfolk, VA
Leuven USA
Belgium

JENNIFER S. TRUEBLOOD
CHONG TOW CHONG Psychological and Brain Sciences
Data Storage Institute Indiana University
Agency for Science, Technology and Research Bloomington, IN
(A-STAR) USA
Singapore

REBECCA C. TRUEMAN
ANDREA S. TOWSE Brain Repair Group
Department of Psychology and the ERSC National Cardiff University
Centre for Research Methods Cardiff, Wales
Lancaster University UK
Lancaster
UK
CHIN-CHUNG TSAI
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education
TERENCE J. G. TRACEY National Taiwan University of Science and
Counseling Psychology Technology
Arizona State University Taipei
Tempe, AZ Taiwan
USA

CHRISTINE D. TSANG
KIRAN TREHAN Department of Psychology
Department of Management Learning and Huron University College at the University of Western
Leadership Ontario
Lancaster University Management School London, ON
Lancaster Canada
UK

MISHA TSODYKS
BERNIE TRILLING Department of Neurobiology
21st-Century Learning Consultant The Weizmann Institute of Science
Palo Alto, CA Rehovot
USA Israel
 List of Contributors xcvii

DON M. TUCKER THOMAS A. ULRICH

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology & Communication
University of Oregon Studies
Eugene, OR University of Idaho
USA Moscow, ID
and USA
Electrical Geodesics, Inc
Eugene, OR
USA
NASH UNSWORTH
Department of Psychology
BETTY K. TULLER
The University of Georgia
National Science Foundation
Athens, GA
Arlington, VA
USA
USA

NICHOLAS B. TURK-BROWNE
Department of Psychology ELLEN L. USHER
Princeton University Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology
Princeton, NJ University of Kentucky
USA Lexington, KY
USA
DAVID TZURIEL
School of Education
Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology
WICHAI UTSAHAJIT
(JCEP)
School of Human Resource Development
Bar Ilan University
National Institute of Development Administration
Ramat, Gan
(NIDA)
Israel
Bangkapi, Bangkok
Thailand
MONIQUE A. R. UDELL
Department of Psychology
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL MIGUEL A. VADILLO
USA Departamento de Fundamentos y Métodos de la
Psicologı́a
Universidad de Deusto
LORNA UDEN
Bilbao
Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Technology
Spain
Staffordshire University
Stafford
UK
MIGUEL A. VADILLO
ALICE UDVARI-SOLNER Departamento de Fundamentos y Métodos de la
Department of Curriculum and Instruction Psicologı́a
University of Wisconsin-Madison Universidad de Deusto
Madison, WI Bilbao
USA Spain
xcviii List of Contributors

XENIA VAMVAKOUSSI SIMINA VASILACHE

Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology Department of Computer Science
Catholic University of Leuven Virginia Commonwealth University
Leuven Richmond, Virginia
Belgium USA
and
University of Athens FERNANDO VEGA-REDONDO
Athens European University Institute
Greece Florence
Italy
TEUN A. VAN DIJK
Department of Translation and Language Sciences GEORGE VELETSIANOS
Pompeu Fabra University Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
Barcelona Instructional Technology
Spain College of Education
Austin, TX
RICHARD VAN ECK USA
Department of Teaching and Learning, College of
Education and Human Development HARM VELING
University of North Dakota Department of Psychology
Grand Forks, ND Utrecht University
USA Utrecht
The Netherlands
TAMARA VAN GOG
KALPANA VENGOPAL
Institute of Psychology
Regional Institute of Education
Erasmus University Rotterdam
Mysore, Karnataka
Rotterdam
India
The Netherlands
TOM VERGUTS
MICHELLE VANDERVELDT Department of Psychology
Department of Elementary and Bilingual Education Ghent University
California State University Ghent
Fullerton, CA Belgium
USA
DAVID W. VERSAILLES
HELEEN VANDROMME PHARE
Center for the Psychology of Learning and University Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne, I-Space
Experimental Psychopathology Institute
Department of Psychology University of Leuven Paris
Leuven France
Belgium
LIEVEN VERSCHAFFEL
MARCO VASCONCELOS Education and Training Research Group, Centre for
Department of Zoology Instructional Psychology and Technology
University of Oxford Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Oxford Leuven
UK Belgium
 List of Contributors xcix

BRAM VERVLIET TYLER VOLK

University of Amsterdam Department of Biology
Amsterdam New York University
The Netherlands New York, NY
and USA
University of Leuven
Leuven
HANSJÖRG VON BREVERN
Belgium
School of Informatics/Centre for Human Computer
Interaction Design
RICARDO VILALTA City University
Department of Computer Science London
University of Houston UK
Houston, TX
USA
THOMAS VON REKOWSKI
MAURICIO G. VILLENA Information Systems and New Media
Escuela de Negocios University of Siegen
Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez Siegen
Peñalolén, Santiago Germany
Chile
GEORGE VOUROS
JULIEN VITAY Department of Information and Communication
Department of Artificial Intelligence Systems Eng.
Faculty of Computer Science University of the Aegean
Chemnitz University of Technology Karlovassi, Samos
Chemnitz Greece
Germany
KIM-PHUONG L. VU
CARLA VLASKAMP Department of Psychology
Department of Special Needs Education and Child California State University Long Beach
Care Long Beach, CA
University of Groningen USA
Groningen
The Netherlands
ERICA VAN DE WAAL
JENNIFER J. VOGEL-WALCUTT Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution,
Institute for Simulation and Training-3100 and Scottish Primate Research Group
Technology School of Psychology
University of Central Florida University of St-Andrews
Orlando, FL St-Andrews, Scotland
USA UK

JANE S. VOGLER MICHAEL R. WALDMANN

Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Texas at Austin University of Göttingen
Austin, TX Göttingen
USA Germany
c List of Contributors

KRISTINA WALKUP ALLISON C. WATERS

Drake University Department of Psychology
Des Moines, IA University of Oregon
USA Eugene, OR
USA
and
MAIK WALPUSKI
Electrical Geodesics, Inc
Leuphana University of Lüneburg
Eugene, OR
Lüneburg
USA
Germany

MATTHEW WAXER
HAI WANG Department of Psychology
Saint Mary’s University The University of Western Ontario
Halifax, NS London, ON
Canada Canada

SHOUHONG WANG MARK WEAL

Charlton College of Business Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Computer Science
Dartmouth, MA University of Southampton
USA Southampton
UK
JANNA WARDMAN
University of Auckland STUART A. WEBB
Auckland Central School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies
New Zealand Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington
DAVID A. WASHBURN New Zealand
Department of Psychology & Language Research
Center ROBERTO WEBER
Georgia State University Department of Economics
Atlanta, GA University of Zurich
USA Zürich
Switzerland
EDWARD A. WASSERMAN
Department of Psychology GERHARD WEBER
Delta Center Department of Psychology
University of Iowa University of Education Freiburg
Iowa City, IA Freiburg
USA Germany

TAKEO WATANABE ELIZABETH A. WEBSTER

Boston University University of Victoria
Boston, MA Victoria, BC
USA Canada
 List of Contributors ci

PETER R. WEBSTER MICHAEL J. WENGER

Department of Music Studies Department of Psychology
Henry and Leigh Bienen School of Music, The University of Oklahoma
Northwestern University Norman, OK
Evanston, IL USA
USA
HEIKO WERSING
NICOLE Y. WEEKES Honda Research Institute Europe GmbH
Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience Offenbach
Pomona College Germany
Claremont, CA
USA
SIEGLINDE WEYRINGER
Department of Education
SCOTT WEEMS
University of Salzburg
Center for Advanced Study of Language
Salzburg
University of Maryland
Austria
College Park, MD
USA
STEVE WHEELER
ALFRED WEINBERGER University of Plymouth
Department of Education Plymouth, Devon
University of Salzburg UK
Salzburg
Austria PAUL WHITE
and Australian Catholic University
Private University of Education of the Diocese of Linz Strathfield, NSW
Linz Australia
Austria

SU WHITE
NORMAN M. WEINBERGER
Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and
Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and
Computer Science
Memory
University of Southampton
University of California
Southampton
Irvine, CA
UK
USA

SCOTT WEINSTEIN CYNTHIA J. WHITE

Department of Philosophy School of Linguistics & International Languages
University of Pennsylvania Massey University
Philadelphia, PA Palmerston North
USA New Zealand

STANLEY J. WEISS NICOLA WHITTON

Department of Psychology Education and Social Research Institute
American University Manchester Metropolitan University
Washington, DC Didsbury, Manchester
USA UK
cii List of Contributors

PER-OLOF WICKMAN IAN K. WILSON

Department of Mathematics and Science Education Woodbury School of Business
Stockholm University Utah Valley University
Stockholm Orem, UT
Sweden USA

PIOTR WINKIELMAN
KRISTINA WIELAND Department of Psychology
Department of Education University of California
University of Freiburg La Jolla, CA
Freiburg USA
Germany
ANDREW S. WINSTON
ANUSHA WIJERATNE Department of Psychology
The Kingswood Centre University of Guelph
Central and North West London NHS Foundation Guelph, ON
Canada
Trust
London
UK JAMES E. WITNAUER
State University of New York at Brockport
Brockport, NY
FONS WIJNHOVEN USA
Faculty of Management & Governance
University of Twente JANUSZ WNEK
Enschede Science Applications International Corporation
Netherlands Rockville, MD
USA

ARIANE S. WILLEMS JANUSZ WOJTUSIAK

TUM School of Education Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory
Fachgebiet Gymnasialpädagogik College of Health and Human Services
Technical University Munich George Mason University
Munich Fairfax, VA
Germany USA

DOUGLAS WILLIAMS KERSTIN WOLF

Psychology Department Institute of Psychology
University of Winnipeg University of Education Karlsruhe
Winnipeg, MB Karlsruhe
Canada Germany

DANIEL M. WOLPERT
ANDY J. WILLS Computational and Biological Learning Lab,
Psychology Department of Engineering
University of Exeter University of Cambridge
Exeter Cambridge
UK UK
 List of Contributors ciii

JULIE A. WOLTER YING WU

Department of Communicative Disorders and Deaf EECS Department
Education Northwestern University
Utah State University Chicago, IL
Logan, UT USA
USA
GABRIELE WULF
CHRISTOPHER A. WOLTERS Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences
Department of Educational Psychology University of Nevada
University of Houston Las Vegas, NV
Houston, TX USA
USA
VOLKER WULF
LUNG-HSIANG WONG Information Systems and New Media
National Institute of Education University of Siegen
Nanyang Technological University Siegen
Singapore Germany
Singapore
MICHAEL WUNDER
STEPHANIE V. WORMINGTON Computer Science Department
Department of Psychology Rutgers University
Reed College Piscataway, NJ
Portland, OR USA
USA
XIAOLI WU
MARCEL WORRING Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology
Intelligent Systems Lab Amsterdam Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
University of Amsterdam Leuven
Amsterdam Belgium
The Netherlands
YULUNG WU
JAMES B. WORTHEN Department of Digital Content and Technology
College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences National Taichung University of Education
Southeastern Louisiana University TaiChung
Hammond, LA Taiwan, ROC
USA
CLIVE D. L. WYNNE
ANTHONY A. WRIGHT Department of Psychology
Neurobiology and Anatomy University of Florida
University of Texas Medical School at Houston Gainesville, FL
Houston, TX USA
USA
FRITZ WYSOTZKI
VIVIAN H. WRIGHT Fakultät IV - Elektrotechnik und Informatik,
College of Education Sekr. FR 5-8
The University of Alabama Technische Universität Berlin
Tuscaloosa, AL Berlin
USA Germany
civ List of Contributors

JIAN-XIN XU CHEN YU
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and
National University of Singapore Cognitive Science Program
Singapore Indiana University
Bloomington, IN
USA
CHARLES YANG
Department of Linguistics & Computer Science SANDRO ZAPPATORE
University of Pennsylvania National Inter-University Consortium for
Philadelphia, PA Telecommunications (CNIT)/DIST-University of
USA Genoa
Genova
FANG-YING YANG Italy
Graduate Institute of Science Education
National Taiwan Normal University
Taipei FILIP ŽELEZNÝ
Taiwan Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Czech Technical University
LIU YANG Prague
School of Computer Science Machine Learning Czech Republic
Department
Carnegie Mellon University MOHAMED A. ZEIDAN
Pittsburgh, PA Department of Psychiatry
USA Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General
Hospital
AYSE YARALI Charlestown, MA
Behavioral Genetics USA
Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology
Martinsried DAGMAR ZEITHAMOVA
Germany Center for Learning and Memory
The University of Texas at Austin
YU-CHU YEH Austin, TX
Institute of Teacher Education, Research Center for USA
Mind, Brain and Learning, Center for Creativity and
Innovation Studies
National Chengchi University MICHAEL S. ZELENAK
Taipei, Wenshan Center for Music Education Research, School of
Taiwan Music
MUS 101, College of The Arts
WAKO YOSHIDA University of South Florida
Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging Tampa, FL
London USA
UK
THOMAS R. ZENTALL
MICHAEL YOUNG Department of Psychology
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale University of Kentucky
Carbondale, IL Lexington, KY
USA USA
 List of Contributors cv

BAOHUI ZHANG ALEXANDER ZIMPER

National Institute of Education School of Economic and Business Sciences
Nanyang Technological University University of the Witwatersrand
Singapore Johannesburg, Gauteng
South Africa
QI ZHANG
Sensor System Inc TANIA ZITTOUN
Madison, WI Institute of Psychology and Education
USA University of Neuchâtel
Neuchâtel
JUANJUAN ZHANG Switzerland
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ZOYA A. ZORINA
Cambridge, MA
Department of Biology
USA
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Moscow
RUI ZHANG
Russia
Harbin Institute of Technology, School of Humanities
and Social Sciences
Nangang District Harbin KLAUS ZUBERBÜHLER
China School of Psychology
University of St Andrews
YIMIN ZHU St Andrews, Fife, Scotland
Department of Construction Management UK
College of Engineering and Computing Florida
International University JOERG ZUMBACH
Miami, FL Department of Science Education and Teacher
USA Training
University of Salzburg
LEILY ZIGLARI Salzburg
Department of Applied Linguistics Austria
Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch
Tehran JANET MANNHEIMER ZYDNEY
Iran Curriculum & Instruction: Instructional Design and
Technology
MONICA ZILIOLI University of Cincinnati
Department of Psychology Cincinnati, OH
University of Maine USA
Orono, ME
USA
A
that included those behaviors? How does the fixedness
A Salience Theory of Learning that inheres in response reinforcement give way to the
emergence of new behaviors and concepts, such as
DUANE M. RUMBAUGH1, JAMES E. KING2, MICHAEL J. complex musical compositions and groundbreaking
BERAN3, DAVID A. WASHBURN4, KRISTY GOULD5 inventions?
1
Language Research Center, Georgia State University, The Salience Theory of Learning proposes a new
Atlanta, GA, USA approach to account for the origins of novel, unex-
2
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA pected, and even intelligent behaviors and new abilities
3
Language Research Center, Georgia State University, (e.g., competence in speech comprehension). It
University Plaza, Atlanta, GA, USA reformulates reinforcement and how it has its effects
4
Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, upon learning and behavior in terms of its salience,
University Plaza, Atlanta, GA, USA stimulus strength, and response-eliciting properties.
5
Luther College, Decorah, IA, USA Indeed, it formulates the contributions, the impact
of all stimuli in the formation of our basic unit of
learning, amalgams, in precisely those same terms.
Synonyms We know that what is trained via specific reinforce-
Comparative cognition; Emergent learning; Rational ment of specific responses does not necessarily
behaviorism constrain what is learned (Rumbaugh and Washburn
2003). How can this be according to Reinforcement
Definition Theory? What the subject learns might well be far
The perspective that responses are elicited by stimuli to more complex and even qualitatively different from
which they have become associated or learned because the behavior that one specifically reinforced. For
they are reinforced remains strongly entrenched in instance, a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) was
psychological thought. Just what reinforcers are and trained with reinforcement over the course of several
how they operate, perhaps as agents that bond responses months and thousands of training trials to control
to stimuli, are unresolved issues. The most generally a joystick with its foot in a complex interactive com-
accepted definition of a reinforcer is that it is an event puter task. Use of a hand was precluded, hence never
that increases the probability that a response will trained. Only in a later test was the monkey given its
reoccur if it is reinforced. But that definition is circular very first opportunity to use either its hand or foot to
and does not explain how reinforcement works. Here, do the task. Now, since all reinforced training had been
we outline a perspective on learning called Salience with its foot, use of its hand should have been at most
Theory that offers a process by which learning occurs a remote probability. Yet, when given a choice, the
across instances of stimulus pairings and the resultant monkey promptly used its hand, scoring significantly
sharing of response-eliciting processes that occur. better than it had ever done with its foot.
Clearly, this finding is inconsistent with Reinforce-
Theoretical Background ment Theory. That the monkey used its hand might be
Despite its popularity and robust history, this stimulus– said to reflect its massive and prior history in the use of
response–reinforcement formulation has inherent its hand for fine manipulations of objects and foods,
weaknesses. How can radically new and creative behav- but that does not answer the stronger question of how
iors suddenly occur in the absence of a training history the monkey knew how to use its hand skillfully.

N. Seel (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6,

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
2 A A Salience Theory of Learning

The answer to this stronger, more pointed, question individual events that form them. Accordingly, amal-
is that the monkey somehow had learned about the task gams might generate unique behavior, possibly apart
and principles of performing with precision by from any single event that enters in their formation.
reinforced training with its foot. The effects of Salience Theory (Rumbaugh et al. 2007) embraces
reinforced training were not limited to controlled use behavioral parameters from heritable and stereotyped
of the foot. The learning became more abstract and instincts through conditioning and on to the emer-
served the skillful use of its hand when that became gence of highly complex behaviors that are adaptive.
an option in subsequent test. It merits emphasis that complex behaviors can be so
Reinforcement Theory dates back more than novel, so complex, that their emergence through selec-
100 years to E. L. Thorndike and Alexander Bain. tive shaping and reinforcement is virtually impossible.
Today, advocates of controlling and modifying behavior Those complex behaviors and skills are called emer-
testify to the apparent effectiveness of reinforcement and gents, and they constitute a category of behavioral
its pragmatic effects. Although we do not deny the seem- adaptations distinctly separate from the well-known
ingly special power of reinforcement in the acquisition respondent (i.e., Pavlovian) and operant dichotomy
and control of behavior, we suggest that it has no special proposed mid-twentieth century by B. F. Skinner.
power apart from its salience, its strength as a stimulus, Thus, Salience Theory proposes a trichotomy of
and its response-eliciting properties as it enters amalgam learned behaviors: Respondent conditioning, Operant
formation with other contiguous stimuli that originate conditioning, and Emergents. Each of these categories
either from the external environment or internally. It has its own distinctive protocols and defining attributes
thus stands to reason that it also will be the salience of (Rumbaugh et al. 2007).
any given stimulus and the strength of its response- Traditional learning theory has regarded both
eliciting properties that will determine its impact in respondent and operant conditioning as contingent
amalgam formation – but always relative to the salience upon stimulus events that are in close temporal conti-
strengths and the response-eliciting properties of other guity with the responses to be conditioned – the
stimuli with which it might form other amalgams. unconditional stimulus in the case of respondent
The Salience Theory of Learning proposes an conditioning and contingent reinforcement of the
account of learning that does not have the extreme response in the case of operant conditioning. Rather
fixedness that inheres in the stimulus–response– than limiting emphasis to events that act solely upon
reinforcement model, at least when the latter is taken responses, Salience Theory views organisms as con-
at its face value. Behavior is too variable, too clever, too stantly surveying their perceptual worlds as if foraging
creative, and too versatile for it to be so constrained. for stimuli that are important or salient along with
Tolman (1948) observed this fact and concluded, as other stimuli temporally or spatially contiguous with
does Salience Theory, that expectancies and cognitions those salient stimuli. Thus, organisms are able to garner
about what-leads-to-what emerge from the integration the resources needed to sustain life and learn adaptive
of past experiences including conditioning. behavior, while minimizing risk and conserving energy.
Stimulus–response and stimulus–stimulus associa- Salient events, including those related to significant
tions are posited to have a basic role in our Salience others (e.g., mothers, family members and cohorts) in
Theory of Learning and Behavior, but not as instanti- a social group, provide the basis for observational
ated by reinforcement as historically defined. Rather, learning from birth through maturity and the trans-
associations that are induced among reliably and con- mission of culture
tiguously associated events are held to generate new Salience Theory illuminates both the antecedents
composites that we term amalgams – our basic units of and the consequences of learned and emergent behav-
learning in Salience Theory. Amalgams are neither iors, as does Reinforcement Theory. The theory is
habits nor bonds. Importantly, all of the contiguous eclectic; it includes many components that are parts
events that enter into the formation of a given stream of of other theories. It does not reject any body of empir-
amalgam formations are posited to share interactively ical evidence and intends no derision of the giants of
their saliencies and their response-eliciting properties. our time (see Marx and Hillix 1987, for an overview of
Thus, amalgams are somewhat different from the our roots).
 A Salience Theory of Learning A 3

On the Parsimony of Salience Theory Although great gaps of knowledge need to be filled A
Amalgam formation is similar to the initial learning by neuroscience and continuing behavioral research,
stages of sensory preconditioning and classical condi- Salience Theory advances the consilience of psychol-
tioning. However, psychologists dating back to Thorn- ogy, biology, and neuroscience (Naour et al. 2009;
dike have invoked a new process to explain instrumental Rumbaugh et al. 2007).
conditioning, namely reinforcement. So there is an
awkward discontinuity here going from the primitive Instincts, Respondents, Operants, and
association of two contiguous stimuli to the more Emergents
complex operation of reinforcers. We assume that organisms attend most closely to the
There is an old and extensive literature on the most salient events in their perceived worlds and thus
awkwardness of the reinforcement explanation, includ- garner vital resources and minimize risk. To avoid
ing the problem of explaining how an event following circularity insofar as possible, we describe the major
a response can affect its probability. Furthermore, sources of natural and acquired facets of saliences.
reinforcement implies an evolutionary discontinuity Briefly, they are as follows:
in the learning process in which the primitive associa- Genes – sign stimuli; releasers (e.g., the pecking of
tion of two stimuli is amended by the conceptually the red dot on mother’s beak by gull chicks to induce
more complex operation of reinforcement. her to regurgitate food)
The advantage of the saliency approach is that both Stimulus intensity – pressure, pain, sharp roar,
the evolutionary discontinuity and consequent lack of bright lights, strength of sign stimuli
parsimony of the reinforcement approach disappear. Past associations – conditioning; sensory
There is just one fundamental process: amalgam preconditioning; classical and operant conditioning;
formation. Amalgam formation underlies sensory conditioned reinforcers (Skinner 1938); and secondary
preconditioning, classical conditioning, and most reinforcers (Hull 1943)
importantly instrumental conditioning and the forma- Principles of perceptual organization – (e.g.,
tion of emergents. closure, clustering of similar stimuli, induced motion,
Amalgam formation at its most basic level occurs uniqueness/novelty)
when a highly salient stimulus (i.e., the unconditional Amalgams are posited as the basic units of learning.
stimulus) and a less salient stimulus (i.e., the condi- Metaphorically, they may be viewed as neural entries to
tional stimulus) come into either temporal or spatial a never-ceasing sequence of events and stimuli. In
contiguity. The impact of the unconditional stimulus is creating that record, salient events might serve as
so strong and dominant in classical conditioning that commands to “make an entry.” The brains of all species
the conditional stimulus comes to serve as an approx- have become honed to make these entries in such a way
imation of it. Thus, the conditional stimulus accrues that the likelihood of adaptation and survival are
salience and response-eliciting properties approximat- maximized.
ing those of the unconditional stimulus. To a lesser yet Salience Theory views the brain as generating an
measurable degree, the conditional stimulus shares its endless flow of amalgams that reflect experience as time
salience and response-eliciting attributes with the flows on; the brain also organizes the amalgams into
unconditional stimulus. In operant conditioning, the natural templates (e.g., readiness to learn different
reward is the most salient stimulus event. Response- things within a general category.) and/or acquired
produced stimuli produced by the correct response characteristics (e.g., symbol-based, as with language,
form an amalgam with the reward produced stimuli. traffic signs, and language itself).
The already existing high salience of the reward-related Salience Theory posits that as the brain works to
stimuli then accrues to the response-associated stimuli, resolve for the best fit among the amalgams and the
thereby increasing the likelihood of the response. Thus, templates to which they are assigned that emergents
the subject learns how in a given situation it can obtain and even new skills might be given birth (Rumbaugh
the resources for which it forages while minimizing risk et al. 2007; Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1993; Tolman
and injury. As amalgams are incorporated into higher- 1948). They, in turn, might enable the performance of
level templates, emergent behaviors become possible. familiar tasks in more efficient ways and facilitate novel
4 A A Stability Bias in Human Memory

problem solving in an ever-changing environment. ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence

Thus, the accumulation of experience can contribute ▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
richly to the formation of a knowledge base. ▶ Intelligent Communication in Social Animals
By contrast, from the perspective of basic Rein- ▶ Language Acquisition and Development
forcement Theory, what is the etiology of new and ▶ Learning and Numerical Skills in Animals
creative behaviors (i.e., emergents) that have no train- ▶ Linguistic and Cognitive Capacities of Apes
ing history? Their etiology in Reinforcement Theory is ▶ Reinforcement Learning
unlikely to involve a history of specific reinforcement ▶ Theory of Mind in Animals
because all responses, either elementary or highly
complex and novel (e.g., a highly-complex emergent), References
must occur at least once before reinforcement can affect Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton.
its reoccurrence. Salience Theory outlines how this Marx, M. A., & Hillix, W. A. (1987). Systems and theories in psychology
problem is obviated. (p. 312 ff.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Naour, P., Wilson, E. O., & Skinner, B. F. (2009). A dialogue between
sociobiology and radical behaviorism. New York: Springer.
Important Scientific Research and Rumbaugh, D. M., & Washburn, D. A. (2003). Intelligence of apes and
Open Questions other rational beings. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Might naturally salient stimuli not be blockable? Or Rumbaugh, D. M., King, J. E., Washburn, D. A., Beran, M. J., &
might they be pre-potent or dominant as elements of Gould, K. L. (2007). A Salience theory of learning and behavior -
with perspectives on neurobiology and cognition. International
compound CSs? Might they more readily enter into the
Journal of Primatology, 28, 973–996.
formation of new amalgams than do arbitrary stimuli? Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Murphy, J., Sevcik, R. A., Brakke, K. E.,
What is the loading of naturally salient stimuli vs. Williams, S., & Rumbaugh, D. M. (1993). Language comprehen-
neutral stimuli in amalgam formation? How strong sion in ape and child. Monographs of the Society for Research in
must an arbitrary stimulus be to be equal in effect to Child Development, 58(3–4), 1–242. Serial No. 233.
naturally salient stimuli? Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental
analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.
Do the relative strengths of stimuli in sensory-
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological
preconditioning alter how they interrelate? Review, 55, 189–208.
Can symbols functionally substitute for physical
stimuli in compound CSs?
How does incorporation of a stimulus into one
kind of amalgam impact its availability and function A Stability Bias in Human
in other types of amalgams? Memory
Does amalgam formation predict flash-bulb
memory instatement? NATE KORNELL
Does amalgam formation account for perceptual Department of Psychology, Williams College,
discriminations as with new objects or in learning Williamstown, MA, USA
visual discrimination?
How does Salience Theory align with neural
activity/recordings of areas of the brain in various Definition
kinds of contexts? Human memory is anything but stable: We constantly
add knowledge to our memories as we learn and lose
Acknowledgments access to knowledge as we forget. Yet people often make
Preparation of this article was supported by the judgments and predictions about their memories that do
National Institute of Child Health and Human not reflect this instability. The term stability bias refers to
Development grant HD-38051. the human tendency to act as though one’s memory
will remain stable in the future. For example, people fail
Cross-References to predict that they will learn from future study oppor-
▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals tunities; they also fail to predict that they will forget in
▶ Analogical Reasoning in Animals the future with the passage of time. The stability bias
 A Stability Bias in Human Memory A 5

appears to be rooted in a failure to appreciate external accounted for a great deal of subsequent data. He A
influences on memory, coupled with a lack of sensitiv- proposed that three categories of cues influence
ity to how the conditions present during learning will metacognitive judgments. Intrinsic cues were defined
differ from the conditions present during a test. as information intrinsic to the information being
judged (e.g., the semantic relatedness of a question
Theoretical Background and its answer). Mnemonic cues were defined as infor-
All memories are not created equal. Some memories mation related to the learner’s experience (e.g., the
feel strong, vivid, and familiar; others feel shakier and fluency with which an answer comes to mind). Extrin-
less reliable. People are generally confident in the first sic cues were defined as information extrinsic to the
type of memory but unsure about the second. Behavior learner and the to-be-learned material (e.g., the
reflects this difference; for example, most people only number of times an item was studied).
volunteer to answer a question in class if they feel A second key distinction, related to Koriat’s (1997)
confident about their response. framework, is between judgments based on direct expe-
The term metacognition refers to the process of rience and judgments based on analytical processes
making judgments about one’s cognition and, (Kelly and Jacoby 1996). Intrinsic cues and mnemonic
frequently, about one’s memory (Dunlosky and Bjork cues tend to elicit experience-based judgments. That is,
2008). Metacognitive processes are used to distinguish these cues (e.g., how easily one thinks of an answer) are
accurate memories from inaccurate ones. A memory is part of the learner’s experience at the time of the
only valuable to the degree that we can trust it, which judgment. Metacognitive judgments are usually highly
makes metacognition vital in our day-to-day use of sensitive to a person’s current experience. Thus, expe-
memory. Moreover, virtually all memory retrievals are rience-based judgments often occur automatically.
associated with a feeling of certainty (or lack thereof). Extrinsic cues, by contrast, tend to elicit more
Thus, metacognition is a critical, and omnipresent, analytical belief-based judgments. For example, the
component of human memory. number of times an item will be studied is not
Metacognitive judgments are often accurate. For a salient part of the learner’s experience while studying.
example, your memory of what you ate for breakfast Instead, responding to an extrinsic cue often requires
today is probably more accurate than your memory of applying one’s beliefs about memory (e.g., I will do
what you ate for breakfast on this date 11 years ago, and better on items I study more). Doing so does not tend
it probably feels more accurate as well. It would be to happen automatically. As a result, people regularly
natural to assume that metacognitive judgments are fail to make belief-based judgments, even when they
made on the basis of the memory being judged – that should. Thus, people tend to be sensitive to experience-
is, that when confidence is low, it is because a memory is based cues but not belief-based cues.
weak. The empirical evidence suggests otherwise. It is important to be able to predict how future
Instead of being made based on memories events will affect one’s memory. For example, a student
themselves, metacognitive judgments appear to be may need to predict the value of spending the rest of the
made based on inferences about those memories. For day studying. Future events are extrinsic cues – they are
example, if an answer comes to mind quickly and easily, external to the learner’s current experience – and, as
people tend to judge that they know that answer well. such, they require belief-based judgments. Thus,
This inference is usually correct. But it is an inference people should exhibit a stability bias: They should be
all the same, and when conditions are created that relatively insensitive to the impact of future events on
reverse this relationship – when answers that come to their memories.
mind quickly are less memorable – people give high
judgment of learning ratings to information that comes Important Scientific Research and
to mind quickly, not to information that is highly Open Questions
memorable (Benjamin et al. 1998). Koriat et al. (2004) investigated how sensitive people
If metacognitive judgments are inferential, what is are to future forgetting. After studying a list of word
the basis of the inferences? Koriat (1997) put forward pairs, their participants were asked to predict their
a highly influential framework that has successfully likelihood of recalling the pairs on a cued-recall test
6 A A Stability Bias in Human Memory

(i.e., their ability to recall the second word in the pair participants were told that they would be allowed to
when shown the first word). There were three groups of study a list of word pairs between one and four times.
participants, who were told, respectively, that their test They were asked to predict how they would do when
would take place immediately, a day later, or a week they took a test on the pairs. The predictions were
later. almost entirely insensitive to the number of study rep-
Actual recall performance dropped off precipi- etitions, again demonstrating a stability bias. The sta-
tously as the delay between study and test increased. bility bias did not go both ways; people recognized the
Shockingly, predictions hardly changed at all. In other value of past studying, but underestimated the value of
words, the participants demonstrated a stability bias: future studying. Like with forgetting, when the concept
They acted as though they would remember just as of learning was made salient, in a within-participants
much in a week as they would remember immediately. design, the predictions became more sensitive. Unlike
The predictions were highly sensitive to the degree of forgetting, however, the predictions continued to
association between the pairs, which is an experience- underestimate the value of studying. As a result, across
based, intrinsic cue. But they were insensitive to reten- a number of different experiments, participants were
tion interval, an extrinsic cue. In one extreme case, tests overconfident in their current knowledge, but simulta-
that would take place immediately and in one year neously underconfident in their learning ability.
elicited the same predictions. One potential implication of undervaluing future
A key change in the procedure greatly altered study opportunities is that people might underestimate
participants’ predictions. When a single participant their own learning potential. For example, a student
was told about all three retention intervals, their might look at a set of challenging course materials and
predictions became sensitive to retention interval. It decide to drop out of a class, assuming that he or she
appeared as though the participants believed that they cannot learn all of the material. If this student is
would forget over time, but that they did not apply that underconfident in his or her learning, he or she might
belief in the first experiment. When they were told be giving up in the face of a challenge that could be
about all of the retention intervals, they began to overcome.
apply belief-based judgments. Phrasing the question
in terms of forgetting had a similar effect: Apparently, Cross-References
making the idea of forgetting salient was enough to ▶ Confidence Judgments in Learning
make judgments sensitive to retention interval. ▶ Cued Recall
One potential implication of ignoring retention ▶ Metacognition and Learning
interval is extreme overconfidence. People tend to be ▶ Metacognitive Learning: The Effect of Item-Specific
overconfident in their memories in general. But when Experiences
someone is overconfident about an immediate test, ▶ Overconfidence
and is not sensitive to retention interval, their ▶ Self-confidence and Learning
overconfidence is destined to grow. For example, ▶ The Role of Stability in the Dynamics of Learning,
assume you have a 70% chance of recalling a fact Memorizing, and Forgetting
from your textbook if you are tested in 10 min. If you
are tested in a week, that chance might decrease to 20%. References
If you judge that you have an 80% chance of recalling Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Schwartz, B. L. (1998). The
mismeasure of memory: When retrieval fluency is misleading
the fact at either retention interval, you will be
as a metamnemonic index. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
overconfident immediately, but only by 10% points. General, 127, 55–68.
A week later, you will be overconfident by 60% points. Dunlosky, J., & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.). (2008). A handbook of
This increase in overconfidence with time has been metamemory and memory. Hillsdale: Psychology Press.
referred to as long-term overconfidence (Kornell 2010). Kelly, C. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1996). Adult egocentrism: Subjective
experience versus analytic bases for judgment. Journal of Memory
The stability bias is not limited to forgetting.
and Language, 35, 157–175.
Kornell and Bjork (2009) investigated predictions Koriat, A. (1997). Monitoring one’s own knowledge during study:
about another seemingly obvious principle of memory, A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning. Journal of
namely, that people learn by studying. Their Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 349–370.
 A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of Psychotherapy A 7

Koriat, A., Bjork, R. A., Sheffer, L., & Bar, S. K. (2004). Predicting tested techniques that have been found helpful to alle-
one’s own forgetting: The role of experience-based and theory-
A
viate emotional distress, and (3) the gradual relearning
based processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133,
of more adaptive behavioral responses to cope with life
643–656.
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2009). A stability bias in human memory: stressors. Each of these three processes takes place
Overestimating remembering and underestimating learning. within one of three designated learning domains: the
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 138, 449–468. affective, cognitive, or behavioral learning domains.
Kornell, N. (2010). Failing to predict future changes in memory: A
stability bias yields long-term overconfidence. In A. S. Benjamin
(Ed.), Successful Remembering and Successful Forgetting: A Fest-
Theoretical Background
schrift in Honor of Robert A. Bjork (pp. 365–386). New York, NY:
Psychology Press. Psychotherapy and Learning
Processes
For over a half century, psychotherapy has been
conceptualized as a learning process (e.g., Dollard and
A Tripartite Learning Miller 1950). Given this premise, it is expectable that
Conceptualization of multiple forms of learning are involved in this process.
Psychotherapy Mowrer (1947) was one of the first theorists to recog-
nize the presence of multiple forms of learning in the
DOUGLAS J. SCATURO acquisition and maintenance of “neurotic” (i.e., anx-
Syracuse VA Medical Center, State University of New ious) behavior. According to his “two-factor learning
York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse University, theory,” neurotic anxiety, or fear of a harmless situa-
Syracuse, NY, USA tion, is acquired and maintained via a two-step learn-
ing process. The two-factor learning theory of anxiety
encompassed a combination of associative learning
Synonyms processes via classical conditioning and instrumental
Behavior therapy; Cognitive-behavioral therapy; learning via operant conditioning. Mowrer noted the
Counseling; Psychoanalysis; Psychological treatment importance of associative learning in the initial acqui-
sition of a fear response to a previously unfeared or
Definition nonthreatening stimulus. In addition, he cited instru-
Psychotherapy is a complex interpersonal interaction, mental learning in which the organism then learns to
relationship, and method of treatment between a avoid the feared stimulus as critical in maintaining the
licensed mental health professional (most often a psy- fear response. The learned avoidance of the anxiety-
chiatrist, psychologist, or social worker) and a patient provoking stimulus prevents the reduction of the
aimed at understanding and healing the patient’s acquired fear through subsequent experiences with the
emotional distress and suffering, most often evident stimulus that would result in alternative, less fearful
by symptoms of anxiety or depression. Psychotherapy consequences. Because the avoidance deprives the
predicated upon learning theory assumes that patient of an opportunity to relearn alternative
a patient’s maladaptive coping behaviors that have responses to the stimulus, acquired neurotic anxiety is
been unsuccessfully invoked by the patient to deal resistant to extinction or change. In a similar manner,
with his or her distress are learned behaviors that can, multiple forms of learning are involved in providing
therefore, be unlearned through psychological treat- corrective experiences that take place in psychotherapy,
ment. The Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of using principles of learning to understand both the
Psychotherapy holds that there are multiple forms of therapeutic alliance and the technical aspects of therapy.
learning involved in both the learning and unlearning
of behavioral problems. In essence, there are three Contributions from Educational
principal learning processes that are involved in Psychology: Learning in Three
psychotherapy: (1) learning to build and maintain Domains
a therapeutic alliance between the therapist and In educational psychology, it has long been recognized
patient, (2) learning the use of a number of empirically that there is more than one type of learning. Bloom and
8 A A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of Psychotherapy

his colleagues (e.g., Bloom et al. 1956) identified three observes the therapist modeling and rehearsing behav-
domains of learning: cognitive (intellectual), affective ioral alternatives (vicarious learning), and learns the
(emotional), and psychomotor (behavioral). Cognitive needed coping behaviors and social/interpersonal
learning involves the acquisition of factual knowledge skills. Finally, in Fig. 1c, newly relearned behaviors
and the development of intellectual skills, abilities, and in therapy are ultimately performed by the patient
thought processes. Affective learning involves the ways in his or her everyday life. The more adaptive life
in which people emotionally process information and consequences experienced through these alternative
stimuli. Emotional learning and development are ways of coping with anxiety and depression bring
essential to the construction of the learner’s feelings, about eventual self-generating reinforcements (instru-
values, and motives, and are at the foundation of one’s mental learning, operant behavior).
receptivity to information. Finally, psychomotor learn- Within the affective domain of learning, the general
ing involves behavior and activity connected with one’s process of building and maintaining a constructive
perceptual responses to inputs, to the activity of imita- therapeutic alliance with the psychotherapist is pri-
tion (modeling, vicarious learning), and to the manip- mary with emotional learning as the key. The concept
ulation of one’s environment (instrumental learning). of the therapeutic alliance has been denoted in the
psychotherapy literature with a wide variety of terms
Therapeutic Learning in Three from a broad range of theoretical perspectives. These
Processes terms include, but are not limited to Freud’s concept of
The Tripartite Learning Model of Psychotherapy the transference relationship; the holding environment;
(Scaturo 2005, 2010) proposes that there are three the notion of emotional containment; the corrective
broad learning processes in therapy that correspond emotional experience; the facilitative conditions of
to the three learning domains noted above. The thera- genuineness, empathy, and positive regard; nonspecific
pist’s skill in facilitating these three types of learning in or common factors in psychotherapy; the therapeutic
patients is basic to the process of psychotherapy, as well alliance; empirically supported therapy relationships;
as to the therapist’s acquisition of the technical skills the concept of remoralization; patient readiness; moti-
necessary for becoming an effective psychotherapist of vational enhancement and preparation for therapy;
any given theoretical persuasion. These three treatment and joining with the family system. Within the cogni-
processes have been designated as alliance building and tive domain of learning, a variety of psychotherapeutic
maintenance, technical interventions, and relearning. technical interventions have been subsumed. These
They are incorporated into the three learning domains include a wide variety of cognitive-behavioral tech-
as illustrated in Fig. 1. The factors relevant to the thera- niques for the treatment of anxiety and depression,
peutic alliance as described in a variety of theoretical modeling behaviors by the psychotherapist,
approaches to psychotherapy are clustered together in psychoeducational interventions; the concept of reme-
Fig. 1a. Tacit emotional learning is at the core of the diation, empirically supported psychological treatment
therapeutic alliance. The patient learns to associate programs; and family enactment in family therapy
expectancies for behavior change with aspects of safety sessions. Finally, within the behavioral domain
and viability (i.e., hope) in the therapeutic context. In of learning, the concept of relearning more adaptive
Fig. 1b, a number of well-documented cognitive- behaviors in response to life stressors has been denoted
behavioral therapy (CBT) technical interventions are as critical in psychotherapy. This relearning by the
noted. These comprise the more proactive and directive psychotherapy patient has been signified by the terms
interventions on the part of the therapist. Technical counterconditioning, extinction, and reacquisition of
interventions tend to be targeted toward anxiety disor- behaviors; rehabilitation; self-efficacy; the upward
ders and depressive disorders, as the two fundamental spiral; family restructuring; and generalization
emotional states for which the instructional aspects of enhancement of newly learned behaviors over time
CBT have had demonstrated effectiveness. These inter- and over a variety of problem situations. The interested
ventions are designed primarily to engage cognitive reader is referred to Scaturo (2005, 2010) for a detailed
learning processes: the patient receives therapeutic discussion of these terms and their theoretical
directives and homework (instructional learning), foundations.
 A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of Psychotherapy A 9

I. Alliance building/maintenance: II. Technical interventions: III. Relearning:

The affective domain The cognitive domain The behavioral domain A

Corrective Emotional
Experience

Transference Relationship

Holding/Facilitating
Environment Corrective Behavioral
Experience
Emotional Containment
Corrective Cognitive
Extinction/Deconditioning
Experience
Attachment/Secure Base
Reacquisition
Psychoeducational
Genuineness, Empathy,
Instructions
Positive Regard Rehabilitation
Psychological Modeling
Nonspecific factors Upward Spiral
Remediation
Common Factors Self-Efficacy
Cognitive-Behavioral
Therapeutic Alliance Learned Optimism vs.
Techniques
Learned Helplessness
Empirically-Supported
Therapy Relationships Empirically-Supported
Psychological Treatments Empowerment

Remoralization Family Restructuring

Family Enactment
Patient Readiness; Generalization
Stages of Change Enhancement

Preparation Stage

Motivational Interviewing

Joining with the Family

A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of Psychotherapy. Fig. 1 Tripartite learning conceptualization of

psychotherapy (Scaturo [2010], adapted and reprinted with permission of the Association for the Advancement of
Psychotherapy)

In sum, the understanding of psychotherapy here relearning about the patient’s problem areas in his
describes three important human processes that or her life.
comprise this form of treatment: (1) building and
maintaining the psychotherapeutic relationship and Important Scientific Research and
alliance mediated by affective learning; (2) intervening Open Questions
with empirically tested techniques such as verbal Empirical support for the present three-part learning
instructions, recommendations, and homework conceptualization of psychotherapy processes can be
assignments/directives that provide cognitive learning found in Howard et al.’s (1993) three-phase model of
to the patient about his or her difficulties; and psychotherapy outcome. Their model postulated three
(3) assisting the patient in making proactive behavioral phases of treatment outcome involving the concepts of
changes in his or her life resulting in an instrumental “remoralization,” “remediation,” and “rehabilitation”
10 A AAVL

that correspond conceptually to the three therapeutic ▶ Modeling and Simulation

processes designated in the Tripartite Learning Model ▶ Operant Behavior
of Psychotherapy. These authors studied a large sample ▶ Psychoanalytic Theory of Learning
(N = 529) patients at the time of their initial intake ▶ Psychodynamics of Learning
interview before beginning individual psychotherapy
at the Institute of Psychiatry at Northwestern References
University’s Memorial Hospital. Self-report data of Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl,
the patients’ subjective well-being, symptomatic D. R. (Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The
distress, and life functioning was collected at the outset classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain.
New York: David McKay.
of treatment and re-administered following Sessions 2,
Dollard, J., & Miller, N. (1950). Personality and psychotherapy: An
4, and 17. Sophisticated statistical analyses revealed analysis in terms of learning, thinking, and culture. New York:
that changes in subjective well-being, symptomatic McGraw-Hill.
distress, and overall life functioning scores over this Howard, K. I., Lueger, R. J., Maling, M. S., & Martinovich, Z. (1993).
period of time lent strong empirical support for the A phase model of psychotherapy outcome: Causal mediation of
change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 678–685.
three-phase model described by the authors.
Mowrer, O. H. (1947). On the dual nature of learning –
In addition, Howard et al. (1993) research has a reinterpretation of “conditioning” and “problem-solving”.
clearly demonstrated that these three phases of treat- Harvard Educational Review, 17, 102–148.
ment are “sequentially causally dependent”: Scaturo, D. J. (2005). Clinical dilemmas in psychotherapy:
Remoralization ! Remediation ! Rehabilitation. To A transtheoretical approach to psychotherapy integration. Wash-
the extent that the three components of the tripartite ington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Scaturo, D. J. (2010). A tripartite learning conceptualization of psy-
learning model correspond conceptually to Howard
chotherapy: The therapeutic alliance, technical interventions,
et al.’s three phases of psychotherapy, there is the impli- and relearning. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 64(1), 1–27.
cation that the components of the learning conceptu-
alization are not only “tripartite” but also “triphasic”:
Alliance Building/Maintenance ! Technical Interven-
tions ! Relearning (see Fig. 1). Thus, there is a notion AAVL
of progressive clinical improvement from one phase to
the next. That is to say, improvement in one phase ▶ Effects of Anxiety on Affective Learning
potentiates improvement in the subsequent phases.
The initial phases in psychotherapy appear to act as
prerequisites for effectiveness in the succeeding phases
of treatment. The tripartite learning explanation of Abduction
therapeutic process further expands on Howard’s
model of therapeutic outcome and incorporates the ▶ Metapatterns for Research into Complex Systems of
notion of three learning domains – affective, cognitive, Learning
and behavioral – that occur along with one another to
produce therapeutic change. Learning theory thus
provides a common theoretical bridge for the essential
therapeutic processes by which we may better under- Abductive Learning
stand the treatment concepts of broad range of theo-
retical perspectives pertaining to psychotherapy. BRIAN D. HAIG
Department of Psychology, University of Canterbury,
Cross-References Christchurch, New Zealand
▶ Associative Learning
▶ Behavior Modification as Learning
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives Synonyms
▶ Cognitive Learning Explanatory inference; Inference to the best explana-
▶ Instrumental Learning tion; Retroduction
 Abductive Learning A 11

Definition the multivariate statistical method of exploratory A

The word abduction comes from the Latin word factor analysis is sometimes used to hypothesize the
abducere, which means “to lead away from.” It is some- existence of underlying causal factors thought to
times used interchangeably with the word retroduction, explain correlated performance indicators. For exam-
which comes from the Latin words retro, meaning ple, general intellectual ability is hypothesized to
“backwards” and ducere meaning “to lead.” The term explain correlated scores on subtests of an intelligence
abduction is most commonly used to describe forms of test (Haig 2005). Exploratory factor analysis, then, is
reasoning that are concerned with the generation and a method of learning that facilitates the abductive
evaluation of explanatory hypotheses. Abductive generation of elementary plausible hypotheses that
reasoning, then, is often portrayed as explanatory explain positive correlations of variables.
reasoning that leads back from facts to a proposed A second form of abductive learning is captured by
explanation of those facts. It is different from inductive a strategy of analogical modeling which exploits a type
reasoning, which is commonly concerned with descrip- of abductive reasoning known as analogical abduction
tive inference that results in generalizations. The phrase (Abrantes 1999). The reasoning involved in analogical
“abductive learning” can be taken to cover a wide range abduction can be stated in the form of a general
of concerns where learning outcomes result from the argument schema as follows:
employment of abductive reasoning. Abductive learn-
Hypothesis H about property Q was correct in situa-
ing occurs widely in scientific, professional, lay, and
tion S1.
educational endeavors.
Situation S1 is like situation S2 in relevant respects.
Therefore, an analogue of H might be appropriate in
Theoretical Background situation S2.
Over 100-years ago, the philosopher-scientist, Charles
Sanders Peirce (Collected papers, 1931–1958), referred This is a valuable reasoning strategy for learning
to a form of reasoning that he called abduction. For about the nature of hidden causal mechanisms that are
Peirce, abduction involved the generation of new hypothesized or theorized in both science and everyday
hypotheses that explained one or more facts. Peirce life. It is also an important means for assessing the
(1958, pp. 5.188–5.189) took abduction to have worth of our expanded understanding of such mecha-
a definite logical form, which he represented in the nisms. Expansion of our knowledge of the nature of
following argument schema: our theories’ causal mechanisms is achieved by
conceiving of these unknown mechanisms in terms of
The surprising fact, C, is observed.
what is already familiar and understood. With the
But if A were true, C would be a matter of course.
strategy of analogical modeling, one builds a model of
Hence, there is reason to suspect that A is true.
the unknown subject or causal mechanism based on
In this schema, C can be a particular event or an appropriate analogies derived from the known nature
empirical generalization. A is to be understood as and behavior of the source. Two examples of models
an explanatory hypothesis or theory, and C follows, that have resulted from this strategy are the molecular
not from A alone, but from A combined with relevant model of gases, based on an analogy with billiard balls
background knowledge. Finally, A should not be taken in a container, and the computational model of the
as true, but as plausible and worthy of further mind, based on an analogy with the computer. These
investigation. examples can be reconstructed to conform to the
Abductive learning takes a variety of forms. One argument schema for analogical abduction presented
common form is known as existential abduction, where above.
the explanatory hypothesis or theory postulates the Another, and important, form of abductive learn-
existence, but not the nature, of an entity thought ing is known as inference to the best explanation. Like
to explain the relevant fact(s). For example, one existential abduction, inference to the best explanation
might explain a number of symptoms of a common justifies knowledge claims in terms of their explanatory
cold in terms of a viral infection without being able to worth. However, unlike existential abduction, inference
say anything about the nature of the virus. In science, to the best explanation involves accepting a hypothesis
12 A Abductive Reasoning

or theory when it is judged to provide a better expla- Additionally, the suggestive hypotheses about the
nation of the evidence than its rivals do. Paul Thagard history and biological origins of abductive reasoning
(1992) has developed a detailed account of inference to are in need of further research. For example, did the
the best explanation known as the theory of explanatory powers of human abductive reasoning have their ori-
coherence. According to this theory, inference to the gins in the tracking behavior of hunter-gatherers, and is
best explanation is concerned with establishing abductive reasoning an evolved adaptation (Carruthers
relations of explanatory coherence. The determination 2002)? The answer to these and related questions are
of the explanatory coherence of a theory is made in yet to be properly given.
terms of three criteria: explanatory breadth, simplicity,
and analogy. The theory of explanatory coherence is Cross-References
implemented in a computer program (ECHO), which ▶ Abductive Reasoning
is connectionist in nature. Judgments of explanatory ▶ Bayesian Learning
coherence are employed widely in human affairs. For ▶ Creative Inquiry
example, Charles Darwin argued for the superiority of ▶ Explanation-Based Learning
his theory of evolution by natural selection on the
grounds that it provided a more coherent explanation
of the relevant facts than the creationist alternative of References
Abrantes, P. (1999). Analogical reasoning and modeling in the
his time. And in courts of law, jury decisions are
sciences. Foundations of Science, 4, 237–270.
significantly governed by consideration of the compar-
Carruthers, P. (2002). The roots of scientific reasoning: Infancy,
ative explanatory coherence of cases made by defending modularity and the art of tracking. In P. Carruthers, S. Stich, &
and prosecuting lawyers. M. Siegal (Eds.), The cognitive basis of science (pp. 73–95).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Important Scientific Research and Haig, B. D. (2005). Exploratoy factor analysis, theory generation, and
scientific method. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 303–329.
Open Questions Magnani, L. (2010). Abductive cognition: The epistemological and
Learning through abductive reasoning is as pervasive as eco-cognitive dimensions of hypothetical reasoning. New York:
it is important for generating, expanding, and justify- Springer.
ing many of our knowledge claims. And yet, abductive Peirce, C. S. (1931–1958). In C. Hartshorne, P. Weiss, & A. Burks
reasoning, and the learning on which it depends, is not (Eds.), Collected papers (vols. 1–8). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
widely known. There is a major role for science educa- University Press.
Thagard, P. (1992). Conceptual revolutions. Princeton: Princeton
tion to promote and provide an understanding of how
University Press.
we learn through abduction. Researchers in science
education are beginning to study abduction in different
learning contexts, but there is much more to be done.
The processes of abductive learning through use of
different research methods needs further investigation. Abductive Reasoning
The abductive methods of exploratory factor analysis
and the theory of explanatory coherence were briefly ROGER W. SCHVANEVELDT
considered above, as was the strategy of analogical Applied Psychology, Arizona State University,
modeling that employs analogical abduction. However, Mesa, AZ, USA
there are other research methods that involve abductive
reasoning in ways that have not been fully articulated.
The well-known qualitative method of grounded Synonyms
theory is a prominent case in point. Hypothesis; Hypothesis generation; Inference to the
Finally, abduction is an important human ability. best explanation; Retroduction
It seems to be complicit in perception and emotion, as
well as cognition (Magnani 2010). Just how these Definition
spheres of human functioning exploit abductive Abductive reasoning consists in applying norms under-
processes deserves further intensive investigation. lying the generation of hypotheses.
 Abductive Reasoning A 13

Theoretical Background century (see Peirce 1940), a complete account of the A

Logic and reasoning are usually thought of in the realm method should also include an analysis of the origin of
of deductive reasoning which is concerned with hypotheses, and he argued that a logic underlying
preserving truth. A valid deductive argument is one hypothesis generation could and should be developed
for which true premises guarantee a true conclusion. in addition to the extensive work on deductive and
Aristotle’s syllogisms are familiar examples of such inductive logics. He proposed hypothesis and
arguments. All A are B and C is an A lead to the retroduction as names for this logic, but he later settled
conclusion that C is a B. All men are mortal and on abduction or abductive logic as parallel with deduc-
Socrates is a man requires that Socrates is mortal. tive and inductive logic.
The hypothetico-deductive method provides Peirce proposed that hypotheses originate in
a means of analyzing scientific reasoning. Given attempts to explain observed phenomena so the
a hypothesis, predictions can be deduced from the process starts with observations (O) and generates
hypothesis which is then tested by scientific experi- a hypothesis (H) such that “if H then O” which is to
ments. However, as Karl Popper argued, the conse- say that the observations follow from the hypothesis.
quences of testing a hypothesis are quite different in We might call this the primary constraint for
the case of finding confirming as opposed to a hypothesis, the observations must follow from it.
disconfirming evidence. Given a hypothesis (H) and We might say that at this stage, a hypothesis is plausi-
a prediction (P), the underlying logic can be character- ble, certainly not proven. A mundane example might
ized as follows: be of assistance here. Say that you look out your
window and observe that the street is wet. It might
Confirmation Disconfirmation occur to you that it had rained. You have just generated
Argument Comment Argument Comment a hypothesis to explain your observation. Note that just
If H then P H implies P If H then P H implies P as with scientific hypotheses, the rain hypothesis is not
P The Not P The prediction
necessarily true. The street may have become wet by
prediction does not occur some other means such as a street cleaning truck or
occurs a lawn sprinkler that went awry. Still the rain hypoth-
Therefore ? H is Therefore H is certainly esis is plausible, and it could be provisionally held and
confirmed, not H false tested further.
not proven Figure 1 shows another example. Taking the figure
as observations to be explained, we can offer sugges-
So disconfirmation conclusively establishes that tions about the figure such as: “olives on toothpicks”
a hypothesis is false (by the deductively valid modus or “onions on barbeque spits” or “balloons on strings.”
tollens argument form) whereas confirmation does not In other words, we are generating hypotheses to explain
prove the truth of the hypothesis (concluding that H is the observations provided by the figure.
true given that P is true is known as the logical fallacy,
affirming the consequent). Going beyond deductive
logic, we might say that confirmation provides support
of a hypothesis, perhaps increasing our confidence in
the hypothesis, but it does not prove the hypothesis.
Inductive logic is involved in coming to accept hypoth-
eses, but such logic does not involve absolute proof. We
could turn to probability theory, including Bayesian
theory, to try to quantify the notion of confidence
with inductive logic, but we cannot achieve the
certainty associated with deductive logic.
This brief account of the hypothetico-deductive
method starts with a hypothesis to initiate the work
of the method. As C. S. Peirce noted in the nineteenth Abductive Reasoning. Fig. 1 What is this?
14 A Abductive Reasoning

Each of these suggestions has the form of a plausible criteria suggested by Peirce as he developed his
hypothesis in that if the suggestion were true, the figure thinking about abductive reasoning.
would follow. Consider still another plausible hypoth- ● Parsimony. Simpler hypotheses that fit the observa-
esis, that the figure represents a bear climbing the tions are preferred over more complex ones (also
other side of a tree. Most people find this hypothesis known as Occam’s razor).
preferable to the others advanced. Some of the possible ● Aesthetics. Considerations of beauty, elegance, sym-
reasons for the preference are discussed later. metry, and attractiveness figure into entertaining
While abductive logic was originally proposed as an a hypothesis.
aspect of scientific reasoning, such reasoning can be ● Plausibility and Internal Consistency. Hypotheses
seen in many human activities including perception, consistent with each other and with background
language comprehension, creativity, and problem knowledge are preferred over ones that lead to
solving. The advancement of an understanding of contradictions.
abductive logic can potentially impact many of these ● Explanatory Power (Consilience). Consilience
cognitive processes. includes how much a hypothesis covers, how fruit-
ful a hypothesis is in suggesting interpretations of
Important Scientific Research and observations, and the connections a hypothesis
Open Questions establishes between various observations. The bear
Many have dismissed inductive and abductive reason- climbing the tree hypothesis illustrates the ideas
ing as logic because there is no guarantee of the truth behind consilience. The bear hypothesis provides
of the inferences as there is with deduction. Such an explanation of the entire figure including an
arguments usually boil down to the realization that account of all of the lines and circles and why they
hypotheses (and theories) are underdetermined by are arranged in just the way they are. There are no
data. There are always alternative hypotheses that coincidental details left over as there are with the
account for any set of data so there is no compelling other suggestions offered for interpreting the figure.
reason to accept any one of the alternatives. Inductive ● Pragmatics. Goals and the context of situations
generalizations (e.g., “Swans are white”) may prove to influence the hypotheses generated.
be false even after countless confirmations, and the best ● Analogy. Analogy consists of sets of relations found
we can claim for generated hypotheses is that they are in a source domain that can be applied to a target
plausible which is far from a guarantee of their truth. domain. Analogies can suggest additional relations
The issue here is really what we want the term logic to that might apply as well.
mean. If we want logic to provide certainty, only ● Similarity and Association. Similarity is a weak
deductive logic counts. Peirce thought that logic constraint on abductive reasoning, but similarity
referred to correct thinking which may not always of various kinds is often involved in suggesting
insure truth. Other writers such as Hanson (1958), hypotheses. Some basis of drawing a connection
Harman (1965), and Simon (1973) agree with Peirce, between observations and potential explanations
that there is a logic to discovery. Simon points out that can often be traced to a weak association of
we call a process logical when it satisfies norms we have elements of the observation and a hypothesis or to
established for it. On this view, the study of the logic of common connections to intermediate elements
discovery involves identifying such norms. In from both observations and a hypothesis. In
a previous paper, we examined abductive reasoning in a study of insight in problem solving, Durso et al.
some detail (Schvaneveldt and Cohen 2010). The (1994) found that critical associative connections
following factors are among those identified. underlying the solution of the problem often
appeared before the problem was solved suggesting
● The Observations. This amounts to the constraint
that arriving at a solution may be mediated by
that the observations follow from the hypothesis
establishing critical connections.
(If H then O) or (H implies O).
● Economics. Hypotheses that can easily be put to the Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have
test should have some priority. This is one of the developed and applied many systems to implement
 Abilities and Learning: Physical Abilities A 15

abductive reasoning in such areas as medical diagnosis, Definition A

troubleshooting, problem solving, and language Capacity to engage in reflexive or voluntary goal-
comprehension. These are still active areas of research directed physical behavior.
with many different approaches to developing rigorous Physical abilities serve an integral role for learning
models of abductive logic. during early childhood. The type of learning the child
engages in is directly related to the physical abilities
Cross-References that the child is able to draw upon while interacting
▶ Abductive Learning with the world. With increased physical abilities, more
▶ Adaptive Memory and Learning complex learning occurs.
▶ Analogical Reasoning
▶ Creative Inquiry Theoretical Background
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving and Feeling During early childhood, children learn how to interact
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving, and Learning with the environment through physical experiences.
▶ Deductive Reasoning and Learning This process is largely constrained by developing phys-
▶ Discovery Learning ical abilities that the child possesses during the different
▶ Inductive Reasoning stages of development. As children gain physical abili-
▶ Insight Learning and Shaping ties the variety and complexity of interactions
▶ Logical Reasoning and Learning increases, which results in more complex forms of
▶ Problem Solving learning.
According to Piaget’s cognitive-development the-
References ory, as children age, they build increasing complex
Durso, F. T., Rea, C. B., & Dayton, T. (1994). Graph-theoretic confirma-
schemes or associations between motor activity and
tion of restructuring during insight. Psychological Science, 5, 94–98.
Hanson, N. R. (1958). Patterns of discovery: An inquiry into the the resulting physical experiences (Piaget 1936, 1963).
conceptual foundations of science. Cambridge: Cambridge Schemes are developed through direct physical inter-
University Press. action with the environment. The sensorimotor stage is
Harman, G. H. (1965). The inference to the best explanation. The the primary period in which children learn the neces-
Philosophical Review, 74, 88–95.
sary motor movements that allow them to interact with
Peirce, C. S. (1940). Abduction and induction. In J. Buchler (Ed.),
Philosophical writings of Peirce. New York: Routledge.
the environment. The sensorimotor stage occurs dur-
Schvaneveldt, R. W., & Cohen, T. A. (2010). Abductive reasoning and ing the time from birth to approximately 2 years of age.
similarity: Some computational tools. In D. Ifenthaler, P. Pirnay- Another theoretical perspective that highlights the
Dummer, & N. M. Seel (Eds.), Computer based diagnostics and connection between physical abilities and learning is
systematic analysis of knowledge. New York: Springer. Gibsonian affordance theory (Gibson 1977). In this
Simon, H. A. (1973). Does scientific discovery have a logic? Philoso-
perspective, objects in the world have physical charac-
phy of Science, 40, 471–480.
teristics that provide intuitive clues as to the manner in
which a person may interact with the object. The per-
son requires little to no sensory processing to decipher
the potential use of the object as a direct result of its
Abilities and Learning: Physical physical composition. Infants are receptive to these
Abilities affordances within the environment similar to adults.
For example, a toy hanging above a child suggests it
BENJAMIN K. BARTON, THOMAS A. ULRICH may be struck to swing back and forth. In learning,
Department of Psychology & Communication Studies, affordances serve a vital role by providing clues for
University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA potential physical interactions that elicit experiences
the infant can build schemes from.
Young children are receptive to affordances, yet they
Synonyms may not have the physical capability to act on the
Fine motor skills; Gross motors; Motor skills; Reflexes provided affordances. In line with Piagetian theory,
16 A Abilities and Learning: Physical Abilities

the physical capability to move one’s body and limbs the body over the limbs. The ability to crawl assists the
serves a crucial function for learning during the senso- child in developing depth perception as a result of
rimotor stage. There are several substages within the the optical flow experienced while moving throughout
sensorimotor stage that are distinct from one another the environment. The environment must contain
based on the interactions between physical and cogni- affordances to allow for depth perception develop-
tive capabilities the child is able to draw upon to learn ment, such as physical objects that provide optical
about the world. flow which are also within a close proximity to where
A newborn child has very little experience the child is crawling. For example, if the child were
interacting with the world. The primary mechanism crawling in a large room devoid of physical objects or
for learning entails building new schemes through markings on the floor or walls, there is nothing to serve
physical interaction in which the child’s own motor as a point of reference which hinders the development
activity generates novel experiences (Piaget 1936, of depth perception.
1963). In reaction to these novel experiences, the The physical ability of walking is a major develop-
child attempts to repeat the motor activity that gener- mental achievement that expands the learning oppor-
ated the initial experience in what Piaget termed tunities for children. Learning to walk requires
a circular reaction. The reactions are circular because environmental affordances of open space with vertical
the child repeatedly attempts to elicit the same experi- handholds that the child can grasp to lift the body
ence through motor activity. These physical interac- upright into a walking position. Furthermore, walking
tions with the world are the fundamental components requires a multitude of coordinated schemes with a
of learning during this stage of development. As the more advanced ability to balance than what is required
physical capabilities of the child increase, more con- for crawling. Upon learning to walk, the child can
trolled motor activities can be performed to generate engage in a wide variety of exploratory learning. Not
more experiences and lead to learning experiences. only has the horizontal plane in which the child can
navigate significantly increased, but the vertical plane is
Important Scientific Research and expanded since the child can now reach higher when in
Open Questions an upright standing position. The freedom enjoyed by
In line with Piategian theory, during the early stages of a walking child leads to safety concerns for parents. The
infancy learning primarily revolves around building areas in which the child explores now overlap with
simple sensorimotor schemes. These simple sensori- areas that previously only adults could access. This
motor schemes are comprised of action patterns for can create potentially dangerous situations because
simple motor movements such as grasping. Grasping now the walking child can access areas that may contain
serves as a physical ability developmental milestone dangerous objects such as cleaning chemicals, electrical
required for learning rudimentary environmental appliances, and sharp knives and tools.
principles. For example, grasping allows children to The ability to walk marks the tail end of the primary
learn the physical properties of objects such as the sensorimotor scheme development stage, which occurs
gravitational force exerted on a ball after released at approximately 2 years of age. Throughout this early
from the child’s grasp. As the grasping physical ability developmental period, the physical abilities of children
becomes more refined, the child can learn to interact in serve as the primary component in the learning that
complex ways with the environment. The child can occurs. During this time, children learn about their
now learn certain properties of specific objects, such motor capabilities and the way these capabilities affect
as learning to roll a ball possessing the spherical shape their surrounding environment. After mastering the
affordance which suggests it can be rolled. physical ability of walking, the sensorimotor scheme
Following the grasping ability, the physical ability building shifts from gross motor movements into a new
to crawl is a developmental milestone that allows chil- developmental stage in which sophisticated motor
dren to learn more complex ways of interacting with schemes begin to develop that allow children to engage
the environment. The ability to crawl requires coordi- in highly coordinated and complex activities. In this
nation of multiple schemes to generate the correct later stage, children begin to learn the necessary motor
motor movements and a very basic ability to balance schemes required for athletic activities, such as kicking
 Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities A 17

or throwing a ball, climbing, and running. Addition- the functions of attention by William James (1842– A
ally, fine motor schemes begin to develop, which allows 1910) provided the foundations for the development
the child to engage in activities that require a high of operational tests of cognitive abilities at the begin-
degree of dexterity, such as drawing and writing. ning of the twentieth century. The observation of
a “positive manifold,” or consistent positive correla-
Cross-References tions across multiple tests of abilities led Charles Spear-
▶ Affordances man (1863–1945) to propose that a single general
▶ Piaget’s Learning Theory intelligence factor, termed “g,” underlay performance
▶ Play, Exploration, and Learning on each of them. From this early work the field of
▶ Visual Perception Learning differential psychology began, which examined the
extent to which measured differences in abilities corre-
References lated with performance on tests of academic achieve-
Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. ment, or lifetime success in an intellectual or
Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting and knowing. Hillsdale, NJ: performative domain. Based on these studies, and
Erlbaum.
confirming Spearman’s proposal, a large-scale factor-
Piaget, J. (1936, 1963) The origins of intelligence in children. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. analytic survey of results has shown relationships
among cognitive abilities to be hierarchically related
at three levels or strata of increasing generality, with
measures of separate cognitive abilities occupying the
Abilities to Learn: Cognitive lowest, least general stratum, and “g ” representing the
single uppermost factor (Carroll 1993). Results of
Abilities
many studies have shown that “g” and higher intelli-
gence quotient (IQ) – a score obtained from perfor-
PETER ROBINSON
mance on various tests of intelligence – reliably
Department of English, Aoyama Gakuin University,
predicts greater academic and lifetime success.
Tokyo, Japan
The measurement of cognitive abilities is only one
facet of research in differential psychology concerned
Synonyms with identifying correlates of academic learning and
Aptitudes; Cognitive processes; Individual differences; lifetime success. Two other facets are the assessment
Intellect; Traits of individual differences in affect, such as emotion and
anxiety, and conation, such as self-regulation and moti-
Definition vation. It is widely acknowledged that academic
Cognitive abilities are aspects of mental functioning, achievement is the result of a complex interplay
such as memorizing and remembering; inhibiting and between cognition, affect, and conation. But in one
focusing attention; speed of information processing; sense cognitive abilities are clearly different from affec-
and spatial and causal reasoning. Individual differences tive and conative factors, since the growth and decline
between people are measured by comparing scores on of memory, attentional, reasoning, and other cognitive
tests of these mental abilities. Tests of general intelli- abilities show clear inverted U-shaped developmental
gence, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test, are trajectories across the life span, in contrast to affect and
based on a broad sample of these mental ability tests, conation.
and measures of aptitudes for learning in specific For example, it is well known that memory abilities
instructional domains, such as mathematics, or follow such a trajectory. In early childhood children not
language learning, are based on a narrower sampling only lack the ability to explicitly remember and recall
of the domain-relevant abilities. prior events (long-term memory), but also to maintain
memory for a current event while performing
Theoretical Background a simultaneous operation on the remembered informa-
Theoretical and empirical research into the structure of tion. The latter ability, termed working memory, has
memory by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) and been shown to develop and increase in capacity
18 A Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities

throughout childhood and into adolescence, when it this gives rise to) associative implicit language learning
plateaus, and then to decline in aged populations. In is disrupted.
a similar manner, other cognitive abilities, such as Such a developmental account of the growth of
reasoning, processing speed, and spatial memory, cognitive abilities, and the learning processes they facil-
have been shown to increase throughout childhood, to itate and inhibit, fits well with evidence for the Critical
plateau in adulthood, and to decline during aging Period Hypothesis (CPH) for language learning. The
(Salthouse 2010). CPH claims that if languages are learned after the age
of 6 years, then native-like levels of ability in them are
Important Scientific Research and unattainable. In other domains, however, such as the
Open Questions acquisition of literacy and mathematics, where explicit
The extent of individual differences between children learning and memory are essential, then growth in
and adults in cognitive abilities is a major area of explicit memory and reasoning abilities “across”
research in developmental psychology. This research populations of different ages, and for individuals with
aims to chart the time-course of the emergence and relatively greater strengths in these abilities “within”
consolidation of cognitive abilities over the lifetime. It any age-matched population, lead to higher levels of
also aims to identify individuals at the low and high academic achievement.
tail-ends of measures of abilities in these populations Other areas of research and theory that are impor-
who consequently have what are judged to be marked tant concern the influence of cognitive disabilities on
deficits and talents in each ability domain. schooled learning. For example, throughout childhood
Related to this, the extent to which individual the ability to focus attention, voluntarily, on an event
differences in cognitive abilities influence learning in or object increases, as does the ability to inhibit atten-
schooled and unschooled settings, for any population tion to irrelevant events, noises, and other distractor
of learners, is a major area of research in educational stimuli. However, for some children these attention
psychology. There is evidence that cognitive abilities do focusing and inhibiting abilities do not develop, with
not contribute equally to success in all areas of learning, the consequence that the resulting Attention Disorder
and a major area of research is to identify what these Hyperactivity Deficit (ADHD) has negative effects on
ability-learning domain correlations are. academic progress. Those at risk of ADHD can be
For example, in general, schooled academic diagnosed during early childhood, using tests of the
achievement in domains such as mathematics increases cognitive abilities to control attention and to inhibit
during childhood in proportion to the measured attention to distractions. The extent to which such
increase in working memory capacity that children deficits in the ability to control attention are remedia-
have at different ages (Dehn 2008). On the other ble is an important area of research. Interestingly, it has
hand, the precocious ability to learn a first or other been found that bilingual children, who have the daily
language during infancy and early childhood (when experience of switching between two languages during
compared to the relative failure of adults to learn speaking and listening, show particularly good perfor-
languages) has been attributed to their lack of such mance on tests of cognitive control of attention, when
well-developed working memory capacity and explicit compared to monolingual counterparts. Therefore,
memory ability. This has been termed the Less-is-More experience plays a role in training the ability to focus,
Hypothesis for child language learning. Lacking explicit and switch attention between stimuli, though the
working memory ability, infants are only able to relative contributions of experience and genetics to
remember immediately contingent sequences of such abilities is not yet clearly known.
sounds. This associative learning, drawing on uncon- An area of much recent research and theory
scious implicit memory, has been argued to be the concerns the cognitive ability to successfully attribute
essential foundation for statistical processes of lan- intentions and beliefs to others that cause them to
guage acquisition. With the later emerged development perform actions. This form of intentional reasoning
of more reflective, conscious explicit and episodic emerges at around the age of 3 years during childhood,
memory, and greater control of attention allocation when children develop what is called a “Theory of
and reasoning ability (and the metacognitive awareness Mind.” Before this age children consistently fail
 Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities A 19

a variety of false-belief tasks. For example, a researcher complexes remain to be explored for incidental versus A
shows a child a packet of Smarties (a well-known con- explicit second language learning, and for learning of
tainer for sweets) then opens it to reveal it is empty. The other domains that provide for incidental exposure to
researcher then asks the child what a second child will content, versus explicit instruction about content. This
think is inside the container if he/she shows it to them. is a fundamental area of current research into cognitive
The child invariably replies “nothing” showing that abilities with applications to learning and instruction.
they cannot distinguish their own current mental The term “aptitude complex” was coined by Rich-
understanding from that of a second child. With devel- ard E. Snow (1936–1997), and Snow’s lifetime of work
opment, children begin to successfully distinguish their points to a final summary implication of research into
own understanding of the world from that of others. cognitive abilities for learning. Snow argued through-
However, this ability does not develop in all children, out his career (e.g., Snow 1994) that aptitudes for
with the consequence that they may be diagnosed as learning from instruction are many and varied, but
“autistic.” Autism, and lack of theory-of-mind ability, not infinite. On the one hand, Snow argued – in the
has been shown to affect first language development, way described above – that cognitive abilities differen-
and also social interaction and schooled learning, in tially facilitate learning under some, versus other
negative ways. For example, lacking a theory of mind, conditions of instructional exposure. But he further
autistic children do not understand the conceptual argued that cognitive abilities only contribute to apti-
meaning of different psychological verbs used to refer tudes for learning in combination with other affective
to others’ mental states, such as “he/she wonders/ and conative coordinates of learning processes. Much
believes.” These verbs are accompanied by complex current theory and research, across domains of
subordination in all languages, e.g., “he wonders language, science, mathematics, and other areas of
whether (subordinate clause)”; “she believes that education, is concerned with identifying what these
(subordinate clause).” Consequently, autistic children multidimensional cognitive-affective-conative com-
do not use syntactic subordination in their first plexes are, and the extent to which they contribute to
language as much as non-autistic children, and their success during instructed learning (Shavelson and
development of complex syntax is negatively affected Roeser 2002). If they can be theorized, and measured,
by comparison with non-autistic peers. As with ADHD, then learners with strengths in one or another aptitude
the remediability of this cognitive disability, and the complex can be matched to instructional interventions
relative contributions of genetics and experience to it, and learning conditions that draw optimally on them.
continue to be researched. This research can be expected to continue, and should
Two summary points need to be made in conclu- contribute much to our increased knowledge of the role
sion, regarding the issues raised above, and the rela- of cognitive abilities in learning.
tionship between cognitive abilities and instructed
learning. Firstly, cognitive abilities do not facilitate Cross-References
learning independently of the conditions under which ▶ Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
the material to be learned is presented in instructional ▶ Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder
contexts. Learning conditions, for example, can predis- ▶ Implicit Learning
pose learners to learn incidentally (unintentionally and ▶ Intelligence and Learning
on many occasions implicitly, without awareness) or ▶ Language Acquisition and Development
explicitly (with intention and awareness). In the ▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
domain of instructed second language acquisition ▶ Statistical Learning and Induction
(SLA), for example, different combinations of cogni- ▶ Working Memory
tive abilities, or aptitude-complexes, have been shown to
facilitate incidental learning (unintentionally acquiring
References
knowledge of the second language) versus explicit
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-
learning (intentionally understanding pedagogic expla- analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
nations of language) (Robinson 2005). Many details of Dehn, M. J. (2008). Working memory and academic learning: Assess-
the optimum levels of cognitive abilities within such ment and intervention. Hoboken: Wiley.
20 A Ability Determinants of Complex Skill Acquisition

Robinson, P. (2005). Aptitude and second language acquisition. complexity can also be thought of as the degree of
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 46–73. inconsistency in information-processing demands.
Salthouse, T. A. (2010). Major issues in cognitive aging. New York:
Thus, a ▶ Complex action learning can be defined in
Oxford University Press.
Shavelson, R. J., & Roeser, R. W. (Eds.) (2002). Educational assess- terms of the proficiency required for task performance
ment. Special issue: A multidimensional approach to achievement that contains an amalgamation of strong component,
validation. (Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 77–205). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum coordinative, and dynamic complexity.
Associates, Inc. ▶ Acquisition is a process, internal to an individual,
Snow, R. E. (1994). Abilities in academic tasks. In R. J. Sternberg &
which produces a relatively permanent change in
R. K. Wagner (Eds.), Mind in context: Interactionist perspectives
on human intelligence (pp. 3–37). New York: Cambridge Univer-
a learner’s capabilities. Acquisition is distinct from the
sity Press. execution of skill in that acquisition is observed
through increases of successive performances during
practice and instruction or training. Skill acquisition
typically requires adaptive interaction with the learning
Ability Determinants of environment to detect information and to respond in
Complex Skill Acquisition a correct and timely manner. The process of acquisition
produces behavior that is less vulnerable to transitory
MATTHEW J. SCHUELKE, ERIC ANTHONY DAY factors such as fatigue or anxiety (Davids et al. 2008).
Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Skill acquisition is studied by examining performance
Norman, OK, USA changes over time and practice. Skill acquisition
research is longitudinal by nature, involving repeated
measures of performance over a large number of trials
Synonyms or training sessions.
Aptitudes and human performance; Cognitive abilities ▶ Ability refers to a general trait, reflecting the
and skill; Individual differences and learning; Intelli- relatively enduring capacity to learn tasks. Although
gence and skill; Performance gains; Performance fairly stable, ability may change over time primarily in
trajectories; Skill development; Skill growth; Skill childhood and adolescence through the contributions
improvement of genetic and developmental factors (Fleishman
1972). In the psychological literature, abilities have
Definition been grouped in many different ways. Early taxonomies
▶ Skill is the level of proficiency on specific tasks. It is of human ability were concerned with those abilities
the learned capability of an individual to achieve utilized during motor-skill performance. For example,
desired performance outcomes (Fleishman 1972). Fleishman’s early research on the ability requirements
Thus, skills can be improved via practice and approach differentiated between 11 perceptual-motor
instruction. and 9 physical-proficiency abilities. Subsequent
Although skills differ in many ways, important research distinguished between more than 50 abilities
distinctions can be made in terms of complexity. Task underlying human learning and performance. Many of
complexity is described via differences in component, these abilities have been categorized as cognitive in
coordinative, and dynamic complexity (Wood 1986). nature. Other abilities have been categorized as more
Component complexity concerns the number of distinct physical, psychomotor, or sensory-based.
acts and processing of distinct information cues Although many taxonomies of human ability exist,
involved in the creation of task products. Much of the two common ability specifications include general
empirical literature on complex skill acquisition mental ability and broad-content abilities (Ackerman
involves tasks comprised of both cognitive and percep- 1988). ▶ General mental ability (also commonly
tual-motor components. Coordinative complexity referred to as general cognitive ability, general intelli-
concerns how different acts, information cues, and gence, or g) is defined as the factor common to tests
task products are interrelated. Dynamic complexity of cognitive ability and is theorized to be the ability
concerns how acts, information cues, and task products to efficiently acquire, process, and use information
or their relationships change across time. Dynamic (also commonly referred to as fluid intelligence).
 Ability Determinants of Complex Skill Acquisition A 21

Broad-content abilities describe a class of abilities which differences in perceptual-motor performance when A
pertain to the general content of a given task. For learning theory lacked useful taxonomies. Using
instance, a task primarily composed of oral or written a combination of experimental and correlational
components might require the broad-content ability approaches, he sought to link the concepts of aptitude
termed verbal ability. Two other broad-content abilities measurement, learning and training, and human task
in skill acquisition research are numerical and spatial performance. In general, Fleishman’s research showed
ability. Additionally, perceptual-speed and psychomo- that (a) changes occur in the specific combinations of
tor ability are frequently investigated in studies of abilities contributing to performance over the course of
skill acquisition (Ackerman 1988). ▶ Perceptual-speed skill acquisition, (b) such changes are progressive and
ability refers to speed of processing information. Psy- systematic and become stabilized, and (c) the impor-
chomotor ability refers to the speed and accuracy of tance of task-specific ability increases over the course of
motor responding. Regardless of the type or taxonomy, skill acquisition.
greater ability generally leads to faster acquisition of With the advent of information-processing theories,
skill and higher levels of performance. researchers started focusing on specific cognitive pro-
cesses associated with skill acquisition. For example,
Theoretical Background such theories highlight how learners move from
In 1926, Snoddy proposed the power law of practice cognitively intense closed-loop systems, where a learner
which predicts a linear relationship between the loga- utilizes feedback to help direct current action, to less
rithmic functions of practice amount and perfor- cognitively demanding open-loop systems, where
mance. The theory predicts a quadratic or a learner does not utilize feedback as much, when
decelerating trend such that gains in performance forming a compiled schema, production, or sequence
slow over time. However, the theory was not widely of discrete actions to achieve a desired effect in context
accepted due to observations of skips, jumps, and other (Davids et al. 2008).
short-term observable phenomena in learning curves
presumably due to factors outside the theory’s consid- Important Scientific Research and
eration (Davids et al. 2008). Although not stated at the Open Questions
time, this criticism might be viewed as the earliest A more recent cognitive theory, Ackerman’s dynamics
recognition of individual differences affecting the of ability determinants (Ackerman 1988) integrates the
learning process. results of previous work. Ackerman’s model includes
Around this time, Fitts and Posner developed their three stages of skill acquisition (namely, cognitive,
theory of motor learning. This three-stage model associative, and autonomous), but adds a component
describes gradual changes during a continuous learn- showing how different abilities contribute to each of
ing progression. The first stage, named the cognitive the three stages. Various task-, person-, and situation-
stage, is characterized by the learning of discrete pieces related factors dictate the relative importance of
of information, and performance is often variable and various abilities during each time point of acquisition,
error ridden. During the second, the associative stage, but the factors of complexity and consistency are the
the distinct knowledge gathered in the first stage is most prominent. Complexity, particularly component
assimilated, and performance is more consistent and and coordinative, primarily moderates the relationship
less error ridden. Both task complexity and learner between cognitive ability and performance, whereas
abilities contribute to varying lengths of time across inconsistency in information-processing demands
individuals in this stage. The third, the autonomous primarily moderates learning-stage progression.
stage, requires extensive practice to achieve and is char- For complex yet consistent tasks, Ackerman
acterized by few errors and minimal mental effort suggests early skill acquisition will depend primarily
(Davids et al. 2008). These stages can also be thought on cognitive abilities – general and broad-content –
of in terms of novice, journeyman, and master stages of because everything is new and learners must continu-
skill acquisition. ally process new information. As a learner progresses to
Fleishman’s work became important because later stages of skill acquisition, cognitive ability will
he developed a taxonomy describing individual either remain or decrease in its contribution toward
22 A Ability Determinants of Complex Skill Acquisition

acquisition. For inconsistent tasks, cognitive ability between ability and performance than their lower-
should continue to contribute because performers ability counterparts. Less complex and more consistent
must continually process inconsistencies. For consis- tasks typically portray a lag pattern. More complex and
tent tasks, learners get better at processing the consis- inconsistent tasks require more cognitive resources,
tent information as acquisition progresses, and the which may prevent some learners from ever
contribution of cognitive ability thus declines. Percep- progressing beyond earlier stages of acquisition. Diver-
tual-speed ability is particularly important during the gence in performance is especially likely for tasks that
middle of skill acquisition. As the production systems are largely dependent on declarative knowledge yet do
generated in the first cognitive phase are fine-tuned in not involve a finite domain of knowledge than on tasks
the second associative phase, perceptual-speed ability which primarily require speed and accuracy of motor
becomes important but less so once the task becomes responding (Ackerman 2007).
largely automatized in the final autonomous phase. If There is still much to study and clarify. Growth
a task is perceptual-motor in nature, psychomotor curve modeling (e.g., hierarchical linear modeling, ran-
ability should have a stronger role in the final stage of dom coefficients, or mixed effects) and spline models are
skill acquisition. Production systems are largely autom- more sophisticated analytic procedures that overcome
atized at this stage, and therefore, it is psychomotor limitations of previously used analyses which primarily
ability that determines further skill acquisition involved correlational and factor-analytic approaches.
(Ackerman 1988). Much of the past research utilized a time-slice approach
Complex tasks require the creation of more pro- to examine the contributions of ability to acquisition
duction systems which increase the contribution of by only showing relationships between ability and
cognitive ability toward skill acquisition but attenuate performance at discrete points in time. Contributions
that of perceptual speed. This is because attention is to actual growth (i.e., improvements in skill) needed
utilized for increased system production while percep- to be inferred. The more sophisticated analyses allow
tual speed is not as effective across many uncompiled for growth to be modeled explicitly and allow for the
productions. Consistency moderates learning-stage direct examination of ability contributions toward
progression because without some consistency learning growth.
is not possible. Therefore, inconsistency slows acquisi- As a current example of using a more sophisticated
tion. For example, a learner may never progress beyond analytic approach, Lang and Bliese (2009) used discon-
the first stage of learning in an extremely inconsistent tinuous mixed-effects growth modeling and examined
task, suggesting that cognitive ability will strongly con- the effects of general mental ability on two types of
tribute to performance no matter the degree of practice adaptation or transfer: transition and reacquisition
(Ackerman 1988). adaptation. Transition adaptation refers to an immedi-
Because skill acquisition differs depending on task ate loss of performance following task changes, and
complexity and consistency, high- and low-ability reacquisition adaptation refers to the rate of relearning
learners might converge in performance over the after task changes. Analyses indicated general mental
course of practice and instruction. The prediction of ability was positively related to transition adaptation
decreasing interindividual variance in performance but showed no relationship between general mental
across time is consistent with the lag hypothesis in that ability and reacquisition adaptation. In other words,
slower learners lag behind faster learners but may catch the findings showed higher general mental ability
up given additional practice and instruction. That is, corresponded to greater losses in performance during
high-ability learners display stronger linear and qua- a change period. These findings suggest the possibility
dratic relationships between practice and performance that high-ability learners either reach automaticity
(i.e., reach asymptote more quickly) than their lower- faster, and therefore do not process task changes as
ability counterparts. The opposite hypothesis involving quickly, or simply learn more and therefore have
divergence, termed the deficit hypothesis, fan-spread more to lose when a task changes. These findings con-
effect, or Matthew effect, describes increasing tradict commonly held beliefs that individuals with
interindividual variance. Put another way, the high- high general mental ability are better able to adapt to
ability learners display a smaller quadratic relationship fundamental environmental changes. However, despite
 Abnormal Avoidance Learning A 23

greater losses during transition and no advantage in A

reacquisition, higher-ability learners continued to Ability Grouping
outperform their lower-ability counterparts both dur- ▶ Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming
ing and after task changes. ▶ Effects of Tracking and Ability Grouping on
Research has addressed much in the development of Learning
skilled performance. Changes in variance among indi-
viduals during skill acquisition can now be reliably
predicted. Both practice and abilities explain variance
in skill acquisition. Practice explains more variance
than abilities, but the effects of practice depend upon Ability-Based
the ability levels of learners. The role of abilities during
early skill acquisition is generally known. However, ▶ Competency-Based Learning
there is still much to discern, particularly in terms of
relating abilities to later stages of skill acquisition and
skill adaptation. Additionally, prior knowledge (i.e.,
crystallized intelligence) and non-ability trait complexes, Abnormal Aggression
which refer to a combination of interests, personality,
motivation, and self-concept traits, also appear impor- ▶ Psychopathology of Repeated (Animal) Aggression
tant, and should be investigated in future research
(Ackerman 2007).

Cross-References
▶ Abilities and Learning: Physical Abilities Abnormal Avoidance Learning
▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
▶ Complex Action Learning HENRY W. CHASE
▶ Evaluation of Student Progress in Learning School of Psychology, University of Nottingham,
▶ Expertise Nottinghamshire, Nottingham, UK
▶ Intelligence and Learning
▶ Longitudinal Learning Research
▶ Qualitative Learning Research Synonyms
Avoidance behaviour; Individual differences;
References Psychopathology
Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences
during skill acquisition: cognitive abilities and information
processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(3),
Definition
288–318.
Avoidance of aversive events is of critical importance
Ackerman, P. L. (2007). New developments in understanding skilled for an organism’s chances of survival. Many organisms
performance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(5), are thought to experience fear in anticipation of an
235–239. aversive event, such as an electric shock, and tend to
Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. (2008). Dynamics of skill acqui- show two types of associated behavior. First, they may
sition: A constraints led approach. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
show “species-specific defensive responses” (SSDR):
Fleishman, E. A. (1972). On the relation between abilities, learning,
and human performance. The American Psychologist, 27(11), innate defensive responses such as freezing. Second,
1017–1032. they may learn to perform particular actions to reduce
Lang, J. W. B., & Bliese, P. D. (2009). General mental ability and two or abolish the likelihood of the shock, either cued
types of adaptation to unforeseen change: applying discontinu- by a predictive conditioned stimulus (CS: see, e.g.,
ous growth models to the task-change paradigm. The Journal of
Solomon and Wynne 1953) or performed without the
Applied Psychology, 94(2), 411–428.
Wood, R. E. (1986). Task complexity: definition of the construct.
control of a CS (Sidman 1953). Acquisition of the
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37(1), avoidance response is usually enhanced if it is compat-
60–82. ible with an SSDR.
24 A Abnormal Avoidance Learning

Theoretical Background compatible with the notion that they are avoidance
The presence of avoidance responses during a CS that responses which have not been extinguished. Extinc-
predicts an aversive event has been seen as somewhat tion of avoidance behavior in experimental situations
problematic for models of learning in which action can be difficult and fear is expected to increase during
selection was purely driven by stimulus–response asso- presentation of the CS if avoidance is prevented. From
ciations: it is not immediately clear how the absence of this perspective therefore, it is not surprising that the
an aversive event, which would result from a successful repeating of compulsive behaviors by patients with
avoidance response, can reinforce behavior unless the OCD can reduce anxiety. Furthermore, avoidance
expectancy caused by the aversively conditioned CS responses are also strikingly stereotyped (Solomon
drives learning. Mowrer’s two-factor theory (Mowrer and Wynne 1953).
1951) has perhaps become the most influential contri- Recently, a paradigm for human neuropsychologi-
bution to understanding of the role of expectancy in cal research has been developed by Michael Frank and
avoidance behavior: its central explanatory mechanism colleagues in which approach and avoidance perfor-
being the absence of a predicted aversive outcome mance is directly compared in the context of the same
reinforcing behavior. However, it should be noted task. The participants learn three pairs of concurrent
that the observation of avoidance responding in the probabilistic discrimination problems, each with dif-
absence of experimentally controlled discriminative ferent stimulus-reinforcement contingencies, until they
cues has been problematic for these kinds of theories reach a performance criterion. In the first pair, one of
(Sidman 1953), and it remains possible that much of the stimuli is rewarded on 80% of the times it is
the experimental observation of avoidance behavior selected, the other 20%; the second pair are reinforced
results from responses, which reduce the likelihood 70% and 30%, respectively; the third, 60% and 40%.
of shock. A subsequent test phase is conducted when all permu-
It is consistently observed that pretreatment with tations of the stimuli are presented, in the absence of
inescapable or otherwise uncontrollable shocks can feedback. The dependent measures of interest are the
interfere both with later escape performance and avoid- quality of approach performance (picking the most
ance learning, a phenomenon known as learned help- reinforced (80%) stimulus rather than another), and
lessness (LH). For example, pretraining a dog with avoidance performance (not selecting the least (20%)
inescapable shock impaired both avoidance learning reinforced stimulus). In its short life, this task has
(avoidance responses following the CS) and escape offered many insights into human learning perfor-
(avoidance following the shock) (Overmier and mance, principally about the role of dopamine in learn-
Seligman 1967). The LH effect, which is demonstrable ing. In normal participants, substantial variation in the
in humans and various species of animal, has been relative performance of approach and avoidance dis-
important for gaining an understanding of depression, crimination has been observed. This variance seems to
a widespread psychiatric disorder characterized by be accounted for, at least in part, by genetics (Frank
cognitive negative biases, and a reduced capacity to et al. 2007). In particular, an allele (C957T polymor-
experience reinforcement. The parallel has been based phism) of the gene coding for dopamine D2 receptors
at least in part on similarities between the motivational modulated the level of test phase avoidance perfor-
state caused by LH to that observed in depression, and mance: the C allele, which results in reduced levels of
to the finding that escape performance following postsynaptic D2 receptor expression, predicted poorer
uncontrollable stress can be enhanced by antidepres- avoidance performance. The implication of D2 recep-
sant treatment and also exercise. tors in this task is notable in the light of the observation
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an that impulsive rats also show a reduced density of
anxiety disorder, characterized by obsessional thoughts striatal D2 receptors, show heightened drug seeking,
and persistent, stereotyped behaviors (compulsions). and continue to respond for cocaine despite contingent
Compulsive behaviors can be associated with a relief aversive stimuli, compared to less impulsive rats (see
from anxiety. In addition, they can show a complex but Everitt et al. 2008 for review). The continuation of drug
repetitive and organized structure. These features of seeking despite increasing cost, in this case manifest as
compulsive responding in OCD are to some degree punishment, is a hallmark of addiction, and it may be
 Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning A 25

that a faliure of avoidance learning accounts for the Sidman, M. (1953). Avoidance conditioning with brief shock and no
exteroceptive warning signal. Science, 118(3058), 157–158.
A
heightened risk of transition to addiction in impulsive
Solomon, R. L., & Wynne, L. C. (1953). Traumatic avoidance learn-
individuals.
ing: Acquisition in normal dogs. Psychological Monographs: Gen-
eral and Applied, 67(4), 1–19.

Important Scientific Research and

Open Questions
Despite a heritage extending back at least to the work of
Solomon and colleagues, the study of avoidance learn- Absence of a Consequence
ing as a way of understanding psychopathology
▶ Inhibition and Learning
remains at the peripheries of biological psychiatric
research. Appetitive procedures tend to be more
common, perhaps for pragmatic or ethical reasons.
Nevertheless, avoidance procedures have been used in
the context of the study of addiction and depression, Absolute Accuracy
and it is suggested that they might provide unique
▶ Calibration
insight into the psychological and neurophysiological
processes underlying depression, OCD, and addiction.
Dopamine D2 receptors represent a possible neurobi-
ological substrate of abnormal avoidance learning and
a candidate target for drug therapies. Absolute Judgment
Identification of stimuli that vary along a single, sen-
Cross-References sory continuum.
▶ Avoidance Learning
▶ Drug Conditioning
▶ Effects of Anxiety on Affective Learning
▶ Expectancy Learning and Evaluative Learning Absorption
▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
▶ Impulsivity and Reversal Learning ▶ Openness to Experience
▶ Learned Helplessness
▶ Learning Mechanisms of Depression
▶ Stress and Learning
Absorptive Capacity and
References Organizational Learning
Everitt, B. J., Belin, D., Economidou, D., Pelloux, Y., Dalley, J. W., &
Robbins, T. W. (2008). Review. Neural mechanisms underlying ELIAS G. CARAYANNIS
the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and Global and Entrepreneurial Finance Research Institute
addiction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of (GEFRI), School of Business, George Washington
London B: Biological Science, 363(1507), 3125–3135.
University, Washington, DC, USA
Frank, M. J., Moustafa, A. A., Haughey, H. M., Curran, T., &
Hutchison, K. E. (2007). Genetic triple dissociation reveals mul-
tiple roles for dopamine in reinforcement learning. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Synonyms
104(41), 16311–16316. Administrative capacity; Appropriability
Mowrer, O. H. (1951). Two-factor learning theory: Summary and
comment. Psychological Review, 58(5), 350–354.
Overmier, J. B., & Seligman, M. E. (1967). Effects of inescapable shock
Definition
upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding. Journal of Cohen and Levinthal (1990) introduced the notion of
Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63(1), 28–33. absorptive capacity as the firm’s ability to value,
26 A Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning

assimilate, and apply new knowledge for improving According to Cohen and Levinthal (1990), there is
organizational learning. The notion of absorptive a positive relationship between R&D and firms absorp-
capacity refers to the capacity of a recipient to assimi- tive capacity. These authors also emphasize the impor-
late value and use the knowledge transferred. The tance of prior experience to absorptive capacity or the
higher the absorptive capacity, that is, the better the context of sense-making in that the ability to evaluate
organization (for instance, a firm) is at understanding and utilize outside knowledge is largely a function of
the knowledge received and thus unlock and capture the level of prior related knowledge.
the intrinsic value of such knowledge and apply it for Zahra and George (2002) have extended the
commercial purposes. This is related to the concepts notion of absorptive capacity as introduced by
of strategic knowledge serendipity and strategic Cohen and Levinthal and described it as a set of
knowledge arbritrage (Carayannis et al. 2006). Kim organizational routines and processes with four
(1998) identified two components of absorptive distinct components, namely acquisition, assimila-
capacity, namely prior knowledge and intensity of tion, transformation, and exploitation. Acquisition
effort, and distinguished between the ability to learn and assimilation combine to represent potential
new knowledge and the ability to use new knowledge in absorptive capacity, and transformation and exploi-
problem solving. tation forms realized absorptive capacity. Matusik
and Heely (2005) developed a new definition of
Theoretical Background potential absorptive capacity by distinguishing three
Absorptive capacity can be conceptualized as dimensions of absorptive capacity: (1) the firm’s rela-
a dynamic capability pertaining to knowledge acquisi- tionship to its external environment; (2) the structures,
tion and its systematic use to enhance a firm’s ability to routines, and knowledge base of the main value crea-
compete successfully with other firms (Zahra and tion group; and (3) the individual’s absorptive capacity.
George 2002). From the perspective of organizational The ability to absorb external knowledge depends on
learning absorptive capacity is a limit to the rate or the ability to recognize the value of new external
quantity of scientific or technological information and knowledge.
knowledge that an organization can effectively and Argote and Ingram (2000) argue that the organi-
productively internalize and use. zation’s design and structure contributes to knowl-
If such limits exist, they provide, for example, one edge being embedded in sub-networks of people,
incentive for firms to develop internal R&D capacities. tasks, and tools and, thus, influences a firm’s absorp-
R&D departments can not only conduct development tive capacity. In addition geographic and cultural
along lines they are already familiar with, but they also proximity may influence the ability to identify and
have formal training and external professional connec- evaluate external knowledge. Arrow’s (1973) argu-
tions that make it possible for them to evaluate and ment that shared experiences and patterns of commu-
incorporate externally generated technical knowledge nication and interaction among firms are likely to
into the firm better than others in the firm can. In other occur among firms located in the same geographical
words a partial explanation for R&D investments by area with the same environmental context. Therefore,
firms is to work around the absorptive capacity con- the institutions, which represent the environment in
straints they are confronted with. which firms operate, may lead to losing knowledge
Actually, the creation and transfer of knowledge because of an inability of the parties to understand
within an organization has increasingly become each other. All in all, the absorptive capacity of a firm
a critical factor in that organization’s success and com- can be compared to the human brain’s capacity to
petitiveness. Studies done in various organizations absorb data, process information, and retain and use
found that the two main knowledge activities that knowledge and in that sense a better understanding of
need to be balanced are the creation of knowledge the nature and dynamics underlying how and why
and the transferring of knowledge across time and absorptive capacity develops and evolves may be
space. Many organizations are now concentrating critical to enable more effective and efficient leading
their efforts on how knowledge can be transferred and managing of organizations, large and small, public
throughout the organization. and private.
 Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning A 27

Important Scientific Research and therein generate, process, and alter their explicit knowl- A
Open Questions edge and tacit skills, as well as the paths of change that
In recent years some efforts have been done in such styles of organizational cognition can follow. . .
identifying important dimensions and constraints of and [thereby] create questions and motives for further
absorptive capacity. Sometimes this led to far-reaching research on the dynamics of the creation and evolution
reconceptualizations of the notion of absorptive capac- of firm core competencies.
ity and its particular role for strategic management and
human performance development of organizations Cross-References
(see, for example, Zahra and George 2002). ▶ Embodied “Inter-learning” in Organizations
Additionally, there was a substantial increase of ▶ Human Resource Development and Performance
empirical studies on absorptive capacity. For instance, Improvement
Carayannis and Alexander (2002) showed empirically, ▶ Human Resources Development and Elaboration
through longitudinal, time-series-data-based analysis Strategies
that there can be too little as well as too much techno- ▶ Learning Technology
logical learning taking place in firms. This is directly ▶ Organizational Change and Learning
related to their intrinsic absorptive capacity in that ▶ Technological Learning
learning activities may initially improve performance,
but that there is some limit to a firm’s absorptive References
capacity for learning. Larger increments of technolog- Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A basis for
ical learning begin to depress performance, until a new competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behavior and
critical point is reached and performance again Human Decision Process, 82(1), 150–169.
improves. This suggests the presence of an optimal Arrow, K. J. (1973). Information and economic behaviour. Stockholm:
Federation of Swedish Industries.
learning absorption bandwidth for each firm, where
Carayannis, E., & Alexander, J. (2002). Is technological learning a firm
learning activities should not exceed the absorptive core competence; when, how, and why: A longitudinal, multi-
capacity of the firm but also must be sufficient to industry study of firm technological learning and market perfor-
sustain improved performance. mance. International Journal of Technovation, 22(10), 625–643.
A promising path toward a new theory of the firm is Carayannis, E., et al. (2006). Technological learning for entrepreneur-
to focus on the role of organizational learning in com- ial development (TL4ED) in the knowledge economy (KE):
Case studies and lessons learned. International Journal of
petitive advantage (Edmondson and Moingeon 1996). Technovation, 19, 419–443.
This research focus is supported by the recent examina- Cohen, W. M., & Levinthal, D. A. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new
tion of the nature of knowledge, and how the acquisition perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science
and integration of knowledge leads to the development Quarterly, 35(1), 128–152.
of new competencies through organizational transfor- Edmondson, A., & Moingeon, B. (1996). When to learn how and
when to learn why: Appropriate organizational learning pro-
mation (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). These processes
cesses as a source of competitive advantage. In B. Moingeon &
of knowledge-based transformation are organizational A. Edmondson (Eds.), Organisational learning and competitive
learning activities. The result of improved organiza- advantage (pp. 17–37). London: Sage.
tional learning is enhanced “strategic flexibility” Huber, G. P. (1991). Organizational learning: The contributing pro-
(Sanchez 1993), meaning that the firm faces a greater cesses and the literatures. Organization Science, 2(1), 88–115.
range of potential options for action which can then be Kim, L. (1998). Crisis construction and organizational learning:
Capability building in catching-up at Hyunday Motor. Organi-
leveraged to achieve a better fit to its competitive envi- zation Science, 9, 596–521.
ronment. Such a view of organizational learning is Matusik, S. F., & Heely, M. B. (2005). Absorptive capacity in the
analogous to the general concept of learning advanced software industry: Identifying dimensions that affect knowledge
by Huber (1991): “An entity learns if, through its and knowledge creation activities. Journal of Management, 31(4),
processing of information, the range of its potential 549–572.
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company.
behaviors is increased” (p. 89). Thus, a learning-based
New York: Oxford University Press.
theory of the firm would advance our understanding of Zahra, S. A., & George, G. (2002). Absorptive capacity: A review,
the dynamic construction of competitive advantage by reconceptualization, and extension. Academy of Management
focusing on the ways that organizations and the people Review, 27(2), 185–203.
28 A Abstract Concept Learning in Animals

a continuum of conceptual abilities from the ability

Abstract Concept Learning in to make class distinctions based on physical similari-
Animals ties, a skill present in many nonhuman animals. At the
opposite end of this continuum lies the capability to act
TIMOTHY M. FLEMMING1, MICHAEL J. BERAN2 on class distinctions based not on physical or functional
1
Department of Psychology & Language Research similarities, the most abstract of concepts.
Center, Georgia State University, University Plaza, Not unlike more basic perceptually based catego-
Atlanta, GA, USA ries, abstract concepts allow one to transfer learning to
2
Language Research Center, Georgia State University, new stimuli or contexts. This transfer for abstract
University Plaza, Atlanta, GA, USA concepts, however, is not limited to contexts that are
perceptually or associatively similar, allowing for an
almost indefinitely broad application of a commonly
Synonyms learned rule. The cognitive advantage of the ability to
Abstract representation; Higher-order learning; Rela- learn abstract concepts is that it provides efficient and
tional concept learning functionally adaptive responding toward novel objects
due to membership in an already familiar class.
Definition Concepts can be formed with varying degrees of
Abstract concept learning, including relational and abstraction. At the most basic level, perceptual con-
numerical concept acquisition, provides a foundation cepts share a considerable number of physical features
for higher-order learning. The learning of abstract con- in common with one another (e.g., green or car). Fam-
cepts involves judgment of a relationship between stim- ily resemblance theory, the classification of instances of
uli based on a common rule (e.g., identity/nonidentity, a category based on some of the many physical traits
above/below, smaller/larger, greater than/less than). they may share, accounts for learning of perceptual
Concepts are considered abstract when they are not concepts. With increasing levels of abstraction, class
dependent upon any particular stimulus features, but members share fewer characteristics in common mak-
rather on relationships instantiated between them. If ing discrimination via perceptual features less probable
these rules of relatedness are applied to entirely novel along the continuum of conceptual abstraction. Fully
stimuli, an abstract concept is assumed to be acquired abstract concepts then are those that do not share any
in the form of a mental representation. Abstract specific features in common (e.g., same or three).
concepts are distinguished from other concepts (i.e., Whereas family resemblance theory explains how
perceptual and associative concepts) in that they are perceptual concepts are learned, the means by which
not limited to perceptual similarity, but transcend sev- abstract concepts are learned are less concrete and
eral domains to allow for the application of a common cannot be accounted for by these generalization
rule (for comprehensive reviews, see Katz et al. 2007; processes.
Thompson and Oden 2000; Zentall et al. 2008). Abstract concept learning, on the other hand, is
emergent, resulting in the judgment of a relationship
Theoretical Background between stimuli not attributable to stimulus–response
Abstract concepts, due to their independence from associations. Because these concepts rely on abstract
stimulus features, are considered the basis for high- thought (a level of thinking removed from the present)
order cognition in human and nonhuman animals, language and symbolic representation have been impli-
allowing for consideration apart from a particular cated as likely mediating mechanisms through which
case or instance. In his learning-intelligence hierarchy, the learning of abstract concepts can be accomplished.
Thomas (1980) placed conceptual abilities in the With little known of the specific representational
highest three levels of an increasingly complex eight- capacities of nonhuman animals without language,
level ordinal scale of learning. Levels 1–5 included more investigations of abstract concept learning have stimu-
basic stimulus–response learning from habituation lated the interests of comparative and cognitive
to discrimination learning. Levels 6–8 outlined psychologists.
 Abstract Concept Learning in Animals A 29

Important Scientific Research and two or more objects. These concepts thus do not A
Open Questions depend on any absolute perceptual properties of
Roberts and Mazmanian (1988) investigated concept stimuli, but rather are entirely based on the relation
acquisition at varying levels of abstraction in three between them.
different species: humans, pigeons, and squirrel mon- Discrimination of same from different pairs of stim-
keys. Subjects viewed photographic stimuli of animals uli (e.g., AA vs BC) has proven difficult for many
within predetermined categories at three levels of nonhuman animals. Wasserman and colleagues were
abstraction (basic, intermediate, and high) choosing inspired by these difficulties to devise a same/different
keys corresponding to in-category and not-in-category. relational concept learning task for pigeons utilizing
Humans correctly chose the in-category slides multiple-item arrays (e.g., AAA vs BCD). Wasserman
with around 90% accuracy for all three levels. Monkeys et al. (1995) provided evidence that pigeons could learn
and pigeons, however, were less successful at certain the relational concept by generalizing the rule to novel
levels of abstraction. Monkeys were significantly better stimuli. Pigeons viewed arrays of 16 computer icons
at making the discriminations at low (e.g., kingfisher vs and responded to one of two keys designated for either
other bird) and high (e.g., animal vs nonanimal) levels. same or different. Whereas the inclusion of 16 icons in
Pigeons only successfully acquired the most basic con- each array is more than the amount of perceptual
cept: they discriminated only kingfishers from all other information necessary for a relational concept, the
slides. When the problem was made more abstract by successful discrimination of these displays still provides
requiring subjects to identify birds in general or ani- convincing evidence that a more generalized concept
mals in general, the category may have become too for sameness and difference has been learned. However,
broad or abstract for the animals to learn a simple with a reduction in the number of items, pigeons
rule for identifying individual exemplars. These find- demonstrated marked difficulty in discriminating at
ings support the theory that many nonhuman animals all displays of less than 8 icons each. The amount of
learn concepts by responding to a small set of features between-item perceptual variability accounted for
in pictures that look similar. this depreciation in performance at each successively
Because of their close relatedness to humans, great lower level.
apes provide a logical model for further investigation of Rhesus monkeys, unlike pigeons, seem less affected
abstract concepts. Vonk and MacDonald (2002) by the number of items in stimulus arrays when dis-
presented gorillas with stimuli similar to Roberts criminating same from different. Although an increase
and Mazmanian at three increasing levels of abstraction in perceptual variability (and judgment of the contrast
in a two-choice discrimination task. Gorillas between them) seems to be required for rhesus mon-
performed well, acquiring discriminations at three keys to learn the abstract relational concepts of same
levels more analogous to human behavior, providing and different, they do not appear to be detrimentally
little support for control by stimulus features. These affected to the extent that pigeons and baboons do.
results suggest a conceptual basis for categorization Flemming et al. (2007) reported that rhesus monkeys
by gorillas. rapidly learned to discriminate between eight-element
Whereas some abstract concepts may grow out of arrays, owing success to the perceptual variability of
perceptual classes as in the studies described above (i.e., stimuli. Subsequent tests with smaller arrays (including
extended family resemblance), abstract relational con- 2-item pairs) indicated that although initially impor-
cepts cannot. Relational concepts are not derived from tant for acquisition of the concept, the amount of
the physical characteristics or perceptual properties of perceptual variability was not a variable on which
stimuli themselves. Unlike both physical and associa- monkeys based their subsequent discriminative
tive concepts, singular stimuli cannot be sorted into choices. Not only did monkeys choose a corresponding
a relational class. Rather, relational concepts require the relational pair in the presence of a cue, but they also
existence of at least two items. Relational concepts, chose the cue itself in the presence of the relational pair,
such as same/different and above/below involve in essence labeling those relations, indicating strong
a comparison of the relationship between (or among) conceptual understanding of the relations. Having
30 A Abstract Representation

attributed symbolic-like qualities to the relations for Cross-References

same and different, rhesus monkeys appeared capable of ▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals
relational reinterpretation in the form of a mental ▶ Analogical Reasoning in Animals
representation. ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
Evidence for the use of symbols by nonhuman ▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
animals to represent abstract concepts can be seen ▶ Concept Learning
definitively in token-trained chimpanzees. Premack ▶ Learning and Numerical Skill in Animals
(1983) trained a chimpanzee to label identically and ▶ Reinforcement Learning
nonidentically related pairs of stimuli with plastic
tokens. For instance, in the presence of two novel References
identical objects placed concurrently on a board, the Boysen, S. T., & Capaldi, E. J. (Eds.). (1993). The development of
chimpanzee labeled them by placing her previously numerical competence: Animal and human models. Hillsdale:
trained token for same on the board as well. In the Erlbaum.
Brannon, E. M., & Roitman, J. D. (2003). Nonverbal representations
presence of two novel different objects, she selected
of time and number in animals and human infants. In W. H.
her plastic token for different. These tokens also were Meck (Ed.), Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing
used to demonstrate that the chimpanzee could reason (pp. 143–182). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
analogically (see entry on Analogical Reasoning in Flemming, T. M., Beran, M. J., & Washburn, D. A. (2007). Disconnect
Animals). in concept learning by rhesus monkeys: Judgment of relations
and relations-between-relations. Journal of Experimental Psychol-
Perhaps one of the clearest examples of abstract
ogy: Animal Behavior Processes, 33, 55–63.
concept use in humans is in the domain of numerical Harris, E. H., Gulledge, J. P., Beran, M. J., & Washburn, D. A. (2010).
cognition. Adult humans come to use number concepts What do Arabic numerals mean to macaques (Macaca mulatta)?
flexibly across an almost unlimited range of situations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes,
Numbers can be used nominally (player #10 on a soccer 36, 66–76.
team), ordinally (third house on the left), cardinally Katz, J. S., Wright, A. A., & Bodily, K. D. (2007). Issues in the
comparative cognition of abstract-concept learning. Compara-
(three blind mice) and arithmetically (four score and
tive Cognition & Behavior Review, 2, 79–92.
seven years ago). Number concepts transcend all phys- Roberts, W. A., & Mazmanian, D. S. (1988). Concept learning at
ical properties of stimuli. For example, there is no limit different levels of abstraction by pigeons, monkeys and people.
to what can be designated using the concept five – Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes,
fingers, friends, months, meters, cars, colors, etc. – 14, 247–260.
Vonk, J., & MacDonald, S. E. (2002). Natural concepts in a juvenile
and yet there are no defining perceptual features of
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at three levels of abstraction. Jour-
these sets that make them equivalent except their nal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 78, 315–332.
fiveness. Numerical concept learning is not restricted Wasserman, E. A., Hugart, J. A., & Kirkpatrick-Steger, K. (1995).
to humans. A variety of animals can use numerical Pigeons show same-different conceptualization after training
concepts in judging the relations between stimuli on with complex visual stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
the basis of choosing more or choosing less. Some Animal Behavior Processes, 21, 248–252.
Premack, D. (1983). Animal cognition. Annual Review of Psychology,
animals can label novel arrays of items with
34, 351–362.
a numerical tag such an Arabic numeral, or create sets Thompson, R. K. R., & Oden, D. L. (2000). Categorical perception and
of arrays on the basis of a given numerical tag. They can conceptual judgments by nonhuman primates: The paleological
evaluate arithmetic operations on sets of stimuli, and monkey and the analogical ape. Cognitive Science, 24, 363–396.
mentally combine sets and represent the resulting Zentall, T. R., Wasserman, E. A., Lazareva, O. F., Thompson, R. K. R.,
& Rattermann, M. J. (2008). Concept learning in animals. Com-
numerical magnitude (see Boysen and Capaldi 1993;
parative Cognition & Behavior Review, 3, 13–45.
Brannon and Roitman 2003; Harris et al. 2010; see
entries on Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in
Animals and Learning and Numerical Skill in Ani-
mals). Thus, numerical concepts, like those for same- Abstract Representation
ness and difference or other relational properties,
confirm the existence of abstract concept formation ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
in animals. ▶ Abstraction in Mathematics Learning
 Abstraction in Mathematics Learning A 31

regard abstraction as the drawing out of common fea- A

Abstraction tures, a process generally known as empirical abstrac-
▶ Exemplar Learning and Schematization in Language tion. Richard Skemp (1986) defined a mathematical
Development concept as “the end-product of . . . an activity by
▶ Learning by Chunking which we become aware of similarities . . . among our
experiences” (p. 21), and his definition could well apply
to other mathematical objects. This view of abstraction
is broader than empirical abstraction in the Piagetian
sense: Mathematical concepts are abstracted from
Abstraction in Mathematics underlying mathematical structure, not from superfi-
cial characteristics. It would appear that many elemen-
Learning tary mathematical concepts (e.g., numbers, circles,
angles, fractions, and rates of change) may be initially
MICHAEL C. MITCHELMORE1, PAUL WHITE2
1 learned by empirical abstraction.
Department of Education, Macquarie University,
A different form of abstraction occurs when
Sydney, NSW, Australia
2 a problem solver uses a mathematical object to analyze
Australian Catholic University, Strathfield, NSW,
a problem set within a familiar situation. In this
Australia
process, called horizontal mathematization, diagrams
and symbols may be used to represent the essential
underlying relationships and the irrelevant aspects
Synonyms
of the problem are ignored. The resulting abstract rep-
Abstract representation; Mental abstraction;
resentation (e.g., an equation or a graph) is often
Metaknowledge
referred to as a model of the given problem situation.
Constructing a model can often involve the idealization
Definitions of an approximate result. The power of a good math-
Mathematical objects include concepts, relationships, ematical model is that it can be manipulated (e.g., by
structures, and processes. In mathematics learning, the solving an equation) to suggest problem solutions.
term abstraction is used in two senses: An abstraction However, these solutions may be rejected or modified
is a mental representation of a mathematical object. when the previously ignored irrelevant aspects are
Abstraction, without an article, is the mental process by taken into consideration (e.g., when an equation leads
which an individual constructs such an abstraction. to a negative length).
The term derives from the Latin abstractum, literally Learning horizontal mathematization not only
“drawn out.” results in valuable problem-solving skills, it reinforces
Abstraction in mathematics learning takes many the learner’s existing mathematical abstractions by test-
forms. At the most elementary level, called empirical ing their application. It also leads to the learning of
abstraction, learners recognize that some objects, situ- mathematical terminology and such standard proce-
ations, or experiences are similar in a particular way dures as written computation and methods of solving
that distinguishes them from others. The essence of this equations. Most importantly, it can introduce a learner
similarity is then drawn out to form a mental object in to a world where mathematics can be treated without
its own right. In horizontal mathematization, symbols reference to any concrete applications.
are used to create a mathematical object that expresses Another third important form of abstraction in
the underlying structure of a given situation. In vertical mathematics learning is vertical mathematization. As
mathematization, a new object is invented to pull out the name implies, this process leads to the formation
the essence of a number of horizontal mathematizations. of one or more new mental objects at a higher level
of generality. For example, after horizontally
Theoretical Background mathematizing a number of situations where one var-
Abstraction has been a discussion topic since the days iable changes at a constant rate in relation to a second
of Aristotle and Plato. A frequent approach has been to variable, students may form the concept of a general
32 A Abstraction in Mathematics Learning

linear relation y = ax + b which includes an infinity of Education (Boero et al. 2002). In their curriculum,
specific cases. students learn mathematics through contextual prob-
Vertical mathematization is similar to empirical lem solving. For example, students initially solve sim-
abstraction in that the new abstraction may be drawn ple equation-like problems using their own invented
from several examples, but it is different in that the new strategies. Then they learn to use algebra to solve more
object is defined in strict mathematical terms. For complex problems for which more sophisticated strat-
example, empirical abstraction from contexts such as egies are required.
doubling can lead to the idea of repeated multiplica- A theoretical model of vertical mathematization,
tion, and horizontal mathematization may lead to the called the RBC+C model (Hershkowitz et al. 2007),
definition of an as “a multiplied by itself n times.” This postulates four epistemic actions: recognizing (identi-
definition is sufficient to define a1, but it cannot cope fying relevant previous constructs), building-with
with a0, a1, or a1/2, which have no existence in com- (working with these constructs to solve a problem),
mon experience. These symbols only take on a meaning constructing (integrating previous constructs to form
when an is defined theoretically. For this reason, verti- a new construct), and consolidating (using the new
cal mathematization is essentially the same as theoret- construct until it becomes freely available). The
ical abstraction (Davydov 1990). It is so different from model has been applied to the analysis of older stu-
empirical abstraction and horizontal mathematization dents’ learning in several topics, including rates of
that it requires nothing less than a complete reorgani- change and functions.
zation of a learner’s conception of mathematics (Tall Other researchers have questioned the whole con-
1991). cept of abstraction on a variety of grounds: How can
Vertical mathematization may be repeated, creating a one learn a concept by abstracting commonalities
hierarchy of abstractions. For example, exploration of across a number of cases without already having learnt
graphs may lead to the concept of a coordinate plane. the concept needed to recognize these commonalities?
Later, coordinates may be similarly applied to 3- In what sense is an abstraction “higher” than the
dimensional space. Successive vertical mathematizations knowledge on which it is based? If abstraction consists
then lead to the ideas of an n-dimensional space and of the acquisition of context-independent knowledge,
then a general vector space. In this way, even the most how can it possibly be of any value in specific contexts?
extreme mathematical abstraction can be ultimately These and similar philosophical questions are gradually
traced back to experience. This is probably why what being resolved by recognizing that different kinds of
appears to be highly abstract mathematics can some- abstraction occur at different levels of mathematical
times find valuable everyday applications for which it development and that the products of these processes
was never designed. are closely related.
Meanwhile, there are many psychological and ped-
agogical questions needing further investigation: How
Important Scientific Research and precisely do children and students make the various
Open Questions kinds of abstractions described above while learning
Mitchelmore and White have investigated the role of specific mathematical topics? How does teacher peda-
empirical abstraction in the formation of a number of gogy affect the abstractions children make? In teaching
elementary mathematical concepts. For example, a new mathematical abstraction, is it more efficient to
Mitchelmore and White (2000) described how young explore several similar situations or a single situation in
children form an abstract angle concept as a result of depth? How does interaction between learners contrib-
recognizing deep similarities between a range of super- ute to abstractions?
ficially different contexts such as corners, slopes, and
turns. Other topics investigated include decimals, per-
centages, and ratios. Cross-References
Horizontal and vertical mathematization is ▶ Mathematical Learning
strongly featured in the curriculum developed by ▶ Mathematical Models/Modeling in Math Learning
the Dutch movement called Realistic Mathematics ▶ Mathematics Learning Disabilities
 Academic Learning Time A 33

References A
Boero, P., Dreyfus, T., Gravemeijer, K., Gray, E., Hershkowitz, R., Academic Fear
Schwarz, B., Sierpinska, A., & Tall, D. (2002). Abstraction: The-
ories about the emergence of knowledge structures. In A. D.
▶ Fear of Failure in Learning
Cockburn & E. Nardi (Eds.), Proceedings of the 26th annual
conference of the international group for the psychology of mathe-
matics education (Vol. 1, pp. 113–138). Norwich: Program
Committee.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalisation in instruction: Logical Academic Learning Time
and psychological problems in the structuring of school curricula.
Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of mathematics. Soviet
ERIN M. BRODHAGEN, MARIBETH GETTINGER
studies in mathematics education, Vol. 2; J. Kilpatrick, Ed.,
J. Teller, Trans (Original work published 1972).
Department of Educational Psychology, University of
Hershkowitz, R., Hadas, N., Dreyfus, T., & Schwarz, B. (2007). Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Abstracting processes, from individuals’ constructing of knowl-
edge to a group’s “shared knowledge”. Mathematics Education
Research Journal, 19(2), 41–68. Synonyms
Mitchelmore, M. C., & White, P. (2000). Development of angle
Academic engaged time; On-task behavior; Student
concepts by progressive abstraction and generalisation. Educa-
tional Studies in Mathematics, 41, 209–238. engagement
Skemp, R. (1986). The psychology of learning mathematics (2nd ed.).
Harmondsworth: Penguin. Definition
Tall, D. O. (1991). The psychology of advanced mathematical thinking. Academic learning time (ALT) is the amount of time
In D. O. Tall (Ed.), Advanced mathematical thinking (pp. 3–21).
students are actively, successfully, and productively
Dordrecht: Kluwer.
engaged in learning relevant academic content.
Academic engaged time and student engagement are
typically used interchangeably. Each is a broader term
that encompasses not only the quantity of time spent
Academic Achievement on an academic task (i.e., learning time), but also
Motivation related cognitive and emotional learner-centered
variables such as self-motivation, initiative, and self-
▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning regulation (Gettinger and Ball 2008). On-task behavior
is a narrow term, most often associated with “paying
attention.” Observable indices of on-task behavior can
include behaviors such as completing assignments,
participating in discussions looking at the teacher, or
Academic Anxiety listening to peers. Research on the association between
▶ Fear of Failure in Learning time-related variables (e.g., student engagement time,
on-task time) and school performance affirm that time
spent in learning is a crucial factor that influences
achievement. In one of the earliest reviews on the
relationship between time and learning, Fredrick and
Academic Difficulties Walberg (1980) found that the correlation between
time spent in learning, particularly ALT, and achieve-
▶ Delinquency and Learning Disabilities ment ranged from 0.13 to 0.71, depending on how time
was operationalized and measured.

Theoretical Background
Academic Engaged Time Interest in academic learning time can be traced to
John Carroll’s (1963) model of school learning. The
▶ Academic Learning Time major premise of Carroll’s model is that learning is
34 A Academic Learning Time

a function of two time variables: (a) time spent in consumed by noninstructional activities having little
learning, and (b) time needed for learning (Carroll to do with learning. Multiple events may reduce the
1963). Carroll’s model can be expressed in a simple amount of scheduled time that is converted to actual
mathematical equation: degree of learning=f [time instructional time, including student and teacher inter-
spent/time needed]. Simply stated, the degree to ruptions, transitions, or early dismissals. Within
which a learner succeeds in learning a task is dependent instructional time is the fourth component of ALT,
on the amount of time he or she spends in relation to on-task or engaged time. Engaged time is the propor-
the amount of time he or she needs to learn the task. tion of instructional time during which students are
The closer individuals come to achieving equilibrium cognitively and behaviorally on-task or engaged in
between the amount of time they require for learning learning, as evidenced by paying attention, completing
and the amount of time they actually engage in learn- work, listening, or engaging in relevant discussion.
ing, the higher their level of mastery. Engaged time includes both passive attending and active
Carroll identified five factors that influence either responding. Finally, a certain percentage of engaged
“time spent” or “time needed” in his model. Three time, or time-on-task, represents the amount of time
factors influence time needed for learning: (a) student during which learning actually occurs; this is academic
aptitude, (b) the student’s ability to understand learning time. Thus, ALT is the time during which
instruction, and (c) quality of instruction. Two factors students are engaged in relevant academic tasks while
affect time spent in learning: (a) time allocated for performing the tasks at a high rate of success. The qual-
learning, or opportunity to learn, and (b) perseverance, ities of both relevance and success are critical for discern-
or the amount of time the learner is engaged in learn- ing ALT. Neither succeeding at irrelevant tasks nor failing
ing. According to Carroll, the relationship between at relevant and worthwhile tasks contributes to effective
these latter two factors and student learning is linear. learning. Students gain the most from learning time
Specifically, the degree of learning will be lower to the when they experience a balance of high and medium
extent that adequate learning time is not provided and/ success on meaningful learning activities. Whereas each
or that students are not adequately engaged in learning. of the five learning time components – available time,
By placing time as a central variable in learning, allocated time, instructional time, engaged time, and
Carroll’s model laid the foundation for the develop- academic learning time – demonstrates some relation-
ment of the construct of ALT. Theoretical conceptual- ship with student outcomes, ALT has been shown to
izations of ALT identify five constituent components. have the strongest link with school learning and achieve-
The first is available time, which represents the total ment (Ben-Peretz and Bromme 1991).
number of hours or days that potentially can be The earliest and most extensive research program to
devoted to instruction. The second component, sched- examine the relationship between time and learning
uled or allocated time, is the amount of time a teacher and to provide empirical support for the importance
schedules for instruction in each content domain. of ALT was the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study
Scheduled time represents the upper limit of in-class (BTES) conducted in the 1980s (Denham and
opportunities for students to be engaged in learning. Lieberman 1980). Although the original purpose of
The process by which scheduled time is converted into the BTES was to evaluate beginning teacher competen-
productive learning time depends on classroom cies, the focus shifted toward identifying teaching
instruction and management practices, as well as stu- activities and classroom conditions that promote stu-
dent characteristics. Scheduled time can be further dent learning. Based on observations in classrooms
broken down into noninstructional or instructional over a 6-year period, BTES researchers developed an
time (the third component of ALT). Instructional time operational definition and measurable index of ALT.
is the amount of scheduled time directly devoted to Specifically, they operationalized ALT as the amount of
learning and instruction. Noninstructional time, by time a student spends engaged in academic tasks of
contrast, is the portion of scheduled time that is spent appropriate difficulty, i.e., tasks on which students
in nonclassroom activities, e.g., lunch, recess, or tran- achieve 80% success or accuracy.
sitions. Whereas a 60-min period may be scheduled for The BTES used ALT as both a measure of teaching
instruction, some portion of that time is often effectiveness and an index of student learning. In
 Academic Learning Time A 35

attempting to identify the key components of effective more instructional time (e.g., lengthening the school A
teaching, BTES researchers discovered that a high level day or year). Current knowledge about evidence-based
of ALT can be taken as evidence of effective teaching. strategies to maximize ALT derives from effective
Furthermore, one of the most significant findings from teaching research that documents strategies to actively
the BTES project was that ALT has a strong influence on involve students in learning (Gettinger and Stoiber
students’ academic achievement. Beyond engagement 2009). Effective teaching research may be organized
in academic tasks, BTES researchers investigated how into three broad categories, depending on the research
students’ success rates during engagement affect their paradigm: (a) process–product paradigm, which
later achievement. It was found that the proportion of delineates teachers behaviors that are associated with
time during which academic tasks are performed with student engagement; (b) classroom–ecology paradigm,
high success is positively associated with level of which considers the structural and organizational fea-
student learning. Likewise, when students experience tures of learning environments that are associated with
low success rates in school activities, they have lower student engagement; and (c) mediating-process para-
achievement. In evaluating the interactions between digm, which focuses on students’ cognitive–behavioral
teachers and students during instruction, the BTES activities that mediate the relationship between teacher
data suggest that more frequent substantive interac- behaviors or classroom environment and student
tions (such as teachers presenting information, closely engagement. Across all paradigms, it is evident that
monitoring students; work, and providing perfor- factors with the greatest impact on ALT relate more to
mance feedback) between the student and the teacher quality than to overall amount of time allocated for
are associated with higher levels of ALT. Higher levels of teaching and learning. These factors include: (a) effec-
ALT, in turn, contribute to achievement. In sum, the tive classroom management on the part of the teacher
BTES findings provided evidence that ALT, and the to minimize down time or time spent attending to
teaching behaviors and classroom processes that enable disruptions and disciplinary issues; (b) effective teach-
students to accrue high levels of ALT, have a strong ing strategies to engage students in learning and ensure
influence on academic learning and student success on relevant content; and (c) student-initiated
achievement. strategies, such as self-management, to sustain stu-
dents’ engagement in learning and task completion.
Important Scientific Research and A combination of these factors may be the key to
Open Questions increasing ALT for all students. Despite this knowledge
The link between time and learning remains one of the base, research on time use in schools estimates that less
most enduring and consistent findings in educational than half of scheduled learning time is devoted to
research. Simply allocating more time for instruction, instruction, that engagement rates among students
however, may not necessarily increase ALT or contrib- average only 45–50%, and, most critically, that students
ute to better learning outcomes. Thus, important ques- in many elementary classrooms may accrue only 1 h per
tions continue to guide scientific research concerning day of ALT. Thus, the challenge for future research is to
ALT. First, to what extent can differences in achieve- work toward translating the evidence base into effective
ment among learners be explained by time spent in school-based practices. Simply put, if schools can find
learning, specifically ALT? And, second, what factors ways to enable students to spend more time actively
in the design and delivery of instruction maximize time engaged in learning (i.e., to increase ALT), academic
spent in learning (ALT) and, in turn, achievement. achievement will increase.
To the extent that research underscores the need to
maximize ALT, investigators must continue to address Cross-References
what can be done to enhance or increase ALT for all ▶ Academic Motivation
learners, particularly learners who may be at risk for ▶ Climate of Learning
school failure. Making good use of existing time, ▶ Conditions of Learning
whereby students experience high success on meaning- ▶ Evidence-Based Learning
ful tasks, is more likely to substantially increase both ▶ Field Research on Learning
ALT and student achievement than simply allocating ▶ Individual Learning
36 A Academic Motivation

▶ Learning by Teaching motives. Academic motivation refers to the cause of

▶ Motivation to Learn behaviors that are in some way related to academic
▶ Motivational Variables in Learning functioning and success, such as how much effort
▶ Self-Determination of Learning students put forth, how effectively they regulate their
work, which endeavors they choose to pursue, and how
References persistent they are when faced with obstacles (Schunk
Ben-Peretz, M., & Bromme, R. (Eds.). (1991). The nature of time in et al. 2008).
schools: Theoretical concepts, practitioner perceptions. New York:
Teachers College Press. Theoretical Background
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College
Psychological theories have explained human motiva-
Record, 64, 723–733.
Denham, C., & Lieberman, A. (Eds.). (1980). Time to learn. Wash- tion in divergent ways. In Principles of Psychology, the
ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. text that led American psychology for well over
Fredrick, W. C., & Walberg, H. J. (1980). Learning as a function of 50 years, William James pointed to instinct and
time. Journal of Educational Research, 73, 183–194. impulse as driving forces behind human action.
Gettinger, M., & Ball, C. (2008). Best practices in increasing academic
Instincts, James contended, quickly give way to habits,
engaged time. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in
school psychology V (pp. 1043–1057). Bethesda, MD: National which lead people to behave in predictably similar ways
Association of School Psychologists. in the future. From a Freudian perspective, people are
Gettinger, M., & Stoiber, K. (2009). Effective teaching and effective motivated by the result of innate impulses and inhibi-
schools. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of tions that are largely unconscious and uncontrollable.
school psychology (4th ed., pp. 769–790). Hoboken: Wiley. Theorists such as Clark Hull, on the other hand, framed
motivation in terms of needs that lead to drives, which
in turn bring about drive-reducing behavior. In this
view, humans are generally driven toward the hedonic
Academic Motivation ends of experiencing satisfaction and avoiding pain.
Behaviorists, who dominated American psychology
ELLEN L. USHER1, DAVID B. MORRIS2 for much of the twentieth century, sought to predict
1
Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, behavior not by examining internal states but by
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA exploring relationships between observed behaviors
2
Department of Educational Studies, St. Mary’s College and environmental stimuli. Radical behaviorists such
of Maryland, St. Mary’s City, MD, USA as Skinner rejected the notion that cognitive processes
mediate the influence of external stimuli on individ-
uals’ responses. From Skinner’s perspective, individuals
Synonyms are motivated to act as a result of reinforcing or
Achievement motivation; Drive; Impulse punishing environmental conditions.
In the latter part of the twentieth century, scholars
Definition began once again to characterize motivation as evolv-
Motivation comes from the Latin word moveo, mean- ing from the interplay of both internal and external
ing to move, stir, agitate, provoke, or affect. Motivation forces. Unlike behaviorism, these theories emphasized
answers the questions: Why do people act? Why do they learners as agents of their own motivation and behav-
behave in a given manner? Why do they continue or ior. Theorists such as Jean Piaget and Leon Festinger
discontinue their behaviors? Motivation can be defined contended that learners are naturally motivated to
as the process responsible for the initiation, intensity, resolve the cognitive dissonance that results from
and persistence of behavior. Motives are causes that their exposure to information that is at odds with
produce certain effects or actions (including inaction). their previous conceptions. Cognitive disequilibrium
The source of a person’s motivation may be intrinsic, is the impetus to regulate one’s learning and to
derived from internal processes, and/or extrinsic, the construct new knowledge.
result of external forces. Likewise, individuals can be In his model of achievement motivation, John
impelled to act by conscious and nonconscious Atkinson proposed that motivation could be
 Academic Motivation A 37

measured as the multiplicative effect of learners’ needs, persistence, and effort. On the other hand, self-esteem, A
expectancies, and values in a given domain. Abraham which refers to one’s global sense of worth as a person,
Maslow, a humanist, suggested that humans are is often unrelated to these outcomes, due to its lack of
motivated first and foremost by fundamental needs measurement specificity. Some have examined stu-
such as safety, love, and belongingness. These needs dents’ possible selves, or their beliefs about what they
are contingent on the availability of certain external will likely, or ideally, become in the future. Future time
factors in the social environment. When their funda- perspective researchers point to differences in the
mental needs are fulfilled, people become primarily degree to which students look to their future goals
motivated by intrinsic needs to grow and to reach and argue that these differences may account for
their higher potential (e.g., motivated by altruism, variation in academic motivation.
justice, and self-actualization). Attribution Theory. Attribution theorists examine
Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive view of learners’ causal explanations for their success and fail-
motivation in which academic functioning can be seen ures. Bernard Weiner has characterized individuals’
as the product of reciprocal interactions among per- attributions on three dimensions. Locus refers to the
sonal (i.e., cognitive, affective, biological), behavioral, location of the cause, whether internal or external.
and environmental determinants. His social cognitive A student who performs poorly on a test may external-
theory emphasizes the role of cognitive, vicarious, ize her failure by attributing it to external causes such as
self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes in human a biased teacher or an unfair test. The cause of an event
motivation, thought, and action. may also be characterized in terms of its stability
according to whether it is viewed as permanent or
Important Scientific Research and changeable. A student who blames a stomach bug
Open Questions (unstable cause) for his poor performance may not be
Present-day research on academic motivation is rooted as forlorn as one who insists that the failure was due to
in the broader psychological theories mentioned above. an inability to comprehend the material (stable cause).
Scholars typically examine one or more core motiva- The final characteristic refers to whether the cause was
tion constructs, such as the beliefs students hold about within someone’s control. A student may credit her
themselves and the outcomes of their efforts, the goals teacher for a passing grade but may believe it was the
they pursue, and the attributions they make for their result of favoritism (controllable cause). Attribution
successes and failures (Elliot and Dweck 2005). We theorists study the various biases that students may
briefly describe several such constructs and summarize have in interpreting their experiences and identify the
general research findings from recent research. ways in which students’ interpretations influence their
Self-Beliefs. Many scholars have theorized that subsequent emotions and behaviors.
students’ self-beliefs have a profound influence on Expectancy-Value Theory. Expectancy-value theo-
their academic behaviors. Academic self-beliefs are rists have demonstrated that students’ choice, persis-
particularly attractive to educators because they point tence, and performance can be explained by their
to an aspect of motivation that may be altered. Students beliefs about how well they will do on academic tasks
beliefs are often highly interrelated and frequently over- and the extent to which they value those tasks (Wigfield
lap (see below). Most fall under the broad umbrella of and Eccles 2002). People’s outcome expectancies, their
academic self-concept, or perceptions of oneself as judgments of the consequences that their behavior will
a student. Self-concept is hierarchically structured produce, have been shown to influence engagement,
such that individuals’ general self-view comprises an persistence, and performance. Value is assessed as the
academic, social, and physical self-concept. Students degree to which an academic activity is perceived as
may even view themselves differently in different aca- useful, important, interesting, and of relatively low
demic domains. Self-efficacy, one of the most studied cost. Both expectancies and values are highly suscepti-
self-beliefs, refers to a task-specific judgment of one’s ble to socialization influences. For example, girls who
academic capabilities (Bandura 1997). have been exposed to repeated messages that mathe-
Self-concept and self-efficacy have generally been matics is a male domain often lower their expectations
shown to predict student achievement, self-regulation, for success in mathematics.
38 A Academic Motivation

Goals. Many theorists emphasize goal setting as an Self-Determination Theory. Deci and Ryan (2002)
important motivational process. Students who actively proposed that people are motivated by their innate
select and plan behaviors in pursuit of clearly identified need to feel competent, autonomous, and related to
academic objectives are more engaged and therefore others. When the learning setting supports the satisfac-
acquire skills more quickly. Certain types of goals are tion of these needs, learners are more intrinsically
more effective for promoting motivation. Proximal motivated and self-determining. Conversely, overly
(short-term) goals that are specific and sufficiently controlling learning environments that offer little
challenging bring about better results than do distal opportunity for mastery and relatedness promote
(long-term) goals that lack specificity or that are too either extrinsic motivation or no motivation at all.
lax or strenuous. Cooperative goals can also enhance Academic motivation researchers continue to chart
academic motivation. new directions for a better understanding of the whys
Goal orientation theorists contend that the general of academic-related choices and behaviors (see Urdan
orientations individuals have toward their academic and Karabenick 2010). Given the general findings that
and social endeavors helps explain their achievement the motivation constructs described above are good
behavior. Learners can be oriented toward developing predictors of achievement, researchers are currently
competence and mastery in academic activities or by turning to the antecedents of these beliefs and judg-
a desire to demonstrate their competence through their ments. In addition, many scholars have pointed to the
performance in front of others. They are said to hold need for more cross-cultural work to shed light on
either an approach or an avoidance orientation toward whether motivational processes operate similarly
these goals. For example, students may study with the among diverse groups of learners. New research
goal of understanding the topic and incorporating it in methods are also permitting researchers to track
their future work (mastery approach goal). Alterna- changes in motivation over time, which permits
tively, their aim may be to attain a high grade or to a deeper understanding of what predicts upward and
appear superior to peers (performance approach goal). downward individual motivation trajectories.
Still others might try to avoid appearing unintelligent One shortcoming in the academic motivation
or inferior to peers (performance avoidance goal). research to date is that it offers few direct implications
Mastery approach goals are associated with higher for improving teaching practice. Researchers must con-
academic achievement and motivation; avoidance tinue to focus on helping teachers to determine what
goals of any type are inversely related to achievement they can do in practice to motivate all students. Exam-
and motivation and are therefore most maladaptive. ining the ways in which new technological tools promote
The relationship between performance approach goals new means of engagement will also be an important area
and these variables is less consistent, however. Also, of inquiry for academic motivation researchers. Testing
because the reasons for which students act stem from the relative contribution of internal (agentic) forces and
multiple (and sometimes contradictory) goals, teasing external forces (such as from parents and peers) will also
out the relationship between any particular goal orien- help clarify what motivates learners. A closer examina-
tation and one’s achievement has presented a challenge tion of teachers’ motivation has also been linked to many
for motivation researchers. aspects of students’ academic motivation and perfor-
Implicit Theories of Ability. One outgrowth of this mance. Researchers have therefore focused not only on
work has been Carol Dweck’s emphasis on students’ the goals, attributions, and beliefs of students, but those
implicit theories of ability or intelligence. According to of teachers as well. Likewise, researchers are beginning
Dweck, students who believe that intelligence is fixed to investigate the effects of teachers’ motivation on
(i.e., cannot be changed) are more likely to view failure attrition. Part of this work involves examining the ways
as a sign of low intelligence and engage in a host of in which school and institutional policies enhance or
self-defeating behaviors when their competence is undermine teachers’ and students’ motivation.
called into question. Those who believe that intelli-
gence is malleable (i.e., can be expanded as a result of Cross-References
their efforts) take a more adaptive approach to learning ▶ Academic Motivation
and rebound from their mistakes. ▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning
 Accelerated Learning A 39

▶ Assessment of Academic Motivation A

▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation Academic Procrastination
▶ Cross-Cultural Studies on Learning and Motivation Dilatory behavior in academic situations.
▶ Goal Theory/Goal Setting
▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
▶ Motivation, Volition and Performance
▶ Motivational Variables in Learning
▶ School Motivation Academic Self-Efficacy
▶ Understanding Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ▶ Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning

References
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York:
Freeman.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self- Academic Socialization
determination research. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
Elliot, A., & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of competence and ▶ Socialization-Related Learning
motivation. New York: Guilford Press.
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (Eds.). (2008). Motiva-
tion in education: Theory, research and applications (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
Urdan, T. C., & Karabenick, S. A. (Eds.). (2010). Advances in motiva-
tion and achievement: Vol. 16A-B. The decade ahead: Theoretical
Accelerated Learning
perspectives on motivation and achievement. Bingley: Emerald
Publishing Group. JANNA WARDMAN
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.). (2002). Development of achievement University of Auckland, Auckland Central,
motivation. San Diego: Academic. New Zealand

Synonyms
Academic Motivation of At-Risk Acceleration; Accelerative learning; Compressed cur-
Learners riculum; Early entrance; Full-year acceleration; Grade-
skipping; Radical acceleration; Telescoping
▶ Learning Motivation of Disadvantaged Students
Definitions
Accelerate comes from the Latin words ad meaning
“toward” and celer meaning “fast” or “rapid.” There-
Academic Outcomes fore, accelerated learning is learning which occurs at
a more rapid rate. Today, the umbrella term ▶ acceler-
▶ School Climate and Learning ation is more often used to cover all accelerated learn-
ing. ▶ Accelerative learning includes a particular
strategy popular in language teaching at the end of
the last century. Suggestive accelerative learning and
Academic Phobia teaching (SALT) was described as using the learner as
▶ Fear of Failure in Learning a resource to increase the rate of learning. ▶ Grade-
skipping (USA) or ▶ full-year acceleration (UK) is the
practice of accelerating a student by moving them a full
year (or more) ahead of their chronological age-peers.
Academic Process ▶ Radical acceleration is where a student is accelerated
more than 2 years ahead of age-peers. ▶ Telescoping is
▶ Alignment of Learning, Teaching, and Assessment the shortening of a course of study; for example, where
40 A Accelerated Learning

a year’s course is covered in one semester thereby accel- and administrators persuaded parents of the gifted
erating the learning. Curriculum compacting is similar that their children would suffer socially and emotion-
to telescoping, but usually refers to a reduction in ally and would be condemned to lives of “loneliness
introductory activities, allowing a course of study to and despair.” Not surprisingly, these pronouncements
be covered at a faster pace. ▶ Early entrance occurs discouraged parents from seeking acceleration for their
when a student is admitted to school or university a children.
year or more earlier than age-peers, thereby accelerat-
ing their learning. All the above are terms for acceler- Important Scientific Research and
ated learning. Open Questions
It would appear that in countries around the world,
Theoretical Background whenever the government of the day determines that
Acceleration is a strategy often associated with gifted the talent pool needs a boost, acceleration comes back
learners. The alternative to accelerated learning is into favor. Lewis Terman (1877–1956) first used the
age-grade or social placement. Prior to the mid- term “▶ radical acceleration” in an address to alumni.
nineteenth century, the idea that gifted students should The descriptor was used in explaining the achievements
remain with their chronological peers was not widely of several students who had entered Johns Hopkins
held. In China’s Tang Dynasty (circa 618 BC), child University (JHU) 3 or more years earlier than usual.
prodigies were summoned to the Imperial Court for There is the theme of interest following the successful
special education. Later (circa 400 BC), in the times of launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union. US President
Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, the expectation was that John F. Kennedy then put out a call for America’s “best
student performance would determine the placement and brightest” to assist the goal of landing a man in the
level and the time taken to graduate. That situation moon by 1970. In the 1970s interest in acceleration
continued for centuries. By the early twentieth century continued. Julian Stanley (1918–2005) initiated his
in many Western developed countries however, man- Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) in
datory school attendance coupled with increased 1971 at JHU, Baltimore, Maryland. He was inspired by
immigration and children no longer being required to Browning’s famous lines: “Ah, but a man’s reach should
work, had led to increased enrolment and graduation exceed his grasp, or what’s a heaven for?” Stanley uti-
rates. The Depression of the 1930s was the final influ- lized acceleration for his programs for talented youth;
ence in solidifying a rigid age-grade placement struc- forming fast-paced mathematics classes, followed by
ture (Kulik and Kulik 1984). This “social placement” similar classes in science, and later into the humanities.
soon became the norm, primarily as a method to con- Daurio (1979) carried out a comparative study of
trol the movement of a growing number of students acceleration from 220 sources. He found that there
through the school system. It should be noted that age- were no data to refute the efficacy of acceleration for
grade grouping is, in the history of education going gifted students. He also found that accelerated students
back over 2,000 years, a relatively recent phenomenon performed at least as well as, and often better than,
covering, at most, the last 150 years. “normal-aged” control students on both academic and
It is acknowledged by researchers that there is nonacademic measures. Furthermore, he found con-
a problem with the inconsistency of terminology of siderable evidence that acceleration had been advanta-
acceleration. The definition of accelerated learning geous to gifted students. Daurio, however, reported
has changed throughout the last 100 years to suit the much resistance to the practice. He perceived the neg-
practice in favor at the time. The aim was to circum- ativity to be based on preconceived notions and irra-
navigate the comparatively new “lock-step” system of tional grounds, rather than on an examination of the
rigid grouping according to age. During the 1930s, evidence.
interest in acceleration waned. The Depression meant Kulik and Kulik (1984) in their meta-analysis found
that there was little need to finish schooling early accelerated students achieved as well as equally gifted
to enter a very limited job market. The saying “early older students in the higher classes. According to their
ripe, early rot” was coined to describe what would findings, acceleration promoted students’ intellectual
happen to children who were accelerated. Teachers development in the majority of cases. Kulik and Kulik
 Acceleration A 41

concluded that the accelerated students outperformed academic benefits for students have been confirmed A
the matched non-accelerands of the same age by almost and the myths about social and emotional harm have
a full year. The median effect size was 0.80 for the been exposed. Why then is acceleration a seldom uti-
results with same-age control groups. lized strategy in educational systems around the world?
Levin (1996) found that acceleration was also an As pointed out by Gold (1965), “no paradox is more
effective strategy for “at-risk” students. Levin’s Acceler- striking than the inconsistency between research find-
ated Schools Project found that high-content instruc- ings on acceleration and the failure of society to reduce
tion resulted in significant gains as opposed to the the time spent by superior students in formal educa-
traditional methods of remediation. This project was tion” (p. 238).
aimed at pre-elementary level and involved the whole
school in “unity of purpose; responsibility for decisions Cross-References
and their consequences; building on strengths” (p. 336). ▶ Aristotle
The research exposes the myth of acceleration caus- ▶ Assessment in Learning
ing long-term social and emotional harm to students. ▶ At-Risk Learners
There is evidence however of the opposite, namely ▶ Boredom of Learning
when gifted students are not permitted acceleration ▶ Depression and Learning
and are retained in age-grouped classes, they become ▶ Effect-size
frustrated and despondent. There is evidence that this ▶ Learned Helplessness
“grade retention” can be extremely damaging to not ▶ Meta-analyses
only academic outcomes but also to the long-term ▶ Peer Learning Groups
social and emotional welfare of gifted students. ▶ Rapid E-learning
Hattie (2009) compiled a synthesis of over 800 ▶ Rapid Learning in Infants
▶ meta-analyses, consisting of over 50,000 studies relat- ▶ Retention and Learning
ing to educational achievement. He presented a league ▶ Suggestopedia and Learning
table consisting of contributions by the student, home, ▶ Zone of Proximal Development
teacher, teaching approaches, school, and curricula as
defined by their ▶ effect-size; that is, the difference each References
contribution made to educational achievement, listing Colangelo, N., Assouline, S., & Gross, M. U. M. (Eds.). (2004). A
them in order of effectiveness. The meta-analyses iden- nation deceived: How schools hold back America’s students: The
tified acceleration with an effect-size of 0.88, as the fifth Templeton national report on acceleration (Vol. 1, 2). Iowa City:
Belin-Belin Center.
highest contribution to student achievement, in a table
Daurio, S. P. (1979). Educational enrichment versus acceleration:
of 138 factors The league table showed that it is impor- A review of the literature. In W. C. George, S. J. Cohn, & J. C.
tant to not only examine what leads to successful learn- Stanley (Eds.), Educating the gifted: Acceleration and enrichment
ing, but to see what works better than other strategies/ (pp. 13–63). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
interventions/contributions. Gold, M. J. (1965). Education of the intellectually gifted. Columbus:
Charles E. Merrill.
Colangelo et al. (2004) compiled a comprehensive
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of meta-analyses relating
research report on acceleration which is available in to achievement. Oxford: Routledge.
two volumes and translated into eight languages. It Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. C. (1984). Effects of accelerated instruction on
can be downloaded from http://www.acceleratio- students. Review of Educational Research, 54(3), 409–425.
ninstitute.org/Nation_Deceived/. Levin, H. L. (1996). Accelerated schools after eight years. In L.
Acceleration is often reported as “cost free”; how- Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.), Innovations in learning new envi-
ronments for education (pp. 329–352). Mahwah: Lawrence
ever, this is not the case as the cost to schools can be
Erlbaum.
substantial. The schools lose the years of funding that
the students save by being accelerated. This factor has
been suggested as a reason why administrators in gen-
eral have been reluctant to utilize accelerated learning. Acceleration
The researchers note that although accelerated
learning is not the answer in every case, the significant ▶ Accelerated Learning
42 A Accelerative Learning

Definition
Accelerative Learning Many nonhuman species show accounting abilities.
▶ Accelerated Learning Accounting here refers to the capacity to track, remem-
ber, and compare sets of items on the basis of their
quantity or number. Arithmetic competencies refer to
the ability of animals to deal with arithmetic operations
Acceptance on stimulus sets: these include addition and subtrac-
tion. These competencies are related to the same capac-
The attitude of acceptance means a warm regard for ities commonly seen in humans, and they can refer to
a person of unconditional self-worth, of value no mat- discrete or continuous quantities. Most research has
ter what his or her condition, behavior, feelings. It dealt with addition operations, and some research has
means a respect and liking for the other as a separate examined how animals deal with subtraction opera-
person, a willingness for him or her to possess their tions. Some species show compelling abilities to deal
own feelings in their own way (Rogers 1961). with such operations, and they do so in situations
where they compare sets of things or label sets with
References symbols (e.g., numerals). However, animals that can
Rogers, C. R. (1961) On becoming a person. A therapist’s view of deal with arithmetic operations do so in ways that
psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
suggest they represent number approximately rather
than exactly, and this difference suggests a qualitative
difference between animal abilities and those of
humans who have been exposed to formal mathemat-
Accommodation
ics. Despite this, animal performances in arithmetic
In cognitive and developmental psychology this theo- situations are highly similar to those of humans in
retical term refers to the process by which existing situations where formal mathematical systems are not
mental structures and behaviors are modified to present or are not accessed.
adapt to new experiences. Beyond this, accommoda-
tion may also refer to the physical process by which the Theoretical Background
eyes increase their optical power to focus on an object Many nonhuman species are capable of dealing with
as it draws near. Generally, accommodation refers to quantitative information. The skills that have been
cognitive processes of restructuring existing knowledge demonstrated range from simple choices between
in order to be able to understand a new phenomenon, food sets to comparisons among arbitrary stimuli on
which would not otherwise fit, e.g., in changing one’s computer screens (see Boysen and Capaldi 1993). Some
understanding of chemical reactions in the light of new animals even map quantity information onto symbols
theories of atomic structures. such as Arabic numerals. Some tasks require that ani-
mals account for arithmetic operations that are
performed on sets of items, and to use the outcomes
of those operations to support decision making. To
Accounting and Arithmetic date, these operations primarily have involved addi-
Competence in Animals tions of items to sets, or in some cases subtraction of
items.
MICHAEL J. BERAN Perhaps some of the best evidence for arithmetic
Language Research Center, Georgia State University, competence in animals comes from Boysen and her
University Plaza, Atlanta, GA, USA colleagues’ work with chimpanzees (e.g., Boysen and
Berntson 1989). These chimpanzees learned to label
arrays of things by pointing to Arabic numerals. In
Synonyms some tests, they had to move to multiple locations
Animals; Approximate number system; Counting; and mentally add the number of items they saw in
Mathematics; Numerical cognition; Numerosity those locations to provide the correct label. Successful
 Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals A 43

performance showed combinatorial, enumerative pro- one of two areas behind a screen and then select the A
cesses at work within a symbolic matching task. In larger amount at the end of the trial. This seemingly
other cases, animals have combined the values of arbi- required the ability to account for elements that
trary numerical symbols in a quantity comparison task appeared and disappeared, one by one, in order to
such as making choices between pairs of numerals, each perform the task successfully. Pepperberg (2006) also
of which represented a number of food items. reported that a grey parrot was able to verbally label the
Most tests of animal accounting do not use sym- quantities 0–6 when individual items were sequentially
bolic stimuli but instead use food items. In one of the uncovered and the parrot had to sum the total quantity.
earliest experiments, Rumbaugh et al. (1987) showed Tests that involve subtraction of items are less prev-
that chimpanzees could combine sets of food treats and alent in the comparative cognition literature, and suc-
judge which of two pairs of treats contained the larger cess is less widespread among animals for this
amount. To do this, the chimpanzees had to sum the operation. Brannon et al. (2001) showed that some
contents of each pair of treats in order to maximize the pigeons could subtract in a test in which they were
amount of food they obtained. The chimpanzees required to compare a constant number with the num-
succeeded, indicating an ability for rudimentary ber remaining after a numerical subtraction. Sulkowski
summation. and Hauser (2001) reported that when items were
More formal addition operations can be presented subtracted from one of two sets being compared mon-
when subsets of items are added to containers at dif- keys showed some ability to accommodate the subtrac-
ferent points in time. Much of this work has been done tion operation. However, in the Beran (2001) study
with great apes using a quantity judgment task where only one of two chimpanzees successfully responded
animals choose one of the resulting sets. In one study to trials in which items were first added to two con-
using this method (Beran 2001), two chimpanzees tainers but then a single item was removed from one of
watched as food items were dropped, one at a time, the containers. This might mean that accounting abil-
into two opaque containers. Then, an additional set of ities of animals might be less efficient for subtraction
items was added to each container so that the chim- operations than for one-by-one additive manipula-
panzees had to update their representation of the quan- tions. From an evolutionary perspective, this suggests
tities in each container before they would make that dealing with reductions in quantities that must be
a choice. Both chimpanzees performed at high levels, judged or remembered is a more difficult task,
and they continued this even when three separate sets a suggestion also supported by the developmental
were added at a different time. These chimpanzees even course of early arithmetic abilities in children.
observed and remembered the effects of adding Critically, the performance of animals in nearly all
bananas over 20 min of time into two containers, and tests of arithmetic competence indicates that animals
they picked the larger number of bananas at very high represent quantities and numbers differently than do
levels, indicating that they understood the effects of adult humans. Humans make use of a formal number
each addition to the set sizes they were comparing. system that is infinite in its scope, linearly represented
More recent tests have confirmed that other great (e.g., the mathematical distance between 2 and 3 items
apes and even some monkeys can succeed in making is the same as that between 2,976 items and 2,977
these judgments of summed sets of food items. items), and given to use in formal mathematical sys-
Other animals can accommodate additive opera- tems. Animals, however, make use of an approximate
tions that they see, and they respond when the number number (or quantity) system whereby the representa-
of items they are shown after an addition does not tions that are formed are somewhat fuzzy and inexact.
match what it should be. For example, monkeys stared This is likely the result of how those numbers or quan-
longer at a small set of items when it differed in number tities are processed. For example, one idea is that as
from what they had seen placed behind a screen. Such each item is encountered, it leads to the addition of
performances are quite similar to those reported a magnitude into an accumulator mechanism, and this
for human infants and are not limited to primates. mechanism then holds in memory an approximate
Rugani et al. (2009) showed that newly hatched chicks representation of the sum total. As the amount or
could observe items being added to or removed from number of things gets larger, the representation
44 A Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals

becomes less exact, leading to easier confusion with are small enough. However, what happens next in
regard to comparison tasks or labeling tasks. It is for human development is that we learn to map symbols
this reason that comparing 22 items to 24 items is far onto these representations, and then we learn to
harder for animals than comparing two items to four. manipulate those symbols in ways that eventually sup-
This approximate number system seems to be wide- port our advanced mathematical competencies.
spread phylogenetically, with evidence of its existence Pigeons and chimpanzees are unlikely to learn trigo-
in many animals including apes, monkeys, lemurs, nometry or calculus. But, appropriate environmental
horses, dogs, chicks, parrots, elephants, ants, salaman- circumstances might lead to greater capacities than
ders, fish, bees, and likely many more candidates. This currently demonstrated, much as has been found in
system is thus evolutionarily very old. It is even used by the domain of language learning by animals. Thus, it
adult humans when testing procedures prevent formal remains to be seen what greater capacities might one
counting routines and the blockage of exact numerical day be exhibited by nonhuman animals. An important
representations. For example, when articulatory sup- next step in this research area is to provide animals with
pression techniques are introduced that prevent the type of environment that supports the emergence
humans from counting, performance on tasks like of more complicated mathematical skills. Taking
those described above looks remarkably similar to the a longitudinal perspective on mathematical develop-
performance of nonhuman animals. This shared ment in animals, and providing animals with the
approximate representation of number and quantity structured routines that promote the development of
is therefore a critical aspect of comparative cognition. mathematics in children could provide new insights
into the evolutionary foundations of mathematics
Important Scientific Research and and the emergence of even greater accounting abilities
Open Questions in animals.
Despite the many competencies outlined in this article,
it is still true that nonhuman mathematical competen- Cross-References
cies fall far short of those of adult humans (or even ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
older children). Animals seemingly do not come to use ▶ Analogical Reasoning in Animals
a formal system for representing exact numerosity that ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
is necessary for the emergence of more advanced math- ▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
ematics. Although they show sensitivity to arithmetic ▶ Concept Learning
operations, show some ability for simple counting, and ▶ Learning and Numerical Skill in Animals
do a good job of tracking and accounting for various ▶ Reinforcement Learning
quantities in ways that support good decision making,
they ultimately reach a plateau that humans move well
References
Beran, M. J. (2001). Summation and numerousness judgments of
beyond (at least in literate, numerate cultures). It is this
sequentially presented sets of items by chimpanzees (Pan troglo-
last point that is an important one, as the role of culture dytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115, 181–191.
in the emergence of advanced mathematics is only now Boysen, S. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1989). Numerical competence in
being more clearly understood. For this reason, one can a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychol-
speculate that nonhuman animals may not yet have ogy, 103, 23–31.
tapped into their full capacity for mathematics. Boysen, S. T., & Capaldi, E. J. (Eds.). (1993). The development of
numerical competence: Animal andhuman models. Hillsdale:
Animals share with humans an approximate num-
Erlbaum.
ber system that serves them well in many of the situa- Brannon, E. M., Wusthoff, C. J., Gallistel, C. R., & Gibbon, J. (2001).
tions that they may face. Any creature that can tell the Numerical subtraction in the pigeon: Evidence for a linear sub-
difference between eight pieces of food and five pieces, jective number scale. Psychological Science, 12, 238–247.
or that can tell the difference between two predators Pepperberg, I. M. (2006). Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) numerical
abilities: Addition and further experiments on a zero-like con-
and three on the horizon has a better chance to survive
cept. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 120, 1–11.
and reproduce. And, knowing that items removed from Rugani, R., Fontanari, L., Simoni, E., Regolin, L., & Vallortigara, G.
a set changes the quantitative value of that set also (2009). Arithmetic in newborn chicks. Proceedings of the Royal
supports survival, at least when the numbers of items Society of London, 276, 2451–2460.
 Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities A 45

Rumbaugh, D. M., Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., & Hegel, M. T. (1987). Internalizing EBD are often self-imposed and frequently
Summation in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Journal of
A
involve behavioral deficits and patterns of social avoid-
Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 13, 107–115.
ance. As with externalizing behavior, these behavioral
Sulkowski, G. M., & Hauser, M. D. (2001). Can rhesus monkeys
spontaneously subtract? Cognition, 79, 239–262. manifestations often result in difficulties with social, aca-
demic, and vocational functioning. The most common
internalizing syndromes include obsessive compulsive
disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety, sep-
aration anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder,
Achievement Criteria and child/adolescent depression. Examples of internaliz-
ing behavior problems include:
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess-
● Having low or restricted activity levels
ment Criteria
● Not talking with other children
● Being shy
● Being timid or unassertive
● Avoiding or withdrawing from social situations
● Preferring to play or spend time alone
Achievement Deficits of ● Acting in a fearful manner
Students with Emotional and ● Not participating in games and activities
Behavioral Disabilities ● Being unresponsive to social initiations by others
● Not standing up for one’s self
J. RON NELSON
Externalizing refers to all EBD outwardly directed
Department of Special Education and Communication
by the student toward the external social environment.
Disorders, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,
These behavioral manifestations often result in difficul-
Lincoln, NE, USA
ties with social, academic, and vocational functioning.
The most common externalizing syndromes include
conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder,
Synonyms
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and adjustment
Behavioral disorders; Externalizing and internalizing
disorder. Examples of externalizing behavior problems
behavior; Mental health disorder; Serious emotional
include:
disturbance
● Displaying aggression toward objects or persons
Definition ● Arguing
Emotional and behavioral disabilities (EBD) and the ● Forcing the submission of others
terminology used to classify associated disorders, such ● Defying the teacher
as serious emotional disturbance and mental health ● Being out of the seat
disorders, resist easy and precise definition and identi- ● Not complying with teacher’s instructions or
fication (Nelson et al. 2004). EBD is an umbrella term directives
for a group of social and emotional function disorders ● Having tantrums
that limit students’ social, academic, and vocational ● Being hyperactive
success. ● Disturbing others
● Stealing
● Not following teacher- or school-imposed rules
Theoretical Background
Most EBD can be grouped under one of two broad Finally, substantial research suggests that students
bipolar dimensions: internalizing and externalizing with EBD who exhibit externalizing behavior are more
(Achenbach 2001). Internalizing EBD involve behavioral likely to experience academic difficulties (Hinshaw
deficits representing problems with self that are inwardly 1992; Nelson et al. 2004; Timmermans et al. 2009).
directed away from the external social environment. The findings of this research consistently indicate that
46 A Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities

externalizing behavior appears to be related to aca- in math at intake, 4 years later, and 7 years after intake
demic achievement difficulties, while internalizing was 93%, 97%, and 94%, respectively.
ones are not.
Hypothetical Causal Models and
Important Scientific Research and Associated Open Research Questions
Open Questions Hinshaw (1992) proposed four possible models to
explain the covariation between externalizing behavior
Achievement Difficulties and academic achievement difficulties that has proven
A large diverse body of literature has documented that
to be robust over time. The important open research
students with EBD are likely to evince significant aca-
questions center on identifying a model to explain this
demic achievement difficulties (Nelson et al. 2004;
covariation. The four possible models proposed by
Timmermans et al. 2009). It is important to note before
Hinshaw include:
going on that the achievement difficulties of these
students are not associated with cognitive impairment 1. Academic achievement difficulties lead to externaliz-
(Nelson et al. 2004). Just more than 1% of children who ing behavior. This model requires a history of learning
receive special education services for EBD are reported failure that precedes the emergence of externalizing
to have an intellectual disability (Wagner et al. 2005). behavior. The causal relationship between academic
A majority of the studies regarding the academic achievement difficulties and externalizing behavior
achievement of students with EBD conducted in school may be influenced by additional variables such as
settings have compared their performance with other frustration, lowered self-image, demoralization, or
populations (Wagner et al. 2004). Students with EBD lack of school attachment, and consequences of
consistently show moderate to severe (>1 standard devi- poor achievement that may mediate subsequent
ation) academic achievement difficulties relative to nor- externalizing behavior.
mally achieving students (Wagner et al. 2004). Wagner 2. Externalizing behavior leads to academic achieve-
and colleagues (2004), for example, used data from the ment difficulties. In this case, externalizing behavior
Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study prior to school entry is viewed as primary. External-
(SEELS) and the National Longitudinal Transition izing behavior interference with proper classroom
Study – 2 (NLTS-2) first wave of the School Characteris- behavior might be the key mediator of academic
tics, Student’s School Profile, and found a sample of achievement difficulties. For this model to be viable,
second grade students with EBD performed one or the early externalizing features predict subsequent
more standard deviations below normally achieving academic achievement difficulties independently of
peers in vocabulary, listening comprehension, spelling, poor readiness skills, which might accompany exter-
social science, and science. Furthermore, the prevalence nalizing behavior.
of academic achievement difficulties among students 3. Externalizing behavior and academic achievement
with SBD in school settings also has been studied difficulties lead to the other. This bidirectional
(Greenbaum et al. 1996). Reported prevalence rates of model acknowledges that both of the previous uni-
academic achievement problems among students with directional models occur simultaneously.
EBD in school settings have ranged from 60% to 97% 4. Underlying variables result in both externalizing
(Nelson et al. 2004). The prevalence of academic behavior and academic achievement difficulties.
achievement problems among students with SBD also Antecedent variables such as intraindividual (e.g.,
has been assessed over time (Greenbaum et al. 1996). temperament, language difficulties) or environ-
Greenbaum and colleagues (1996) sampled from all mental (e.g., discordant homes, large family size)
youth with EBD across six states. The percentage of results in externalizing and academic achievement
students reading below grade level at intake (ages 8–11), difficulties. Because this model requires that they
4 years later (ages 12–14), and 7 years after intake (ages causally precede the association, preliminary evi-
15–18) was 54%, 83%, and 85%, respectively. The dence for third variables would include the joint
percentage of children performing below grade level presence of externalizing behavior and cognitive
 Achievement Motivation and Learning A 47

difficulties in early years. More comprehensive A

investigations would require prospective, longitu- Achievement Motivation
dinal evaluations that include sensitive measures of A desire to excel at learning tasks which is related to
the hypothesized causal variables and their statisti- pride in accomplishments.
cal control in analyses of explanatory factors.
Cross-References
Cross-References ▶ Academic Motivation
▶ Abnormal Avoidance Learning ▶ School Motivation
▶ Anxiety, Stress and Learning
▶ At-Risk Learners

References
Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Manual for the child behavior checklist/4-18
Achievement Motivation and
and 2001 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department Learning
of Psychiatry.
Greenbaum, P. E., Dedrick, R. F., Friedman, R. M., Kutash, K., Brown, RENAE LOW, PUTAI JIN
E. C., Lardieri, S. P., & Pugh, A. M. (1996). National adolescent School of Education, The University of New South
and child treatment study (NACTS): Outcomes for children with
Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
serious emotional and behavioral disturbance. Journal of Emo-
tional and Behavioral Disorders, 3, 130–146.
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and under-
achievement in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulle- Synonyms
tin, 111, 127–156. Academic achievement motivation; Needs for
Nelson, J. R., Benner, G. J., Lane, K., & Smith, B. (2004). Academic
achievement
skills of K-12 students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Exceptional Children, 71, 59–74.
Timmermans, M., Van Lier, A. C., & Koot, H. M. (2009). Pathways of Definition
behavior problems from childhood to late adolescence leading to The word motivation comes from the Latin word
delinquency and academic underachievement. Journal of Clinical “motivus” (i.e., a moving cause), which represents the
Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 630–638. underlying mechanism to instigate and sustain goal-
Wagner, M., Kutash, K., Duchnowski, A. J., Epstein, M. H., & Sumi, C.
directed activities. From a behavioral-cognitive per-
(2005). The children and youth we serve: A national picture of the
characteristics of students with emotional disturbances receiving spective, motivation can be defined as the force that
special education. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, gives directions to both mental and physical activities,
13, 79–96. energizes purposeful engagement, and enhances the
tendency to persist for attainment. In the learning
context, various constructs and operational definitions
in relation to achievement motivation have been
proposed and developed (cf. Murphy and Alexander
Achievement Goal Orientations 2000). In general, both researchers in learning sciences
▶ Age-Related Differences in Achievement Goal and practitioners in education (e.g., teachers, coun-
Differentiation selors, and educational administrators) tend to accept
the concise definition of achievement motivation as the
learner’s striving to be competent in effortful activities
(Elliot 1999). In this vein, achievement motivation is
usually characterized by the following indicators: (a)
Achievement Goal Theory setting up certain standards for unique attainment
Students’ purposes in learning influence the nature and within the current study period or in the long term,
quality of their motivation and engagement in (b) pursuing satisfactory outcomes or excellence in
learning. the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills,
48 A Achievement Motivation and Learning

(c) evaluating performance based on self-monitoring grade than most of the students”, “I just want to avoid
and feedback, and (d) expressing a certain degree of doing poorly in this”, “I desire to completely master the
affective attachment to the processes of goal material presented in this class” in a five-point Likert
attainment. scale, they are aware of what they are answering. Because
Achievement motivation was discussed by William of social incentives contained in the achievement moti-
James as early as in 1890 and conceptualized by vation questionnaires, self-attributed motives are based
Henry Murray as needs for achievement in 1938; on both cognitively and emotionally elaborated con-
subsequently, empirical and theoretical work has been structs and predict immediate responses to structured
intensively and systematically conducted by a number learning situations (McClelland et al. 1989). It is rela-
of contributing researchers, including David C. tively easy to check and compare the psychometric
McClelland, John W. Atkinson, Bernard Weiner, John parameters of results obtained from explicit achieve-
G. Nicholls, Martin L. Maehr, Allan Wigfield, ment motivation measures, and a large amount of data
Jacquelynne C. Eccles, Martin V. Covington, Paul R. can be conveniently collected via online or paper–
Pintrich, Carol S. Dweck, and Andrew J. Elliott, just to pencil survey. However, self-reports may have some
mention a few (cf. Elliot 1999; McClelland et al. 1989). threats to validity, such as subjectivity and social desir-
In the literature, there are two types of measure- ability. It is encouraging that in recent years some
ment employed to identify achievement motivation. attempts have been made (a) to combine both implicit
The first type of measurement adopts projective tech- and explicit achievement motivation measures in com-
niques that can be used to examine implicit motives. prehensive investigations, and (b) to examine the predic-
A typical instrument is a collection of picture-story tive value of achievement motivation in relation to other
tests such as the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT), broad and well-established constructs such as reasoning
in which an individual is required to view a series of and Big Five characteristics (e.g., Ziegler et al. 2010).
ambiguous pictures and make up a story for each
picture or answer a series of questions such as “what Theoretical Background
is happening,” “what has led up to this situation,” Theoretical framework of achievement motivation has
“what is wanted,” “what can be done”, and “what will been proffered, expanded, and modified for over
happen.” The TATraters then score the responses in line a century, ranging from behavioral to social cognitive
with various criteria listed in the test guidelines and perspectives (Elliot 1999). In a substantial review, Mur-
categorize the person on strength of achievement phy and Alexander (2000) have identified a corpus of
motives. According to McClelland et al. (1989), 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms
because of activity incentives (i.e., the pleasure derived that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, includ-
from the test activity itself), the implicit motives ing ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning
represent spontaneous and often subconscious moti- goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance
vational system that is associated with affective experi- goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic moti-
ences. However, tests on implicit motives are often low vation; (c) interest, including individual interest and
in reliability, time-consuming, and fairly costly (e.g., situational interest; and (d) self-schemas, including
substantial training is needed for a qualified psycholo- agency, attribution, self-competence, and self-efficacy.
gist to be specialized in projective tests). In the contemporary educational psychology literature
The second type of measurement uses self- on achievement motivation, the following approaches
report questionnaires administered in structured, appear to be the most prominent and fruitful (Elliot
nonambiguous, culturally defined, and achievement- 1999; Low and Jin 2009): self-determination theory,
related situations to examine explicit motives. The expectancy-value theory, social learning theory in
reason to label this as an explicit measurement self-efficacy, and goal-setting theory. It should be
approach is: while participants often do not know the pointed out (and will be illustrated later) that the
ultimate purposes of the first type of approach, they are above-mentioned approaches are not mutually exclu-
generally aware of the specific aims of the second type sive but rather complementary to each other.
of approach. For example, when students are required According to self-determination theory, there are
to rate items like “My goal in this class is to get a better two types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic.
 Achievement Motivation and Learning A 49

Whereas individuals with high extrinsic motivation in math this year?” and “How good would you be at A
exert their effort in order to obtain external rewards, learning something new in math?”), and (c) the
learners having strong intrinsic motivation tend to see components (including usefulness, importance, and
that the major incentives are from fulfilling a task or interest) of subjective task values (e.g., usefulness –
taking a course per se (e.g., just because it is interest- “Compared to most of your other activities, how useful
ing). Motivation is conceptualized as a continuum with is it for you to be good at math?”, importance – “Com-
the intrinsic at one end and the extrinsic at the other, pared to most of your other activities, how important is
and a person may have mixed motivations. Intrinsic what you learn in math?”, and interest – “How much do
motivation (e.g., enjoying doing an assignment just you like doing math?”). This expanded model has taken
because it is challenging) to a certain extent into account some related constructs in other achieve-
reflects a basic human need for competence and ment motivation theories, such as self-efficacy, intrin-
self-determination. Due to positive environmental sic and extrinsic motivation, and interest. To some
influences and personal learning experience, it is pos- extent, those factors are related to task performance
sible for a learner who is initially motivated by external and choice.
incentives to gradually gain the feelings of competence Research in goal-setting on the whole reveals
and thus become internalized with the learning tasks. a positive relationship between the levels of goals and
For example, some students who do not fully under- performance. Higher goals tend to be associated with
stand the importance of an e-learning course may at higher levels of effort and performance. In addition, it
first put “just enough” effort (e.g., log into their appears that setting specific, difficult goals is a more
accounts to download and read basic course informa- productive strategy than just urging individuals to do
tion); after a period of learning, they may gain more their best. This is because the do-your-best strategy
content knowledge, possess better learning skills, and lacks an external framework of reference, whereas spe-
develop a sense of control over this type of learning cifically defined, relatively difficult targets can reduce
mode; eventually they may become more self- ambiguity in goal-oriented actions. Furthermore, if
determined in their e-learning of the course. timely feedback is provided and individuals have the
The notion of self-efficacy, derived from social opportunity to participate in the goal-setting process,
learning theory, refers to a person’s perceptions of his goals in line with relatively high standards of perfor-
or her own capabilities in tackling a task to attain mance can enhance self-efficacy and raise motivation.
desired outcomes. Self-efficacy is task-specific and An expanded motivation model, derived from wider
thus related to a unique environment (e.g., a student social cognitive perspectives, can be used to integrate
feels being able to submit a passable drama assignment goal-setting and self-efficacy: (a) the goal setting
with text and video attachments). Individuals with low process influences both self-efficacy and personal
self-efficacy for an achievement task tend to avoid goal; (b) self-efficacy also shapes personal goal; and
attempting it; those with high self-efficacy would (c) both self-efficacy and personal goal are determi-
exert great effort and perseverance even when encoun- nants of performance (Low and Jin 2009).
tering difficulties in the execution of their task. During recent years, researchers have attempted to
Research in a variety of areas (such as work, sports, identify different types of achievement goal orienta-
and self-regulated learning) reveals that self-efficacy is tions, which are regarded as one of the foundations of
one of the best predictors of performance. There is learning motivation (Elliot 1999; Low and Jin 2009;
growing evidence to support the proposition that Murphy and Alexander 2000). Theoretically, there are
self-efficacy plays a key role in web-based learning in four types of goal orientations: learning (mastery) ori-
different education settings. entation, learning avoidance orientation, performance
According to the expectancy-value model of orientation, and performance avoidance (learned-
achievement motivation, the main motivational deter- helplessness) orientation. Among them, the learning
minants are (a) ability beliefs (e.g., “If you were to list (mastery) orientation, which is characterized by
all the students in your class from the worst to the best a desire to increase one’s competence by mastering
in Math, where would you put yourself ?”), (b) expec- new skills, appears to be conducive to positive learning
tancies for success (e.g., “How well do you expect to do experiences and outcomes. In contrast, performance
50 A Achievement Motivation and Learning

orientation, which refers to a desire to merely demon- Snapshot versus longitudinal research – Most studies
strate one’s satisfactory outcomes (usually indexed on academic achievement motivation are snapshot,
by the rating of performance, whether formal or cross-sectional. Only a few studies are multilevel,
informal), may have less positive impact on learning, longitudinal. There are clues indicating a decline in
especially on endogenous pleasure and in-depth under- achievement motivation with age; large-scale research
standing; both learning avoidance orientation and using representative samples and multipoint measures
performance avoidance orientation have negative should be conducted to scrutinize the mechanisms (e.g.,
impact on achievement. Furthermore, research shows whether this phenomenon is due to school transition or
that students having mastery orientation are more peer pressure). Also, mastery-oriented students may
likely to be engaged in self-regulated learning (Elliot allow personal interest to dictate their study efforts, over-
1999). In multimedia environments, students with spend their attention, time, energy, and other resources
mastery orientation when facing failure or difficult on favored topics, and neglect other essential parts of the
situations tend to adopt an adaptive response pattern, course content, thus jeopardizing their immediate school
which is characterized by using more resources on their results (e.g., exam scores). Whether these students will
tasks, spending more time for problem-solving, and attain any creative achievements in the future can only
seeking more information to form new strategies be answered by a follow-up investigation. The time frame
(Low and Jin 2009). Researchers also suggest that the is also a crucial factor in designing longitudinal research.
cognitive load theory, which examines the effectiveness For instance, there is evidence showing that the positive
of instruction and learning (see chapters on Modality effect of achievement motivation training may not be
effect and Redundancy effect), can be further developed noticeable in 6 months but will be significant in
to investigate how to help learners set up proper and 1.5 years. In this case, sufficient, long-term research com-
challenging goals that are specific to the task. For mitment is essential for a rigorous investigation on the
instance, perceived teacher goals, student goals, and effectiveness of motivational interventions.
appropriate learning strategies should be incorporated Cultural, social-economic, and gender factors –
in an efficient way (e.g., using worked examples) to Cultural background and parental expectations may
reduce the demands on working memory in problem- influence the perception of achievement. It is a
solving or reading comprehension. challenging task for researchers to adopt tests using
appropriate cues to elicit achievement imagery across
Important Scientific Research and cultures or to design an achievement motivation inven-
Open Questions tory applicable to different cultural environments. The
The bulk of achievement motivation studies accumu- early research trend examining children’s needs for
lated over a century provides rich resources for contem- achievement in a middle-class-biased performance
porary research. However, the diversity of achievement setting or using gender-biased material and procedures
motivation approaches raises challenges, tasks, and to test the hypothesis that women do not want to be
a number of open questions for current and future achievers but want to be liked has been noticed by the
researchers. The following sections will highlight some research community and to some extent rectified. In
important issues in this field. this regard, naturalistic studies and ethnographic
Constructs and instruments – As pointed out by approaches should be encouraged to examine issues
Murphy and Alexander (2000), motives for academic associated with achievement motivation.
achievement can be analyzed as drives (an internal state Neural mechanisms of academic achievement moti-
or needs) or goals (purposeful, directional, and mean- vation – From a psycho-neurological perspective,
ingful pursuits). While various measures and scales are achievement motivation must engage working memory
available for motivational constructs (McClelland et al. to process the information of what has been achieved
1989; Ziegler et al. 2010), integrative, validated instru- and what needs to pursue in order to attain ultimate
ments corresponding to an expanded, comprehensive goals. It is of interest to examine particular brain activ-
theoretical framework, for example, the achievement ities related to expectation and rewards during learning.
goal theory or the expectancy-value theory can be Using a 3.0 T functional magnetic resonance imaging
further developed. (fMRI) technique, Mizuno et al. (2008) conducted a
 Acoustic and Phonological Learning A 51

series of experiments to inspect the association between McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-
attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychologist Review, 96(4),
A
the self-reported academic achievement motivation
690–702.
and the cortical activities corresponding to academic
Mizuno, K., Tanaka, M., Ishii, A., Tanabe, H. C., Onoe, H., Sadato, N.,
reward. They suggest that the putamen may be the & Watanabe, Y. (2008). The neural basis of academic achieve-
critical region activated for governing achievement ment motivation. Neuroimage, 42, 369–378.
motivation. Research in this direction appears Murphy, P. K., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of
promising. motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
25, 3–53.
Changes in learning environment and learners’ study
Ziegler, M., Schmukle, S., Egloff, B., & Bühner, M. (2010). Investi-
habit due to technological advancement – The rapid gating measures of achievement motivation(s). Journal of Indi-
development in information technology (both hard- vidual Differences, 31(1), 15–21.
ware and software) during recent decades has been
significantly shaping learning environments and this
accelerated technological advancement has great
impact on learners’ study habits in the OECD countries Achievement Motivation
and many developing countries, such as searching Enhancement
information for assignments via Internet or intranet
▶ Motivation Enhancement
at home rather than going to the library, joining
a virtual forum after a tutorial, and playing wii games
instead of entering a nearby gym for a break during
study. The impact of such ecological changes in mod- Achievement Motivation
ern education on learners’ motivation needs to be care- Intervention
fully assessed (Low and Jin 2009). On the one hand,
academic achievement motivation can be enhanced by ▶ Motivation Enhancement
timely online feedback and by interesting multimedia
simulations or presentations (see Modality effect). On
the other hand, a student’s enthusiasm may be hin-
dered due to technological anxiety or the goal-setting Acknowledgment
process can be distorted by the encounter of irrelevant, ▶ Attribution Theory in Communication Research
“seductive” information in the cyber space. It is there-
fore important to improve instructional design and
implement training for self-regulated learning in
order to foster constructive achievement motivation. Acoustic and Phonological
Learning
Cross-References
▶ Academic Motivation BETTY K. TULLER1, NOËL NGUYEN2
▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation 1
National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA
▶ Modality Effect 2
Laboratoire Parole et Langage, Université de Provence
▶ Motivation, Volition and Performance & CNRS, Aix en Provence, France
▶ Redundancy Effect
▶ Self-Organized Learning
▶ Self-Regulated Learning Synonyms
▶ Stress and Learning Speech category learning; Speech perceptual learning

References
Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achieve- The material in this paper is based in part on work done in part while
ment goals. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 169–189. the first author was serving at the U.S. National Science Foundation
Low, R., & Jin, P. (2009). Motivation and multimedia learning. (NSF).Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
In R. Zheng (Ed.), Cognitive effects of multimedia learning expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
(pp. 154–172). Hershey: IG1 Global. necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.
52 A Acoustic and Phonological Learning

Definition nonnative contrasts. However, different nonnative dis-

When people learn to perceive the sounds of languages, tinctions are not equally easy (or equally difficult) to
they may do so on at least two bases: Acoustic learning learn to perceive. Adults have considerable difficulty
indicates that the differentiation among sounds is based discriminating, identifying, and hence learning
on increasing sensitivity to small acoustic distinctions nonnative phonetic categories that overlap perceptu-
which are then used to label tokens reliably. In phono- ally with a single phonetic category in their native
logical learning, the differentiation among sounds is language. These tend to be assimilated by listeners to
based on increasing categorization. In this mode, their native categories. For example, American
subjects become less attuned to within-category acous- English–speaking adults have been found to perceptu-
tic distinctions, suggesting cognitive restructuring. ally assimilate both Hindi dental and retroflex stops to
their native /d/ category. In other words, native speech
Theoretical Background sound categories can be likened to a perceptual filter
In most circumstances, listeners appear to extract through which nonnative speech sounds are processed.
meaning from speech in an effortless and successful Recent research has revealed that this also extends to
way. It is assumed that in order to achieve this remark- the perception of speech sounds in a nonnative regional
able performance, listeners decompose the speech flow variety of the listener’s native language. Perceptual
into a sequence of segments that are mapped onto assimilation does not apply, however, to nonnative
phonological categories (vowels and consonants). speech sounds that are very different from native
A major issue is how this categorization is achieved in ones. Adults can be quite adept at perceiving and learn-
spite of the large variability exhibited by speech sounds ing contrasts that do not have near equivalents in their
both within and across speakers. Early speech percep- native language (e.g., so-called click consonants in Zulu
tion research provided a major key to understanding for English-speaking listeners can easily be perceived as
this process by showing that there was a nonlinear distinct on a purely acoustic basis). In general, an adult
relationship between acoustics and perception, at least listener’s ability to perceive or learn nonnative distinc-
for a category of speech sounds referred to as stop tions is thought to be constrained by the similarity or
consonants (whose realization involves a complete clo- dissimilarity of the new sounds to native ones, with the
sure of the vocal tract, e.g., /d/ or /t/). When a gradual native sound defined as a formal element in an abstract
change was made to an acoustic parameter that allows phonological system (Best et al. 1988).
one consonant to be perceptually differentiated from Similarity to an existing native category is not the
another (e.g., the duration of the interval from stop only determinant of whether a nonnative contrast can
release to vowel onset, which is shorter in /da/ than in be perceived reliably by adult listeners. The specific
/ta/), listeners were found to respond to this change in a training regime used also can significantly affect
nonlinear way, with an abrupt shift from one perceived sensitivity to nonnative contrasts. For example, adult
category to the other as the acoustic parameter reached Japanese monolinguals, who show a strong tendency
a critical value. In addition, discrimination between to assimilate both English /r/ and /l/ consonants to
speech stimuli proved to be significantly better across their native post-alveolar flap consonant category, can
this perceptual boundary than on either side of it, even improve their ability to discriminate between /r/ and
when the size of the acoustic change was identical – /l/ following training that entails them being exposed
a phenomenon called categorical perception (Liberman to a large variety of instances of /r/ and /l/. In general,
et al. 1967). Note that the acoustic region in which learning is facilitated when the training set is charac-
perceptual change occurs is defined by the phonetic terized by a great deal of acoustic variability instanti-
categories of the listener’s native language. For example, ating a given category, that is, when the training set
for the same continuum, English listeners discriminate more closely imitates actual language experience
two categories (/ba/ vs. /da/) whereas Hindi listeners (Lively et al. 1993).
discriminate three (Werker and Lalonde 1988). One possible mechanism for assimilation is the
Because adults are capable of learning new lan- notion that categories organize themselves around
guages, they are also capable of learning to distinguish so-called prototypes that emerge as the result of the
 Acoustic and Phonological Learning A 53

listener’s repeated exposure to the speech sounds in description of the language sound system. Individual A
their language. A prototype is the best exemplar in subjects utilize distinct modes of learning, based either
each category and can be thought of as occupying the on becoming more attuned to small acoustic distinc-
center of that category. This causes a warping of the tions between stimuli or becoming less attuned to
perceptual space around the prototypes, such that within-category acoustic distinctions (suggesting
listeners have greater difficulty discriminating between cognitive restructuring). Acoustic learning is accompa-
speech sounds close to the same prototype than nied by a gradual adjustment of the individual’s
between speech sounds that have the same acoustic perceptual space over the learning sessions without
difference but are situated further from a prototype. the abrupt transition typically involved in forming
Such a phenomenon has been referred to as the per- a new phonological category (Tuller et al. 2008). This
ceptual magnet effect because speech sounds located in finding leads to important questions regarding the
the vicinity of the prototype seem to be perceptually functional neural substrates underlying the perception
attracted to it (Kuhl 1991). In this theoretical frame- of native versus newly learned, nonnative speech
work, perceptual boundaries between speech sound sounds, and more specifically, regarding possible
categories are to a certain extent conditioned by how differences in neural functional connectivity among
prototypes are distributed in the perceptual space. An individuals who successfully learn new speech sounds
important consequence of this is that although it is using an acoustic basis, those who learn using
attuned to native speech sound categories from an a phonological basis, and those who do not learn even
early stage, the listener’s perceptual system remains after extensive training.
plastic enough throughout adulthood to adjust, to Another productive avenue may be to explore why
a certain extent, to within-language acoustic variation learning is facilitated when the training set contains
and to nonnative speech sounds. a great deal of acoustic variability. Although the notion
of a perceptual magnet provides a putative mechanism
Important Scientific Research and for incorporating the many acoustic instantiations of
Open Questions a sound into what becomes essentially a fuzzy category,
There is a great deal of individual difference in the it is certainly not the only possibility. For example,
ability to learn to discriminate nonnative contrasts, or recent recasting of speech categories into dynamic
nonnative from native ones, even among individuals terms suggests that variability should be evaluated as
with similar language backgrounds. Some people are expressing the relative stability of categories, which is
able to perceive nonnative sounds reliably and dis- in turn related to their learnability. In this view, the
tinctly in adulthood without any training, or to learn evolution of variability during training, not mean
them quickly with limited training. For others, learning variability over some time frame, may be a more appro-
to hear these distinctions is slow and effortful or even priate metric for how learning takes place. The aim is to
highly unlikely. Empirically, individual differences are understand how acoustic learning and phonological
generally identified in the character of pretraining learning, dynamic and symbolic descriptions, continu-
identification and discrimination test performance ity and discreteness, can coexist.
and by the relationship between pre- and post-training
performance on the same measures. An open question Cross-References
is whether some listeners perceive novel speech sounds ▶ Bilingualism and Learning
in a speech-specific manner, whereas others can focus ▶ Categorical Representation
on the sounds themselves and attend more to their ▶ Computational Models of Human Learning
physical/acoustic characteristics. ▶ Individual Differences
Evidence for this comes from recent work that ▶ Language Acquisition and Development
extends the topic of investigation from what is learned ▶ Language Development and Behavioral Methods
to how it is learned. In this dynamical view, the empha- ▶ Linguistic Factors in Learning
sis is on what individual subjects perceive and how that ▶ Phonological Representation
evolves over time, rather than on an idealized ▶ Psycholinguistics and Learning
54 A Acquired-Drive Experiment

References
Best, C. T., McRoberts, G. W., & Sithole, N. M. (1988). Examination Acquiring Organizational
of perceptual reorganization for nonnative speech contrasts: Learning Norms
Zulu click discrimination by English-speaking adults and infants.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
FONS WIJNHOVEN
Performance, 14, 345–360.
Kuhl, P. (1991). Human adults and human infants show a ‘perceptual
Faculty of Management & Governance, University of
magnet effect’ for the prototypes of speech categories, monkeys Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
do not. Perception & Psychophysics, 50, 93–107.
Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D. P., & Studdert-
Kennedy, M. (1967). Perception of the speech code. Psychological Synonyms
Review, 74, 431–461.
Knowledge management; Learning organization
Lively, S. E., Logan, J. S., & Pisoni, D. B. (1993). Training Japanese
listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: II. The role of phonetic
environment and talker variability in learning new perceptual Definition
categories. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 94, Learning organizations, as organizations, consist
1242–1255. of organizational norms that enable and constrain cer-
Tuller, B., Jantzen, M. G., & Jirsa, V. (2008). A dynamical approach to
tain learning styles, being more or less single- (error
speech categorization: Two routes to learning. New Ideas in
Psychology, 26, 208–226.
correction) or double-loop (innovation) learning.
Werker, J. F., & Lalonde, C. E. (1988). Cross-language speech percep- Configurations of learning norms are called learning
tion: Initial capabilities and developmental change. Developmen- prototypes. Organizational learning capabilities thus are
tal Psychology, 24, 672–683. appropriate matches of learning needs and organiza-
tional learning norms. The adjustment of learning
prototypes to changing environmental learning
here needs is called deutero learning.

Acquired-Drive Experiment Theoretical Background

Organizational learning is a major topic for organiza-
An experiment in which, in a first phase, subjects tion studies, because it is about how organizations can
(often, rats) undergo Pavlovian fear conditioning of gain a better action repertoire in increasingly complex
a conditioned stimulus (CS) to an aversive uncondi- and dynamic environments by expanding their knowl-
tioned stimulus (US; typically, a shock). In a second edge base. For these environments, it is not the knowl-
phase, the CS is presented and subjects are allowed to edge itself, but the learning capabilities that determine
perform a response that terminates it. In that phase, the effectiveness. These capabilities have been summarized
US never occurs, regardless of the subjects’ actions. under the concept of “the learning organization” as
Learning of the response is usually considered evidence organizational arrangements that (1) provide people
for the idea that CS termination can reinforce avoid- with direct feedback to their performance, (2) decen-
ance responses, as proposed by two-factor theory. tralize and reduce bureaucracy to support initiatives
Acquired-drive experiments are sometimes called and creativity, (3) emphasize expertise development,
escape-from-fear (EFF) experiments, because termi- (4) get people to contribute to the organizational
nating the CS is assumed to provide an escape from knowledge base, and (5) create open communications
the fear associated with the CS. with least defensiveness. Environmental complexity and
dynamics are the main sources of learning needs to cope
with while developing effective learning organizations.
These learning organizations, as organizations, consist
of organizational norms that enable and constrain cer-
Acquiring and Using (Generic) tain learning styles, being more or less single- (error
Knowledge correction) or double-loop (innovation) learning.
Configurations of learning norms are called learning
▶ Learning and Understanding prototypes here. Organizational learning capabilities
 Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms A 55

thus are appropriate matches of learning needs and learning needs than complexity, because high dynamics A
organizational learning norms. The adjustment in a simple situation will continuously require high
of learning prototypes to changing environmental learning efforts. High complexity in a stable situation,
learning needs is called deutero learning. As however, will lead to declining learning needs because
a consequence of the organizing process that is involved no changes of the action–outcome theory are required
in deutero learning, adjustments of the learning proto- at a certain level of comprehension.
type might become difficult. Therefore, it is important According to Argyris and Schön (1978), two styles
to ask what problems organizations have in moving to of learning (also named learning depth) exist. The
another learning prototype when their learning needs single-loop learning (SLL) style aims at adaptation by
change. Figure 1 summarizes the propositions effectively using existing actionoutcome theories. This
mentioned here. requires learning, because the decision maker needs to
recognize a problem and select an “appropriate” mode
Organizational Learning Needs of coping with the problem, within the constraints set
and Styles by the action–outcome theory (e.g., an optimization
Although many authors on organizational learning goal). The double-loop learning (DLL) style wants to
show the importance of organizational learning, they develop and innovate existing action–outcome theories
seldom consider the learning needs. Four approaches based on experiences with the ineffectiveness of their
to learning needs are: (1) knowledge gap analysis for application.
identifying strategic knowledge needs, (2) classification Stable and simple environments do not require
of problems to select operationally required knowledge much DLL. The environment is low risk, and therefore
and skills, (3) coping with organizational tremors and discourages the search for innovations. When the envi-
jolts by anticipation, response, and adjustments of ronment becomes more dynamic and complex, more
behavioral reportoires, and (4) decisional uncertainty active development and innovation (DLL) is required,
(contingency) measurement. The last approach is because too many unresolved problems will appear.
further elaborated below. The need to retain and reuse existing knowledge
The result and objective of organizational learning (SLL) complicates the unlearning of obsolete knowl-
is the creation of action–outcome knowledge (explana- edge, which is often required in DLL. Nevertheless, it
tions, predictions, and means-end theories). Two prob- may contribute substantially to efficiency, reliability,
lems affect this action–outcome theory development and quality of products and services. Additionally,
process, namely, the complexity (requiring adding DLL is enabled but also limited by (often tacit) learning
factors to understand what is going on) and the norms. It has been stated often that organizations
dynamics of the environment (requiring frequent might much more profitably invest in DLL instead
changes of factors in the action–outcome theory). of SLL, because of the higher returns for intellectual
Table 1 provides a classification of learning needs. In and creative activities. Unfortunately, according to
this classification, dynamics is a stronger determiner of Argyris and Schön (1978), reduced openness in

Learning prototype
Learning capability
(configuration of learning
Learning needs
(match or mismatch of needs norms)
& prototype)

Enable/
constrain
Accumulation & unlearning

Dynamics Learning styles

Complexity
(Single–or double–loop learning)

Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms. Fig. 1 Basic concepts related to learning needs and learning capabilities
56 A Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms

Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms. Table 1 corresponding learning prototype could be named
Learning norms expert learning.
In simple-dynamic environments, organizations
Organizational Organizational complexity have to deal with a small number of similar factors
dynamics Simple Complex
and components that are in a continual process of
Static Low learning Moderately low change. Consequently, the organizational learning
needs learning needs
needs are moderately high. The high dynamics require
Dynamic Moderately high High learning that people are given much support and individual
learning needs needs responsibilities to detect and correct errors (SLL), but
also to discover new solutions for new and unknown
problems (DLL). The required innovative capabilities
communication, domination of some people over
and creativity can only be reached when people are not
others, and tricks in protecting one from being hurt
constrained by formal rules or hierarchies, and when
and evaluated negatively are dominant learning norms
learning may happen everywhere in the company.
in (western) organizations that obstruct effective
Because the problems are often not too complex, indi-
DLL. The organizational learning literature has put
viduals can do a lot at solving them when they are given
many efforts in reversing this “model I” (Argyris and
sufficient latitude and problem-solving autonomy. The
Schön) set of learning norms.
related learning prototype, therefore, could be named
dispersed learning, and has been described previously as
Learning Prototypes and Learning a learning lab.
Norms In complex-dynamic environments, organizations
Learning prototypes are configurations of learning
have to deal with many and dissimilar factors and
norms that match a level of learning needs. In simple-
components in continual change. These environments
static environments, organizations have to deal with
have high learning needs and require strong decentral-
a small number of similar factors and components
ization and high job specialization. Because of the high
that remain basically the same. In such environments,
complexity and dynamics, much DLL must happen (in
the learning needs are low and consequently organiza-
R&D and innovation processes) besides the large
tions need not put much effort in developing an
amount of SLL by correcting errors in the existing
explicit learning policy. High stability and simplicity
business. The organizational learning policy clearly
make that learning in small organizations be done
states how much attention to both has to be given.
efficiently and effectively by one person or a small
The organizational structure (called hypertext organi-
group, and that in large organizations it is useful to
zation) enables to switch intentionally between learn-
develop formal procedures of knowledge handling to
ing styles, and management styles are such that all
divide the learning load (Hedberg 1981). The domi-
people at all levels in the organization are motivated
nant learning style is single-loop and the learning is
and responsible regarding learning (called “middle-up-
task-motivated, well-structured, part of formal proce-
down management”). Because of the complexity of
dures, and planned. This prototype could be named
combining the sometimes–conflicting demands of
bureaucratic learning.
single-loop and double-loop learning, formal rules
Organizations in complex-static environments have
exist about the learning responsibilities, but at the
to deal with large numbers and dissimilar factors and
same time enough flexibility exists. The related
components that remain basically the same. In such
organizational learning prototype could be named the
environments, learning needs are moderately low. The
knowledge-creating company.
high complexity means that learning activities must be
The learning norms that configure the mentioned
split up among several experts. Because the environ-
learning prototypes consist of:
ment is stable, not many major changes (indicating
DLL) in the action–outcome theories happen, or they ● Procedural learning norms concern the sharing,
happen only after extensive formal learning proce- dissemination, and handling of information for
dures. Because the role of experts is so vital here, the organizational learning, and influence the actual
 Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms A 57

use of information systems and communication Table 2 summarizes the mentioned propositions A
media for organizational learning. In this context, about the learning needs, learning prototypes, and
the effectiveness of formal (IT/rule-based) media is learning norms.
discussed against informal media (face-to-face,
social media, and interpersonal understanding). Learning Capabilities
● Learning action norms are the incentives to act on The previous section has described organizational
the basis of new insights. It is well known that great learning capabilities as matches of needs and norms.
new insights are often difficult to put into action, Because there is a trend for increasing complexity and
often because learning activities do not necessarily dynamics in almost all industries, mismatches happen
lead to win-win situations for all people involved. frequently and organizations have to acquire the appro-
● Learning responsibility norms have to be well priate learning capabilities. The required changes of the
established, as otherwise learning might not occur learning norms often are preceded by a sense of crisis.
effectively in relation to the learning needs and To solve this crisis, new learning capabilities must be
policy. acquired. This requires the accumulation of learning
● The learning policy norms consist of statements norms as well as unlearning of inappropriate ones.
concerning (1) the development of an organizational It might be argued that any movement to another
learning infrastructure (e.g., information technolo- learning prototype type aims at solving specific prob-
gies, budgets, and experts); (2) the development of lems in the learning process. Starting at the bureaucratic
core competencies; (3) the basic organizing princi- learning prototype, the increase of complexity requires
ples for the learning process, like (de-)centralization, the introduction of experts, who concentrate and
internal democracy, incentives for creative thinking; maintain the knowledge resources and can solve com-
and (4) the role of organizational learning in relation plex problems by applying more advanced knowledge.
to other organizational activities and priorities. The This solution of the complexity crisis might however
learning policies must be implemented in learning lead to new problems when the complexity increases
responsibilities, action, and procedural norms even more. In very high complexity levels, it is needed
(Wijnhoven 2001). to have several experts collaborate to solve one big

Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms. Table 2 Expected effective patterns of learning needs, learning norms, and
learning prototypes
Learning
needs:
Learning
norms 1: Low 2: Moderately low 3: Moderately high 4: High
Identity and policy norms Centralized Planned division of Culture and budgets Internalized SLL and DLL
and formal learning labor support innovation, policies, carefully
learning creativity, and coordinating learning
aiming at SLL innovativeness initiatives
Responsibility norms SLL by SLL by many people, DLL by many, DLL and SLL. Switch
specialists but functionally unorganized between both is well
organized. DLL by organized. Hypertext
experts organization
Action norms Task Expertise acquisition Incentive system; extra Internalization of
motivation for payment and job rewards for knowledge learning policies
security creation
Procedural norms Formal Formal Informal Formal and informal
Learning prototype Bureaucratic Expert learning Dispersed learning Knowledge creation
learning company
58 A Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms

problem. Collaboration of experts is a problem in itself The previous considerations all describe how orga-
when they are used to work individually or when it is nizations can become effective learning organizations,
hard to find out who has what expertise and how and it is stated that the knowledge-creating company
collaboration should be organized. Overcoming the can handle high complexity and dynamics. In some
problems of the expertise assembly thus requires cases, however, the learning needs may be lower and
combinative capabilities that, for instance, can be even decline. In such environment, the knowledge
created by the explicit development and management creation prototype may still generate the required
of a shared organizational knowledge base. knowledge (and thus is effective); however, the knowl-
Starting at the bureaucratic learning prototype in edge creation could have been done in a more efficient
simple environments again, the increase of dynamics way as well. Table 3 also shows some other misfits and
requires higher speed of problem solution than this type related problems. Figure 2 summarizes the relations
can provide. Decentralization of responsibilities and between learning needs, learning prototypes, and
resources is a powerful means to realize this and leads learning crises.
to what we called the dispersed learning prototype.
This dispersed prototype, however, easily underutilizes Important Scientific Research and
dispersed expertise, and the learning activities may be Open Questions
poorly aligned with the business intent. To understand the required learning norms, it is nec-
The knowledge-creating company incorporates essary to first assess the learning needs of an organiza-
both managerial (middle-up-down) and structural tion. This entry proposed to continue previous work of
(hypertext organization) aspects required to facilitate Duncan and Weiss, consisting of a complexity- and
and coordinate learning in high complex and high dynamics-based learning needs measure. If we want
dynamic environments. to design learning organizations while coping with

Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms. Table 3 Learning prototypes and indicators of learning needs mismatches
Prototype
Learning need Bureaucratic Expert Dispersed Knowledge creation
Low Match Overhead Overhead Overhead
Knowledge adoption Inefficiencies in Complex
problems because of primary process coordination and too
the mental distance of frequent changes in
experts from the work groups
application field
Moderately low Crisis of complexity Match Learning Loss of concentrated
coordination expert groups
problems (too
much
delegation, lack
of overview)
Moderately high Crisis of complexity Crisis of speed Match Task force groups are
and crisis of speed not needed because
problems will be
solved in the
business groups
High Crisis of complexity, Crisis of speed, crisis of Crisis of Match
crisis of speed, crisis of solution assembly, and knowledge
knowledge crisis of knowledge consistency and
consistency, and crisis consistency crisis of solution
of solution assembly assembly
 Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms A 59

Complexity
Knowledge creating
A
Crisis of expertise
assembly company

Expert learning
Crises of memory under-use
Crisis of and misalignment
Double-misfit
complexity

Bureaucratic Dispersed
learning learning
Crisis of learning
speed Dynamics

Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms. Fig. 2 Levels of learning and learning prototypes

the specific type of knowledge required, knowledge knowledge creation prototype, may be unwise when it
gaps analysis and problem types–based learning needs leads to the inefficiencies predicted by this theory.
measures are important too. Particularly interesting on Although, effectiveness of learning is more important
this respect too is that many knowledge sources are in than its efficiency, inefficient learning may use too
the organization’s external environment, thus requiring many resources, reducing the opportunities of
collaboration, acquisition, market procurement, or effective learning in the end. In the information age,
external consultancy (Kraaijenbrink and Wijnhoven it is important to study information technology’s
2008). The prototypes defined here still may be valid impact and contributions to organizational learning
but the inclusion of external partners requires some efficiency, which indirectly impact organizational
extra learning norms to motivate effective knowledge learning effectiveness (McLure-Wasko and Faraj 2005).
creation and avoid the risks involved. Additionally, it is
known that knowledge is a very heterogeneous asset Cross-References
(Mingers 2008), which implies that the maintenance ▶ Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning
and development of some action–outcome theories ▶ Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms
may require very different prototypes. These may ▶ Adaptation and Learning
nevertheless be governed by one overarching prototype ▶ Deutero Learning
to keep consistency and realize effective collaboration ▶ Organizational Change and Learning
of learning efforts. ▶ Reorganization and Learning
This entry also described the problems of moving ▶ The Learning Organization
from one prototype to another depending on changes ▶ Workplace Learning
in an organization’s learning needs. In that case, the
organization has to acquire learning capabilities or References
reduce learning needs (e.g., via mergers, regulation of Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978). Organizational learning: a theory of
action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
the existing industry, or codifying work procedures).
Hedberg, B. (1981). How organizations learn and unlearn. In P. C.
Two remarks for the research agenda may be Nystrom & W. H. Starbuck (Eds.), Handbook of organizational
important to make here. First, the main parameters in design, 1, adapting organizations to their environments (pp. 3–27).
the prototype design (learning needs and learning New York: Oxford University Press.
norms) are still in need of rigorous operationalization Kraaijenbrink, J., & Wijnhoven, F. (2008). Managing heterogeneous
knowledge: a theory of external knowledge integration. Knowl-
and measurement. These measures will help in
edge Management Research and Practic, 6, 274–286. doi:10.1057/
assessing organizational learning capabilities and kmrp.2008.26.
evaluating the propositions mentioned in this entry. McLure-Wasko, M., & Faraj, S. (2005). Why should I share? examin-
Second, the idea of a “one best solution,” like ing social capital and knowledge contribution in electronic
60 A Acquisition

networks of practice. Management Information Systems Quar-

terly, 29(1), 35–57. Acquisitive Learning
Mingers, J. (2008). Management knowledge and knowledge manage-
ment: Realism and forums of truth. Knowledge Management Starts by focusing on observable behavior of the learner
Research and Practice, 6, 62–76. and involves the idea that behavior can be changed by
Wijnhoven, F. (2001). Acquiring organizational learning norms: feedback from the environment. This kind of learning
A contingency approach for understanding deutero learning.
is associated with reproducing desirable behavior
Management Learning, 32(2), 181–200.
defined in measurable outcomes.

Acquisition ACT - Adaptive Control of

▶ Internalization Thought
GERHARD WEBER
Department of Psychology, University of Education
Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Acquisition of Depression
▶ Learning Mechanisms of Depression
Synonyms
ACT-R

Definition
Acquisition of Expertise ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) is a cognitive
▶ Development of Expertise architecture based on the assumption of a unified
▶ Development of Expertise and High Performance in theory of mind. The goal of this cognitive theory is to
Content-Area Learning explain how human cognition works and what the
structures and processes of human memory, thinking,
problem solving, and language are. The core of ACT is
a production system with a pattern matcher that works
on memory and perceptual-motor modules via buffers.
Acquisition of Fact Knowledge The current version of adaptive control of thought
(ACT-R) is based on the principle of rationality of the
▶ Fact Learning
human mind. Simulations with ACT-R allow for
predicting typical measures in psychological experi-
ments like latency (time to perform a task), accuracy
(correct vs. false responses), and neurological data
Acquisition of Knowledge (e.g., FMRI-data).

▶ Individual Learning Theoretical Background

▶ Psychology of Learning (Overview Article) Starting from the HAM-model (Human Associative
Memory), John Anderson developed the Adaptive
Control of Thought theory in several steps, resulting
in a first major version ACT (Anderson 1983). Besides
other approaches like SOAR (Newell 1990), it was one
Acquisition of Schemas of the most recognized attempts to formulate
▶ Schema Development a cognitive architecture according to the idea of
 ACT - Adaptive Control of Thought A 61

a unified theory of mind (Newell 1990). ACT is Lebiere 1998) and with the introduction of modules A
a production system with a memory for production and buffers (Anderson et al. 2004). Modules can
rules describing procedural knowledge, a declarative theoretically be mapped to brain systems. Buffers
memory representing declarative knowledge in terms hold temporarily active structures to allow the interac-
of cognitive units, and a working memory that serves as tion between the procedural memory module on the
a connection to the outside world that holds elements one side and the declarative memory module and the
being currently in the focus of attention. Cognitive motor-perceptual modules on the other side.
elements entering working memory are sources of acti-
vation that spreads to related cognitive units in the Important Scientific Research and
declarative memory. The strength of cognitive units Open Questions
increases every time a unit created in working memory The cognitive architecture ACT (ACT, ACT-R) has
is made permanent or updated in the declarative long- been used to create models in a lot of different
term memory. The production system continuously domains. The results of simulation runs with these
tries to apply production rules. A pattern-matching models have been compared to behavioral data from
process matches production rules against active struc- experiments with human subjects. In principle this
tures in the working memory. The production rule works as follows. For a simulation, a specific ACT
firing fastest with respect to five conflict resolution model is created (programmed) with general assump-
principles will be applied resulting in creating new tions about human cognition included with the ACT
units in working memory and/or creating new produc- architecture on the one side and specific assumptions
tion rules or tuning already existing production rules. about the particular domain on the other side. This
The strength of production rules increases with each ACT model allows for specific predictions for experi-
successful application and decreases in case the appli- ments in the particular domain. Simulation runs with
cation of the production rule fails. Procedural learning the ACT model result in data that can be compared to
in ACT works according to Fitts’ steps of skill acquisi- the respective quantitative measures (latency, accuracy,
tion. In a first declarative step, general production rules FRMI data) from experiments with groups of human
are used for an interpretive application of declarative subjects.
knowledge. In the second step, new knowledge is com- ACT has been used successfully to develop models
piled by composition and proceduralization of rules. In in domains like memory and attention (e.g., the fan
the final third step, productions are further tuned by effect of interference, primacy and recency effects in list
generalization, discrimination, and strengthening pro- learning, and serial recall), natural language under-
cesses. ACT has been applied successfully to human standing and production, modeling human behavior
skill acquisition, to predict variants of the fan effect, or and skill acquisition in dynamic tasks and complex
to the development of intelligent tutoring systems. problem solving, and in education (e.g., the cognitive
The introduction of the principle of rationality tutors developed at the Pittsburgh Science of Learning
(“The cognitive system operates at all times to optimize Center). This research resulted in hundreds of scientific
the adaptation of the behavior of the organism,” Ander- publications in major journals, edited books, and
son 1990, p. 28) led to a major revision of the ACT monographs.
theory. Anderson (1990) formulated the “Rational In recent studies, ACT-R has been used in the field
Analysis” of human cognition, a mathematical of cognitive neuroscience. Patterns of brain activation
approach mainly based on the Bayes Theorem. The during imaging experiments have been successfully
new version of the cognitive architecture was called compared to predictions from simulation runs with
“Adaptive Control of Thought – Rational” (ACT-R). respective to ACT-R models (e.g., Anderson et al.
The underlying mathematical calculations of the func- 2004).
tionality of ACT-R are now based on the assumptions The ACT theory is under steady development as can
of the Rational Analysis of cognition (Anderson 1993). be seen from the long history of different
In subsequent years, ACT-R has been augmented implementations as described above. Many groups of
with perceptual and motor capabilities (Anderson and researchers spread over the whole world create and test
62 A Act of Presentations

specific cognitive models. The source code of the

ACT-R implementation and further information Action Learning
about ACT-R is freely available from the ACT-R
website (http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/). CLARE RIGG1, KIRAN TREHAN2
1
School of Business and Humanities, Institute of
Technology Tralee, Tralee, County Kerry, Ireland
Cross-References 2
Department of Management Learning and
▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition
Leadership, Lancaster University Management School,
▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
Lancaster, UK

References
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Synonyms
Harvard University Press. Action inquiry; Action modality; Action reflection
Anderson, J. R. (1990). The adaptive character of thought. Hillsdale:
learning
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of the mind. Hillsdale: Lawrence
Erlbaum. Definition
Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The atomic components of Action learning is one of a family of action inquiry
thought. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. approaches to problem solving and learning. It is
Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Byrne, M. D., Douglas, S., Lebiere, C., & a way of learning with and from others in the course
Qin, Y. (2004). An integrated theory of the mind. Psychological
of tackling difficult issues, typically involving a small
Review, 111(4), 1036–1060.
Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition. Cambridge, MA: group of people (action learning set) meeting together
Harvard University Press. to tackle difficult issues through questioning one
another, experimentation, and reflection. Action learn-
ing is employed for a variety of individual and organi-
zational development purposes as well as to address
broad systemic and societal problems. It is a mode of
Act of Presentations inquiry with particular value for situations where peo-
ple want to change something about their situation at
▶ Representations, Presentations, and Conceptual the same time gain greater insight into both the issue
Schemas and their own practice. It is not a simplistic “learning
by doing” as sometimes mischaracterized.
Action learning is best described as an approach or
ethos that has most or all of the following features:
Acting the Situations ● A task: a problem or opportunity that needs action
taken. This may be a collective issue or individual.
▶ Role-Play and the Development of Mental Models
Learning and development are greatest when issues
are multi-faceted, with unclear boundaries and
several stakeholders, rather than puzzles that have
a simple technical right answer.
Action Enquiry ● People – action learners: a group of people (typically
4–8, though can be more or less) who want to see
▶ Action Research on Learning the problem addressed and voluntarily work
together in sets of peers. The set takes responsibility
for organizing themselves and develops their own
capacity to solve problems.
Action Inquiry ● Doing: The action learners have the capacity to take
action not just diagnose the situation. They are
▶ Action Learning prepared to experiment.
 Action Learning A 63

● Formal instruction is insufficient: external training, expertise, which fostered the conviction that, unless A
instruction, or expertise (P) is not relied upon. problems can be solved by a purely technical solution,
● Questioning as the main way to help participants there is more learning to be had through action being
define their tasks/problems and reflect on their taken by those involved with an issue. Key was
assumptions. a synergy between learning and action “there can be
● Reflection and feedback: with the support and no learning without action and no (sober and deliber-
challenge of peers in the set, action learners review ate) action without learning.” In other words learning
their experimental attempts to address the task, through activity is essential, which makes action learn-
reflect on their actions, review their assumptions, ing both an example of experiential learning (Dewey,
and receive feedback. Kolb) as well as an early form of work-based learning
● Profound personal development results from reflec- (Raelin).
tion upon action. Action learning is based on adult learning theory
● Organizational development results where action that adults learn from taking action and reflecting on
learners are drawn from across an organization or real issues that are of direct concern to them (andragogy
network and focus on organization or systemic (Knowles; Boud)). The search for fresh questions and
problems. “q” (questioning insight) is seen as more helpful than
● Facilitators (also termed coach or set advisor) are access to expert knowledge or “p.” Learning happens
commonly though not always used. Their role is to through asking questions, investigation, experimenta-
model the peer challenge/critical friend behaviors, tion, and reflection, rather than through reliance on
to help the group establish ground rules and external expertise.
develop questioning, reflective, and inclusive team Revans captured this theory of learning with the
practices. equation:

L ðlearningÞ ¼ P ðprogrammed knowledgeÞ

Theoretical Background
The power of action learning is rooted in both the þ Q ðquestioning insightÞ
underlying theories of learning, as well as its theory of Based on assumptions of social learning action
action (praxis). learning creates a setting where peers challenge and
learn through interaction with one another, thereby
Theory of Learning encouraging double loop learning (Argyris and Schon):
Reg Revans is widely accredited as the originator of learning about the values and assumptions that under-
action learning, starting with his work in the 1940s lie their actions. Learning set members learn the value
UK coal industry and Belgian Inter-University of a good question for opening up different perspec-
Programme (Revans 1982). When pit managers had tives. Individuals working alone can limit their own
problems, he encouraged them to meet together in learning by their mental models and unconscious pat-
small groups, on-site, and ask one another questions terns of behaviors.
about what they saw in order to find their own solu- As a consequence of opportunistic and incidental
tions, rather than bring in “experts” to solve their learning (Marsick and Watkins) provoked by taking
problems for them. Revans’ formative influences action, and reflected on systematically within the
included his early training as a physicist at Cambridge action learning set, participants develop meta-skills
University in the late 1920s, where he encountered such as self-insight, wider organization-political
Nobel-prize winning scientists meeting weekly, not to understanding and influencing abilities, as well as skills
display their achievements, but to learn from one for learning how to learn (Deuterolearning, Bateson).
another through “describing one’s very ignorance
and, more than that, in trading it with others equally Interlocking Systems of Alpha, Beta,
ready to confess their own.” and Gamma
Action learning, as developed by Revans, grew from Individual learning and institutional change were
a mid-twentieth-century disenchantment with positiv- conceived by Revans as being symbiotic through the
ism and prevailing cultural beliefs in the dominance of interconnection of three systems:
64 A Action Learning

● Alpha – strategy system: a person’s context includ- sponsor action learning to address open-ended prob-
ing their value system, external environment, and lems, such as stimulating innovation. Public service bod-
internal resources available ies employ it to promote inter-agency collaboration on
● Beta – decision cycle: application of scientific persistent social problems. Action learning finds frequent
method through steps of survey, trial, action, application in development programs, both in-company
audit, consolidation, or, now more commonly and academic, particularly post-graduate degrees and
encapsulated in, Plan-Do-Review with individuals who have a level of discretion in their
● Gamma – learning system: the person’s reflexivity roles. Some practitioners/writers have found action
in the sense of their awareness of their own tacit learning has most value when practiced in conjunction
assumptions, mental frameworks, and awareness of with other related action strategies that also produce
others knowledge from collaborative action on challenging
issues, notably action research (Zuber-Skerritt 2009).
System alpha, with the individual and organiza-
tional values, is the factor most likely to obstruct learn-
ing and effective action.
Critical Action Learning
Critical action learning (CAL) is a development of con-
ventional action learning because it aims to promote
Theory of Action (Praxis) a deepening of critical thinking on the daily realities of
Action learning can be seen as resting on two partic- participants; key to this process is the emphasis on
ular perspectives: critical realism and pragmatism collective as well as individual reflection. It attempts
(Pedler 1997). From critical realism, it rejects positivist to supplement an individual’s experiences of action
assumptions that the world can be known, measured, (learning from experience), with the reflection of
and predicted with precision, but also eschews a purely existing organizational, political, and emotional
social constructionist viewpoint that reality is no more dynamics created in action (learning from organizing).
than the language and discourses that we use to com- CAL has a number of distinguishing features,
municate. Thus action learning takes some things as including: its emphasis on the way that learning is
being real (e.g., social problems with genuine effects) supported, avoided, and/or prevented through power
while acknowledging that our way of knowing can only relations; the linking of questioning insight to complex
be through the language we have to communicate emotions, unconscious processes, and relations; and
about it. The debt to pragmatism (Dewey) is evident a more active facilitation role than implied within
in Revan’s System Beta and the characteristic action traditional action learning.
learning questions asked in pursuit of the best practi-
cable solutions that enable people to make meaningful Key Features of Critical Action
changes in their organizations, communities, and soci- Learning
eties: “What are you trying to do? What is stopping
you? Who could help you?” Valuing Practical Intelligence
More recent theorizing of the potential of action CAL also eschews positivist and technicist approaches
learning draws from communities of practice as well as to research and practice, valuing instead, phroenesis
to other areas or organization theory such as actor (knowledge derived from practice and deliberation)
network and organizational discourse. and metis (knowledge based on experience). But such
practice is always undertaken in a context of power and
Applications politics, which inevitably gives rise to conflict and
In current times there are many varied interpretations tension. Hence CAL is a process in which knowledge
and applications of action learning across the world is acquired through its relevance to the real-life engage-
(O’Neil and Marsick 2007). The focus traverses a spec- ments and tensions of the participants.
trum from performativity (giving priority to achieving
business results through problem-resolution) through Critical Collaboration
to transformational learning (emphasizing radical Action learning has usually viewed the “action learning
personal and/or organizational change). Organizations set” as the primary vehicle for collaboration, addressing
 Action Learning A 65

work-based issues through questioning and reflection. about the issues under consideration. Equally impor- A
The action learning set, then, serves as a mechanism or tant is the capacity to illuminate the ways in which
vehicle for self-governance, shared decision making, participants reinforce behaviors or power relations
and problem solving which encourages people to own that sustain learning inaction.
and be responsible for their actions. Criticality enters
the fray when explicit recognition is accorded to the
manner in which context, power, and emotion shape
Important Scientific Research and
the scope for learning. Action learning sets are beset
Open Questions
● What are the characteristics of participant readiness
with the range of inequalities, tensions, and emotional
and organization readiness for action learning?
fractures that characterize groups, organizations, and
● What kinds of issues benefit from action learning?
societies. Vince’s (2004) concept of “organizing
● Whom is it not suited for?
insight” illuminates the importance of critical collabo-
● How can it be best combined with other forms of
ration because from this perspective, action learning
development intervention (e.g., 360, 1–1 coaching)?
sets become arenas for the interplay of emotional,
● Why is it so powerful?
political, and social relations. CAL affords an opportu-
● How can facilitator independence best be
nity to examine “the politics that surround and inform
encouraged?
organizing. . .to comprehend these politics it is often
● What are the conditions or effective virtual action
necessary to question these political choices and deci-
learning?
sions, both consciously and unconsciously” (Vince
● Linking individual and organizational learning
2004, p. 74). Through the process of interactive gover-
● Critical action learning
nance (Ram and Trehan 2010), collaboration allows the
● In what contexts are there benefits to combining
practical intelligence of groups of actors to be pressed
action learning with other action modalities, such
into service in order to resolve matters of concern to
as action research, but also participatory research,
them, in order to collectively propagate change within
action science, developmental action inquiry, cooper-
their organizations.
ative inquiry, and appreciative inquiry.
● The continuing problem of definition
Critical Reflection and Change
While reflection focuses on the immediate, presenting
details of a task or problem, critical reflection is directly
Cross-References
▶ Actor Network Theory and Learning
concerned with promoting a process of critical reflec-
▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy
tion on the emotional and political processes that
▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
attend dynamics; importantly, it aims to implement
▶ Communities of Practice
the fruits of that reflection within practice both inside
▶ Deuterolearning
and outside the group. By adopting this more expan-
▶ Discourse
sive approach, critical reflection can create new under-
▶ Experiential Learning
standings by making conscious the social, political,
▶ Learning Set Formation and Conceptualization
professional, economic, and ethical assumptions
▶ Social Learning
constraining or supporting one’s action in a specific
▶ Work-Based Learning
context. Thus critical reflection blends learning
through experience with theoretical and technical
learning to form new knowledge constructions, and References
new behaviors and insights (Rigg and Trehan 2008). O’Neil, J., & Marsick, V. J. (2007). Understanding action learning.
New York: AMACOM.
Facilitation Pedler, M. (1997, 2011). Action learning in practice. London: Gower.
Ram, M., & Trehan, K. (2010). Critical action learning, policy learn-
Within critical action learning, the role of facilitation
ing and small firms: An inquiry. Management Learning, 41(4),
occupies interesting territory. In CAL, the role of facil- 415–428.
itation is designed to support participants to explore Revans, R. (1982). The ABC of action learning. Bromley: Chartwell-
with some intensity their assumptions and emotions Bratt.
66 A Action Modality

Rigg, C., & Trehan, K. (2008). Critical reflection in the workplace – Is

it just too difficult? Journal of European Industrial Training, Action Regulation Theory
31(2), 219–237.
Vince, R. (2004). Rethinking strategic learning. New York: Routledge.
MICHAEL L. JONES
Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2009). Action learning and action research –
Songlines through interviews. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Faculty of Commerce, University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW, Australia

Synonyms
ART
Action Modality
Definition
▶ Action Learning
Action Regulation Theory (ART) is a psychological
theory that looks at how individuals achieve their
goals through processes of action and regulation. The
theory is particularly useful for understanding organi-
zational design and workflow analysis where flaws and
Action Neuroimaging hindrances in work procedures can be identified.

▶ Neurophysiological Correlates of Learning to Dance

Theoretical Background
Action Regulation Theory (ART) is a cognitive theory,
the preponderance of which is drawn from work in
Germany and Scandinavia. It is based upon a conflux
of ▶ Lewin’s Field theories and the fundamentals of
Action Plan ▶ Activity Theory proposed by ▶ Leont’ev and
▶ Vygotski; however, where Activity Theory looks at
▶ Action Schemas activities, which comprise sets of actions, ART focuses
on specific actions. An action is described as goal-
oriented behavior (without a goal there is no cause
for action), which is coupled with an inherent feedback
cycle. This allows for the concept of action as a pseudo-
Action Possibility iterative process. ART is concerned with the structure
of goals and sub-goals, which are guided within
▶ Affordance a hierarchical framework of plans, monitoring, and
feedback. These components of action are regarded as
links between mental representations and the material
and social environment. Thus, ART can be seen as
a part of Activity Theory.
Action Reflection Learning A practical analogy of action in this context could
be a situation where, on a film set, if the sound techni-
▶ Action Learning cian requires a clearer sound image, he would instruct
the boom operator to move the microphone closer to
the object for a clearer audio recording. Referring to
Fig. 1, the boom operator will develop the goal (and
decide among other competing goals) – I want to move
Action Regulation the microphone closer to the bird’s nest. Next, she will
orient herself by collecting information about the situ-
▶ Neurophysiology of Motivated Learning ation, and capturing and analyzing relevant signals
 Action Regulation Theory A 67

Goal development hierarchic-sequential manner of action regulation. A

Firstly, a goal is set. Then, working down, sub-goals
are devised leading to actions. Completion of a set of
Orientation
actions will satisfy a sub-sub-goal or a sub-goal, which
will eventually achieve the major goal. A parallel can be
Tes made to going from higher levels (the intellectual level)
Plan generation t- O Feedback
p
to lower levels (the sensorimotor level) in the human
er -
at e

Te muscular–nervous system.
st
Decision
-Exi
t Through action, the theory allows the measurement
and understanding of individuals’ motivations and
self-directed action toward goal completion. Through
Execution-
monitoring regulation, the theory measures the various learning
and cognitive behaviors of individuals in the approach
Action Regulation Theory. Fig. 1 The action process to, and management of, work options. Together, an
implementation of ART will measure the efficiency of
leading to a probable prognosis – The wind is blowing human–technical interaction in the workplace or organi-
and the branch is moving. The signals relate to acquired zation by monitoring and reducing work hindrances.
models and knowledge the grip has gained through The real value of ART lies in its ability to measure
experience and training. The analysis will then lead to stresses or errors in the work system. Assuming that
generation of plans; while this is usually constructed individuals are active and goal oriented, and they
before the action is executed, it is not always compre- dynamically engage with their environment. Any fail-
hensively conceived and is usually a simple sub-goal ure to achieve a goal, which is potentially unavoidable,
with various levels of contingency – I will rest the boom is due to an error. As human error is avoidable, errors
on the upper branch; if the branch is too flimsy, I will arising through ART are assumed to be systemic and
support the weight by readjusting my balance. Decision are due to misalignments within the sociotechnical
is usually a subconscious commitment to execute the system. Such sociotechnical flaws are known as work
plan. It may include an iterative process of TOTE: hindrances as they tend to disrupt stable activity in the
Test-Operate-Test-Exit, where the process between average person resulting in stress factors. These stress
plan and decision is being continuously fine-tuned. factors are characteristics of the work task that hinder
Execution and monitoring is the point at which the the regulation of mental processes because of poor
subject interacts with the object and both positions technical or organizational design. In their study of
are altered – The boom operator moves the microphone stress in the workplace, Greiner et al. (1997) found
closer to the nest. Feedback completes the action. It four stress factors: barriers – the extent to which the
provides the subject with information regarding pro- work performance is impeded or interrupted because
gress toward the goal and can be extrinsic or intrinsic – of work obstacles; time pressures – the measure of how
The sound technician receives an improved sound level fast the worker has to work to complete the assigned
and advises the boom operator that the position is good. task under average work conditions, without barriers;
Put more simply, an action is stimulated by a goal, monotonous working conditions – conditions that
which motivates the actor toward action, which conse- demand continuous visual attention, in combination
quently requires the anticipation of future conditions with repetitive movements or information processing
and results in a need for an action plan. The process is for at least 30 consecutive minutes; and time binding –
complete with feedback providing a basis for compar- the amount that worker autonomy is modified due to
ison and learning. considerations over time and scheduling, regardless of
While the above describes the “action” part of ART, time pressures. Work characteristics that are highly
“regulation” comes from the structure of actions and characteristic of stressors such as these will impede
possible alternatives. This is because the actions are the task at hand, and force workers to try and cope
structured in a hierarchical system. Figure 2 illustrates with the situation, and will induce fatigue and poor
the regulation process, taking into account the occupational health and efficiency.
68 A Action Regulation Theory

Major goal

Hierarchy of goals
Sub-goal Sub-goal Sub-goal

Sub-sub- Sub-sub- Sub-sub- Sub-sub- Sub-sub- Sub-sub-

goal goal goal goal goal goal

Actions

Sequence of visible actions

Action Regulation Theory. Fig. 2 The hierarchic-sequential regulation of action

ART addresses organizational analysis from a per- channel capacity, lack of reliability, and poor compu-
spective that treats the organization as a ▶ system. tational ability,” but on the other hand humans also
A system is a complex arrangement of components have some desirable characteristics: “The strong points
which relate, directly or indirectly, in a stable or semi- of a human element are its large memory capacity, its
stable causal network. The two important elements large repertory of responses, its flexibility in relating
within this arrangement are control and structure these responses to information inputs, and its ability to
(Burrell and Morgan 1979). Control requires the react creatively when the unexpected is encountered”
change of energy in one activity at one level in order (Haberstroh 1965, p. 1176). The challenge therefore is
to achieve meaningful activity at a higher level. To to design the organizational system so that it tolerates
achieve this level of interference requires routes of human weaknesses, while harnessing human strengths.
communication that link activities and levels together.
Humans are an implicit component in all social and Important Scientific Research and
work organizations. They link into the system through Open Questions
knowledge, providing a medium of interaction Action Regulation Theory provides a basis for measur-
between the tool and the material being transformed, ing and optimizing the human–technical interface in
forming complex human activity systems. Structure the workplace. Taking a systems perspective of organi-
comprises those elements within the human activity zation, the theory builds on the work of Lewin with his
system that are either permanent or that will change force-field analysis and the work of Vygotski with
slowly or occasionally. As such, structure, in terms of Activity Theory, as well as the various approaches to
organization, includes hierarchy, reporting structure, Sociotechnical Systems Theory. ART is divided into
rules and procedures, task design, lines of communica- two complementary approaches to analysis. Firstly,
tion, and physical layout (Bond 2000). work processes are observed according to their capacity
The systems view of organizational design can be to allow human variation toward task action, and how
metaphorically referred to as organic or organistic as this action assists or impedes workflow. Secondly, work
the system, in a macro sense, is reminiscent of its processes are observed according to their ability to
biological counterpart, both of which comprise constrain or promote cognitive regulation and creativ-
systems and subsystems that symbiotically interrelate. ity, enabling workers to learn and innovate their way to
However, for the organization, in an organic design more constructive and efficient outputs.
structure, the human element is the natural systemic Overall, ART ultimately measures work impedi-
flaw. As Haberstroh states, humans exhibit “low ments called hindrances and aims and tries to reduce
 Action Research on Learning A 69

these. ART provides a systematic method for analyzing details of their particular schools, the way they teach, A
organizations based on worker activity and work flow. and the quality of their students’ learning. Action
It is a method that has been largely overlooked in non- research aims to facilitate insight, develop a teaching
European countries, but it is a method that may have practice that is reactive and reflective, positively impact
merit in other parts of the world. the school community and the educational environ-
ment, as well as help students be better learners (Mills
Cross-References 2003). Action research is further described as
▶ Activity Theory
" a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken
▶ Field Theory of Learning
by participants in social situations in order to improve
▶ Sociotechnical Systems
the rationality and justice of their own social or educa-
▶ System
tional practices, as well as their understanding of those
practices and the situations in which the practices are
References
carried out. (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988, p. 5)
Bond, P. (2000). Knowledge and knowing as structure: A new per-
spective on the management of technology for the knowledge Action research on learning is research in the sense
based economy. International Journal of Technology Management,
that teachers investigate their professional practice to
20(5–8), 528–544.
develop better understanding on teaching and student
Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and
organisational analysis: Elements of the sociology of corporate life. learning and improve educational practices by devel-
London: Heinemann. oping a plan for action or change. By considering the
Greiner, B. A., Ragland, D. R., Krause, N., Syme, S. L., & Fisher, J. M. practitioner and participants of an action research,
(1997). Objective measurement of occupational stress factors – action research promotes learning by reflecting on
an example with San Francisco urban transit operators. Journal
experience.
of Occupational Health Psychology, 2(4), 325–342.
Haberstroh, C. J. (1965). Organization design and systems analysis.
In J. G. March (Ed.), Handbook of organizations (pp. 1171–1212). Theoretical Background
Chicago: Rand McNally. Kurt Zadek Lewin (1890–1947), a social psychologist
interested in improving the social organization of
groups and communities, developed the concept of
action research in 1945 (Somekh and Zeichner 2009).
Action Research Stephen Corey was a leading voice for promoting
action research in education in the United States and
▶ Teaching Experiments and Professional Learning thus action research was first introduced as
a methodology in education research in 1949 (Somekh
and Zeichner 2009). Action research is elegantly
defined by Mills (2003) as
Action Research on Learning " any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher
researchers to gather information about the ways
AYTAC GOGUS
their particular school operates, how they teach, and
Center for Individual and Academic Development,
how well their students learn. The information is gath-
Sabanci University CIAD, Istanbul, Turkey
ered with the goals of gaining insight, developing
reflective practice, effecting positive changes in the
school environment and on educational practices in
Synonyms
general, and improving student outcomes. (Mills
Action enquiry; Practitioner research; Practitioner-
2003, p. 4)
based research; Practitioner-led research
Kurt Lewin, Stephen Corey, Lawrence Stenhouse,
Definition Wilf Carr, and Stephen Kemmis were the first leaders in
Action research is carried out by teacher researchers promoting the use of action research in educational
with the motivation to know the intricate operational and organizational change and the use of spiral cycle
70 A Action Research on Learning

for action research: planning, action, observation, cycle. The cycle supposes that teachers are the
reflection and then re-planning, further implementa- researchers in their own classrooms to investigate and
tion, observing, and reflecting (Kemmis and McTaggart understand the students, their learning, and the social
1988; Somekh and Zeichner 2009). Kemmis and context.
McTaggart (1988) describe action research as “to According to McNiff et al. (2003),
plan, act, observe and reflect more carefully, more
" action research is about individual’s learning, in com-
systematically, and more rigorously than one usually
pany with other people . . . Action research has both
does in everyday life; and to use the relationships
a personal and social aim is an improvement of your
between these moments in the process as a source of
situation . . . Your report is an account of how your
both improvement and knowledge” (p. 10). Figure 1
learning developed through studying your practice
demonstrates the spiral or cycle for action research,
within the situation, and how your learning influenced
which involves planning, action, observation, and
the situation . . . What does matter is that you show
reflection (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988).
your own process of learning, and explain how your
The cycles of action research (Kemmis and
new learning has helped your work within the situa-
McTaggart 1988) steps can be summarized as below:
tion. (p. 13)
● Planning: This stage involves problem identifica-
McNiff et al. (2003) further state that
tion, systematically analyzing the problem, formu-
lating research questions, outlining a strategic plan " action research aims to develop educative relation-
for action to address the identified problem. ships to enable all participants to learn and grow.
● Action/implementation: This stage involves Action research is an intervention in personal practice
implementing the strategic and some intervention to encourage improvement for oneself and others . . . It
or action to address the problem. is a practical form of research, which recognizes that
● Observation/evaluation: This stage involves observ- the world is not perfect and that professional values
ing the outcomes of the strategic plan and evaluat- have to be negotiated. (p. 19)
ing the action taken in the previous phase with
The aim of action research is to foster the practi-
appropriate methods and techniques.
tioners’ better understanding of their practices, practi-
● Critical reflection: This stage involves reflecting
cal improvement, innovation, and development of
critically on the results of the evaluation and the
social practice.
whole action and identifying a new problem and the
Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) suggest that the
process to start all over again.
fundamental components of action research include
The action research cycle illustrates an ongoing the following: (1) developing a plan for improvement,
decision-making process. Action research on learning (2) implementing the plan, (3) observing and
is conducted by teachers by using the action research documenting the effects of the plan, and (4) reflecting
on the effects of the plan for further planning and
informed action. Based on Kemmis and McTaggart
Planning
(1988) formulation of action research, Mills (2003)
developed the following framework for action research:
● Describe the problem and area of focus.
Action ● Define the factors involved in your area of focus
Reflection
(e.g., the curriculum, school setting, socioeconomic
factors, student outcomes, and instructional
strategies).
Observation ● Develop research questions.
● Describe the intervention or innovation to be
Action Research on Learning. Fig. 1 Cycle for action implemented.
research ● Develop a timeline for implementation.
 Action Research on Learning A 71

● Describe the membership of the action research 4. Action research aims to develop theory, which is A
group. not simply abstract and descriptive but is a guide to
● Develop a list of resources to implement the plan. inquiry and action in present time (p. 184).
● Describe the data to be collected.
Reason (2001) identifies three broad strategies of
● Develop a data collection and analysis plan.
action research practice and emphasizes that the most
● Select appropriate tools of inquiry.
compelling and enduring kind of action research
● Carry out the plan (implementation, data collec-
engages the following three strategies:
tion, and data analysis).
● Report the results and suggestions. ● First-person action research/practice skills and
methods address the ability of the researcher to
Action research on learning can be used in various
foster an inquiring approach to his or her own
areas of education such as school development, curric-
life, to act awarely and choicefully, and to assess
ulum development, evaluation of learning and teaching
effects in the outside world while acting.
activities, classroom process, special programs, on-site
● Second-person action research/practice addresses
management, parent participation, and parent
our ability to inquire face-to-face with others into
education.
issues of mutual concern – for example, in the
service of improving our personal and professional
Important Scientific Research and
practices, both individually and separately. Second-
Open Questions person inquiry is also concerned with how to create
The action researcher learns by actively working on
communities of inquiry or learning organizations.
problems and then reflecting upon and questioning
● Third-person research/practice aims to create
this experience in the system. Moreover, the action
a wider community of inquiry involving persons
researcher develops ownership on learning and also
who, because they cannot be known to each other
develops leadership by implementing solutions to the
face-to-face (say, in a large, geographically dispersed
problems and delivering results with others. Therefore,
corporation), have an impersonal quality (p. 182).
using action research on organizational learning and
organizational change has been widely popular. Somekh and Zeichner (2009) investigate how
Reason (2001) emphasizes four important charac- action research theories and practices are remodeled
teristics of action research as summarized below: in local contexts and used to support educational
reform. From an analysis of 46 publications from the
1. The primary purpose of action research is to
period 2000–2008, five “variations” in the globalized
develop practical knowing embodied moment-to-
theory and practice of action research are identified as
moment action by research/practitioner, and the
below:
development of learning organizations – commu-
nities of inquiry rooted in communities of practice. 1. Action research in times of political upheaval and
2. Action research has a collaborative intent: transition: The political nature of action research is
a primary value of action research strategies is to very obvious when it is conducted in contexts
increase people’s involvement in the creation and where there has been a radical change of govern-
application of knowledge about them and about ment in the recent past. Major ideological
their worlds. reorientation in the publicly declared vision of
3. Action research is rooted in each participant’s in- a new political system brings with it hopes for
depth, critical, and practical experience of the situ- improvement that are nearly always unrealizable
ation to be understood and acted in . . . Action in the near future. Action research, particularly
research practitioners take into account many when it draws upon critical values . . .provides
different forms of knowing – knowledge of our a starting point for working to realize the vision
purposes as well of our ideas, knowledge that is (p. 12).
based in intuition as well as the senses, knowledge 2. Action research as a state-sponsored means of
expressed in aesthetic form . . ., and practical reforming schooling: During the second half of the
knowledge expressed in skill and competence. 1990s, there was a move in several countries in East
72 A Action Research on Learning

Asia to introduce policies that formally adopted a framework, which provides the process with struc-
action research as a strategy for school reform. This ture. The framework ensures that particular principles
can be seen as a response to a perceived need to are held, that participants commit to be responsible for
encourage greater creativity and entrepreneurship their own learning, and that they process emotional
in the workforce at a time of growing economic consequences of the situation. When one speaks of
global competition (p. 14). effectiveness of action research, encouragement of
3. Co-option of action research by Western govern- critical thinking, creative problem-solving, and self-
ments and school systems to control teachers: In development are inferred (Dewar and Sharp 2006).
recent years, the influence of neoliberal and Action research encourages practitioners to pro-
neoconservative policies on state school systems duce new knowledge, rather than merely use existing
. . . has created a situation where there has been an knowledge. Dewar and Sharp (2006) state that
increased focus on treating teachers as technicians
" action research emphasizes the production of knowl-
or educational clerks rather than as reflective pro-
edge and action directly useful to practice and the
fessionals. Teachers’ ability to exercise their judg-
empowerment of people, at a deeper level, through
ment in their classrooms and to maintain control of
the process of constructing and using their own knowl-
the direction of their professional development has
edge. Action research is thus deliberately concerned
been eroded (p. 15).
with the processes of development, improvement, and
4. Action research as a university-led reform move-
continuous learning. (p. 221)
ment: Universities in many countries are working in
partnership with schools and governments to use Action researchers draw attention to the notion of
action research as a strategy for educational reform. commitment for rigorous examination and critique of
Often, this is through innovative projects involving researcher’s own practice. Action researchers should be
school–university partnerships; often, it is through aware of the difficulties of conducting action research
the work of graduate students who carry out action such as time demands, adequate research methods
research in their own school as part of higher degree skills for a valid study, and the risk of ending up with
study (p. 15). non-generalizable. The most important notion of
5. Action research as locally sponsored systemic action research is that action research should be applied
reform sustained over time: In some cases, action to the development of teaching and learning as its
research has been organized by teachers themselves potential is identified.
as a local and teacher-directed form of professional
development for individuals and has then been Cross-References
incorporated into reform efforts on a broader ▶ Experiential Learning Theory
scale within school districts (p. 18). ▶ Learning Cycles
▶ Learning Spiral
To summarize, action research on learning is
viewed as a practical and a systematic investigation in References
order to inform what is known about learning and to Dewar, B., & Sharp, C. (2006). Using evidence: How action learning
improve educational practices such as teaching can support individual and organizational learning through
methods and curriculum design. Action research is action research. Educational Action Research, 14(2), 219–237.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner
a reflective process using cyclical with four interrelated
(3rd ed.). Geelong: Deakin University.
stages: plan, act, observe, and reflect. Action research McNiff, J., Lomax, P., & Whitehead, J. (2003). You and your action
method is best carried out with collaboration between research project. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
researcher and other participants. Also, action research Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher.
uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. Upper Saddle River: Merrill.
Reason, P. (2001). Learning and change through action research. In
According to Dewar and Sharp (2006), action learning
J. Henry (Ed.), Creative management. London: Sage.
is supported by the existence of colleagues who work Somekh, B., & Zeichner, K. (2009). Action research for educational
together in solving real-world problems. Colleagues reform: Remodelling action research theories and practices in
carry out the action research process within local contexts. Educational Action Research, 17(1), 5–21.
 Action Schemas A 73

Theoretical Background A
Action Schemas Piaget argued that infants acquire knowledge of the
world by repeatedly executing action-producing
NORBERT M. SEEL schemas. Infants organize their sensuous and motor
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, activities continuously to more complex and general-
Freiburg, Germany izable action schemas as “active organizations of lived
experiences” (Piaget 1936, p. 332). Whatever is trans-
posed, generalized, or differentiated in an action,
Synonyms everything that is common to each of the repetitions
Action plan; Enactive schema of an action contributes to the formation of such an
action-producing schema. When an infant begins to
Definition grab deliberately at objects in the environment, it
The term action schema(s) refers to a central concept of develops a simple action schema through repetition.
Piagetian epistemology and intellectual development When it begins to throw its pacifier onto the ground in
as well as to a variety of techniques and languages for the expectation that mommy or daddy will pick it up
modeling sequential decision-making problems within and give it back, it is developing a specific action
the realm of machine learning and artificial intelligence schema, which involves testing conditions against
(AI). In both fields of application, the basic assumption a standard. This of course requires for the infant to fix
is that intelligent systems are active beings, that impact the characteristics of individual actions and the objects
consciously and intentionally their environments. involved permanently in knowledge memory and to
As a means of action regulation, the schema of an action abstract continually from the concrete objects by iso-
is defined as the structured whole of the universalized lating and consolidating the invariant characteristics of
characteristics of this action, i.e., the characteristics objects and situations. Referring to Piaget’s conception
which enable intelligent systems to repeat the action of schemas, it can be said that action schemas are
and apply it to new contents. Closely related with the building blocks of information processing from
actions schemas is the concept of action slips defined perception to the organization of concepts.
as the performance of actions which are not intended “At each level, perception is bound up with action
but carried out. schemata at a higher order, and that these structures

Performance
AGENT Standard

percepts
Sensors
Critic

feedback
changes ENVIRONMENT
Learning Performance
element knowledge element

learning goals

experiments
Problem
Generator
actions
Effectors

Action Schemas. Fig. 1 Overall structure of a learning agent (Bringsjord 2011, http://kryten.mm.rpi.edu/SEP/index8.
html)
74 A Action Schemas

can influence those of perception. This would mean automatic mode, conscious control is only necessary
that knowledge of objects cannot be considered as when switching from one practised routine to another.
being “first” perceptual and “afterward” super-percep- Failure to switch into attentional mode means that an
tual. All knowledge of objects is a function of those inappropriate schema has been activated. Following
action schemata to which the object is assimilated; and Reason (1992), there can be different errors in schema
these range from the earliest reflexes to the most activation resulting in action slips. First, there could
complex elaborations acquired by learning” (Inhelder possibly be an error in forming the original intention
and Piaget 1958, p. 6). (e.g., intending to go to work on a Sunday). Secondly,
In order to correspond with the different levels of there could be errors in the activation of appropriate
abstraction and generalization of schemas, Norman schemas; i.e., the wrong schema could be activated or
and Shallice (1986) suggest a hierarchy of schemas, an appropriate schema could lose its activation. Finally,
which bring about actions. At the highest level is an there could be errors in the triggering of active schemas,
abstract schema related to intention, and at lower levels so that an action is triggered by the wrong schema.
are concrete schemas of those actions necessary to To eliminate such errors is a central objective of
achieve the intention. A schema is translated into action schemas in the field of machine learning and
action when its level of activation is high and when artificial intelligence where they are referred to intelli-
the situation triggers off action. This idea corresponds gent ▶ agents that should operate in unfamiliar
with a three-level theory of action control: When domains. Indeed, an agent must learn how its actions
a stimulus triggers only one particular action schema, affect an environment with changing states, and it is
that action is performed automatically. When unsure about the exact state before or after the action.
a particular stimulus triggers several action schemas, Current methods assume full observability (e.g., learn-
the strongest activated schema inhibits the competing ing planning operators) and reinforcement learning
schemas in a semiautomatic response-selection pro- (Sutton and Barto 1998). In the field of machine learn-
cess, which is called contention scheduling. This process ing, the term action schema refers to a wide variety of
is supervised by a control process, the so-called super- techniques and languages (e.g., STRIPS language) for
visory attentional system (SAS). When a ▶ habitual modeling sequential decision-making problems. At the
action is triggered, but inappropriate, the SAS increases core of these approaches are the formalization of a
the activation of a more appropriate action schema. As problem and the development of tractable algorithms.
a consequence, the SAS can override contention sched- For instance, Amir and Chang (2008) have proposed an
uling in the case that a new response to familiar stimuli algorithm called Simultaneous Learning and Filtering
or a stop of performing a habitual action is necessary. (SLAF) to learn more expressive action schemas using
This explanation corresponds with the theoretical consistency-based algorithms. The fundamental basis
model of Hasher and Zacks (1979) concerning is often the infusion of logical knowledge representa-
controlled and automatic processing of information. tions into the area of machine learning. Regularly, an
These authors argue that some processes become auto- action schema comprises a controller, a representation
matic through continuous practice, whereas others are of the dynamics of executing the controller, and one or
innately automatic (e.g., encoding information about more criteria for stopping executing the controller.
spatial location, timing, and frequency of stimuli to be
processed). This model suggests also several reasons for Important Scientific Research and
action slips, which can be defined as the performance of Open Questions
actions that are not intended. In everyday life, action The term action schema refers to a wide range of appli-
slips are often related to absentmindedness; that means cations in psychology and machine learning. In psychol-
these slips occur due to a lack of attention to what we ogy, it can be traced back, first of all, to Piaget. However,
are doing. Accordingly, action slips are regularly related an analysis of Piaget’s work on action schemas may
to the automatic/attentional distinction (e.g., Reason evoke some conceptual confusion due to the fact that
1992). The automatic mode is controlled by action there is no clear distinction between action schemas and
schemas or plans, whereas the conscious control sensorimotor schemas. Sometimes, it happens that both
mode uses attentional processing. When using the theoretical terms are used synonymously or alternating
 Action-Based Learning A 75

at one and the same page (see, for instance, Inhelder and Cross-References A
Piaget 1958). In consequence, it remains unclear what ▶ Action Regulation Theory
exactly may be the difference between action and ▶ Automaticity in Memory
sensorimotor schemas in Piaget’s epistemology. Never- ▶ Motor Schema(s)
theless, action schemas play a significant role in cogni- ▶ Reinforcement Learning
tive psychology with regard to the distinction between ▶ Schema Development
controlled and automatic processing. ▶ Sensori-Motor Schema(s)
Hasher and Zacks (1979) list several criteria for
automaticity that can also be considered as features of References
action schemas: Automatic processing due to the acti- Amir, E., & Chang, A. (2008). Learning partially observable deter-
ministic action models. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research,
vation of a schema is unaffected by the intention to
33, 349–402.
learn, practice, concurrent task demands, age, arousal, Bransford, J. D. (1984). Schema activation versus schema acquisition.
and individual differences. Although this theoretical In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn, & R. Tierney (Eds.), Learning to
conception suggests several reasons for action slips, it read in American schools: Basal readers and content texts (pp. 259–
lacks sufficient empirical support, especially with 272). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bringsjord, S. (2011). Artificial Intelligence. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.),
regard to the functions of action schemas. Further-
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, CA: Stanford
more, schema activation and schema construction are
University, Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI. Online publication:
two different problems as Bransford (1984) has pointed URL: http://plato.stanford.edu/
out. While it is possible to activate existing schemas Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in
with a given topic, it does not necessarily follow that memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 356–388.
a learner can use this activated knowledge to develop Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from
childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books.
new knowledge and skills. Nevertheless, by describing
Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and
action outcomes at a conceptual level, action schemas automatic control of behaviour (Revised reprint of Norman and
provide a fundamental basis for the generalization of Shallice, 1980). In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro
actions to various situations and tasks. (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research
This notion of action schemas is also at the core of and theory (pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum Press.
Piaget, J. (1936). La naissance de l’intelligence chez l’enfant. Suisse:
current approaches in the area of machine learning and
Neuchâtel.
artificial intelligence. However, similar to psychology,
Reason, J. (1992). Human error. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer-
several techniques for acquiring action schemas have sity Press.
been widely studied in terms of theoretical efficiency Russell, S. J., & Norvig, P. (2003). Artificial intelligence: A modern
(via the notion of sample complexity). Consequently, approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
we can find numerous theoretical models concerning Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (1998). Reinforcement learning: An
introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
the functions of action schemas but only little empirical
research on it.
Concerning the use of action schemas within the
realm of AI, a problem consists in overcoming the need Action-Based Learning
to manually maintain action schemas within agents,
which limits their autonomy. At the moment, this SOM NAIDU1, DANNY R. BEDGOOD, JR2
problem is approached by embedding agents with the 1
Learning & Teaching Quality Enhancement and
ability to infer detailed specifications of action schemas Evaluation Services, Charles Sturt University, Albury,
from examples (mostly supplied by a trainer or instruc- NSW, Australia
tor). The main result of this procedure is that an agent 2
School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences, Charles
can induce detailed specifications of an action schema Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
from single action traces automatically, without requir-
ing intermediate state information for each training
example. However, current methods of enabling agents Synonyms
to apply action schemas presuppose full observability Activity-based learning; Collaborative learning; Coop-
and reinforcement learning. erative learning; Experiential learning; Goal-based
76 A Action-Based Learning

learning; Interactivity; Inquiry-based learning; Learn- The problems, scenarios, and adventures in these
ing and action; Learning by doing; Problem solving; models of action-based learning serve as the essential
Problem-based learning; Scenario-based learning anchors for the desired learning to take place. The
attendant learning activities provide the scaffolds for
Definition the development and retention of the targeted skills
Action-based learning refers to all learning that is orches- and competencies (see The Cognition and Technology
trated by some activity on the part of learners. These Group at Vanderbilt 1990).
activities can take the form of motor or psychomotor The first activity that learners encounter in these
actions, and occur in a variety of contexts including problem situations or scenarios is a critical incident.
“individualized self-paced,” and “cooperative or collab- These critical incidents often take the form of an acci-
orative group-based” educational settings. In an individ- dent, a crisis, or any such occurrence. They serve as the
ualized self-paced educational context, a learner could be precipitating events for a string of actions. Upon
acting alone and at their own pace, interacting with encountering this event, learners are presented with
learning resources, creating objects, or solving problems. a mission or goal in relation to it and required to act
In group-based educational settings, learners could be upon it in order to resolve the problem (see Schank
working together cooperatively (i.e., working on differ- 1997).
ent activities toward the achievement of a common The next set of activities in the learning process
goal), or working collaboratively (i.e., working together within this context can be as open-ended or structured
toward the achievement of a common goal). as necessary. The level of structure and guidance
selected depends upon a range of factors to do with
Theoretical Background the nature of the subject matter, the desirable learning
Action-based learning theory is grounded in the belief outcomes, and the competency level of the learners. In
that learning is most effective and efficient when it is some instances, a greater degree of structure and guid-
orchestrated around meaningful activities. Such activ- ance may be more necessary than in others.
ities require learners to be actively and meaningfully In all instances, however, the learning process is
engaged with the learning process and the learning orchestrated with a series of carefully designed learning
resources, as opposed to being passive recipients and activities which guide learners to the achievement of
consumers of data and information (see Naidu 2007). their mission in the learning context, and ultimately
Action-based learning has a number of advantages their learning goal or outcome. Learners may carry out
over more didactic approaches to teaching. The obvious all or some of these activities either individually or in
advantages of action-based learning include a deeper groups. This will depend upon the targeted learning
level of engagement with the learning process, enhanced outcomes and the nature of the learning activities.
motivation to learn, greater enjoyment of the learning Learners will be taking actions, making decisions and
experience, a deeper understanding of the subject informed choices in relation to these learning activities
matter and increased retention, and a more positive, in order to demonstrate their knowledge and under-
accepting, and supportive relationship with peers. standing of the problem and the subject matter. Their
There are numerous models of action-based learn- ability to address the problem satisfactorily and resolve
ing. Prominent among these are problem-based learning it will be a proof of their learning achievement.
(Barrows and Tamblyn 1980), inquiry- or goal-based
learning (Schank 1997), scenario-based learning Important Scientific Research and
(Naidu 2010), and adventure learning (Doering 2006). Open Questions
At the heart of these models of action-based learning Misconceptions around action-based learning relate to
is a problem or a goal which the learners are required different perceptions of what constitutes action. Some
to solve or address. The selection of the problem or people have argued that action within the context of
scenario is determined by the desired learning out- action-based learning must entail learners actually
comes for students. The best problem situations and performing a physical action. Others have argued that
scenarios are those that are authentic and most closely such actions do not need to entail a physical operation
represent reality. to count as action (see Schank 1997; Naidu 2007).
 Active Learning A 77

There are many types of actions, and these can occur A

at various times and levels in a learning context. They Active Avoidance
may involve learners actually building, creating, or Performing a behavior that prevents an aversive out-
drawing something. But they can also include learners come from occurring. Contrast with passive avoidance.
watching a video clip and based on an examination of
or reflection upon this resource, taking actions or mak-
ing decisions about an incident or a problem. All of
these types of actions would constitute valid and legit- Active Learning
imate learning actions (see Schank 1997; Naidu 2007).
Action-based learning can be a very resource- AYTAC GOGUS
intensive exercise. For it to be effective, action-based Center for Individual and Academic Development,
learning requires a great deal of detailed and careful Sabanci University CIAD, Istanbul, Turkey
planning and guidance throughout the learning and
teaching process. This poses serious, but not insur-
mountable, challenges to its implementation in large Synonyms
groups and in online and distance education contexts. Effective learning; Learning by doing; Meaningful
Is action-based learning suitable for the acquisition learning
of all kinds of skills and competencies, and understand-
ing of all forms of subject matter? If action-based Definition
learning is so good for learning and teaching, then Active learning refers to instructional techniques that
why are we all not doing it, and doing a lot more of allow learners to participate in learning and teaching
it? Why do we continue to see so many instances of activities, to take the responsibility for their own learn-
poor teaching practice? ing, and to establish connections between ideas by
Answers to these questions and some of the chal- analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating. Bonwell and
lenges of implementation of action-based learning in Eison (1991) define active learning as anything that
large classes and in online and distance education con- involves learners in doing and thinking about what
texts lie in very careful planning and orchestration of they are doing. Active learning is more focused on
the learning activities. Fortunately, an increasing num- cognitive development than the acquisition of facts
ber of online tools are becoming available and afford- and transmission of information. The role of the
able to help implementation of action-based learning learner is not being a passive listener and note taker.
in large classes and in online and distance education The learner’s role is being involved in learning activities
contexts. such as discussions, reviewing, and evaluating, concept
mapping, role playing, hands-on projects, and cooper-
References ative group studies to develop higher-order thinking
Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-based learning: An skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
approach to medical education. New York: Springer.
Doering, A. (2006). Adventure learning: Transformative hybrid Theoretical Background
online education. Distance Education, 27(2), 197–215. Active learning is sometimes referred to the Socratic
Naidu, S. (2007). Instructional designs for distance education. In Method that is the teaching style of Socrates (Ellerman
M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed.,
et al. 2001). The Socratic Method introduces a problem
pp. 247–258). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Naidu, S. (2010). Using scenario-based learning to promote situated and directs the conversation back to key points to allow
learning and develop professional knowledge. In E. P. Errington students discover the answers of the problem and the
(Ed.), Preparing graduates for the professions using scenario-based content while avoiding lecturing. The Socratic Method
learning (pp. 39–49). Brisbane: Post Pressed. engages students in interacting with the teacher and
Schank, R. (1997). Virtual learning: A revolutionary approach to
other students (Ellerman et al. 2001).
building a highly skilled workforce. New York: McGraw-Hill.
The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1990).
In more recent centuries, active learning has
Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. emerged as a prominent approach to learning and teach-
Educational Researcher, 19(6), 2–10. ing based on the work by John Dewey (1858–1952) and
78 A Active Learning

others, who provide historical precedents for construc- distinguished from another subset of active learning
tivist learning theory. Constructivist learning claims that which is called collaborative learning. Collaborative
learners do not just absorb information. Instead, learning refers to instructional activities in which
learners construct information by actively trying to both learners and instructors engage in a common
organize and make sense of it in unique ways. Dewey task where each individual, both learner and instructor,
(1966), a reformer in educational policy, argues that depends on and is accountable to each other, and is
schools should not focus on repetitive, rote memoriza- placed on an equal footing working together. Cooper-
tion and that they should be engaged in real-world, ative learning techniques include designing assign-
practical training to be able to demonstrate their ments, choosing texts, presenting material to the
knowledge through creativity and collaboration. class, collaborative writing, joint problem solving,
According to Dewey, students should be involved in debates, and study teams. Another form of active learn-
meaningful activities and apply the concepts they are ing is discovery learning in which learners are free
trying to learn. Dewey (1966) uses the term active to work in a learning environment with little or no
learner, stressing that learning is an active process in guidance (Mayer 2004).
which learners construct their own meaning. In other According to Bell and Kozlowski (2008), active
words, learning is not a passive acceptance of presented learning approach is typically conceptualized by
knowledge by teachers, but is constructing meaning. contrasting it to more passive approaches to learning
Constructing meaning happens in the mind; therefore, with two key aspects of the active learning approach:
educators should design both hands-on activities and
" First, the active learning approach gives people control
mental activities to promote meaning construction.
over their own learning. That is, the learner assumes
Dewey (1966) emphasizes that learning happens
primary responsibility for important learning decisions
through reflective activities as a product of critical
(e.g., choosing learning activities, monitoring and judg-
thinking. Learners should reflect on what they under-
ing progress). In contrast, passive approaches to learn-
stand. The role of the teacher is to direct students to
ing focus on limiting the learner’s control and having
engage in instructional activities, discover the material,
the instructional system (e.g., instructor, computer
think about what and why they are doing, and reflect
program) assume primary responsibility for learning
on application of the content in the real life. Mayer
decisions . . . Second, the active learning approach
(2004) explains the intersection of constructivist learn-
promotes an inductive learning process, in which indi-
ing and active learning:
viduals must explore and experiment with a task to
" A common interpretation of the constructivist view of infer the rules, principles, and strategies . . . In contrast,
learning as an active process is that students must be more passive approaches to learning assume that
active during learning. According to this interpretation, people acquire knowledge by having it transmitted to
passive venues involving books, lectures, and online them by some external source . . . Hence, the key
presentations are classified as non-constructivist teach- distinction is one of active knowledge construction
ing whereas active venues such as group discussions, versus the internalization of external knowledge. (Bell
hands-on activities, and interactive games are classified and Kozlowski 2008, p. 297)
as constructivist teaching. (Mayer 2004, p. 14)
Active learning techniques allow learners to medi-
Active learning promotes cooperative learning in ate and control learning by engaging in meaningful
order to overcome competitive nature of education. social interactions with other students and teachers.
Cooperative learning can be viewed as a subset of active The role of the teacher is to promote collaboration,
learning in which students work together in small interaction, reflection, experimentation, interpreta-
groups to maximize their own and each other’s learning tion, and construction.
(Johnson et al. 1991). Cooperative learning techniques
use more formally structured small group activities Important Scientific Research and
such as research projects, presentations, panel discus- Open Questions
sions, active review sessions, role playing, and develop- In the classroom, active learning can be initiated and
ing a concept map. Cooperative learning should be facilitated through particular instructional techniques,
 Active Learning A 79

such as exercises for individual students, writing reflec- conclude that exploratory learning and error encour- A
tions, reviewing other’s work, assessing the materials, agement framing have a positive effect on adaptive
questions and answers, using the Socratic Method, transfer performance and interacted with cognitive
giving immediate feedbacks, discussions, cooperative ability and dispositional goal orientation to influence
groups, developing concept maps, developing compre- trainees’ meta-cognition and state goal orientation. Bell
hensive lists of the concepts, role playing, group and Kozlowski (2008) emphasize that active learning
presentations, and games. Bonwell and Eison (1991) approach is valuable not only for the development of
state that some characteristics of active learning include complex skills and adaptive performance but also for
more than talking, listening, writing, and reading: support of self-directed learning initiatives.
As a summary, the benefits of active learning (Bell
" Students are involved in higher-order thinking (analy-
and Kozlowski 2008; Bonwell and Eison 1991; Johnson
sis, synthesis, evaluation) . . . Greater emphasis is
et al. 1991; Mayer 2004) can be summarized as below:
placed on students’ exploration of their own attitudes
and values. (Bonwell and Eison 1991, p. 2) ● Promote developing higher-order thinking skills
and adaptive performance.
A learner-centered approach to instructional design
● Support self-directed learning.
views learners as active participants in their own learn-
● Promote students’ interaction with each other and
ing experience. Therefore, Bell and Kozlowski (2008)
teachers.
emphasize that active learning approaches not only
● Allow students to think about and process the
give people control over their own learning but use
information.
formal instructional design elements to shape cogni-
● Allow students to connect the content to real life.
tive, motivational, and emotional learning processes
● Promote a more positive attitude toward the subject
that support self-regulated learning (Mayer 2004).
matter.
Bell and Kozlowski (2008) describe active learning as
● Allow students to build group study skills and
a conceptual approach to learner-centered training
communication skills by working together.
design by describing the distinctive characters of active
● Promote alternative forms of teaching and
learning approach:
assessment.
" At a general level, the idea that the learner should be ● Promote critical reflection and taking control of
an active participant in the learning process is not own learning.
unique to the active learning approach; it cuts across
Bonwell and Eison (1991) report barriers of using
a number of educational philosophies and approaches,
active learning techniques in instruction such as faculty
such as experiential learning and action learning . . .
self-perception and influence of educational traditions:
However, the active learning approach is distinctive, in
that it goes beyond simply “learning by doing” and " Certain specific obstacles are associated with the use of
focuses on using formal training design elements to active learning including limited class time; a possible
systematically influence and support the cognitive, increase in preparation time; the potential difficulty of
motivational, and emotional processes that character- using active learning in large classes; and a lack of
ize how people focus their attention, direct their effort, needed materials, equipment, or resources. Perhaps
and manage their affect during learning. (Bell and the single greatest barrier of all, however, is the fact
Kozlowski 2008, p. 297) that faculty members’ efforts to employ active learning
involve risk – the risks that students will not participate,
Bell and Kozlowski (2008) conducted a comprehen-
use higher-order thinking, or learn sufficient content,
sive examination of the cognitive, motivational, and
that faculty members will feel a loss of control, lack
emotional processes underlying active learning
necessary skills, or be criticized for teaching in unor-
approaches; their effects on learning and transfer; the
thodox ways. (Bonwell and Eison 1991, p. 3)
core training design elements (exploration, training
frame, emotion control) and individual differences Educators at all levels have tried to improve their
(cognitive ability, trait goal orientation, trait anxiety) instructional practices through experimenting with
that shape these processes. Bell and Kozlowski (2008) active learning techniques. However, the teachers’
80 A Active Learning Strategies

knowledge and skills on using active learning tech-

niques are limited to their personal experiences. There- Activities of Daily Living
fore, teachers should gain a proper understanding in ▶ Learning Action Affordances and Action Schemas
order to create effective instructional activities and to
incorporate active learning techniques in the classroom
instruction.

Cross-References Activity- and Taxonomy-Based

▶ Brainstorming and Learning Knowledge Representation
▶ Constructivist Learning
▶ Cooperative Learning CHRISTINA M. STEINER1, BIRGIT MARTE2, JÜRGEN HELLER3,
▶ Dewey, John (1858–1952) DIETRICH ALBERT1
▶ Socratic Questioning 1
Knowledge Management Institute, Graz University of
▶ Supervised Learning Technology, Graz, Austria
2
Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz,
References Austria
3
Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen,
core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learn- Tübingen, Germany
ing, and adaptability. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2),
296–316.
Bonwell, C., & Eison, J. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in
the classroom. AEHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.1. Synonyms
ED340272. Washington, DC: Jossey-Bass. Competence-based knowledge space theory
Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free.
Ellerman, D., Denning, S., & Hanna, N. (2001). Active learning and Definition
development assistance. Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(2),
▶ Competence-based Knowledge Space Theory (CbKST)
173–179.
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1991). Active learning: Coop-
provides a formal framework for structuring and
eration in the college classroom. Edina: Interaction Books. representing domain and learner knowledge and has
Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure been successfully applied as a cognitive basis for intel-
discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. ligent educational adaptation in technology-enhanced
The American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. learning. To enhance applicability of this theoretical
framework for pedagogical stakeholders, it has been
elaborated in terms of better alignment with the today’s
educational practice. The basic assumption of CbKST
Active Learning Strategies is the existence of a basic set of skills taught by learning
objects and required for solving problems of
▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies a knowledge domain. The definition of skills in the
sense of CbKST has been elaborated to incorporate
the current tradition of activity-oriented conceptions
of learning objectives and instructional planning. In
Active Memory this way, a relation to educational taxonomies for
learning objectives can be established. The resulting
▶ Working Memory and Information Processing activity- and taxonomy-based framework and skill rep-
resentation can be utilized to empower access and
interface functionalities of learning systems.

Active Structural Network Theoretical Background

Education today is characterized by learner-centered
▶ Semantic Networks approaches to instruction that increasingly
 Activity- and Taxonomy-Based Knowledge Representation A 81

acknowledge and focus on what the learner does relation) restrict the number of potential knowledge A
(Marte et al. 2008). For instructional planning in states that actually can occur. The collection of the
terms of designing units of learning (i.e., lessons, possible knowledge states, including the empty set Ø
courses), learning objectives play an essential role, and the whole set Q, is called a knowledge structure. In
which precisely specify the knowledge and competence a knowledge structure, a range of different learning
that are expected to be acquired. Learning objectives paths from the naı̈ve knowledge state to the expert
express the intended learning outcome and what knowledge state are possible, which can be exploited
learners will be able to do as a result of instruction for realizing meaningful teaching and learning
(Anderson et al. 2001). The description refers to the sequences and personalizing learning paths. Further-
learning content on a conceptual basis, as well as to more, a knowledge structure is at the core of adaptive
concrete activities relating to this content. Learning assessment procedures for efficiently identifying the
objectives are not only crucial for designing and plan- current knowledge state of an individual.
ning instruction, but also for assessing learning While KST focuses purely on observable behavior,
outcomes. CbKST explicitly refers to the cognitive constructs in
To enhance instructional planning, teaching and terms of fine-grained descriptions of abilities underly-
learning, and assessment, a range of pedagogical frame- ing this behavior. Its basic assumption is the existence
works and educational taxonomies have been developed of a set of skills that are relevant for solving the prob-
for classifying learning objectives. The most popular lems of a specific knowledge domain, and that are
and influential taxonomy among them was devised by taught by learning objects of the respective domain.
Bloom and later revised by Anderson et al. (2001). This The competence state is represented by the subset of
taxonomy is intended as a tool for matching objectives, skills that a learner has available. It is not directly
activities, and assessments related to a unit of learning, observable but can be inferred on the basis of the
as well as for identifying possible options and proce- observable problem-solving behavior. Skill assign-
dures for instruction. The revised version of the taxon- ments establish the connection between observable
omy comprises six categories – remember, understand, behavior (performance) and underlying skills (compe-
apply, analyze, evaluate, and create – which form tence). The relation between assessment problems and
a cumulative hierarchy of levels of cognitive processing skills is realized by associating each problem with
that represent successively more advanced and complex a collection of subsets of skills sufficient for solving it
cognition. A range of action verbs can be linked with and, vice versa, by associating to each subset of skills the
each of the individual categories, serving the descrip- set of solvable problems. The associated subsets of
tion and association of concrete learning activities with problems constitute the knowledge states of the knowl-
the levels of the taxonomy. In addition, a second edge structure induced by this mapping. The relation-
dimension of the taxonomy represents a continuum ship between skills and learning objects is established in
from concrete to abstract knowledge – conceptual, a similar manner. Each learning object of a domain, on
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. Together, the one hand, is associated with a subset of skills
both dimensions form a useful representation for required for understanding it and, on the one hand,
instruction and assessment. with a subset of skills taught by this learning object.
CbKST (Albert and Lukas 1999; Heller et al. 2006) is When explicitly modeling dependencies between
a knowledge representation framework that is able to the skills of a knowledge domain, a competence struc-
incorporate the activity-oriented understanding of ture can be established in analogy to a knowledge
teaching and learning and is based on the original structure.
formalization of Knowledge Space Theory (KST). In
KST (Falmagne and Doignon 2011), a knowledge Important Scientific Research and
domain is represented by a set Q of problems. The Open Questions
subset of problems that a person is able to solve con- The skills modeled in CbKST can be understood as
stitutes the knowledge state of this individual. Mutual fine-grained learning objectives. To clearly align the
dependencies between the problems of a domain skill representation of CbKST with the current educa-
(which may be captured by a so-called prerequisite tional practice of defining learning objectives, skills can
82 A Activity- and Taxonomy-Based Knowledge Representation

be defined as consisting of two components, an action Altitude Theorem and therefore the concepts are
verb and one (or several interrelated) concept(s) usually taught in this order.
(Heller et al. 2006). A skill from elementary geometry, To combine the structural information on both
for instance, could be “to apply the Pythagorean The- components of skills, the component-attribute approach
orem,” which is made up of the activity “apply” and the suggested by Albert and Held (1999) can be applied.
concept “Pythagorean Theorem.” The action verbs Originally developed for systematically constructing
used for this skill definition can be matched with the and structuring problems, this approach can be applied
revised Bloom taxonomy and in this way a connection to establish skills on the basis of predefined sets of
between CbKST and educational taxonomies of learn- action verbs and concepts for a knowledge domain
ing objectives can be established (Marte et al. 2008). and the structures on both components. The two skill
This harmonization can be exploited by using the components are understood as dimensions; and the
educational taxonomy as a basis for structuring skills. individual concepts and, respectively, action verbs are
The hierarchical structure of the taxonomy provides understood as attributes or values these dimension can
information on dependencies between action verbs. take on. Skills can be formed by combining attributes
For the action verbs “apply (a1)” and “state (a2),” for across components (whereby not necessarily each of
instance, dependencies may be identified by matching these combinations will result in a possible or relevant
them with the categories of the taxonomy. While skill). For a given domain, for example, there might be
“state” can be linked to the category “remember,” a component C with the concepts c1, c2, c3, and c4 and
“apply” naturally relates to the category “apply.” As, a component A with the action verbs a1 and a2. Assum-
according to the taxonomy, the category “apply” refers ing that for each component the attributes are ordered,
to more advanced cognitive processing than “remem- a structure on the skills can be built by forming the
ber,” this information can be translated into direct product of the components using the principle of
a prerequisite relationship in terms of CbKST – i.e., component-wise ordering. An illustration of our exam-
“remember” is a prerequisite for “apply.” The classifi- ple is given in Fig. 1. As can be seen, for the skill (a1c2)
cation of activities into the categories of the educa- the skill (a2c2) is a prerequisite, whereas for skill (a1c3)
tional taxonomy is of course not always the skills (a2c3), (a1c4), and (a2c4) are prerequisites. The
straightforward and there is a need for defining clear established structure can be interpreted as
principles for this process. a prerequisite relation on the subset of skills (i.e., com-
The concepts covered by the skills of a knowledge binations of actions and concepts) that can actually
domain also feature structural information. This infor- occur, or are considered. In some knowledge domains,
mation can be derived, for example, from domain it may be necessary to describe one skill with a set of
ontologies (e.g., concept maps) or curriculum maps. interrelated concepts, which then requires to adopt
For the concepts “Altitude Theorem (c1)” and “Pythag- somewhat different principles for structuring the skills.
orean Theorem (c2),” for example, it may be identified The activity- and taxonomy-based skill representa-
that the Pythagorean Theorem is a prerequisite for the tion can be utilized in the context of technology-

a1c1
c1
a1c3
a1 a1c2
a2c1
c2 c3
a2c2 a1c4
a2 a2c3
c4
a2c4

Activity- and Taxonomy-Based Knowledge Representation. Fig. 1 Structures on a set of action verbs {a1, a2} and a set of
concepts {c1, c2, c3, c4}. Ascending line sequences in the graph on the right side represent the resulting prerequisite
relation on the skills
 Activity Theories of Learning A 83

enhanced learning for the creation of units of learning Heller, J., Steiner, C., Hockemeyer, C., & Albert, D. (2006). Compe-
tence-based knowledge structures for personalised learning.
A
and for effective feedback mechanisms (Marte et al.
International Journal on E-Learning, 5, 75–88.
2008). A teacher or learner may choose the skill(s) to
Marte, B., Steiner, C. M., Heller, J., & Albert, D. (2008). Activity- and
be addressed in teaching and learning. This selection taxonomy-based knowledge representation framework. Interna-
can then be translated into a set of suitable learning tional Journal of Knowledge and Learning, 4, 189–202.
objects that cover the respective skill(s) based on the
underlying skill assignments. It may furthermore be
identified whether an individual learner possesses the
skills required for understanding the learning object Activity Theories of Learning
and – if needed – present learning objects teaching
those prerequisite skills. In this way, a structure of ANDREY PODOLSKIY
learning objects and thus a collection of possible learn- Department of Developmental Psychology, Moscow
ing paths is recursively built up that match the individ- State University, Moscow, Russia
ual’s current needs. The selection of the scope of a unit
of learning may be facilitated via the educational
taxonomy, by only choosing the desired level of skills Synonyms
(i.e., cognitive processing level of the action verbs Cultural-historical activity theory; Social-
involved) and the main concepts that should be constructivist learning theory
targeted. Apart from that, the presented framework
provides a basis for visualization as well as aggregated Definition
feedback mechanisms giving learners and teachers an Activity theories of learning is a generalized term for
overview of the learning progress made and the learning theories that are based on the general “activity
spectrum of skills covered. The retrieved information approach (paradigm, outlook, framework)” initially
on the skills covered or achieved so far may be used for introduced by Russian/Soviet psychologists L. Vygotsky,
identifying prevalent skills with respect to cognitive A. Leontiev, S. Rubinstein, A. Luria and further devel-
processing levels or concepts, for determining skills oped by their disciples and followers both in Russia and
left out, for supporting reflection on the current status in the West (V. Davydow, V. Zinchenko, J. Wertsch,
of learning in relation to others, or on existing compe- M. Cole, Y. Engeström, et al.).
tence gaps in comparison to a defined learning goal.
Theoretical Background
Cross-References On the basis of the main principles of the activity
▶ Adaptive Learning System paradigm – such as the object-relatedness and mean-
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives ingfulness of human activity, interrelations between its
▶ Knowledge Representation internal and external components and its tool-
▶ Learning Objectives mediated nature, activity development – a three-level
▶ Visualizations and Animations in Learning Systems structure of activity (activity – action – operation)
results with activity being connected with a motive,
References action linked with a specific goal, and operation
Albert, D., & Held, T. (1999). Component based knowledge spaces in a structure related to the specific conditions (Leontiev
problem solving and inductive reasoning. In D. Albert & J. Lukas
(Eds.), Knowledge spaces: Theories, empirical research, applica-
1978). The representative of the first generation of the
tions (pp. 15–40). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. activity-oriented learning theorists (D. Elkonin,
Albert, D., & Lukas, J. (1999). Knowledge spaces: Theories, empirical V. Davydow, P. Galperin, J. Lompscher, N. Talyzina,
research, applications. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. et al.) considered human learning processes in two
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., interconnected but nevertheless different respects:
Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., et al. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for
(1) learning as a universal mechanism for the appro-
learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of
educational objectives. New York: Longman.
priation of social experience by an individual (Galperin
Falmagne, J.-C., & Doignon, J.-P. (2011). Learning spaces. Interdisci- 1992; Talyzina 1981) and (2) learning activity as
plinary applied mathematics. Berlin: Springer. a special form of the social activity of personality
84 A Activity Theories of Learning

(Davydow 1999). The latter issue is highlighted in the enforcement) parameters. The secondary properties
entry ▶ Learning Activity in this Encyclopedia. are: (a) reasonability, (b) generalization, (c) conscious-
The basic assumption of the activity theory of ness, and (d) criticism. The secondary properties are
learning is that “types of knowledge towards which the result of specific combinations of primary proper-
the learning process is directed then appear both as ties. Both primary and secondary properties represent
the motivation, in which the student’s need for learning socially estimated and evaluated qualities of human
has become objectified, and the activity’s objective. In activities and may refer to any sort of activity, whether
cases when students do not have such a need they either individual or collective, material or mental (Galperin
will not be engaged in learning or else will be learning 1992). The final values of these properties determine
in order to satisfy some other need. In such a case the specific action and/or image that are formed.
learning ceases to be an activity since instead of meeting Galperin considered the values of the properties to be
a particular need – the acquisition of knowledge – it the direct outcomes of action formation conditions.
merely serves as an intermediary objective. In such a case He therefore defined a system of conditions that
learning is an action realizing some other activity; the guarantees the achievement of prescribed and desired
knowledge that serves as the action objective does not properties of action and image. It is called the “system of
serve as a motivation, since it is not knowledge which planned, stage-by-stage formation of mental actions” or
activates the learning process” (Talyzina 1981, p. 45). the PSFMA system and includes four subsystems: (1) the
conditions that ensure adequate motivation for the
Important Scientific Research and subject’s mastering of the action, (2) the conditions
Open Questions that establish the necessary orientation base of action,
Learning is understood within the framework of the (3) the conditions that support the consecutive trans-
activity paradigm as a universal mechanism for the formations of the intermediate forms of action (mate-
appropriation of social experience by an individual rialized, verbal) and the final end transformation into
characterized by the following parameters: (1) As the mental plan, and (4) the conditions for cultivating
a necessary component of any activity, human learning or “refining through practice” the desired properties of
represents the process by which the subject changes an action (Galperin 1989). Each subsystem contains
under the influence of object-related content. Thus, a detailed description of related psychological condi-
learning is a process in which the individual appropri- tions, which include the motivational and operational
ates historically formed means (tools) of activity. (2) As areas of human activity (see also the entry on ▶ Inter-
these means are first presented to the learner in nalization in this Encyclopedia). The PSFMA system
a hidden and abbreviated form, it is necessary to “exter- represents a complete nomothetic set of psychological
nalize” them in order for the learner to understand how conditions which stand behind the learning processes,
they function. Only then can the learning process start and any specific case of learning maybe considered as
by means of a step-by-step internalization procedure a result of “subtracting” one or the other condition
(appropriated/internalized mental actions, concepts, from the complete list. Accordingly, absent elements
images, representations, etc.). (3) The core element of of the PSFMA system maybe easily found and inserted.
the learning process is formation (appropriation) of The system enables a principle of differentiating diag-
actions (mental, perceptual, motor, and verbal). nosis and correction to be practically implemented in
Human actions and images reflect, and are the product the learning/teaching process.
of, both human needs and the demands and conditions Not all of the subsystems have been developed and
of the objective situation. Any human action maybe operationalized to an equal extent; the first subsystem,
characterized by a set of primary and secondary prop- for instance, has not been described in as explicit
erties. The following properties are considered to be a manner as the other three. Similarly, not all areas of
primary: (a) the composition of the action’s objective learning are equal well developed within the framework
content, (b) the extent to which essential elements of of the PSFMA approach. Thus, many primary and
the problem situation are differentiated from nones- secondary school subjects dominate over higher
sential elements, (c) the degree to which the action has education disciplines and cognitive (“pure” intellec-
been internalized, and (d) “energetic” (speed and tual, perceptual) action formation has been studied in
 Activity Theory A 85

much more detail than, e.g., socio-moral action forma- new directions which open broad perspectives for fur- A
tion. There are relatively few examples of PSFMA being ther theoretical, empirical, and applied research have
applied to the conditions of real human activity (pro- appeared, such as “learning to learn” (J. Hautamäki,
fessional, military, sporting, etc.) acquisition; however, et al.), an application of the activity framework to the
these cases clearly demonstrate what is missing in the area of human–computer interaction (V. Kaptelinin, B.
concrete PSFMA model, in which the formation of Nardi, et al.), and the so-called systemic-structural
isolated actions is considered separately from the entire activity theory (SSAT), which endeavors to analyze
structure of the corresponding activity (for more and design the basic elements of human activity
details, see the entry on ▶ Mental Activities of Learning (tasks, tools, methods, objects, and results) as well as
in this Encyclopedia). the skills, experience, and abilities appropriated by the
The second (current) generation of the activity- subjects performing it (G. Z. Bedny, W. Karwowski,
oriented learning theorists pays additional attention to D. Meister, et al.).
the extension and expansion of the approach elabo- An especially important task for future research is
rated by their predecessors. Due to the fact that activity to establish conceptual and historical relations between
theories of learning went international in the 1980s, the the activity theory of learning and such promising and
cultural dimension of learning is taken into account heuristic directions in learning theory and practice as
not only declaratively by these theorists but also with “anchored learning,” “cognitive load theory,” “learning by
respect to learning in concrete cultural settings doing,” “scaffolding learning,” and “situated cognition,”
(E. Elbers, M. Hedegaard, W. Wardekker, et al.). In “socio-constructivist models of learning.”
addition, several authors have called attention to the
necessity of developing conceptual tools to understand Cross-References
dialogue, multiple perspectives and voices, and net- ▶ Cultural-Historical Theory of Development
works of interacting activity systems (Engeström ▶ Internalization
1999; Sannino et al. 2009). Engeström considers expan- ▶ Learning Activity
sion as “a form of learning that transcends linear and ▶ Learning and Training: Activity Approach
socio-spatial dimensions of individual and short-lived ▶ Mental Activities of Learning
actions, . . . learning is understood in the broader and ▶ Zone of the Proximal Development
temporally much longer perspective of a third dimen-
sion, that is, the dimension of the development of References
activity” (Engeström 1999, p. 64). Davydow, V. (1999). What is real learning activity? In M. Hedegaard
& J. Lompscher (Eds.), Learning activity and development
Meanwhile, in recent decades, Russian scholars
(pp. 123–139). Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
have continued to concentrate on exploring the age- Galperin, P. Y. (1989). Organization of mental activity and effective-
related peculiarities of learning processes (L. Obuchova, ness of learning. Journal of Soviet Psychology, 27(3), 65–82.
G. Burmenskaya, et al.), clarifying the role of adult– Leontiev, A. N. (1978). Activity, consciousness, personality. Englewood
child and child–peer communication in the facilitation Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Sannino, A., Daniels, H., & Gutiérrez, K. (Eds.). (2009). Learning and
of learning processes (V. Rubtsov, G. Zuckerman, et al.),
expanding with activity theory. New York: Cambridge University
and deepening the regularities of the mental action Press.
transformation (especially with regard to its final Talyzina, N. (1981). Psychology of learning. Moscow: Progress
phases, such as automatization and simultaneouzation) Publishers House.
as the core learning processes considered through the Van Oers, B., Wardekker, W., Elbers, E., & Van der Veer, R. (Eds.).
prism of the activity paradigm (A. Podolskiy, et al.). (2008). The transformation of learning: Advances in cultural his-
torical activity theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
In addition to studies on the traditional issues
(traditional with respect to the activity framework),
such as the interrelation between development, learn-
ing, and instruction (G.Burmenskaya, L.Obuchova, Activity Theory
et al.) and the problem of bridging a gap between
theoretical activity-related learning models and real ▶ Cultural-Historical Theory of Development
instructional technology (A. Podolskiy, et al.), quite ▶ Learning and Training: Activity Approach
86 A Activity-Based Learning

environments for learning. Terminology such as learn-

Activity-Based Learning ing environment has emerged as a powerful perspective
Activity-based learning is the acquirement of concepts in providing meaningful learning and presenting the
through activities that involve the concept to be transfer of knowledge to real-life situations.
learned. In the field of language learning it involves
the assumption that language must be scaffolded by Theoretical Background
social activity in terms of action, interaction, manipu-
lation, and so on. Technology need to be integrated in An Overview of Actor Network Theory
the process of language learning (Van Lier 1998). Michael Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1986), and John
Law (1992) developed the actor network concept. The
Cross-References primary tenet of actor network theory (ANT) is the
▶ Action-Based Learning concept of the heterogeneous network. An actor
network consists of, and links together, both technical
References and nontechnical elements. This concept is based on
Van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner: Ethnog-
the recognition that actors build networks combining
raphy and second language classroom research. London/New York: technical and social elements. In ANT, actors can be
Longman. defined as entities that serve as intermediaries between
other actors. Actors can be humans, but also include
technology, text and organizational groups. There is no
difference between human and materials or the social
and the natural (Callon 1986).
Actor Network Theory and ANT is a heterogeneous amalgamation of concep-
Learning tual, textual and actors. Actors in ANT, known as
actants, are any agent, collective or individuals that
LORNA UDEN can associate or dissociate with other agents. Actants
Faculty of Computing, Engineering & Technology, enter into network association that in turn defines
Staffordshire University, Stafford, UK them, names them, and provides them with substance,
action, intention, and subjectivity (Callon 1986). It is
via the networks that actants derive their nature and
Synonyms develop as networks. The main difference between
Learning technology; Online learning; Web-based actors and actants is that only actors are able to put
learning actants in circulation in the system.
In ANT, the social and technical aspects are treated
Definition as equally important. ANT denies that purely technical
E-learning is learning through the use of technologies. or purely social relations are possible. Instead, it con-
It is growing at a rapid pace. Today, more organizations siders the world to be full of hybrid entities (Latour
are taking up e-learning. However, the design of a 1986) containing both human and nonhuman compo-
usable and effective e-learning environment is not nents. Actors in ANT include both human beings and
trivial. Recent theories of learning have moved from nonhuman actors (such as technology) that make up
a behavioral approach toward a learner-centered, a network to be studied (Callon 1986). In ANT, inno-
constructivist epistemology grounded in concepts of vators attempt to create a forum, a central network in
situated learning and distributed cognition and social which all the actors agree that the network is worth
historical – cultural notions of the mind. Recent tech- creating and maintaining. Numerous actors within an
nological developments such as the World Wide Web organization may be involved in a different process of
have enabled researchers to explore the use of these translation, each with its own unique characteristics
technologies to support a variety of teaching and learn- and outcomes. Each actor will have its own view of
ing approaches. Technology has been increasingly used the network and its own set of objectives and goals. The
to support the design of constructivist learning process of translation seeks to align these goals with
 Actor Network Theory and Learning A 87

those of other candidates for the network and to create others may have to overcome obstacles to pass A
a set of shared goals. Michael Callon (1996) has defined through it (Callon 1986).
four moments of translation. 2. Intéressement. This is the moment of translation
Latour (1998) argues those actors are defined solely defined by Callon (1986). Interéssement, or “How
by their ties to other actors. Actors can be technical allies are locked in place” uses a series of processes
artifacts ranging from the smallest components to the that attempt to improve the identities and roles
largest. The building of an actor network is to over- defined in the problematization on the other actors.
come the resistance of other actors and try to weave According to Law (1992), it means interesting and
them into network with other actors (Law 1992). The attracting an actor by coming between it and some
challenge is to explore how actor networks come to other actors. This is the process of recruitment of
generate effects like organizations, industrial struc- actors – creating an interest and negotiating the
tures, and innovation. ANT examines the motivations terms of their involvement. The primary actor
and actions of human actors that align their interest works to convince the other actors that the roles it
with the requirements of nonhuman actors. It can be has defined them are acceptable. Where there are
used to investigate the process whereby the respective groups of actors with the same goal, these can be
interests of different human and nonhuman elements represented by a single actor.
are aligned into a social and technological arrangement 3. Enrolment. Enrolment is when another actor
of artifacts. The core of ANT is the process of transla- accepts the interests defined by the primary actor.
tion (Callon 1986; Latour 1986). The important nego- This is the third moment. It is how to define and
tiation is translation, a multi-factored interaction in coordinate the role. This leads to the establishment
which actors (a) construct common definitions and of a stable network of alliances. It requires more
meanings, (b) define representatives, and (c) co-opt than one set of actors imposing their will on others
each other in the pursuit of individual and collective for enrolment to be successful. In addition, it also
objectives. Both actors and actants share in the recon- requires others to yield. (Callon 1986). Actors
struction of the network of interaction, leading to accept the roles that have been defined for them
system stabilization. during intéressement. Enrolment means the defini-
Actor’s interests may vary widely. They may encour- tion of roles for actors in the newly created actor
age or constrain the technology. Establishing the network.
technology requires the aligning of the interests of 4. Mobilization of allies. This fourth stage is the point
actors within the network. This involves the translation where enrolled actors are given the tools of com-
of those interests into a common interest in adopting munication and are able to themselves create an
and using the technology. The translation of the interest in the network or to create subnetworks.
network is achieved through common definitions, This is the final moment. Mobilization occurs as the
meaning, and inscription attached to the technology. proposed solution gains wider acceptance and an
even larger network of absent entities is created
Translation through some actors acting as spokespersons for
Translation explains how artifacts become a result of others (Tatnall and Burgess 2002).
negotiations between the involved subjects. ANT can
Inscription. A process of creating technical artifacts
be used as a theoretical lens to study the development
(tools) that would ensure the protection of an actor’s
and adoption of service innovation. Different interpre-
interests. It refers to the way technical artifacts embody
tations influence the construction of an artifact.
patterns of use. According to Akrich and Latour (1997),
1. Problematization. This comprises the definition of inscription is the act, or process, which actors perform
the problem. During problematization, a primary on other actors, shaping their attitudes and properties.
actor tries to establish itself as an obligatory passage The properties and attributes of any actors (or net-
point (OPP) between the other actors and the works) are a result of a complex inscription process
network, so that it becomes indispensable. The by human and nonhuman actors. Human actors are
OPP is in the primary actor’s direct path while able to inscribe onto nonhuman actors. Conversely,
88 A Actor Network Theory and Learning

nonhuman actors are able to inscribe onto human clerks, technicians, and parents. The technical and
actors. This is the translation carried out via actor’s social networks must be considered together. The
inscriptions that enable the actor to transfer its attri- faculty network is a network of heterogeneous actors
butes and properties to other actors in its immediate including the Internet network, offices, professors,
topologies. Inscription and translations are in constant lecturers, and students. The network also includes
flux. It is iterative in nature, therefore enabling documents and texts that support the faculty in their
a relative stability in the corresponding network. teaching.
Perceptions of the usefulness of the technology as
Benefits of ANT for e-Learning well as ease of use should also be considered. Relation-
There are several benefits to using ANT for e-learning. ships between actors in terms of current communica-
These include the following: tion, level of trust, power distribution, resource
control, and influence should be considered. This also
● ANT allows us to have an open-ended array of
includes relationships between actors and local eco-
things that need to be aligned including work
nomic and natural resources. The importance of rela-
routines, incentive structures, system modules,
tionships or connections between actors or groups of
and organizational roles.
actors needs to be examined because the strength of
● ANT is appropriate for preparing design strategies
these connections may influence enrolment strategies.
by aligning the interests of the actor network, i.e.,
Building of an e-learning system is a social process
having all their influences fit together.
involving both the users and developers. The system
● ANT allows aligned interests to be inscribed into
developed is a result of the social negotiations among
durable materials (Law 1992).
Director of university, the staff members, business
● ANT also introduces the concept of “black-boxing”
partners, students, and managers. While not formally
(sealed actor networks).
involved in the service design, customers or users’
ANT for designing e-learning system actions have important consequences in the develop-
It is my belief that ANT provides us a conceptual ment process. We believe that it is important to con-
framework for designing learning systems. In ANT, sider all actors’ points of view in order to better
many things, human and nonhuman, have influence understand the system requirements and identity.
on each other. This is ideal for designing e-learning This identity is the result of meaning given to the
systems because we can align the interests of the actor learning system by different actors.
network by having their influences fit together. The
alignment of the network is obtained through the pro- Important Scientific Research and
cess of translation and inscription. Open Questions
The design of an e-learning involves getting answers There is little research done to use actor network in
to the questions, “Who will use it, how they will use it, e-learning. Central to the theory is the identification of
and what service processes are involved?” The method- stakeholder’s e-learning. The identification of the
ology for ANT requires the recording of actors’ inter- stakeholder’s interests is also important. The question
actions, connections, and effects (Latour 1986). is how do we identify their interests? This includes both
Interactions between actors also need to be traced organizational and individual. Organizational interests
through documents, skills present or developed, concern their political and social interests arising from
money, and control structures. The complexity of the their job roles in the organization. Individual interests
network can then be assessed. This may influence concern personal interests such as status, career
strategies for aligning the actor network with desired progress, and job security. Looking at interests involves
outcomes. The university e-learning actor network an examination of the stakeholders’ rational, organiza-
involves interaction with a variety of human and tional, and individual interests.
nonhuman actors. The physical network of ICT and Another question is the identification of interaction
fiber-optic infrastructure of the Internet cannot be between stakeholders.
separated from the social and human networks involv- It is important to identify stakeholder interactions;
ing administrators, professors, lecturers, students, the relationships between stakeholders in terms of
 Actualizing Tendency A 89

extent of communication, power, trust, resource con- A

trol, and influence must be investigated. The question Actor-Critic
of how to negotiate conflicts between stakeholders A general-purpose reinforcement-learning model that
needs to be resolved by negotiation in order to align has two components: the critic and the actor. The critic
the actors to the network. Finally, there is the alignment learns the values of stimuli or situations and calculates
of stakeholder’s interests with other stakeholders. prediction errors. The actor learns associations
ANT has the potential to be used as a tool for between stimuli or situations and responses (i.e., S-R
e-learning development and adoption. However, associations). The values of stimuli or situations in the
research is needed to find out how this can be achieved. critic and the strengths of S-R associations in the actor
are both updated using the prediction errors calculated
Cross-References by the critic.
▶ Constructivist Learning
▶ Design of Learning Environments
▶ e-Learning, Recent Trends of Research
▶ Engagement in Learning
ACT-R
▶ Individual Differences in Learning
▶ Inquiry Learning ▶ ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought)
▶ Learner Preferences and Achievement
▶ Learning in the Social Context
▶ Lifelong Learning
▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning
▶ Network Learning/Networked Learning Actualized Affordance
▶ Online Collaborative Learning Refers to the real properties of the environment.

References
Akrich, M., & Latour, B. (1997). A summary of a convenient vocab-
ulary for the semiotics of human and non-human assemblies.
In W. E. Bijker & J. Law (Eds.), Shaping technology/building Actualized Interest
society: Studies in sociotechnical change (pp. 259–264). Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press. Actualized interest is another way of conceptualizing
Callon, M. (1986). The sociology of an actor-network: The case of the personal or individual interests as a psychological state
electric vehicle. In M. Callon, J. Law, & A. Rip (Eds.), Mapping manifested by prolonged, focused engagement and
the dynamics of science and technology (pp. 19–34). London: positive feelings. Actualized interests involve both the
Macmillan Press.
stored knowledge and stored value a person holds for
Callon, M. (1996). Some elements of a sociology of translation:
Domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieue.
a particular object, experience, or activity. Actualized
In H. Biagiol (Ed.), The science studies reader (pp. 67–83). New interests are thought to arise from the interaction
York/London: Routledge. between a child’s personal characteristics and disposi-
Latour, B. (1986). The power of association. In J. Law (Ed.), Power, tions, and the conditions or features of a situation that
action and belief: A new sociology of knowledge? (pp. 196–223). elicit interest.
London: Routledge & Kegan-Paul.
Latour, B. (1998). On actor-network theory: A few definitions. http://
www.netime.org/lists-Archives/netime-1-9801/msg00019.html,
obtained September, 2003.
Law, J. (1992). Notes on the theory of actor-network: Ordering,
strategy and heterogeneity. Systems Practice, 5(4), 379–393.
Actualizing Tendency
Tatnall, A. & Burgess, S. (2002). Using actor-network theory to
This is the inherent tendency of the organism to
research the implementation of B-B portal for regional SMEs in
Melbourne, Australia. 15th Bled Electronic Commerce Confer- develop all its capacities in ways that serve to maintain
ence and Reality: Constructing the e-economy, Bled, Slovenia, or enhance the organism. It involves not only the ten-
June 17–19, 2002. dency to meet what Maslow terms “deficiency needs”
90 A Adaptability and Learning

for air, food, water, and the like, but also more gener- perspectives, see Bandura 2001; Covington 2000;
alized activities. It involves development toward the Schulz and Heckhausen 1996; Zimmerman 1989).
differentiation of organs and functions, expansion in
terms of growth, expansion of effectiveness through the Theoretical Background
use of tools, expansion and enhancement through Across a human life span, the world will undergo sub-
reproduction. It should be noted that this basic actual- stantial change. Today, change and variability are evi-
izing tendency is the only motive that is postulated in dent on economic, geopolitical, sociocultural, climatic,
the theoretical system. technological, medical, and other fronts. To effectively
negotiate this fluid and variable world, groups and
individuals will be required to learn and achieve in
spite of, or because of, these changes. Indeed, a failure
Adaptability and Learning to do so may perpetuate or exacerbate gaps in learning
and achievement trajectories, significantly threatening
ANDREW J. MARTIN the ongoing functioning of particular groups and indi-
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia viduals. Although consideration of change (and how
humans deal with it) dates back to figures such as Lao
Tzu and the Buddha, recent institutional (e.g., OECD,
Synonyms UNESCO, World Bank) and individual (e.g., Martin
Adjustment; Evolutionary educational psychology; 2006) commentaries suggest the twenty-first century
Evolutionary psychology; Human behavioral ecology; will bear witness to macro- and micro-transitions and
Regulation transformations of a kind never before experienced.
In terms of macro change, to varying degrees and in
Definition a variety of ways: industry will be reshaped around
Recent work has proposed adaptability as a means of environmental demands and pressures; medical
understanding young people’s capacity to deal with advancements (particularly in regenerative medicine)
new, changing, and/or uncertain situations (Martin will extend the human life span; pharmaceutical devel-
2010). Adaptability seeks to articulate concepts that opments will present new possibilities for human
reflect young people’s adaptive regulation in the face of performance and functioning; communications tech-
uncertainty, change, or novelty. In the academic domain, nology will be reshaped around fiber optics and
adaptability (“academic adaptability”) reflects regulatory extreme bandwidth; high-level globalized computing
responses to academic novelty, change, and uncertainty networks will accelerate information production and
that lead to enhanced learning outcomes. Unlike concepts application; new technologies will allow greater access
such as resilience and coping that predominantly focus to cultural phenomena; and, expansion of electronic
on surviving, “getting through” and “getting by,” adapt- databases and resources will transform education and
ability is focused on active regulation of an individual to learning (e.g., Martin 2006). An individual’s adaptabil-
evince enhanced outcomes (not simply to “get through” ity will be critical to learn and achieve through these
or “get by”). It has also been proposed that regulation macro-level changes (Martin 2010).
efforts take place across three core domains of function- There are also many micro and domain-specific
ing: cognition, affect, and behavior (Martin 2010). changes facing individuals and groups. In the educa-
Accordingly, “adaptability” is formally defined as the tion domain, tasks and challenges change in nature and
capacity to adaptively regulate cognition, emotion, and degree on a frequent basis; in the work domain, there
behavior in response to new, changing, and/or uncer- are ongoing changes in markets, demand, and compe-
tain conditions and circumstances. Thus, individuals tition; in sport there is the need for continual adjust-
who are adaptable are proposed to be capable of ments to different opponents and performance
purposefully and effectively adjusting their thought, conditions; in the performing arts (e.g., music), there
emotion, and behavior repertoires to give rise to is the need for a broad and flexible skill set to quickly
a positive trajectory on target phenomena such as orient to new performance pieces and productions
learning and achievement (Martin 2010; for cognate (Martin 2010). Individuals and groups who are able
 Adaptability and Learning A 91

to learn and achieve through these micro-level changes (HBE). HBE has been described as a more “functional” A
will be those best placed to seize the opportunities of approach to human learning (Barrett et al. 2002), argu-
the twenty-first century. Again, adaptability is pro- ing for relatively rapid changes in behavior through
posed to be important to learning and achievement interaction with environment in the course of adapta-
through these micro-level changes (Martin 2010). tion (Barrett et al. 2002). In contrast, evolutionary
Here, three lines of research and theory are pro- psychology argues that adaptation occurs slowly and
posed to inform the adaptability construct. The first is that this poses problems because the world has changed
evolutionary (educational) psychology that has exam- faster than the brain and behavior can adapt to it
ined the factors related to mind that assist students to (Barrett et al. 2002). HBE, then, has been portrayed as
adapt to the learning and achievement demands in more pragmatic and tied to readily observable changes
their academic lives (Geary 2008). The second is in learning.
based on human behavioral ecology that seeks to The third line of work summarized here as relevant
explain adaptation in situated and behavioral terms to adaptability and learning is that proposed under
(Barrett et al. 2002). The third relates to a motivational framework. According to Zimmerman
a motivational framing of adaptability and learning (1989), young people become increasingly capable of
(Bandura 2001; Covington 2000; Zimmerman 1989). initiating and directing their personal attributes with
Evolutionary psychology seeks to explain evolution a view to attaining a particular educational (or other)
in terms of the psychological mechanisms that are outcome. Thus, they do not merely participate in the
needed to survive, with the mind viewed in terms of academic process; rather, they actively engage and
the domains or modules relevant to meeting the operate on it. In various ways and to varying degrees,
challenges of the environment. From an evolutionary they learn that there is a reciprocal dialog between their
psychology perspective, the mind is comprised of psy- personal faculties (cognitive, emotional, and behav-
chological adaptations and predisposed mechanisms ioral) and contextual stimuli (see also Schulz and
for learning that survive because they solve problems Heckhausen 1996). Similarly, Bandura (2001) asserts
that individuals are presented with (Geary 2008). Of that dynamic and proactive cognitive and behavioral
the various perspectives and contributions under the enablement equips individuals with the personal
evolutionary psychology banner, perhaps the closest to resources required to select and create successful
context-relevant (e.g., school) learning and achieve- approaches to manage new and changing life chal-
ment is that proposed by evolutionary educational lenges. Likewise, Covington (2000) has provided
psychology (Geary 2008). According to Geary, evolu- input on the cognitive, behavioral, and affective regu-
tionary educational psychology seeks to explain how latory processes in which young people engage to help
evolved biases in learning and motivation influence them function through their academic lives. Together,
individuals’ capacity and motivation to learn academic these motivational perspectives suggest that learning
subject matter and academic skills. Evolutionary and achievement in the academic domain involve pro-
educational psychology proposes two psychological active (re)assessment and regulation of one’s cognitive,
systems that are relevant to adaptation and learning. affective, and behavioral functions and processing.
Primary (folk) psychological systems are what have an
evolutionary basis and involve processing information Important Scientific Research and
related to self, others, and group dynamics (Geary Open Questions
2008). Secondary psychological systems are what are When considering learning in a very general form (e.g.,
acquired through individuals’ interactions with their adjustment of a species to a new environment; devel-
environment. Secondary systems are typically what opment of social structures; invention of tools and
underpin performance environments such as school implements etc.), theorizing on the role of adaptability
in which culturally relevant skills and knowledge are has a long history (see Barrett et al. 2002; Geary
taught and learnt (Geary 2008). 2008 for reviews). However, the present discussion
One line of evolutionary work that more explicitly has sought to integrate adaptability into the field of
accommodates the role of context and social environ- academic learning and achievement and also intro-
ment is that proposed by human behavioral ecology duced motivational (cognitive, affective, behavioral)
92 A Adaptation

perspectives to this issue. Hence, there are new ques- Martin, A. J. (2010). Building classroom success: Eliminating fear and
tions to address as we seek to explore the potential of failure. London: Continuum.
Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (1996). A lifespan model of successful
this perspective on academic adaptability to explain
aging. American Psychologist, 51, 702–714.
learning in the academic domain. Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated
Some of these questions are as follows: (a) What is academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 329–339.
the conceptual scale, scope, and limits of the adaptabil-
ity construct in relation to academic learning and
achievement? (b) In what specific ways do cognitive,
behavioral, and emotional factors differentiate children
and young people’s adaptability and responses to Adaptation
change and transition? (c) What are the causes and ▶ Habituation and Sensitization
consequences of adaptability in learning and achieve- ▶ Socialization-Related Learning
ment settings? (d) What is the role of adaptability in
assisting children and young people to learn and
achieve through life transitions, new environments,
and marked personal and social uncertainties? (e)
What implications does adaptability hold for assisting Adaptation and Anticipation:
young people to innovate and problem solve in tomor- Learning from Experience
row’s world? (f) Do changes in adaptability lead to
changes in subsequent learning and achievement out- CHRISTIAN BALKENIUS, BIRGER JOHANSSON
comes? (g) What sort of cross-cultural profiles of Cognitive Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
adaptability exist and what are the implications of
this for models of learning? (h) What is the relative
mix of trait vs state vs context in “explaining” children’s Synonyms
and young people’s adaptability and does this have Adaptive and anticipatory learning; Experiential
implications for learning? (i) What are the neurological learning
and genetic bases of adaptability and how can knowl-
edge generation in this domain assist learning and Definition
achievement? These and other questions will be vital All forms of learning have an anticipatory component,
for progressing research, theory, and practice in the either implicitly because it adapts the organism for
area of adaptability and its interface with evolutionary, the future or explicitly by supporting predictions
motivational, and educational psychologies. of the future. Both forms of ▶ anticipatory learning
can be controlled by the value of the future state (see
Cross-References Fig. 1), but can also occur independently of any value.
▶ Motivation, Volition and Performance
▶ Resilience and Learning Theoretical Background
A basic form of learning that exists in nearly all animals
References is ▶ Pavlovian conditioning where the organism learns
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. to anticipate a discrete event, such as the presentation
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.
Barrett, L., Dunbar, R., & Lycett, J. (2002). Human evolutionary
psychology. New York: Palgrave. perceived anticipated anticipated
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school now now future
achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review Psychology,
51, 171–200.
Geary, D. C. (2008). An evolutionarily informed education science.
Educational Psychologist, 43, 179–195. Adaptation and Anticipation: Learning from Experi-
Martin, J. (2006). The meaning of the 21st century. London: ence. Fig. 1 The control of anticipatory learning by the
Transworld. future state
 Adaptation and Anticipation: Learning from Experience A 93

of a stimulus, based on one or several cues. These cues We now add the constraint that the perception of A
may either be discrete such as short sounds or consist of the object, including its localization, takes T time units.
the whole the situation or environment where the In this case, the problem translates to estimating the
organism is situated in the case of ▶ context condition- position from observations that are T time units old. In
ing. Although often incorrectly described as the result addition, this means that the organism only has access
of a repeated pairing of the cue and the anticipated to the prediction error after T additional time steps,
stimulus, Pavlovian conditioning depends critically on that is, learning has to be set off until the error can
a ▶ contingency in learning and occurs only when be calculated and the estimate of the objects current
there exists a predictive relationship between the stim- position has to be remembered until the actual target
uli (Rescorla 1988). In most demonstrations of Pavlov- location becomes available.
ian learning, the predicted event consists of the Because sensory processing takes time, an organism
presentation of an innately significant stimulus. How- will never have access to the position of a moving object
ever, Pavlovian learning also occurs when a relationship until after a delay. Any action that is directed toward
is set up between two stimuli without any innate value, the object position will thus have to depend on the
for example, in a ▶ sensory preconditioning experi- predicted location rather than the actual one.
ment (Brogden 1939). This is further complicated by the fact that any
Although it is possible to consciously know about action directed toward the predicted location will also
the predictive relationship, Pavlovian learning can take some time to execute. For example, if an action is
occur without any conscious recollection or under- performed with constant reaction time, an action
standing and animals are able to learn ▶ eyeblink directed at the current position will miss the target,
conditioning even if their cerebral cortex is removed. since once the action has been performed, the object
This can be contrasted with ▶ episodic learning where will be at a new position. Consequently, the system
an organism learns about a particular event or episode needs to anticipate the position of the object already
that it is later able to consciously recollect. This ability when the action is initiated.
can be used for episodic foresight, where past experi- In summary, for perception, the organism needs to
ences are used to anticipate future events or the conse- keep track of the target in three different time frames.
quences of an action (Osvath 2010). The first consists of the currently observed set of posi-
In ▶ operant learning, and its technical counterpart tions that can be called the perceived now. The second
▶ reinforcement learning, the organism learns to is the anticipated now. This is the actual position where
behave in a particular way because that behavior leads the object is, but this is not yet accessible. Finally, any
to a positive outcome. Although the future conse- action must be controlled by the anticipated future.
quences determine the behavior, there is no explicit The predictions resulting in the anticipated now
anticipation of these consequences. Operant learning may or may not be correct, but there is no way for the
is thus anticipatory only in an implicit way. Any organism to correct these predictions until at a later
discrepancies in the value between the expected and time, when the true sensory input becomes available.
actual outcome will lead to new learning, but the At this time, it is possible to adapt the earlier predic-
expected outcome is only available once the behavior tions using ▶ online learning to the actual sensory
has been performed. It does not guide it directly. input, something that requires that the earlier antici-
Anticipation is also necessary for perception. Con- pation, as well as the sensory information used for it,
sider an organism that attempts to predict the position should still be available. This implies that at every
of a moving object based on a sequence of previous moment, the sensory input is used both to anticipate
observations of the object. The organism should learn the future and to adapt earlier predictions, but because
a function from a number of observed positions in the of processing delays, it cannot be used to code for the
past to the estimated position right now. Any of a current state of the external world.
number of ▶ learning algorithms could learn such a The role of anticipation is also easily seen in tasks
function by minimizing the prediction error over time. such as catching a ball that involves ▶ sensorimotor
The learned function constitutes an anticipatory model adaptation. It involves at least the following compo-
of the object motion (Balkenius and Johansson 2007). nents that can be divided into a visual pursuit and
94 A Adaptation and Anticipation: Learning from Experience

a catch component. Even to just visually focus on the gradually acquire this ability during their first months
ball, its trajectory needs to be anticipated (Balkenius of life. It is possible that this anticipatory ability is
and Johansson 2007). Since visual processing and the learned as a direct prediction of future states from
eye movements following it are not instantaneous, previous states, but it is also possible that anticipation
it requires prediction to determine where the ball is makes use of internal simulation of the world. In the
right now. latter case, anticipation would depend on fairly com-
Similarly, eye movements cannot be based on the plex models of regularities in the environment.
anticipated now, but must be controlled by the antici- An outstanding question is to what extent species
pated future. Looking at a moving object therefore other than the human can learn to anticipate the future.
requires that the organism simultaneously maintains Even though many animals perform behaviors that pre-
sensory information at five different timescales: the pare them for the future, such as caching food for the
current sensory input, the anticipated now and future, winter, it is not obvious that such behaviors are moti-
and previous predictions of the now and the future. By vated by an anticipatory ability. Nor is it necessary that
combining information at the different time frames in such behaviors are learned. However, there is an increas-
an appropriate way, it is possible both to change the ing amount of empirical evidence that points toward the
currently anticipated now and to make future predic- existence of anticipatory learning abilities in primates
tions more accurate. (Osvath 2010).
Assuming the gaze system is correctly tuned, via Another area of research addresses how technical
some feed-forward mechanism, the temporal systems, including robots, could become equipped
unfolding of the ongoing interaction with the visual with ▶ anticipatory learning abilities. By learning to
target contains the information needed to predict anticipate future states of the world, a robot does not
the location of the ball in the future, but the task for need to be as fast as if it is unprepared to everything
the hand is not to move to any arbitrary point along the that happens.
predicted trajectory of the ball. Instead, the sensorimo-
tor system must direct the hand to the location where
the ball will be once the motor command to reach that Cross-References
location has been executed. This introduces an addi- ▶ Adaptation and Learning
tional type of complexity, since the time in the future ▶ Anticipation and Learning
when the hand will catch the ball depends on properties ▶ Anticipatory Learning
of the arm and hand as well as on the ball. Although this ▶ Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms
is strictly also true for eye movements, the physical lag ▶ Conditioning
of the system becomes more critical for ▶ Expectancy Learning and Evaluative Learning
arm movements. ▶ Sensorimotor Adaptation
In technical systems, the mechanisms required are ▶ Unconscious and Conscious Learning
often implemented as Kalman filters. Such filters have ▶ Unconscious Learning
also been suggested to be the basis for the human
ability to understand dynamical events and the actions
of other people (Kawato 1999).
References
Balkenius, C., & Johansson, B. (2007). Anticipatory models in
gaze control: A developmental model. Cognitive Processing,
Important Scientific Research and 8, 167–174.
Open Questions Brogden, W. J. (1939). Sensory pre-conditioning. Journal of Experi-
It is clear that anticipation plays a large role in many mental Psychology, 25, 323–332.
behaviors and that it is essential to anticipate events Kawato, M. (1999). Internal models for motor control and trajectory
planning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9, 718–727.
and the consequences of actions. However, it is not
Osvath, M. (2010). Planning primates – a search for episodic fore-
known what mechanisms lie behind these abilities or sight. Lund University Cognitive Studies, 148.
how they develop. For example, infants are not initially Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you
able to predict even very simple movements, but think it is. The American Psychologist, 43(3), 151–160.
 Adaptation and Learning A 95

different species, and many different behavior systems. A

Adaptation and Learning For example, juvenile coho salmon learn odors associ-
ated with their natal stream and use those cues to guide
KAREN L. HOLLIS them during migration. Human and nonhuman ani-
Department of Psychology, Mount Holyoke College, mals alike learn to avoid any novel food that is followed
South Hadley, MA, USA by illness, forming a strong taste aversion to those sub-
stances. Norway rats also learn which novel foods
might be safe, and which might be poisonous, by
Synonyms interacting closely with returning foragers, whose fur
Biological function of learning; Ultimate explanations and breath contain residues of previously eaten food.
of learning (contrast with proximate explanations) To determine the quality of a potential territory, juve-
nile anole lizards rely on the choices of conspecifics,
Definition a phenomenon called conspecific cueing. Exposure to
Adaptation is a ubiquitous term, used in the humanities conspecifics also benefits long-tailed tits, a European
and sciences alike, to refer to the act or process of woodland bird: Juveniles learn to identify the “churr”
changing – or, indeed, to the change itself – so as to call of their parents, and then later, as adults, use this
become better suited to a new situation, or in a new learned template to recognize close relatives, whom
application. For example, dark adaptation is they will help in raising young if their own breeding
a physiological process, whereas a film adaptation is attempts fail. Finally, the prodigious spatial learning
the product of a change. In evolutionary biology, too, abilities of many food-storing birds enable them to
adaptation refers either to the evolutionary process return to locations where they have cached food,
whereby a population becomes better suited to its envi- avoiding sites that they already have emptied.
ronment, typically through natural selection; or, to any Although all of the examples mentioned thus far
trait that increases an individual’s chances of leaving have involved vertebrates, learning also has been stud-
descendants. The use of the term to mean the evolu- ied extensively in invertebrates, especially insects
tionary process was for some time the preferred usage; (Dukas 2008), in which the capacity to learn has been
however, the word adaptation is used so frequently in demonstrated in multiple species from all major insect
the literature to refer to a trait, per se, as to become orders. In most insects – indeed, in animals generally –
equally acceptable. the capacity to learn appears to be an adaptation that
helps guide them as they actively search for, or attempt
Theoretical Background to avoid, food, mates, hosts, and predators. However,
The capacity to learn, like any other behavioral or recent reports demonstrate that sedentary insects also
morphological trait, can be studied from multiple are capable of learning. Not surprisingly, given this
perspectives: Questions that address the proximate burgeoning literature, present thinking is that the
causes of a trait, like the ability to learn, are those that capacity to learn may be universal in all animals
attempt to understand (a) the underlying mechanisms possessing a nervous system (Dukas 2008; Greenspan
that control the trait (how it works), or (b) the devel- 2007).
opment of the trait within the individual’s life span Despite its currently favorable reception, this ulti-
(how it comes about and changes over time). On the mate approach to learning is a relatively recent pursuit.
other hand, questions that invoke an ultimate analysis, With the exception of song learning, imprinting, and
explore (c) the biological function, or adaptive value, of search image formation, early ethologists not only were
the trait (why animals possess it), or (d) some aspect of more interested in instinctive behavior, but also tended
the trait’s evolutionary history (e.g., whether close to see behavior as being primarily hard-wired. (Indeed,
relatives and their common ancestor possess it). Hailman’s 1969 Scientific American paper, provoca-
Ultimate analyses of animals’ learning abilities tively entitled “How an instinct is learned,” was
currently abound in the literature (Dugatkin 2009), intended to highlight a very different view of how gull
demonstrating the adaptive value of learning in many chicks obtained food by “instinctively” pecking at the
96 A Adaptation and Learning

red spot on their parents’ beaks.) Although another behavior that is ineffective, unnecessary, or inappro-
group of researchers, namely experimental psycholo- priate (Shettleworth 2009). For example, in many ter-
gists, also were interested in learning, as a group they ritorial fish and bird species, a territory owner reacts to
actively eschewed the study of function for many years. the sight or sound of its neighbors by immediately
In the mid-1900s, when the conditioning proce- approaching the common boundary and engaging in
dures of ▶ Ivan Pavlov and ▶ B. F. Skinner became a species-typical territorial display; however, this ener-
a cornerstone of experimental psychology, the study getically costly response dissipates with repeated expo-
of learning was nearly exclusively a study of proximate sures to those same neighbors over the breeding season,
mechanisms. Although the function of learning always freeing territorial males to find food, court females, or
has interested researchers – indeed, it was a recurrent protect young. Similarly, all animals, humans and
theme in Pavlov’s writing – adaptive value did not nonhumans alike, immediately orient toward novel
figure prominently in experimental psychology until visual and auditory stimuli, the function of which is
two watershed developments forced consideration of to detect potential danger, but soon cease orienting if
the issue. Beginning in the late 1960s, the discovery of the stimuli don’t reveal a threat. Nonetheless, the need
biological ▶ constraints on learning (Hinde and Ste- for vigilance is not sacrificed to the need for response
venson-Hinde 1973) demonstrated rather dramatically economy. Many characteristics of habituated responses
how animals’ adaptations to their environments drove, demonstrate how finely balanced is the process to take
shaped and, thus, constrained what and how they were full advantage of the benefit to cost ratio. For example,
able to learn. No less important was the success of neo- habituated responses show spontaneous recovery, a
Darwinian evolutionary analyses in the newly emerging return to initial levels of responding following a stim-
field of behavioral ecology (what some regard as the ulation-free interval. In addition, presentation of
successor to ethology). a novel stimulus, virtually any new event, can disinhibit,
Today, the study of adaptation and learning increas- or restore, the habituated response abruptly to its
ingly blurs the boundaries between animal learning initial level. Finally, habituation is unfailingly stimu-
psychology and behavioral ecology (Shettleworth lus-specific, generalizing little to other, even similar,
2009). Nonetheless, many contemporary researchers stimuli.
address functional questions in the context of two Repeated presentations of a stimulus also may pro-
basic kinds of learning that, at one time, were the duce an increase in responding, sensitization, before
exclusive purview of psychologists: Nonassociative the response begins to habituate. Unlike habituation,
learning involves learning from a single-stimulus expe- sensitization is not at all stimulus-specific and typically
rience; whereas associative learning results from pro- occurs when the repeated stimulus is of high intensity
cedures involving two events (Papini 2008). Although or aversive. Also, unlike habituation, sensitization has
many no longer hold the view that nonassociative been observed only in multicellular organisms with at
and associative learning involve different underlying least a rudimentary nervous system. From a functional
mechanisms, the associative vs. nonassociative nomen- point of view, it’s easy to understand why sensitization,
clature continues to be used widely. Indeed, the which often functions as a kind of danger alert system,
nomenclature continues to be used even as researchers not only might precede habituation as the first phase of
debate whether associative learning involves learning a biphasic process to assess potential danger, but also
an association, per se, rather than learning the contin- might generalize more broadly than habituation.
gency relationship itself, or something about the Pavlovian conditioning, also known as classical con-
temporal relationship. ditioning, is a type of associative learning procedure in
In nonassociative learning, an individual responds which the experimenter arranges a contingency
to a single stimulus, say a loud noise, and that response between a relatively neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound
decreases (habituation) or increases (sensitization) with of a bell) and a reinforcer, a stimulus already possessing
repeated exposures to that same stimulus. Habituation, some hedonic value (e.g., a morsel of food). From
which is found in animals as diverse as planaria and a functional perspective, Pavlovian conditioning has
primates, as well as in many different behavior systems, been characterized as the ability to detect cause and
prevents individuals from wasting time and energy in effect in the environment and, subsequently, to prepare
 Adaptation and Learning A 97

for imminent, biologically important events (Hollis initial inefficiencies and response errors while the A
1982, 1997; Domjan 2005). For example, in Japanese behavior is being learned. Learned behavior also entails
quail and blue gourami fish, males learn to recognize “machinery costs,” costs that result from whatever
cues that accompany sexual opportunities, enabling physiological mechanisms are required to support
them to identify a possible mate. In addition, these learning. Given these costs, the capacity to learn – the
cues elicit physiological responses that increase sexual ability of animals to adjust their behavior to their
arousal and enhance sexual behavior, providing a direct current, local environment – is expected to evolve
reproductive benefit in the form of more eggs and only when two conditions are met (Stephens 1993):
young. Similarly, several species of territorial fish, (1) Biologically important events, say the location of
rats, and mice learn to recognize imminent signals of food or the characteristics of mates, must be relatively
invading male rivals, using these signals to mount stable within an individual’s lifetime. That is, learning
a more vigorous, and ultimately more successful, terri- provides no benefit if what is learned is no longer useful
torial defense. Such cues not only direct males to loca- on subsequent occasions. However, (2) those same
tions that, in the past, have been especially vulnerable events must not remain stable from one generation to
to invasions, but also they are thought to play an the next. That is, if the world remains constant, a hard-
important role in “winner” and “loser” effects, wherein wired response is a better bet.
winners are more likely to win subsequent fights while
losers are more likely to stay losers. Finally, learned cues
that reliably accompany the injection or ingestion of Important Scientific Research and
a wide variety of drugs – e.g., alcohol, caffeine and Open Questions
heroin – elicit a compensatory response, one that Environmental predictability is posited to be a critical
opposes the physiological effects of the drug and thus factor in whether learning is expected to evolve. How-
attenuates drug-related deviations from homeostasis. ever, given how widespread is this trait, the question no
In individuals who have acquired tolerance to large longer can be which species have evolved the capacity to
doses of potentially lethal drugs – which, itself, is the learn, but rather which behaviors, or behavior systems,
manifestation of Pavlovian conditioning – the learned rely on learning. Thus, an open question is how, in
compensatory response prevents overdose. many animals, their nervous systems, parts of which
Another kind of associative learning procedure is subserve several different behavior systems, permit
instrumental conditioning, sometimes called operant flexible behavior in some systems and fixed responses
conditioning or trial-and-error learning, in which the in others.
experimenter arranges a contingency between some Although the two kinds of associative learning
aspect of an animal’s behavior and the delivery of described above, namely, Pavlovian and instrumental
a reinforcer. From a functional perspective, instrumen- conditioning, involve different procedures, their oper-
tal conditioning appears to play an important role in ational differences do not necessarily imply that they
the natural foraging behavior of honeybees and cab- are governed by different underlying mechanisms.
bage white butterflies, which learn through prolonged External stimuli inevitably accompany every instru-
trial and error how to extract nectar efficiently from mental learning procedure and, thus, the animal may
flowers. Indeed, the conditions for instrumental learn- learn about the Pavlovian relationship between stimuli,
ing exist in just about any naturalistic situation in rather than the instrumental relationship between
which behavior becomes increasingly proficient or response and reinforcer. But the debate about underly-
more refined through repeated practice, such as the ing mechanisms reflects a proximate, rather than an
food begging of gull chicks, mentioned earlier. ultimate, question and thus does not have any direct
An implicit assumption in learning as an adapta- bearing on the function of learning. Perhaps not sur-
tion, is that the benefits of learning, such as those prisingly, then, researchers reporting their functional
described above, are offset by its costs. Compared to analyses of learning increasingly omit the terms
a hard-wired response that is available on the very first “Pavlovian” and “instrumental” conditioning, prefer-
occasion that the circumstances require it, learned ring to use the word “associative learning” – or, in
behavior necessarily involves “start-up costs,” that is many cases, simply “learning” – instead.
98 A Adaptation to Learning Styles

Cross-References
▶ Anticipatory Learning Adaptation to Learning Styles
▶ Anticipatory Schema(s)
▶ Associative Learning DAVID A. COOK
▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Office of Education Research, College of Medicine,
Learning Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
▶ Conditioning
▶ Evolution of Learning Synonyms
▶ Habituation and Sensitization Aptitude–treatment interaction; Cognitive styles;
▶ Invertebrate Learning Learning preferences; Tailored instruction
▶ Learning and Instinct
▶ Nonassociative Learning Definition
▶ Operant Behavior Teachers readily admit that every student is different,
▶ Operant Learning yet most instructional activities require all learners to
▶ Pavlov, Ivan P. (1849–1936) complete the same tasks. Resolving this disconnect
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning requires that instruction be individualized to the
▶ Risk-Sensitive Reinforcement Learning needs of each student. The process of modifying activ-
▶ Skinner B. F. ity in response to contextual requirements (in this case,
▶ Skinner B. F. (1904–1990) an individual’s needs) is called adaptation. Adaptation
▶ Social Learning in Animals requires that some type of assessment be performed,
▶ Spatial Learning and that a change occur in response to that assessment.
▶ Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1907–1988) Sometimes, adaptation occurs without conscious
thought or planning, as when a tutor senses that
a learner did not understand a concept and explains it
References again in a different way. Yet most often when we speak
Domjan, M. (2005). Pavlovian conditioning: a functional perspective. of instructional adaptations, we refer to deliberate
Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 179–206. adjustments to the instructional design (instructional
Dugatkin, L. A. (2009). Principles of animal behavior (2nd ed.). New
content, methods, or presentation) intended to opti-
York: Norton.
Dukas, R. (2008). Evolutionary biology of insect learning. Annual mize learning.
Review of Entomology, 53, 145–160. When considering the various aptitudes that
Greenspan, R. J. (2007). Afterword: universality and brain mecha- educators could assess and then use to adapt instruc-
nisms. In G. North & R. J. Greenspan (Eds.), Invertebrate neuro- tion, learning and cognitive styles frequently surface as
biology (pp. 647–649). Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor
possibilities. Learning styles are “general tendencies to
Laboratory.
Hinde, R. A., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (Eds.). (1973). Constraints on
prefer to process information in different ways”
learning. London: Academic. (Jonassen and Grabowski 1993, p. 233). Cognitive
Hollis, K. L. (1982). Pavlovian conditioning of signal-centered styles are “characteristic approaches of individuals in
action patterns and autonomic behavior: a biological analysis acquiring and organizing information” (ibid., p. 173).
of function. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 12, 1–64. Learning and cognitive styles are superficially similar
Hollis, K. L. (1997). Contemporary research on Pavlovian condition-
but theoretically distinct in that learning styles refer to
ing: a “new” functional analysis. The American Psychologist, 52,
956–965. preferences (typically self-reported), while cognitive
Papini, M. R. (2008). Comparative psychology: Evolution and develop- styles refer to actual mental operations (typically
ment of behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Psychology. measured using more objective tests).
Shettleworth, S. J. (2009). Cognition, evolution, and behavior Before an adaptation can be justified, educators
(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford.
must have evidence that such adaptations make
Stephens, D. W. (1993). Learning and behavioral ecology: Incomplete
information and environmental predictability. In D. Papaj &
a difference – that learning outcomes (e.g., effective-
A. C. Lewis (Eds.), Insect learning (pp. 195–218). New York: ness, efficiency, or satisfaction) vary depending on both
Chapman Hall. the educational intervention and the learner
 Adaptation to Learning Styles A 99

characteristic (aptitude). Such effects are termed apti- field dependent-independent (e.g., Witkin’s model, A
tude–treatment interactions. An aptitude–treatment related frameworks include wholist-analytic, serialist-
interaction (see Fig. 1) occurs when a student with wholist, leveling-sharpening, and analytical-rela-
attribute 1 (e.g., active learner) learns better with tional), visualizer-verbalizer (e.g., Richardson’s model,
instructional approach A than with approach B, while or verbalizer-imager), and visual-haptic (e.g.,
a student with attribute 2 (e.g., reflective learner) learns Lowenfeld’s model). Both learning and cognitive styles
better with instructional approach B. If all students refer to how information is processed; the key differ-
learned better with approach B, there would be no ence is that learning styles represent learner perceptions
interaction and no need for adaptation. and preferences, while cognitive styles reflect actual
abilities, skills, or tendencies. While the theoretical
Theoretical Background and measurement differences are not trivial, for the
Hundreds of learning styles have been described, purposes of discussing adaptation we can reasonably
including the popular frameworks described by Kolb interchange these constructs, and I will use learning
(active-reflective and concrete-abstract dimensions), styles to refer to both learning and cognitive styles.
Jung (extroversion-introversion, sensation-intuition, Teachers have long been intrigued by the idea that
thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving), Felder and individual learner propensities such as learning styles
Solomon (active-reflective, sensing-intuitive, visual- could help them more effectively reach learners.
verbal, and sequential-global dimensions), Dunn and Adaptation can occur at the curriculum level (“macro-
Dunn (environmental, sociological, emotional, and adaptation,” for example, directing learners to a specific
physical factors), and Grascha and Riechmann course or curriculum based on an aptitude) or at the
(avoidant-participant, competitive-collaborative, and level of moment-by-moment instructional events
dependent-independent dimensions). Cognitive styles (“micro-adaptation,” for example, using different
comprise a distinct but related set of stable traits that teaching approaches for learners with different apti-
learners employ in perceiving, processing, and organiz- tudes). Except for the cases of learner knowledge (e.g.,
ing information. Dozens of cognitive styles have been accelerated or remedial pathways) and formal learning
described, each with its own theoretical framework, but disabilities, macro-adaptation has generally not been
most can be grouped in one of three broad clusters: shown to work effectively in practice. Micro-

Aptitude-treatment interaction No interaction

Performance

Performance

Attribute 1 Attribute 2 Attribute 1 Attribute 2

Method (treatment) A Method (treatment) B

Adaptation to Learning Styles. Fig. 1 Aptitude-treatment interaction occurs when a learner attribute predicts different
outcomes for different treatments (teaching methods). In the example on the left, learners with attribute 1 perform better
using teaching method A than with method B, while learners with attribute 2 perform better using method B. Interaction is
present, and adapting the method so that learners with attribute 1 get method A and those with attribute 2 receive
method B would enhance learning. In the example on the right, both groups perform better with method B. There is no
interaction and adaptation is unnecessary
100 A Adaptation to Learning Styles

adaptations have likewise proven difficult in the typical interaction between intervention and learning styles.
classroom setting, where teachers must simultaneously The absence of evidence to suggest interactions could
meet the needs of multiple learners. Thus, recent be attributed to a paucity of appropriately designed
attempts to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness studies (see below for research considerations). How-
of adaptation have frequently used computer-assisted ever, existing evidence cannot disprove the primacy of
instruction (CAI) (Cook 2005). Not only does CAI instructional methods over cognitive and learning
makes individualization more feasible than in the styles, and suggests that the influence of styles is at
past, but adapting CAI to specific learner characteris- best weak and inconsistent (see Pashler et al. 2008 for
tics could potentially optimize the benefit from CAI. an extended discussion of this issue).
Unfortunately, despite great hopes (and often great Second, how should we adapt in response to
hype), adaptation to learning styles has generally failed a given style? Most researchers have hypothesized that
to produce meaningful and consistent results. This may instructional designs should take advantage of learning
be in part due to a paucity of studies designed to style strengths and compensate for weaknesses. For
explore aptitude–treatment interactions. Most research example, reflective learners would be provided instruc-
studies involving learning styles look for correlations tion that emphasized reflection, while active learners
between styles and outcomes, but fail to explore the would learn using active instructional methods. How-
interaction between style and instructional method. ever, there are two alternative perspectives worth con-
Moreover, even studies that do explore such interac- sidering. First, some view the nondominant learning
tions often lack an a priori theoretical foundation that style as a weakness, and argue that instead of tailoring
would predict the observed outcome. The implications instruction to accentuate the dominant style teachers
of such post hoc interpretations are less powerful than should design instruction to target and strengthen
those from theoretically grounded, hypothesis-driven weaknesses (akin to weight training to build strong
studies. Finally, results are inconsistent from study to muscles). Related solutions include consciously
study, and the most rigorous studies have nearly always attempting to change the style, and teaching learners
failed to find significant interactions. Based on these strategies to help them overcome style limitations. Sec-
findings, it is difficult to recommend adaptation to ond, several of the theories from which learning styles
learning styles at this time. have derived emphasize that the most effective learning
involves balanced use of all styles rather than emphasis
Important Scientific Research and on one. For example, Kolb hypothesized a learning
Open Questions cycle with four stages corresponding to the four styles
Questions greatly outnumber the facts in learning listed above. Learners might prefer to enter the cycle at
styles research, and rigorous, theory-based, hypothe- one stage, but effective learning requires passage
sis-driven research could contribute greatly to the field. through all four stages of the cycle. Finally, even assum-
First, how important are learning styles? Many authors ing that playing to the learner’s strengths is the right
have suggested that the effect of learning styles is small approach, theories are vague, and empirical evidence is
relative to the impact of instructional methods (see, virtually nonexistent to provide support upon which to
e.g., Merrill 2002). They argue that the greatest learning base adaptations.
gains will come from the use of effective instructional Third, to what should we adapt? Given the nearly
methods and careful alignment of instructional countless learning and cognitive styles that have been
methods with learning objectives; once this has been identified, the choice of one measure over another
done, the incremental gain from adapting to learning seems rather arbitrary. Moreover, there are other cog-
styles is minimal. Stating this in terms of the aptitude– nitive aptitudes with stronger empirical or theoretical
treatment interaction model, these authors propose support for adaptation than learning styles. For exam-
a main effect from instructional methods but little or ple, evidence is both substantial and fairly consistent
no interaction with learning styles. As noted above, that adapting to learner baseline (prior) knowledge can
appropriately designed studies are few and improve learning efficiency without sacrificing learning
inconsistent, but most fail to confirm the hypothesized outcomes. Spatial ability has shown promise in a few
 Adaptation to Learning Styles A 101

studies, although outcomes have been inconsistent. design is employed); smaller studies are likely under- A
Likewise, preliminary evidence suggests that adapta- powered and yield falsely-negative findings. Seventh, in
tion in response to learner motivation is beneficial. most cases, learning styles studies should be analyzed
Perhaps, if educators are going to attempt adaptation, using regression analysis (i.e., as illustrated in the fig-
they should explore one of these other aptitudes first. ures above). Ideally, the more familiar t-test or analysis
Finally, to those anxious to embark on rigorous of variance should only be employed when using an
study of adaptation to learning styles, it is helpful to extreme-groups design.
learn from the mistakes and warnings of earlier In summary, adaptations in response to an
researchers (see Curry 1999; Cronbach and Snow individual’s learning style are not supported by pres-
1977 for details). I will summarize briefly the most ently available theory or evidence. While future
salient of these. Perhaps the greatest challenge in this research may provide insights into this intriguing
field is the multiplicity of theories, constructs, and field, at present educators and their students may ben-
instruments developed to explain and measure learning efit from focusing first on employing effective instruc-
styles. In addition to the issues of selecting one style tional methods that align with course objectives and
over another and planning the proposed adaptation learning needs. Carefully planned theory-based
(noted above), researchers often inappropriately research in adaptive instruction is much needed.
attempt to apply a single theory or instrument across
a range of educational settings when different style
frameworks might be more appropriate. Second, learn- Cross-References
ing style instruments generally have little evidence to ▶ Adaptation and Learning
support the validity of score interpretations. Scores ▶ Adaptive Blended Learning Environments
from self-report instruments often show high reliabil- ▶ Adaptive Instruction Systems and Learning
ity, but this does not indicate they accurately measure ▶ Adaptive Learning Systems
a meaningful construct. Third, effective adaptation ▶ Adult Learning Styles
may require response to multiple learner characteristics ▶ Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
simultaneously; focusing on one aptitude (e.g., one ▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies
learning style) at a time may be insufficient. Yet differ- ▶ Learning Style(s)
ent aptitudes may themselves interact in complex ways, ▶ Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles
thus further complicating an already difficult problem. ▶ Styles of Engagement in Learning
Fourth, adaptation is most likely to benefit those with
a strong tendency toward one style or another (e.g., the
extremes of the spectrum). Yet nearly all research in the
References
Cook, D. A. (2005). Learning and cognitive styles in Web-based
field includes participants with “intermediate” styles or
learning: Theory, evidence, and application. Academic Medicine,
(worse) dichotomizes learners using the midpoint of 80, 266–278.
the scale. Researchers will be more likely to confirm Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional
hypothesized relationships when participants have methods: A handbook for research on interactions. New York:
been selected to clearly represent the style in question. Irvington Publishers.
Curry, L. (1999). Cognitive and learning styles in medical education.
Fifth, there is often little difference between the two
Academic Medicine, 74, 409–413.
interventions intended to target specific styles. This is Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of individual
perhaps a combination of two issues noted above – the differences, learning, and instruction. Hillsdale: Lawrence
decision to employ strong instructional methods Erlbaum.
before considering styles, and the lack of clear evidence Merrill, M. D. (2002). Instructional strategies and learning styles:
and theory to guide learning style-guided instructional Which takes precedence? In R. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.),
Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 99–
designs. Sixth, because learning styles research explores
106). Upper Saddle River: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
interactions rather than main effects, defensible results Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning
typically require relatively large samples (typically 200 styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public
or more participants, unless an “extreme-groups” Interest, 9(3), 105–119.
102 A Adaptation to Weightlessnes

earth. It is important to understand the principles of

Adaptation to Weightlessnes sensorimotor adaptation to changed gravitational
environments in order to define the risks associated
JACOB J. BLOOMBERG1, OTMAR LEO BOCK2 with spacecraft operations and to design effective
1
Neuroscience Laboratories, Human Adaptation and countermeasures.
Countermeasures Division, NASA/Johnson Space
Centre, Houston, TX, USA Important Scientific Research and
2
Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln, Institut für Open Questions
Physiologie und Anatomie, Köln, Germany The adverse effects of weightlessness on body posture
are compensated by a plastic central reinterpretation of
sensory inputs, and the reprogramming of postural
Synonyms responses to allow movement in a microgravity envi-
Space adaptation ronment. Aftereffects upon return to earth include
postural and gait instability, which are partly compen-
Definition sated by an increased reliance on vision. Postflight
Ability to gradually modify sensorimotor functions changes in otolith-spinal reflexes manifest as deficits
in order to restore adequate perceptual and behavioral in many preprogrammed motor responses, such as
performance in the absence of gravity. This is a special those stabilizing posture after a voluntary jump. Recov-
case of sensorimotor adaptation, in which the distor- ery from short-duration missions (5–13 days) follows
tion is a change of the force environment. a double exponential, with rapid improvements during
the first 8–10 h and a more gradual return to preflight
Theoretical Background levels over the next 4–8 days. Recovery from long-
When the human body is exposed to weightlessness, duration missions takes about 2 weeks. This prolonged
several sensory, central, and motor functions are time course has considerable implications for opera-
adversely affected. At the sensory level, otolith organs tional tasks after landing on a planetary surface, includ-
no longer provide information about the gravitational ing rapid emergency egress from a landing vehicle.
vertical as a fundamental reference for self-orientation, The central reinterpretation of sensory inputs from
skin receptors do not register foot-ground contact the vestibular organs has adverse effects on gaze stabi-
forces since the downward pull of gravity is absent, lization by the vestibulo-ocular reflex, and thus
and proprioceptive information about body posture degrades eye–head coordination and visual target
deteriorates due to receptor unloading. At the central acquisition. This manifests as an increased incidence
level, spatial orientation is degraded due to the of saccadic eye movements, a reduced dynamic visual
mismatch between unchanged visual but changed acuity, and blurred vision during the first days of
vestibular, tactile, and proprioceptive cues, which weightlessness and of reexposure to a gravitational
can result in sensations of uncertainty about being environment. These deficits pose problems for astro-
“right side up” or “upside down,” feelings of unreality, nauts especially during entry, approach, and landing on
and in the incapacitating symptoms of space motion planetary surfaces, as they could adversely affect tasks
sickness. At the motor level, the lack of ground con- such as instruments reading, locating switches on
tact destabilizes body posture, and limb unloading a control panel, or evacuating a vehicle in suboptimal
dramatically changes the relationship between motor visual conditions.
commands and their behavioral consequences. The Manual skills are considerably degraded in weight-
impact of weightlessness on subjective well-being, lessness. Depending on circumstances, movement
spatial perception, and motor performance is most speed, accuracy, and/or the cognitive costs of
pronounced during transient exposure (e.g., parabolic performing the skill can be affected, which led to the
flight and onset of spaceflight). Most symptoms formulation of a three-factor hypothesis: Manual per-
subside during prolonged exposure as a sign of adap- formance reflects a trade-off between speed, accuracy,
tation, and aftereffects often emerge upon return to and cognitive expenditure, and astronauts therefore
 Adaptive Agents A 103

can make a strategic decision which of these factors to loss of certain functions, and to what extent they are A
protect in weightlessness at the expense of the other signs of an ongoing adaptive remodeling process.
factors. For example, routine activities may favor the Another open issue relates to the role of morphological
decision to slow down and reduce accuracy, while tasks changes: it has been demonstrated that exposure to
considered to be critical may encourage the decision to weightlessness dramatically increases the number of
recruit additional cognitive resources and conserve synapses in the otolith organs, and that it modifies
speed and accuracy. During prolonged spaceflight, the brain’s topography particularly in the somatosen-
simple and well-practiced manual skills adapt within sory and cerebellar cortex. While these structural
a few hours, while complex and novel skills do not fully changes may facilitate adaptation, they may be difficult
recover even after several months. Adaptive improve- to rescind upon return to a gravitational environment,
ment draws heavily on cognitive resources and shows and thus may delay recovery.
only limited aftereffects upon return to earth, which
suggests that it is largely based on cognitive Cross-References
workaround strategies rather than on a sensorimotor ▶ Motor Learning
recalibration. ▶ Motor Learning, Retention, and Transfer
The absence of gravitational cues about the vertical ▶ Motor Skill Learning
adversely impacts spatial orientation. Some astronauts ▶ Neural Substrates of Motor Learning
resort to an egocentric frame of reference (“down is ▶ Sensorimotor Adaptation
where my feet are”), while others prefer an allocentric ▶ Sensorimotor Learning
frame (“down is where I see the spacecraft floor”). ▶ Task-dependent Motor Learning
A change of the reference frame can be induced by
external events, for example, when a fellow astronaut References
floats by in a different orientation; this change can be Bloomberg, J. J., & Mulavara, A. P. (2003). Changes in walking
accompanied by strong sensations of discomfort. strategies after spaceflight. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and
Biology Magazine, 22(2), 58–62.
Somatosensory signals can partly substitute for the
Bock, O., Fowler, B., & Comfort, D. (2001). Human sensorimotor
missing gravitational cues; however, they are degraded
coordination during spaceflight: An analysis of pointing and
by weightlessness and thus can induce misjudgments of tracking responses during the “Neurolab” Space Shuttle mission.
self and surround orientation. When persons are free Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 72, 877–883.
floating, somatosensory information about contact Lackner, J. R., & DiZio, P. (2000). Human orientation and movement
forces is absent as well; eye closure in this situation control in weightless and artificial gravity enviroments. Experi-
mental Brain Research, 130, 2–26.
eliminates all sense of one’s own position in space,
Mulavara, A. P., Feiveson, A., Feidler, J., Cohen, H. S., Peters, B. T.,
and leaves only a sense of relative body configuration. Miller, C. A., Brady, R., & Bloomberg, J. J. (2010). Locomotor
This lack of any spatial anchoring is distinct from the function after long-duration space flight: Effects and motor
sense of free falling, experienced, for example, when learning during recovery. Experimental Brain Research, 202(3),
jumping from a chair on earth. Anecdotal evidence 649–659.
Paloski, W. H., Reschke, M. F., Doxey, D. D., & Black, F. O. (1992).
suggests that spatial orientation gradually normalizes
Neurosensory adaptation associated with postural ataxia follow-
during prolonged spaceflight, but the time course of
ing spaceflight. In M. Woolacott & F. Horak (Eds.), Posture and
improvement and its underlying mechanisms remain gait: Control mechanisms (pp. 311–315). Eugene, Ore: University
to be elucidated. of Oregon Press.
It is still largely unknown to what extent adaptation Ross, M. D. (1994). A spaceflight study of synaptic plasticity in adult
to weightlessness depends on mental factors such as rat vestibular maculas. Acta Otolaryngologica. Supplementum,
516, 1–14.
workload and stress, and on the interior design of space
habitats. For example, interlinked spacecraft modules
with different cues for “up” and “down” are known to
provoke spatial disorientation and nausea, and thus
may impair the ability to adapt. It is also unknown to
Adaptive Agents
what extent deficits observed in weightlessness reflect ▶ Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems
104 A Adaptive Evaluation Systems

Four components of computer adaptive test archi-

Adaptive Evaluation Systems tecture are generally recognized including the item
pool, the item selection method, a method to calculate
ROY B. CLARIANA, SIMON HOOPER the examinee’s ability, and a stopping rule (Reckase
College of Education, Pennsylvania State University, 1989). The quality of the item pool is a critical element
University Park, PA, USA of an adaptive test. The item pool must contain
a sufficiently large number of field-tested and validated
items to accurately distinguish between test levels and
Synonyms sublevels. Item selection and ability estimation refer to
Adaptive testing; Computer adaptive testing the mathematical calculations used to calculate the
probability of a test taker answering a test item
Definition correctly, to estimate the examinees ability, and to
Adaptive evaluation systems are computer-based select subsequent test items. The algorithms used for
systems for measuring the performance of individuals item selection and ability measurement are based on
or of teams by tailoring the presentation order or type item-response theory. The stopping rule is used to
of screen affordance provided by the system based on establish the criterion for test termination. The crite-
ongoing user responses or response patterns in order to rion is usually established according to the number of
match the assessment level to that of the learner or test items completed, the required test measurement
team. Adaptive evaluation systems are nearly synony- accuracy, or a combination of both.
mous with computer adaptive testing for summative In practice, computer adaptive tests tailor the pre-
assessment (e.g., Guzmán and Conejo 2002), but for sentation of test items for each test taker based on their
formative assessment, adaptive evaluation systems item-by-item performance to reduce the test length
comprise the decision-making engines used in adaptive while maintaining assessment precision. The software
learning systems (e.g., intelligent tutors). Computer selects test items (typically multiple choice questions)
adaptive tests and intelligent tutors perhaps represent dynamically from a large bank of items based on the
opposite ends of a continuum regarding what is knowl- system’s current estimate of the examinee’s ability, and
edge, how it is measured, and what is the need or that estimate is updated after every response. If
purpose of evaluation. Note that adaptive evaluation a question is answered correctly, the next test item is
systems have high development costs and other inher- more complex, but if an item is answered incorrectly,
ent potential disadvantages and may be only marginally an easier item is presented next, thus no two individ-
more efficient or effective than similar nonadaptive uals will see exactly the same set of test items. In this
evaluation systems, and so development cost versus way, the system converges on test items that are at the
benefit must be considered. examinee’s level and then stops the test.
From the examinee’s view, the test is moderately
difficult throughout, with few easy or difficult items. In
Theoretical Background this way, the computer adaptive test system in some
sense “learns” about the examinee, and the test score
Computer Adaptive Testing obtained reflects the highest difficulty level of items
Large-scale testing dates back to at least the civil service that the learner can answer correctly. The best-known
examinations in China in 200 BC, but the practice was computer adaptive test may be the Graduate Manage-
only institutionalized in the west in the twentieth cen- ment Admission Test (GMAT) which is completed by
tury. The concept of adaptive testing was formalized in more than 200,000 people annually (Rudner 2010). An
the 1940s as a method for trained interviewers to tailor extensive collection of the computer adaptive test
a test, such as the Stanford–Binet, to the test taker. literature (currently over 1,400 published manuscripts)
Computer adaptive testing is a natural evolution of is available from Weiss (2010).
the confluence of aspects of these and other testing Cost benefit is an important consideration in
advances along with the advent of computers for test computer adaptive testing (and possibly in adaptive
delivery in the 1960s. assessment systems). Triantafillou, Georgiadou, and
 Adaptive Evaluation Systems A 105

Ecomides (2008) identified several benefits and limita- Trainer (UCOFT) developed in the 1980s. UCOFT is a A
tions of computerized adaptive test systems. The high-fidelity simulation trainer that provides practice
primary benefits include test-taking efficiency and for a gunner and tank commander team on various
increased examinee motivation, while limitations gunnery tasks. The trainer delivers preprogrammed
include cost versus quality issues. For example, by firing exercises from a large library of exercises and
1997, the item pool for the GMAT included more includes an adaptive evaluation system (e.g., Geiger
than 9,000 items at an estimated development cost for 1989). The adaptive evaluation system scores perfor-
each item of US$1,500–2,500 (Rudner 2010). The mance and controls team progress through a training
design, use, and size of item pools create other issues. matrix of firing activities. Each engagement exercise is
Poorly constructed item selection can lead to uneven scored as “strong” or “needs work” in the skill areas of
use distribution with the result that sophisticated algo- target acquisition, reticle aim, and system manage-
rithms must be developed to avoid under- or overex- ment. When the crew performs satisfactorily, the sys-
posure and distribution. Overexposure that occurs tem increases the complexity of the next exercise. The
when test items are completed by a high percentage of UCOFT tied adaptive evaluation to course sequencing
examinees compromises test security, while underex- and exemplifies the relationship of the formative appli-
posure that results when items are used infrequently cation of adaptive evaluation. Although not commonly
inflates item pool development costs. Accurate exam- practiced, the information generated by the adaptive
inee comparison is based on the assumption that test learning system to describe the “state” of the student
versions are comparable in terms of difficulty and model could be externally reported to show both learn-
content coverage, and this can only be confirmed by ing over time while using the adaptive learning system
extensive field tests of the items and the system. Risks as well as on exit to indicate the final performance level
associated with a security breach encourage the use of of the learner. Thus, we propose that adaptive learning
small pools which exacerbates the issues of exposure, systems should be modified, and in some cases this is
sampling, and cost. Because of the high development easily accomplished, to provide assessment and evalu-
costs, these systems should be scalable to a large ation reports. This modification must be done with
audience. care so that evaluation does not negatively influence
the learning environment.
Adaptive Assessment Systems as
a Component of Adaptive Learning Important Scientific Research and
Systems Open Questions
Adaptive evaluation systems are fully embedded com- First and foremost, the meaning of adaptive evaluation
ponents of most adaptive learning systems (i.e., intel- systems is shifting in concord with changes in accep-
ligent tutors) but also exist at some level in simulations tance of what constitutes knowledge, what artifacts rep-
and educational games. Adaptive learning systems in resent knowledge (e.g., multiple-choice items, essays,
general require the maintenance and interaction of four inquiry comments, social interactions, questioning
models, the expert model that consists of the informa- strategies), and what is evaluation; for example, from
tion to be learned (e.g., the knowledge structure of the empiricism which focuses on mastery of individual
domain or of experts in the domain), the student knowledge elements that together constitute a whole
model that tracks and learns about the student (i.e., to sociocultural views that value engagement with con-
their structural knowledge or schema), the instruc- tent through inquiry, the social aspects of learning, and
tional model that actually conveys the information, even participation in the evaluation process itself which
and the instructional environment that is the user all require consideration of a larger context. In this
interface for interacting with the system. Compare discussion, it is important to distinguish between
these four models to the four components of computer assessment which is the measurement of knowledge,
adaptive tests above. The student model is the adaptive skills, attitudes, and beliefs and evaluation which is
assessment system of adaptive learning systems. ascribing a value to individuals or teams based on
An early use of the term “adaptive evaluation sys- those measurements and other evidence. Framed differ-
tem” is as a component of the Unit Conduct-of-Fire ently, the current trend in adaptive evaluation systems
106 A Adaptive Game-Based Learning

may be away from a very narrow focus on measuring

just a few kinds of knowledge elements, toward a much Adaptive Game-Based Learning
broader view that includes making evaluations of
people (deciding, judging) based on many different AMY ADCOCK1, RICHARD VAN ECK2
1
but concomitant kinds of knowing within settings. Department of STEM Education and Professional
As learning and work becomes increasingly collab- Studies, Old Dominion University Darden College of
orative within learning communities, assessment and Education, Norfolk, VA, USA
2
evaluation will likely follow suit. Thus, assessment and Department of Teaching and Learning, College of
evaluation may shift from the individual to both the Education and Human Development, University of
individual and the team level of analysis. Research will North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA
likely focus on how evaluation systems can adapt to
learning teams, for example, by including and tracking
not just one but multiple student models in the adap- Synonyms
tive system. Such adaptive assessment and learning Adaptive instruction; Artificial intelligence; Cognitive
systems would require significant automation of the modeling; Gaming; Learner supports; Scaffolding
analysis of students’ interactions with the system and
with each other through the system. Such complex Definitions
systems may be fairly distant at this time. Shute and Zapata-Rivera (2008) define adaptive learn-
ing systems as hard and soft technologies that adjust
Cross-References content presented to the learner using methodologies
▶ Adaptive Game-Based Learning such as cognitive modeling and/or sensory input.
▶ Adaptive Learning Systems Commercial games generate optimal challenge and
▶ Group Cognition and Collaborative Learning engagement levels through the use of artificial intelli-
▶ Intelligent Tutoring gence (AI) systems that make adjustments to the game
▶ Peer Learning and Assessment based on player behavior. Game-based learning (GBL)
▶ Shared Cognition and Group Learning has the potential to provide effective learning experi-
▶ Simulation-Based Learning ences for players by including adaptive strategies for
learning and engagement outcomes. The rationale for
References GBL has roots in long-standing learning theories such
Geiger, R. E. (1989). Experimental design and analysis of MIAI com- as intrinsic motivation (Malone and Lepper 1987), play
mander gunner performance during CONOPS using the U-COFT. theory (Rieber 1996), and problem solving (Jonassen
Master’s degree thesis from the US Naval Postgraduate School, 1997). While the concept of GBL is not new, advances
Monterey, California. in technologies that facilitate programming and dis-
Guzmán, E., & Conejo, R. (2002). Adaptive evaluation through differ-
semination of digital games have made it easier for GBL
ent types of items. A presentation at the 8th Conferencia
Iberoamericana de Inteligencia Artificial, Seville, Spain (Novem-
to be developed and implemented across multiple
ber). Available from http://www.lsi.us.es/iberamia2002/confman/ domains and audiences.
SUBMISSIONS/257-dueccucguz.pdf Critical design issues are surfacing as a result of the
Reckase, M. D. (1989). Adaptive testing: The evolution of a good idea. increased interest in and feasibility of GBL develop-
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 8(3), 11–15. ment. A major issue centers on the design of a game
Rudner, L. M. (2010). Implementing the Graduate Management
that is not only engaging but that also employs sound
Admission Test computerized adaptive test.In W. J. van der
Linden & C. A. W. Glass (Eds.). Statistics for social and behavioral pedagogical approaches for achieving learning out-
sciences: Elements of adaptive testing. Part 2. (pp. 151–165). comes. Adding another level of complexity to this
SpringerLink, New York. issue, GBL environments are generally digital, self-
Triantafillou, E., Georgiadou, E., & Ecomides, A. A. (2008). The paced games where control measures are designed
design and evaluation of a computerized adaptive test on mobile
through programming and then packaged. This partic-
devices. Computers & Education, 50, 1319–1330.
Weiss, D. J. (2010). Bibliography on computerized adaptive testing
ular modality requires designers to attend to auto-
(CAT). Available from http://www.psych.umn.edu/psylabs/ mated pedagogical affordances that support the
catcentral/bibliographycomplete.htm development of knowledge and which account for as
 Adaptive Game-Based Learning A 107

much player variability as possible. One way to accom- (1973), ITSs essentially rely on three components: the A
plish this is through the construction of adaptive GBL expert model, the student model, and the tutor. The
environments (e.g., Van Eck 2006; Adcock et al. 2010). expert model approximates both the content knowl-
Adaptive GBL environments are designed to adjust edge of an expert in the given domain and the structure
to a player’s developing knowledge base by changing or organization of that knowledge. The tutoring system
goal structure, complexity of problems, and game nar- uses the expert model as a source of knowledge and
ratives. The origin of adaptive GBL lies in the desire to structure for that information. The goal of the system is
provide authentic, meaningful learning experiences in to reduce the disparity between the expert model and
the context of an educational game. Based on prior what the learner knows (the student model), which it
work in intelligent tutoring system (ITS) design, these develops during the tutoring session by tracking what
environments work by modeling the learners knowl- the student says that is correct, incorrect, or irrelevant.
edge and following verified pedagogical principles such Each time the student articulates something, the system
as increasing problem set complexity and removing of compares what was said to what it knows about the
supports or scaffolds to facilitate schema construction structure and content of the domain (the expert
based on each learner’s level of understanding (e.g., model) and determines how closely the two are aligned.
Anderson et al. 1985; Graesser et al. 1999; Van Eck It then modifies the student model to reflect its best
2006). guess about what the student knows and selects the best
pedagogical response that it believes will reduce the gap
Theoretical Background between the student model and the expert model.
There are several examples of ITSs (e.g., Andes,
Adaptive Instruction Atlas, PACT, Sherlock, Why Tutor, Why2, LISP, Stat
Research in learning and cognition over the years has Lady, Geometry Tutor, Smithtown, and AutoTutor)
demonstrated that for instruction to be effective, it with a long history of evaluation and testing that
must account for differences in learner characteristics, shows they can be effective in a variety of domains
including prior knowledge and metacognitive ability including computer literacy (Graesser et al. 1999),
(e.g., Gagne et al. 2005). Researchers have been study- algebra, geometry, computer languages (Anderson
ing adaptive instruction for more than half a century et al. 1985; Bonar and Cunningham 1988; Koedinger
(e.g., Skinner’s programmed instruction and teaching et al. 1997; Schofield and Evans-Rhodes 1989), and
machines 1958) in an effort to provide instruction that physics, (Gertner and VanLehn 2000; Graesser et al.
adapts to individual learners and also does so without 1999), resulting in learning gains, reduction of instruc-
human intervention, although this is not a requisite of tional time, or both. Human tutors produce learning
adaptive instruction. Skinner’s (1958) teaching gains of between 0.4 and 2.3 standard deviations when
machine is an early example of adaptive instruction compared to traditional classroom instruction
that shaped learners’ responses through behavior prin- (Graesser et al. 2001). ITSs produce learning gains of
ciples and presented material based on patterns of between 0.3 and 1.0 standard deviations (Corbett et al.
learner errors. While learners were in control of the 1999), indicating that ITSs, while not as effective as
pace of their learning, progress was managed by the human tutors, do produce significant learning gains.
system so that mastery had to be demonstrated before In the 1980s, researchers also began to experiment
the learner could advance in the instruction. with other forms of adaptive instruction using desktop
Human tutoring is perhaps one of the most effec- computers. Advances in computing technology and
tive means of adapting instruction to the individual software allowed for the development of self-paced
because it allows for both behavioral principles (as with computer-based instruction (CBI). While not as pow-
programmed instruction) and social cognitive erful as ITSs, CBI had the advantage of being faster and
approaches to learning (i.e., Palincsar 1988). However, cheaper to develop. Attempts at individualizing and
one-to-one tutoring is not practical as a universal adapting instruction followed several paths, including
approach to teaching, which is why researchers in the goal orientation and expertise. Among the more signif-
1970s began exploring machine-based tutoring in the icant and well-known research in this area was
form of ITSs. According to Hartley and Sleeman Tennyson’s (1980a, b) work on the role of learner
108 A Adaptive Game-Based Learning

control during instruction and the provision of advise- scaffolding or support do not learn as deeply as learners
ment (an analog of the function performed by the tutor receiving the correct level of support. Ideally this
in ITSs). CBI that allowed complete learner control support should adjust as learners develop expertise in
over the instruction (path, sequence, number of prac- the domain of study.
tice examples, etc.) was found to be ineffective because In the context of serious game design, learning is
of poor metacognitive skills among learners. Tennyson conceptualized as a gradual progression from shallow
showed that adaptive control (where the program used to deep knowledge within a domain and, once suffi-
learner performance to determine things like the cient content knowledge is mastered, as support in
optimal path, number of examples or practice items learning to think like an expert. Research suggests
worked, and amount and type of feedback) is more that this is a difficult thing to achieve in a player-driven
effective than learner control. However, learner control exploratory environment such as a GBL (i.e., Kirschner
is both preferred by learners and is itself related to et al. 2006), but with the proper attention to the design
building metacognitive and evaluative skills in learners, and implementation of adaptive technologies, it should
something adaptive instruction (like programmed be possible to create expert thinkers through serious
instruction) cannot do. To explore ways to provide gameplay.
enough information to learners for them to effectively
manage their own learning and effectively build schema Artificial Intelligence and GBL
(i.e., under learner control), researchers looked to Serious games refer to a broad range of games, includ-
advisement, or “coaching,” in CBI. ing those for health, attitude, social change, and edu-
cation. The aspect of serious games we address here is
Pedagogical Support for Learners the subset of games for educational purposes, or GBL.
To facilitate schema development in self-directed adap- Because there is no single disciplinary research base to
tive environments, learners must be presented with the rely on for GBL, researchers have looked to many
correct level of instructional support based on cogni- different disciplines such as the learning sciences, com-
tive requirements. This mimics the tutor–student rela- munication, media studies, and anthropology when
tionship described by Lev Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of defining games (Becker 2010). GBL environments are,
Proximal Development (ZPD). In Mind in Society, at their core, exploratory learning environments
Vygotsky proposed that learning is a social process. designed around the pedagogy and constraints associ-
He contended that by learning through social interac- ated with specific knowledge domains and the instruc-
tion with someone possessing a deeper understanding tional strategies and constraints of video games. GBL is
of the domain, learners can make more progress than growing in popularity and has been cited as a means of
would be possible in independent study by operating at providing learning environments aligned with situated
an optimal level of challenge within their ZPD. The learning that are conducive to the practice of problem
ZPD is a perceived area of schema development oppor- solving (e.g., Van Eck 2006; Hung and Van Eck 2010).
tunity where, with the proper cognitive supports, the Serious games are more than simple multimedia
learner can develop an effective schema. Traditionally, instructional environments. Many complex elements
these cognitive supports are provided in the form of go into a well-designed game. Elements of narrative,
pedagogical strategies employed by a peer/tutor. With fantasy, pedagogical structure, and competition are
advances in instructional technologies such as ITSs critical for game effectiveness. Affordances such as cus-
automated systems that provide effective cognitive tom avatars, inventories, nonplayer character interac-
supports have been possible for many years and are tions, tool sets, reflection journals, and collaborative
now feasible additions to GBL. spaces present multiple opportunities to create peda-
In their review of studies examining discovery- gogically meaningful learning environments.
based constructivist learning environments, Kirschner By their nature, games are already adaptive (e.g.,
et al. (2006) stress the importance of supporting multilevel play, multiple story lines). Gameplay
knowledge construction with instructional supports. involves many subgoals that lead up to resolution of
Findings from their review showed that learners who the larger goal of winning the game. After the accom-
do not receive the proper level of instructional plishment of each subgoal, a well-designed game
 Adaptive Game-Based Learning A 109

should advance the player to the next level. As they tutoring models rely on dyadic interactions that are A
advance through each level of the game, the complexity not appropriate for game environments, and current
and affordances increase while support for gameplay dialogue components of ITSs are not sufficiently sen-
(e.g., help from nonplayer characters) decreases. While sitive to the context of games. The process of structur-
this behavior is considered adaptive, most games lack ing AI models for GBL is made more challenging by the
the ability to diagnose and adjust to the players’ need to incorporate ECD, which presents its own
existing knowledge base, while providing the correct design challenges (e.g., we do not yet have established
metacognitive supports. This can be problematic when models that map gameplay to specific cognitive con-
designing GBL environments, as supports must keep structs and learning behaviors). Additionally, AI
learners well within their ZPD for effective knowledge models for GBL must be easily adaptable and modifi-
development. In other words, the development of able if they are to be employed across the full range of
games for specific learning goals requires an awareness educational settings and audiences. It also remains to
of the mechanisms used by games so that designers can be seen whether a game can be designed to not only
design appropriate feedback, advisement, and learner present content accurately in an open-ended problem
support that do not disrupt gameplay. Some have space but also to engage the learner. In other words, just
argued for the integration within games of existing because it is possible to create an adaptive GBL envi-
technologies (e.g., ITSs and pedagogical agents,) using ronment that is fun, pedagogically sound, and adaptive
theories and models that are contextualized to enough to facilitate effective schema acquisition and
gameplay (e.g., Van Eck 2006) to solve this issue. assimilation does not mean we can achieve this goal.
One key to adaptive environments is to correctly These are just a few questions researchers will need to
infer the knowledge of the student. In GBL environ- explore to realize the promise of truly adaptive GBL
ments, doing this without interrupting a learner’s environments.
engagement in the gameplay presents a critical chal-
lenge. Traditional assessments do not work in these Cross-References
environments, and designers must rely on embedded ▶ Adaptive Learning Systems
assessments that do not interrupt gameplay yet con- ▶ Games-Based Learning
tinue to support the activities critical to the pedagogy ▶ Learning with Games
of the learning environment (Shute et al. 2009). Using ▶ Schema Development
AI methodologies termed “stealth assessments” based
on approaches such as evidence centered design (ECD) References
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 Adaptive Instruction Systems and Learning A 111

In order to satisfy the needs of both individuals and school context, is to adapt instruction at the A
groups, the implementation of adaptive instruction can macro-level by allowing each student to determine
be either individual-based or group-based, and can his/her own learning goals, depth of the target con-
occur either in the classroom or in a computer-based tent, and relevant resources. A good example is
environment. With the popularity of technology, adap- Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction (Keller
tive instruction systems have been widely applied in 1968) in which the instructional materials are
a computer-based context in which the system can divided into sequential units for students to acquire
support the communication between the user and the at their own pace of learning. If needed, learners can
system by distinguishing each user’s characteristics and seek facilitation and evaluation from student proc-
adapting the target content to his or her knowledge tors. Since there is no time limitation on studying
level, goals, and other characteristics. each unit, students can move to the next unit when-
ever they demonstrate mastery of the unit
Theoretical Background performed.
The call for emphasizing adaptive instruction can be 2. Aptitude-treatment interactions (ATI): This
mainly traced back to Piaget and Vygotsky’s perspec- approach is to adapt instructional procedures and
tives of knowledge acquisition. According to Piaget strategies (treatments) according to students’ dif-
(1973), instruction should aim to highlight students’ ferent characteristics such as intellectual ability,
individual generation of equilibration; that is, it should learning styles, or anxiety (aptitudes).
encourage students to actively build their own version of 3. Micro-level adaptive instruction: The main feature
understanding, rather than to passively receive direct of this approach is to utilize on-task rather than
transmission of information. A teacher’s role is “to cre- pre-task measurement to diagnose the students’
ate the situations and construct the initial devices which learning behaviors and performance so as to adapt
present useful problems to the child. . . . [and] to provide the instruction at the micro-level. Typical examples
counter-examples that compel reflection and reconsid- include one-on-one tutoring and intelligent
eration of overhasty solutions” (Piaget 1973, p. 16). tutoring systems. This approach is the most directly
As Vygotsky (1978) indicated, a learner’s mental devel- focused on students’ needs of the five categories.
opment consists of two levels: the actual developmental 4. Adaptive hypermedia/Web-based systems: This
level and the zone of proximal development. The for- approach refers to computer-based instructional
mer refers to the state at which a person can solve systems that adapt the instruction according to the
problems independently, whereas the latter describes choices that each user has made. With the integra-
the state at which one still relies on facilitation from tion of Web resources into the design of the system,
either instructors or peers to solve problems. Sugges- the distinct activities, according to Brusilovsky
tions drawn from Vygotsky’s theory indicate that (2001), include adaptive presentation (e.g., offering
instruction should take learners’ individual zone of relevant, classified, and comparative information)
proximal development into consideration and provide and adaptive navigation support (e.g., adaptive link
adaptive scaffolding to help students progress to the sorting, hiding, and annotation).
actual developmental level. These educational 5. Adaptive systems supporting specific pedagogical
researchers have proposed a critical idea that instruc- methods: This approach refers to the systems that
tion needs to value individuals’ differences and offer are developed under the guidance of specific peda-
appropriate scaffolding. gogical methods (i.e., constructivist learning and
Due to differences in the resources and constraints collaborative learning) in order to promote deeper
of teaching environments, adaptive instruction systems understanding, such as supporting alternative per-
are implemented in a variety of ways. Lee and Park spectives and processes of learning. Thus, these
(2008) categorized approaches of adaptive instruction systems may depend heavily on a more complex
systems into five major types: system intelligence to perform.
1. Macro-level adaptive instruction: This approach, Although the five approaches are presented above,
unlike the lock-step teaching in the traditional Lee and Park (2008) further indicate a possibility that
112 A Adaptive Intelligent Web–Based Teaching and Learning

some may overlap with each other or that an adaptive process of knowledge building. A number of studies
instruction system may utilize more than one have identified the positive impact of game-based
approach. learning (GBL) on fostering students’ motivation and
academic performance. It may be helpful to integrate
Important Scientific Research and GBL ideas into the design of adaptive instruction
Open Questions systems so as to promote students’ enthusiasm for the
Adaptive instruction systems have had a long history learning activities.
which, according to Lee and Park (2008), can be
categorized into two periods. The first period refers to Cross-References
the duration of the eighties and early nineties. The ▶ Adaptive Blended Learning Environments
system design of this period primarily focused on the ▶ Adaptive Evaluation Systems
acquisition of conceptual knowledge and procedural ▶ Adaptive Game-Based Learning
skills, and was mainly guided by two objectivism- ▶ Adaptive Instruction Systems and Learning
oriented assumptions (Akhras and Self 2002). “There ▶ Adaptive Learning Systems
is an objective knowledge to be learned that can (in ▶ Adaptive Learning through Variation and Selection
principle) be completely and correctly represented in
the system, and the whole can be learned from the References
learning of its parts” (p. 4). Thus, compared with Akhras, F., & Self, J. A. (2002). Beyond intelligent tutoring systems:
instructors in the traditional classroom setting, the situations, interactions, processes and affordances. Instructional
system seemed to have a limited range for Science, 30, 1–30.
Brusilovsky, P. (2001). Adaptive hypermedia. User Modeling and
implementing teaching strategies. The second period
User-Adapted Interaction, 11, 87–110.
refers to the late nineties at which time researchers Keller, F. (1968). Good-bye, teacher. Journal of Applied Behavior
began to integrate more complex theoretical frame- Analysis, 1, 79–89.
works and pedagogical approaches into the develop- Lee, J., & Park, O. (2008). Adaptive instructional systems. In J. M.
ment of the system. For instance, to fulfill Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. V. Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.),
Handbook of research for educational communications and tech-
constructivist perspectives of learning, Akhras and
nology (3rd ed., pp. 651–684). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum
Self (2002) suggested that adaptive instruction systems Associates.
should be modeled in terms of situations rather than Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education.
knowledge structures so that learning opportunities New York: Grossman Publishers.
can arise from affordances of situations rather than Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
from the prespecified teaching strategies. psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Although the combination of complex pedagogical

approaches and adaptive instruction systems has
a great potential to enhance knowledge acquisition,
there are still a number of emergent factors that need
more research to explore. For example, students’ epis- Adaptive Intelligent Web–
temological beliefs may guide their metacognitive and Based Teaching and Learning
cognitive activities. It is valuable to investigate ways to
tailor instruction as well as scaffolding according to ▶ Distributed Technologies
learners’ different levels of epistemological beliefs. In
addition, the previous studies have indicated that
collaborative learning activities may generate possible
conceptual conflicts by encouraging learners to reflect
on and articulate their ideas. Thus, how to offer effec- Adaptive Learning
tive instructional strategies that optimize collaborative
learning in an adaptive instruction system may be an ▶ Impulsivity and Reversal Learning
important topic for future research. Further, motiva- ▶ Learning with Expert Advice
tion components play an essential role in guiding the ▶ Meta-learning
 Adaptive Learning Systems A 113

effort and costs to develop such powerful systems A

Adaptive Learning turned out to be too high with respect to the learning
Environments outcome. In parallel to the development of intelligent
tutoring systems, the emergence of the World Wide
▶ Adaptive Learning Systems
Web led to a permanently growing use of the Web as
a learning medium. However, in the beginning, mainly
texts were presented in web pages simply changing the
medium from textbooks to pages displayed on
Adaptive Learning Systems a computer screen. Also, adding interactivity to the
web pages and constructing elaborated hypertexts
GERHARD WEBER often proved not to show an advantage over traditional
Department of Psychology, University of Education learning settings. This led to the introduction of adap-
Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany tation techniques to learning systems resulting in more
or less individual learning support. Current adaptive
learning systems cover a wide range of adaptivity from
Synonyms simple systems supporting only some aspects of adap-
Adaptive learning environments tation and with only rudimentary knowledge about the
learner on the one side to elaborated learning environ-
Definition ments like intelligent tutoring systems on the other
Adaptive learning systems (often called adaptive learn- side.
ing environments) aim at supporting learners in All types of adaptive learning systems base their
acquiring knowledge and skills in a particular learning adaptive supporting decisions on a more or less elabo-
domain. The goal is to enhance the individual learning rated type of learner model. These learner models
process with respect to speed, accuracy, quality and comprise stereotype, overlay, case-based, and Bayesian
quantity of learning. A wide range of different adapta- learner models.
tion techniques is used in current adaptive learning
environments. The application of these techniques is ● Stereotype user models are simple learner models
based on information about a particular learner stored that categorize learners at hand of features mostly
in an individual learner model. gathered from information about the learner in
advance. For example, the preferred learning style
Theoretical Background of the learner, the self-estimation of the learner
Adaptive learning systems can be traced back to two about the topics to be learned or about prerequisite
different points of origin, the research in intelligent skills (novice, advanced, expert), the motivation to
tutoring systems on the one side and the growing learn, or even handicaps may be used to adapt the
interest in web-based learning on the other side. presentation of texts, illustrations, and animations,
Along with the progress in machine learning and arti- to select exercises, or to compute an appropriate
ficial intelligence, intelligent tutoring systems have learning path. Typically, stereotype learner models
been developed. These systems are aimed at supporting remain relatively stable over time and are updated
the learner in his or her learning process similar to only at major events, e.g., when completing
human tutors. Though a lot of very successful systems a learning course. These learner models can easily
have been developed (with a culmination in the be used in standardized adaptation techniques in
nineties of the last century) and are still used and learning management systems (e.g., Paramythis and
further developed (e.g., the knowledge tracing tutors Loidl-Reisinger 2004).
of the group at the Pittsburgh Science of Learning ● Overlay user models are used most often in adaptive
Center (Koedinger and Corbett 2006)), many of these learning systems. An overlay model describes the
systems have been tested and used only in laboratory learner’s knowledge with respect to a model of
settings. A more widespread implementation of intel- the concepts and skills of a domain to be learned.
ligent tutoring systems failed to appear because the That is, the user model is an overlay of the domain
114 A Adaptive Learning Systems

model (de Bra 2008). Simple overlay models indi- that is best suited to his or her learning goals with
cate only different levels of knowledge about respect to their already existing pre-knowledge.
a domain concept or skill (e.g., known, not It may also plan the sequence of learning tasks
known, not yet visited). More complex overlay (examples, questions, problems, etc.) to work
models may describe the user knowledge in differ- with. Such an optimal sequence may be planned
ent layers (e.g., visiting status, performance status, in advance of a course based on a stereotype learner
inference status, and self-estimation status as used model. Or it can be computed on the fly while
in ELM-ART (Weber and Brusilovsky 2001)). learning with the system and depending on the
Typically, information for updating overlay models outcome of working on exercises, tests, or prob-
stem from observation of visiting pages in a course, lem-solving tasks.
of working at exercises and tests, and of solutions or ● The method adaptive navigation support supports
solution steps to problem-solving tasks. the learner in orientation and navigation through
● Case-based user models have been used in some a course. In hypermedia systems, changing the
intelligent tutoring systems, e.g., in ELM-ART appearance of visible links typically does this. The
(Weber and Brusilovsky 2001). Such individual system can adaptively sort, annotate, or partly hide
cases can be used as examples for correct solutions the links of the current page to simplify the choice
or how similar problems have been solved when of the next link. Adaptive navigation support can be
presenting feedback to the learner during problem considered as an extension of curriculum sequenc-
solving. ing into a hypermedia context. It shares the same
● Bayesian user models are used in many intelligent goal – to help learners to find an “optimal path”
tutoring systems. Especially Bayesian knowledge through the learning material. At the same time,
tracing has been proved successful in several “cog- adaptive navigation support is less directive than
nitive” tutors (Koedinger and Corbett 2006). traditional sequencing: it guides students implicitly
and leaves them with the choice of the next knowl-
According to Brusilovsky (2001), the adaptation
edge item to be learned or next problem to be
methods used in most adaptive learning systems can
solved.
be assigned to the main categories adaptive presenta-
● Adaptive problem-solving support is typically found
tion, adaptive navigation support, and adaptive curricu-
in intelligent tutoring systems. The adaptive system
lum sequencing. These are completed by methods for
analyzes solutions to problem-solving tasks or even
adaptive problem-solving support (Weber and
observes learners while interactively generating the
Brusilovsky 2001).
problem solution. The result of the analysis
● The method adaptive presentation (or content adap- describes which concepts or skills the learner
tation) adapts the presentation of the content of already possesses or lacks of. It is used to update
a page to the user’s goals, knowledge, and other the learner model and to provide the learner with
information (e.g., learning style) stored in the extensive feedback. Examples of such intelligent
learner model. In a system with adaptive presenta- tutoring systems are the knowledge-tracing tutors
tion, the pages presented to a user are not static but (Koedinger and Corbett 2006) or the hybrid case–
adaptively generated or assembled from different based approach in the adaptive programming tutor
pieces. For example, expert users may receive ELM-ART (Weber and Brusilovsky 2001).
more detailed and deep information, while novices
receive additional explanations or according to Important Scientific Research and
a user’s learning style, presenting more text or Open Questions
more pictures and animations may be preferred. Adaptive learning systems typically fall into the area of
● The method curriculum sequencing (also referred to R&D systems with placing emphasis both on research
as instructional planning technology) provides the and development aspects. The development of intelli-
learner with a sequence of knowledge units to learn gent tutoring systems was dominated by research on
 Adaptive Learning Systems A 115

central questions concerning the adequacy of different and intervening the learning process by proposing co- A
types of user modeling, the role of tutoring compo- learners that may help with their specific expertise.
nents, or the effects of learning with tutorial systems Present adaptive learning systems were dominated by
compared with individual human tutoring. Though the results of the cognitive turn in psychology and ped-
this basic research still holds for current intelligent agogy. That is, the development of adaptive systems
tutoring systems as well as for adaptive learning sys- (especially intelligent tutoring systems) was dominated
tems in general, the shift to developing larger educa- by research on the role of mental representations and
tional environments and, therewith, concentrating cognitive processes in learning neglecting the importance
more and more on technical aspects of these systems, of motivation and emotion in learning processes. There-
led to favor usability and evaluation studies of these fore, an emerging topic in the research on adaptive learn-
systems. ing systems is the investigation of the role of emotions
Ongoing research is presented at major conferences, and motivation in learning, how different emotional and
e.g., UMAP (User Modeling, Adaptation, and Person- motivational states can be detected automatically by
alization) (formerly User Modeling UM and Adaptive a learning system, and how learning systems can adapt
Hypermedia AH), AIED (Artificial Intelligence in Edu- to emotional and motivational states of the learner.
cation), ITS (Intelligent Tutoring Systems), and EC-
TEL (European Conference on Technology Enhanced Cross-References
Learning). A lot of journals concerning learning and ▶ Adaptability and Learning
technology-enhanced learning publish papers on ▶ Adaptation and Learning
research and development of adaptive learning systems. ▶ Adaptation to Learning Styles
Major papers are published in the journals IJAIED ▶ Bayesian Learning
(International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Edu- ▶ Collaborative Learning
cation) and UMUAI (User Modeling and User- ▶ Intelligent Tutorials and Effects of Learning
Adapted Interaction). ▶ Interactive Learning Environments
The importance of R&D in adaptive learning sys- ▶ Learning Style(s)
tems can be seen by the fact that the seventh framework ▶ Neural Network Assistants for Learning
programme (FP7) of the European Commission sup-
ports projects on technology-enhanced learning with References
a special focus on adaptive learning. One prominent Brusilovsky, P. (2001). Adaptive hypermedia. User Modeling and
example of a project funded in this European frame- User-Adapted Interaction, 11, 87–110.
work programme is GRAPPLE (de Bra et al. 2008). The De Bra, P. M. E. (2008). Adaptive hypermedia. In H. H. Adelsberger,
J. M. Pawlowski, P. Kinshuk, & D. Sampson (Eds.), Handbook of
goal of GRAPPLE is to integrate adaptive learning as
information technologies for education and training (2nd ed.,
a standard feature of general learning management pp. 29–46). Heidelberg: Springer.
systems. The role of adaptive learning in e-learning De Bra, P. M. E., Pechenizkiy, M., van der Sluijs, K., & Smits, D.
standards is one of the current open questions in the (2008). GRAPPLE: Integrating adaptive learning into learning
development of general e-learning environments management systems. In Proceedings of World Conference on
(Paramythis and Loidl-Reisinger 2004). Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications
2008 (pp. 5183–5188). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Another open question in current research on
Koedinger, K. R., & Corbett, A. T. (2006). Cognitive tutors: Technol-
adaptive learning systems concerns the role of adaptive ogy bringing learning sciences to the classroom. In R. K. Sawyer
support in cooperative learning. It is investigated (Ed.), The cambridge handbook of the learning sciences
whether and how cooperative learning can be enhanced (pp. 61–77). New York: Cambridge University Press.
by adaptive systems. This comprises questions on how Paramythis, A., & Loidl-Reisinger, S. (2004). Adaptive learning envi-
ronments and e-learning standards. Electric Journal of e-Learn-
groups of learners and their activities can be modeled
ing, 2(1), 181–194.
and how these models can be used to support the Weber, G., & Brusilovsky, P. (2001). ELM-ART: An adaptive versatile
collaboration of learners, e.g., assigning special roles system for web-based instruction. International Journal of Artifi-
to learners according to different levels of expertise cial Intelligence in Education, 12(4), 351–384.
116 A Adaptive Learning Through Variation and Selection

Recognition of the problem initiates the process of

Adaptive Learning Through learning. According to variation and selection principle
Variation and Selection the first phase of adaptive learning is generation of
tentative solutions. An initial behavior that failed to
MIKHAIL S. BURTSEV deliver expected result should be modified by varying
Department of Non-linear Dynamics, Keldysh Institute parameters of actions. If new alternative does well then
of Applied Mathematics of RAS, Moscow, Russian it is selected to be fixed in memory accompanied by
Federation association with features of environment that are
Department of Systems Development, Anokhin specific to the problem situation. On the other hand,
Institute of Normal Physiology of RAMS, Moscow, if generated solution does not succeed then creation of
Russian Federation further variants continues until anticipated outcome
Department of Neuroscience, Kurchatov NBIC-Centre, received.
Moscow, Russian Federation The natural selection acts on variation in popula-
tion. The key difference of individual learning from
evolution is that in the former an individual cannot
Synonyms evaluate several different variants of behavior simulta-
Trial-and-error learning neously. During learning, selection acts not on the
variation in the population of behaviors but on the
sequence of varying behaviors.
Definition
Thus, the basic idea of adaptive learning through
Adaptation through variation and selection is a process
variation and selection can be summarized as: “When
of creating diversity of solutions to some problem
the problem is recognized produce variations of the
followed by selection of the proper one. In this para-
behavior until adaptation is achieved.”
digm, learning occurs by generation of tentative
solutions and selection of the effective variant that is
retained in memory.
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
The variation and selection approach to learning was
Theoretical Background conceptually developed in the framework of evolution-
The most powerful theory to explain numerous adap- ary epistemology (Popper 1984; Campbell 1974). The
tations we observe in Nature is the theory of evolution. famous formula of Karl Popper (1902–1994) describ-
The basic mechanism in this theory is selection of ing the growth of knowledge is
heritable variations. Better adapted individuals have
P1 ! TT ! EE ! P2 ;
more offspring who inherit parental characters and in
this way beneficial variations of the phenotype are where P1 stands for the initial problem, TT are tentative
spread and secured in the population. This principle theories or solutions proposed to solve it, EE is a process
of adaptation through variation and selection can be of error elimination, and P2 is a new problem. Extended
applied not only to evolving population but also to the formula for the sequential generation of solutions takes
learning of an individual organism. the following form:
In their interactions with an environment organ-
P1 ! TT1 ! EE1 ! TT2 ! EE2    ! TTn ! success;
isms repeatedly encounter problems. Adaptive learning
is required to solve them. Thus, to start learning, a where n is a number of attempts which an individual
problem should be detected first. This detection is only has performed until solution was obtained. Popper
possible when an individual has certain expectations noted that the key property of the process is causal
about upcoming situation. Then the mismatch between independence of variation on selection because the
current and anticipated states of environment indicates former precedes the latter, i.e., in this sense variation
existence of the problem. is “blind.”
 Adaptive Learning Through Variation and Selection A 117

An important contribution of the evolutionary neuroscience, selectionist theories were developed by A

epistemology is a concept of “vicarious selector” Jean-Pierre Changeux (Changeux and Dehaene 1989),
(Campbell 1974). Vicarious selectors serve as internal and by Gerald Edelman (Edelman 1987). Both theories
representations of external factors of natural selection, declare application of “neural Darwinism” to processes
thus allowing transfer of evolutionary values to the at all levels of brain organization from the synapse to
level of learning. Vicarious selection “substitutes” nat- the consciousness. The suggested mechanisms of vari-
ural selection during lifetime learning, making possible ation are generation of excessive synaptic connections
evaluation and preselection of behavioral solutions during development and variable activation of neural
without execution of them in the environment. The assemblies. In their basic form theories attribute selec-
hierarchy of vicarious selectors accumulates previous tion to the input matching:
(even unsuccessful) experience and, as a consequence, At a given stage of the evolution of the organism,
addition of new adaptations takes the form of progres- some of these spontaneously generated pre-
sive growth on the top of existing competence. representations may not match any defined feature of
Ideas of adaptation through variation and selection the environment (or any item from long-term memory
were also developed in early cybernetic theories (Ashby stores) and may thus be transiently meaningless. But,
1960). William Ross Ashby (1903–1972) had intro- some of them will ultimately be selected in novel situ-
duced so called essential variables (variables indicating ations, thus becoming “meaning full.” The achievement
viability of an organism) and considered them as of such adequacy (fitness) with the environment (or
a source of control for the blind variation. Research with a given cognitive state) would then become the
on behavior stability brought forward the important basic criterion for selection (Changeux and Dehaene
notion that adaptation in one behavioral subsystem 1989, p. 87).
should not disturb other subsystems. The conclusion But input matching only is not enough for creation
is that subsystems for different behaviors should be of an adaptive behavioral act because a process of
loosely connected. Unfortunately, the issue of retention action selection should also be specified. This problem
of previous experience was not recognized in the pro- is usually considered in the paradigm of reinforcement
posed scheme. Therefore, each new learning episode learning. An association between perception and action
should start from scratch and this would lead to the is assumed to be modulated by a value system. Value
repetition of previous errors and make learning less system categorizes states of an environment in terms of
effective. Another shortcoming was that only their adaptive significance and controls competition
predetermined fixed set of essential variables were between alternative actions by sanctioning increase of
allowed to control blind variations. probability for effective and decrease for futile ones.
Physiological theory of selective retention of adap- Evolution of value system by natural selection assures
tive combinations of central and peripheral physiolog- effective evaluation of stimuli in terms of their expected
ical elements was proposed by Petr Anokhin (1898– contribution to the evolutionary success of an
1974) under the name of Theory of Functional Systems organism.
(1935). This theory was further developed by Though the behavioral principles of learning
Vyacheslav Shvyrkov (1939–1994) who suggested sys- through variation and selection are mostly clear, an
tem-selection principle explaining behavioral speciali- understanding of neurophysiological mechanisms is
zation of neurons determined at the level of functional still to come. Some challenges and prospects for the
system as a whole. current theory are summarized below.
In behavioral science, B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)
advocated his theory of “selection by consequences” ● Recognition of the problem situation is required to
(Skinner 1981). Skinner considered selection by conse- initiate learning and perform selection. This recog-
quences as an explanatory scheme that is common for nition is impossible without preexisted memory.
the three different levels, namely, the Darwinian evolu- An organism starts to learn on the top of inherited
tion, learning, and social evolution. In the field of or primary repertoire of functional neural systems
118 A Adaptive Memory and Learning

formed during ontogeny. In postnatal learning, pri-

mary systems are enriched by the secondary reper- Adaptive Memory and Learning
toire. Natural selection acts upon the primary
repertoire and the primary upon the secondary. JAMES S. NAIRNE1, MARCO VASCONCELOS2, JOSEFA N. S.
That makes possible a transfer of adaptive value PANDEIRADA3
1
from the level of evolution to the level of learning. Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue
Interplay between these levels defines the following University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
2
questions: Department of Zoology, University of Oxford,
● How do developmental programs result in the Oxford, UK
3
primary repertoire of distributed neuronal Department of Education, University of Aveiro,
populations tuned for specific adaptive functions? Aveiro, Portugal
● What are mechanisms for selection of novel
neuronal groups by existing functional net-
works of cells? Synonyms
● How can tentative neuronal groups be evaluated Evolution and memory; Memory adaptation
and preselected without execution of actions
to make learning less risky and more time Definition
effective? The concept of adaptive ▶ memory and ▶ learning has
● Variations of the present behavior to solve the prob- two defining assumptions: First, the capacity to pre-
lem require generation of tentative neuronal serve and recover information over time is adaptive,
groups. This process is not random but canalized meaning that the systems that enable memory and
by the current repertoire of neuronal systems avail- learning are goal-directed and functionally designed.
able for recombination and reuse. Rather than domain-general, operating the same
● How do novel neuronal groups recombine, inte- regardless of input and domain, species’ retention sys-
grate, and extend existing neuronal systems? tems are “tuned” to solve particular problems (such as
● How can existing neuronal groups preserve their remembering the locations of food sources or preda-
functions being incorporated in novel systems? tors). Second, as products of ▶ natural selection, these
systems likely bear the specific imprint of nature’s cri-
Cross-References terion – the enhancement of fitness (survival en route
▶ Anticipatory Learning to differential reproduction). As a result, the ability to
▶ Adaptation and Unsupervised Learning learn and remember will likely be influenced by the
▶ Ontogeny of Memory and Learning fitness relevance of the information and tasks involved.
▶ Reinforcement Learning
▶ Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning Processes Theoretical Background
Most of the adaptive tasks animals have to solve during
References their lifetime do not have a stable solution. Animals
Ashby, W. R. (1960). Design for a brain: The origin of adaptive cannot know ahead of time where the most abundant
behaviour (2nd ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. food sources will be found or where predators or
Campbell, D. T. (1974). Evolutionary epistemology. In P. A. potential mates are likely to be encountered. In fact,
Schilpp (Ed.), The philosophy of Karl Popper (pp. 413–463).
many important features of the environment are
LaSalle: Open Court.
Changeux, J.-P., & Dehaene, S. (1989). Neuronal models of cognitive unpredictable; consequently, animals benefit from
functions. Cognition, 33, 63–109. mechanisms that allow them to fine-tune their behavior
Edelman, G. M. (1987). Neural darwinism: The theory of neuronal to the current (or recently experienced) parameters of
group selection. New York: Basic Books. an environment. An animal equipped with the capacity
Popper, K. R. (1984). Evolutionary epistemology. In J. W. Pollard
to preserve and recover information adaptively – that is,
(Ed.), Evolutionary theory: Paths into the future (pp. 239–255).
Chichester/New York: Wiley.
to learn and remember – can exploit the stable proper-
Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213(4507), ties of the environment while keeping track of any
501–504. environmental events that necessitate behavior change.
 Adaptive Memory and Learning A 119

Because different species must meet different eco- record that, in turn, dictates what retrieval cues can A
logical demands and are affected by different environ- effectively access that record at time 2 (Tulving and
mental features, each species’ learning abilities should Thomson 1973). Encoding tasks that promote the gen-
be fine-tuned to those environmental characteristics eration of multiple retrieval cues through elaboration, or
with the greatest impact on their ▶ inclusive fitness. the linking of the target item to other information in
In other words, we should expect cross-species varia- memory, increase the chances that an effective
tion in the ability to learn about different environmen- (matching) retrieval cue will be encountered later. How-
tal variables. This expectation has been confirmed by ever, the process itself is domain-general. Retention is
an enormous amount of data. Food-storing specialists controlled by the presence of a diagnostic retrieval cue
such as Clark’s nutcrackers or marsh tits that rely on and it is the chance characteristics of the retrieval envi-
spatial memory to retrieve hidden seeds are known to ronment, rather than the content of the information per
outperform closely related non-storing (or with less se, that determines when (or if) an effective cue will be
predisposition to store) species in laboratory-based present. There are no inherent memory “tunings,” only
spatial memory tasks. In the Pavlovian conditioning taxonomies relating encoding and retrieval contexts.
domain, the classic work of Garcia and Koelling From a fitness perspective, of course, not all occur-
(1966) demonstrates that rats easily avoid a flavor pre- rences are equally important. It is much more impor-
viously paired with illness as well as audiovisual stimuli tant to remember the location of food, the appearance
previously paired with electric shock but seem unable of a predator, or the activities of a prospective mate
to learn when the cues are swapped. Presumably, this than it is to remember events and activities that are
pattern is due to prevailing conditions in the environ- unrelated to fitness. Indeed, the ability to relive past
ments in which rats evolved – peripheral pain was most experiences through episodic memory, which may be
frequently caused by external agents with particular a uniquely human characteristic, may be an evolved
visual and/or auditory properties, not by a particular adaptation designed specifically to help us interact in
flavor; conversely, illness was most frequently caused by the social world. Ancestrally, humans lived in small
specifically flavored meals rather than by visual or groups and needed the ability to develop a sense of
auditory stimuli. This pattern of biased learning to personal identity and to differentiate among other
promote success in species-specific fitness relevant members of the social group (e.g., track coalitional
problems has also been observed in instrumental learn- structure, identify cheaters, develop accurate personal-
ing preparations in which animals must perform ity assessments, track the activities of kin versus non-
a particular response to obtain a reward or avoid kin); the capacity to remember is a crucial ingredient of
a negative consequence. Rats, for example, rapidly each of these tasks. One can also imagine memory
learn to avoid an impending electric shock when the playing a vital role in navigational abilities – everything
required avoidance response is part of their repertoire from recognizing landmarks to remembering diagnos-
of defensive reactions (e.g., running), but this ability tic weather patterns or relevant constellations (Nairne
declines as the required response becomes incompati- and Pandeirada 2008).
ble with their typical reactions to danger (e.g., rearing). Empirically, there is strong evidence that human
Whether nature’s criterion – the enhancement of learning and memory systems may be selectively
fitness – has left a similar mark on human cognitive tuned to process and retain information that is relevant
functioning is more controversial (see Nairne 2010). to fitness. For example, analogous to the cue-to-
Human memory researchers usually propose domain- consequence work of Garcia and Koelling (1966), stud-
general memory mechanisms, that is, researchers ies have consistently found that people easily associate
assume that our retention systems operate similarly fitness-relevant stimuli, such as snakes and spiders, to
across materials and domains and are unaffected by aversive events such as shock but not as easily to pos-
information content. For example, it is often claimed itive consequences (Öhman and Mineka 2001). Both
that successful retention is determined simply by the children and adults report strong and vivid memories
functional “match” between the conditions present at for highly emotional events, such as situations in which
encoding and those existing at the point of retrieval. their lives were in danger. Fitness-relevant information,
Processing information at time 1 establishes a memory such as information about social interactions or heroic
120 A Adaptive Memory and Learning

exploits, also tends to transmit easily and effectively in turn, introduces constraints that influence how the
from individual to individual and across cultures. adaptive problems that drive evolution are ultimately
Additional evidence comes from the survival solved. Thus, even if we could correctly identify the
processing paradigm, a procedure in which people are ancestral selection pressures that drove the development
asked to process information with respect to a survival of adaptive memory, it would still be difficult to predict
situation prior to a surprise retention test (Nairne et al. how nature solved the relevant adaptive problems.
2007). In one case, people were asked to rate the rele- However, it is possible to collect relevant data. For
vance of random words to an imaginary grasslands example, there is growing evidence that human cogni-
scenario in which they were stranded without food tive systems may show ancestral priorities, that is, it
and water and susceptible to predators. People later may be easier to perceive and remember events that are
remembered words rated with respect to this scenario congruent with the adaptive problems faced during the
much better than a host of control conditions, such as environment of evolutionary adaptedness. People are
forming a visual image of the words, relating the words able to identify evolutionarily relevant stimuli, such as
to a personal experience, or intentionally trying to snakes and conspecifics, more easily and quickly than
remember them. Such comparison conditions are familiar stimuli that are fitness-relevant but rooted in
widely recognized to enhance memory – in fact, these modern environments (such as guns). Specific phobias
are the encoding manipulations typically championed are more apt to develop to ancestral stimuli (e.g., spi-
in human memory textbooks – yet survival processing ders) than to aversive stimuli experienced exclusively in
produced the best retention. From an evolutionary modern environments (e.g., weapons). In the survival
perspective, of course, this is the anticipated result. processing paradigm, people show better memory for
Natural selection sculpted our learning and memory information processed with respect to ancestral scenar-
systems based on nature’s criterion – the enhancement ios, ones that tap hunter-gatherer activities such as
of fitness – so the footprints of that criterion remain searching for edible plants, than fitness-relevant sce-
apparent in their operating characteristics. Our learn- narios that describe modern fitness-relevant activities
ing and memory systems evolved because they helped (such as locating a pharmacy to buy antibiotics). These
us retain things such as the location of food or the data suggest that current learning and memory
recent appearance of a predator. processes remain sensitive to the selection pressures
that led to their development (Nairne 2010).
Important Scientific Research and Regardless of where one looks in the physical body
Open Questions (e.g., heart, lungs, kidneys), one finds structures that
At the same time, it is extremely difficult to build reflect function – pumping or filtering blood, respira-
a definitive case for evolved cognitive adaptations, that tion, and so forth. These physical structures evolved
is, to place the locus of adaptive memory “tunings” in subject to nature’s criterion (fitness enhancement) and
specialized structures that were sculpted by natural faithfully perform functions to reflect that end. The
selection. There are no “fossilized” memory traces, and capacity to learn and remember evolved, so it is not
our knowledge about the ancestral environments in surprising that our cognitive systems are not only
which our cognitive systems actually evolved is limited. adaptive but functionally designed as well.
Adaptive solutions to recurrent problems can arise indi-
rectly, by relying on adaptations that evolved for differ- Cross-References
ent reasons (exaptations), or as a result of natural ▶ Adaptation and Learning
constraints in the environment (e.g., the physical laws ▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning
of nature or genetic constraints). The proximate mech- ▶ Episodic Learning
anisms that enable us to read and write, for example, did ▶ Evolution of Learning
not evolve directly for those ends even though reading ▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
and writing are very adaptive abilities. Our cognitive ▶ Functional Learning
systems were also not built from scratch – natural selec- ▶ Learning and Evolutionary Game Theory
tion “tinkers,” which means that changes usually emerge ▶ Memory for “What,” “Where,” and “When” Infor-
from existing structures. The design of these structures, mation in Animals
 Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off A 121

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Garcia, J. F., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of the cue to conse- active learning. In a more general scenario, the problem
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Consider the binary classification task. Let F be the
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33,
263–273.
hypothesis class. Let X represent the data space,
Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobia, and preparedness: and Y ¼ 1 represent the label space. The target
Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psycholog- function f  2 F . Let I={1, 2, ∙∙∙, n}. We consider the
ical Review, 108, 483–552. active learning problem with n persistent oracles whose
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and noise is arbitrary. The cost for oracle j is cj >0, j 2 I. We
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rates.
Assumption 1. The error indicator 1ðOi ðXÞ 6¼ f  ðXÞÞ
of individual oracles are independent, where Oi(X) is the
Adaptive Proactive Learning answer of oracle i for a given example X and i=1, ∙∙∙, n.
with Cost-Reliability Trade-off Given n oracles with varied noise rates and costs,
the goal of a proactive learner is to choose an
LIU YANG1, JAIME CARBONELL2 ensemble of oracles with minimum cost and whose
1
School of Computer Science Machine Learning error rate is no greater than 2E as the labeling mecha-
Department, Carnegie Mellon University, nism, and to output a classifier f whose generalization
Pittsburgh, PA, USA error ðf ðXÞ 6¼ f  ðXÞÞ  E where x 2 X , with high
2
Language Technologies Institute, Carnegie Mellon probability 1  d, while keeping the total query cost
University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA small. Note that the oracles we study in this work are
persistent: they provide the same answer for a given
example if asked multiple times. Furthermore, the
Synonyms situation with arbitrary noise forces one to sample the
Cost complexity; Cost-noise trade-off; Learning the- oracle space, since there is no theoretical guarantee that
ory; Optimization; Proactive learning; Submodular one can get better than 2E error rate by querying the
function same oracle multiple times with different examples.
We propose a meta-procedure that takes any
Definition agnostic active learning algorithm A as subroutine.
Proactive Learning is a generalized form of active learn- The agnostic algorithm A halts and outputs
ing where the learner must reach out to multiple a classifier after making certain label requests. The
oracles exhibiting different costs and reliabilities meta-procedure lets A choose examples to query, and
(label noise). One of its major goals is to capture the hands back to A the “true” label after calling the oracle
cost-noise trade-off in oracle selection. Sequential selection routine and synchronize the answers from the
active learning exhibits coarse accuracy at the begin- selected oracles by (weighted) majority vote. Further-
ning and progressively refines prediction at later stages. more, we may choose an ensemble of oracles adaptively
The ability to learn oracle accuracies over time and to accommodate a range of accuracy: different ensem-
select better oracles or oracle ensembles leads to poten- bles for different level of accuracy. Or we may pick the
tially faster error reduction rate as a function of total ensemble offline and to use it for all queries. Our later
cost, and thus improves its cost complexity. This poten- analysis shows that the former can produce a modest
tial can possibly be realized by a statistical model that cost savings over the latter simpler method.
122 A Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off

Combining Oracle Answers by To minimize this bound on the error rate, we set the
Weighted Majority Vote partial derivative of Eq. 3 to be zero
We combine the answers from the set of selected oracles P 2 !
S, by (Weighted) Majority Vote. Consider first a simple w i ð1 = 2  E i Þ
@ i2S
P 2
majority vote on the label of example X. Let Y be the i2S wi
¼0
true label, and Yi be the answer by oracle i. Denote the @wi
majority vote error rate as ermaj, and the average error
P Ei and get
rate of n oracles as ES ¼ i2S jSj . Assumption 1 implies
X
that ermaj(S) should exponentially decrease as wi2
a function of the number of oracles. By Hoeffding wi ¼ ð1=2  Ei Þ X i2S
ð4Þ
ð1=2  Ei Þwi
inequality and Assumption 1, after querying a sample i2S

size of m, If error rate ei or its estimation is known, we can

P  calculate wis by Eq. 4. If ei is unknown, we simply use
i2S 1ðYi 6¼ Y Þ 1
ermaj ¼  majority vote. We also notice that when
jSj 2
P  Ei ¼ 1=2; wi ¼ 0. Equation 4 assigns zero weights to
i2S 1ðYi 6¼ Y Þ 1
¼  E   E ð1Þ those oracles whose noise rate amounts to random
jSj 2
 2 ! guess. However, for ei =0 (a perfect oracle), Eq. 4 does
1 not give an especially large wi, due to the relaxation of
 exp 2jSj  E
2 the original erwmaj by Hoeffding inequality. To this end,
we denote OrSelRoutine (e) as any oracle selection
Thus ermaj < 2E , sufficient if procedure that chooses a min-cost subset of oracles
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi S  I, such that with weights wi for i 2 S calculated
1 1 2
E <  ln ð2Þ as in Eq. 4, erwmaj  2E . In the later sections, we will
2 2m E
provide efficient optimization procedures to this task.
Let us extend the above analysis to Weighted Major-
ity Vote. Denote the weighted majority vote error rate
as erwmaj. Denote wi for i 2 S as the weights of a subset Oracle Selection Adaptive to Active
of oracles we choose. Learning
P
ES ¼ i2S EjSj
i wi
. We determine the weights by mini- If there is any hope that switching oracles during active
mizing erwmaj. By Hoeffding inequality, learning can improve the cost complexity, then the
P Pn  following model should realize that potential.
i2S wi 1ðYi 6¼ Y Þ wi
Assumption 2. The availability of oracles. ∃ function
ermaj ¼  i¼1
jS j 2jS j
P Pn  g: E7!c, mapping from a required accuracy to the cost
w 1ðY ¼
6 Y Þ i¼1 wi
¼ i2S i i
 ES   ES per example, such that 8E; 9 oracle whose cost is g (e),
jS j 2jS j
0 Pn 2 1 and error rate is e.
wi
2
 According to Assumption 2, for a given accuracy,
B 2jSj 2jS j  ES C
i¼1

B P C there is at least an oracle with a certain available noise

 expB C
@ i2S wi
2 A
rate. The earlier stage of active learning needs
0 P P 2 1 a relatively coarse accuracy, however, higher accuracies
2 wi Ew should be reached in later stages. This can be modeled
B 2jSj
i2S
2 jS j  i2S i i
jS j C
B P C by a sequential level of accuracy.
 expB C
@ 2
i2S wi A
E1 ¼ 1=2; E2 ¼ 1=4; E3 ¼ 1=8;    ; Et ¼ ð1=2Þt ;   
0P 2 1
w ð1Ei Þ Intuitively, having options to select the oracles may
i2S i 2
B 2 jSj C
B P C let active learning have a faster error reduction rate in
¼ expB C
@ i2S wi
2 A terms of the cost. The idea of adaptive labeling mech-
anism construction is as follows: given the accuracy
ð3Þ level et of active learning, we choose an ensemble
 Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off A 123

of Mt oracles to form labeling mechanism to accom- according to a step of the proof in Hanneke (2007), if A
modate et. The lower the et, the larger the Mt. Suppose we choose the A2 algorithm given in Balcan et al. (2006)
mt is the sample complexity of A given et. We have the as the active learning algorithm A.
following algorithm for proactive learning with adap- Thus the cost complexity of the nonadaptive
tive oracle selection. approach is
Proactive Learner with Adaptive Oracle Selection        
~ 1 E y
(denoted as AdaProAL) O y d þ log
2
g log
d 2 E
Input an agnostic active learning algorithm A
0. Initialize t ¼ 1 whereas the cost complexity of AdaProAL is
1. do
    dlogXð32yEÞe  
2. Et ð1=2Þt 1
~
O y d þ log
2
g 2i
3. (St and wjt for j 2 St )=OrSelRoutine (et) d i¼1
4. j=0
5. do Note A2 achieves the accuracy 16y2i by making
2
6. Let A choose a query point X from the yd queries. We want the noise rate of the last oracle to
unlabeled data be<e; thus we let
P
7. Y ¼ sgnð wjt fj ðXÞÞ
j2St 16y2i ¼ E=2
8. j ¼jþ1  
E :
Therefore, i ¼ log 32y
9. Return Y to A
10. until j ¼ mt
Proactive Learning with Cost-
11. t ¼t þ1
Reliability Assumption
12. until A halts
The cost-reliability trade-off assumption that more
reliable oracles cost more than noisy ones might be
Alternatively, the nonadaptive approach constructs
formalized as
the labeling mechanism ahead of time and uses that
Assumption 3. 9 b > 0; g > 0 s.t. for i 2 I;
chosen mechanism all the time while running the active
learning algorithm. ci Egi  b ð5Þ
Agnostic Proactive Learning with Nonadaptive
Large cost ci leads to a small error rate ei. Large error
Oracle Selection
rate ei drives the cost down. Our algorithm is (a, b)
Input an agnostic active learning algorithm A
dependent. It will be interesting to explore algorithms
0. (S and wj for j 2 S)=OrSelRoutine ( 2E )
that adapts to the value of a and b. When g < 1,
1. Initialize t ¼ 0
a decrease of ei has to be much faster than the increase
2. do
of the cost ci, as Egi is sublinear; whereas with g > 1, the
3. t ¼ t þ 1
increase of ei forces a faster reduction on cost ci.
4. Let A choose a query point Xt from unlabeled
A trivial labeling mechanism
 g is to pick a single
data
P oracle whose cost  b 2E . Condition (5) will force
5. Let y ¼ sgnð wj fj ðXt ÞÞ
j2S its error rate to be < 2E . However, the hope is that an
6. Return y into A ensemble of cheap oracles can have just as good accu-
7. until A halts racy as the expensive one at lower cost. Based on
Assumption 3, we will provide an algorithm that
Denote y as the disagreement coefficient (Hanneke requires zero query to construct a label mechanism
2007) and d as VC-dimension (Vapnik 1998). The whose error rate < 2E , if the upper bound in (5) is tight.
upper bound of sample complexity in achieving
a given level of accuracy OðyEt Þ is The Algorithm and Complexity
    Analysis
~ y2 d þ log 1
O Given the error rate 2E set up by the adversary, we can
d choose a cost c and an ensemble of M oracles with
124 A Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off

roughly this cost (or within a factor of 2 difference) by 3. Let A choose a query point Xt from unlabeled
Assumption 2. The goal is to minimize the total cost of data  
the chosen ensemble, subject to Inequality 2 and 4. St =OrSelRoutineA3 E2t
P
Assumption 3. We formulate this task as the following 5. Let y ¼ sgnð fj ðXt ÞÞ
j2St
optimization problem:
6. Return y into A
min cM 7. until A halts
 1=g rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b 1 1 2
s:t: ¼  ln Theorem 1. The total cost complexity of Algorithm 1 is
c 2 2M E    
Since ~ y2 d þ log 1
O cM 
d
lnð2=EÞ
M¼    2
2 12  bc 1=g
Adaptive Oracle Selection Saves
we set
a Constant Factor
  To illustrate the range of saving one can get by using the
c lnð2=EÞ adaptive oracle selection procedure compared
 to the

@
@ðcMÞ 2ð12ðbc Þ1=gÞ
2
nonadaptive version, we suppose Õ (y2 d þ log2 d1 )
¼ ¼0
@c @c as previously mentioned is a constant b, independent
Thus of t. For instance, under threshold classifier, the dis-
  agreement
 coefficient
  y=2 and VC-dim d=1; thus Õ
2
c  ¼ b2g 1 þ g ð6Þ (y2 d þ log2 d1 ) is a constant. Define Mt as the num-
g ber of oracles selected to accommodate et. For adaptive
  oracle selection, Algorithm 1 has g ðEÞ ¼ cM ðEÞ. By
2 g 2
M  ¼ d2 ln 1þ e ð7Þ Eq. 7, the cost complexity of using the adaptive proce-
E 2
dure is
We notice that c* has nothing to do with e, and is
2 ð E Þe
dlogX E  2 ð E Þe
dlogX  
g 2
16y 16y
fixed once g and b are set up. M is inversely related to e:  1
Mt 
t
bc ¼ bc d2 In 1þ e
the higher level of accuracy the active learning algo- t¼1
2 t¼1
Et 2
rithm requires, the more oracles will be needed to ð8Þ
accommodate such an accuracy. We combine the
answers from the M selected oracle by a simple major- where
ity vote (weighted vote by estimating oracle accuracy       
2 ð E Þe
dlogX 16y

may yield even better results). 1 log 16ye log22 16ye

In ¼ E E
ð9Þ
Oracle Selection Routine with Assumption 3 ( 2E ) t¼1
Et 2 4e 2
(denoted as OrSelRoutineA3)
The total
 sample complexity of the active learning is
1. Calculate M by (7) 1
b log2 E .
2. Calculate c by (6)
The cost complexity for the nonadaptive approach
3. S ¼ fj : j 2 I ^ cj c  g with size M
is
4. Output S
        
  E 1  2 g 2 1
Algorithm 1 bc M log2 ¼ bc 2 In þ 1þ log2
2 E E 2 E
Choose the A2 algorithm given in Balcan et al. ð10Þ
(2006) as the algorithm A
0. Initialize t ¼ 0 Comparing (9) and (10), for small y, we have
1. do    
log22 16ye 2 1
2. t ¼ t þ 1 E
< k log2
4e 2 E
 Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off A 125

with k > 1. Thus the adaptive oracle selection proce- ratio between the two oracles (same for Fig. 2). Exper- A
dure saves the cost complexity by a constant factor iments on the two datasets show that, when the classi-
compared with the nonadaptive version, under the fication accuracy is low, the proactive learner tends to
above specified scenario. pick the low-cost oracle; however, it tends to select the
Empirical evidence from Donmez and Carbonell high-cost oracle once the error rate has been signifi-
(2008) is consistent with the above example: picking cantly reduced. At the later stages, the curve of the
oracles adaptively can reduce the cost complexity by proactive learner goes roughly in parallel with that of
a constant factor versus always using the better and the baseline, meaning their speed of error rate reduc-
expensive oracle or always using the cheaper, less reli- tion is roughly the same. If we draw a horizontal line on
able one. Figures 1 and 2 display the trends of classifi- the plot, the amount of total cost in achieving certain
cation error as a function of the total cost on the Adult error rate by the proactive learner is roughly half of that
dataset and the VY-Letter dataset, respectively. It stud- by the baseline. Thus one roughly saves a factor of 2 by
ies a proactive learning scenario where there are two using the adaptive oracle selection. For these two
oracles: one is cheap but noisy, the other expensive but datasets, the constant factor can be smaller or larger
reliable. Each plot in Fig. 1 indicates a different cost depending on the difficulty of the classification task.

Adult Cost Ratio=1:3 Adult Cost Ratio=1:4 Adult Cost Ratio=1:5

0.6 0.6 0.6
Joint Joint Joint
Random Random Random
0.5 Reliable 0.5 0.5 Reliable
Classification Error

Reliable
Relation

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 30 50 80 100 0 60 120 180 240 0 80 130 180 220 260
Total Cost Total Cost Total Cost

Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off. Fig. 1 Performance comparison on the Adult dataset. The
cost ratio is indicated above each plot

VY-Letter Cost Ratio=1:3 VY-Letter Cost Ratio=1:4 VY-Letter Cost Ratio=1:5

0.5 0.5 0.5
Joint Joint Joint
Random Random Random
0.4
Reliable 0.4 Reliable 0.4 Reliable
Classification Error

Relation
0.3
0.3 0.3
0.2

0.2 0.2
0.1

0 0.1 0.1
0 60 120 180 230 0 60 110 150 200 240 0 80 130 180 230 280
Total Cost Total Cost Total Cost

Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off. Fig. 2 Performance comparison on the VY-Letter dataset.
The cost ratio is indicated above each plot
126 A Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Trade-off

This entry provides the theoretical framework for pro- bMaxSubCover (B)
active learning, and our analysis is quite consistent with 0. I={1, 2, ∙∙∙, n}
the above-mentioned empirical results. 1. Phase 1: S1 =arg max|S|=1,2 f(S)
2. Phase 2: for every U  I s.t. |U|=3
Maximum Submodular Coverage 3. Initialize S 0 ¼ U ; k ¼ 0
Subject to a Budget: A More General 4. do
Scenario 5. 8ej 2 I Sk , compute
If we do not make any explicit assumption on cost- f ðS k þej Þf ðSk Þ
Dk ðej Þ ¼ ci
reliability trade-off, that is, cost and accuracy are not in
strictly monotonic inverse relation, the proactive learn- 6. ej0 ¼ argmax
!Dk ðej Þ
ing problem is actually finding a subset of oracles with
P
small enough majority vote error rate, given a budget B. ðej 2I=Sk Þ^ ci B cj
ej 2S k
It can be formulated as the following optimization
7. SK Sk [ fej0 g
problem:
( ) 8. while(ej0 exists)
X 9. S2 S k as local optimal obtained by Phase 2
max f ðSÞ : ci  B ð11Þ 10. If f ðS1 Þ  f ðS2 Þ output S1, otherwise output S2
S2I
i2S

where the majority vote accuracy f : S 7!R with S  I is The algorithm has a performance guarantee
defined as: ð0 < a < 1Þ, if it always outputs a solution of value
P   that is not smaller than a times the value of the optimal
wi ðYi
i2SP 6 YÞ
¼ solution. The following performance guarantee of
f ðSÞ ¼ E1 < 1=2 ð12Þ
i2S wi bMaxSubCover is due to Sviridenko (2004).
 P   Theorem 2. The worst-case performance guarantee
1 X wi 1ðYi 6¼ Y Þ of the above greedy algorithm bMaxSubCoverfor solving
¼ 1 i2S P
< 1=2 ð13Þ
jZj ðX;Y 2ZÞ i2S wi Problem (11) is ð1  e 1 Þ 0:632. In another word,
assume S is the subset output by bMaxSubCover(B), the
where Y is the true label and Yi is the answer by ith
following holds:
oracle. f has the following properties: First, f is
nondecreasing, a polynomial computable set function. f ðSÞ  ð1  e 1 Þf ðS  Þ
Second, f is monotonic, since 8S  T , we have where S∗ is the solution found by the exact approach.
f ðSÞ  f ðT Þ. Third, f is submodular: it increases Without knowing the smallest amount to spend in
more by adding elements to a small set, than by letting f ðSÞ > 1  2E , a double-and-guess on the budget
adding to a super set. 8S, T 2 I, we have B can help decide the minimum budget.
f ðSÞ þ f ðT Þ  f ðS [ T Þ þ f ðS \ T Þ. The role Subroutine1 (ei for i=1, ∙∙∙, n)
submodularity plays for set functions is similar to 0. Initialize B ¼ 1
that of concavity for ordinary functions. 1. do
Problem (11) is the problem of Maximum 2. S←bMaxSubCover(B, ei for i=1, ∙∙∙, n)
Submodular Coverage Subject to a Budget. Sviridenko 3. B 2B
(2004)describes a greedy algorithm for this type of 4. while (f ðSÞ < 1  2E )
problem as an ð1  e 1 Þ approximation algorithm for 5. Output S and B.
maximizing a nondecreasing submodular set function
subject to a knapsack constraint. The quality of greedy Important Scientific Research and
solutions is strongly related to submodularity of the set Open Questions
function. When the submodularity property holds (as This paper provides the theoretical framework for
in our case), the number of computations necessary proactive learning. We propose a meta-procedure for
to get a greedy solution can be significantly reduced. the active learning problem with multiple persistent
The following greedy approximation algorithm oracles under arbitrary noise. Having options to select
bMaxSubCover efficiently solves Problem (11). oracles may let active learning have a faster error
 Adjunct Questions A 127

reduction rate as a function of the total cost; we thus A

choose subsets of oracles adaptive to a range of accu- Adaptive Specializations in
racies. The nonadaptive approach is to construct the Learning
labeling mechanism ahead of time and use that all the
▶ Biological or Evolutionary Constraints on Learning
time while running the active learning algorithm. Anal-
ysis in some specified scenarios shows the adaptive
oracle selection procedure saves the cost complexity
by a constant factor compared with the nonadaptive
version, and our analysis is quite consistent with Adaptive Support
empirical results from Donmez and Carbonell (2008).
▶ Scaffolding
We further combine the answers from the set of
selected oracles by Weighted Majority Vote.
Under the assumption that more reliable oracles
cost more than noisy ones, we provide an algorithm
that costs zero query to construct a minimum-cost Adaptive Systems
label mechanism whose error rate < 2E . Without
▶ Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms
assuming that cost and accuracy are not in strictly
monotonic inverse relation, we formulate the problem
as maximum submodular coverage subject to a budget
that can be solved by a greedy algorithm with 1  e 1
worst-case performance guarantee. Adaptive Testing
▶ Adaptive Evaluation Systems
Cross-References
▶ Active Learning
▶ Learning Algorithms
▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
▶ Statistical Learning Theory and Induction Adaptivity
▶ Flexibility in Problem Solving: Analysis and
References Improvement
Balcan, M. F., Beygelzimer, A., & Langford, J. (2006). Agnostic active
learning. In Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on
machine learning (ICML), Pittsburgh.
Donmez, P., & Carbonell, J. G. (2008). Proactive learning: Cost-
sensitive active learning with multiple imperfect oracles. In Pro-
ceedings of the 17th ACM conference on information and knowl-
ADD
edge management, Napa Valley.
▶ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Hanneke, S. (2007). A bound on the label complexity of agnostic
active learning. In Proceedings of the 24th international conference
on machine learning, Corvallis.
Sviridenko, M. (2004). A note on maximizing a submodular set
function subject to knapsack constraint. Operations Research
Letters, 32, 41–43. Additive Language
Vapnik, V. N. (1998) Statistical learning theory. Wiley-Interscience,
New York. ▶ Learning to Write in a Second Language

Adaptive Robotics
Adjunct Questions
▶ Robot Learning Via Human–Robot Interaction: The
Future of Computer Programming ▶ Learning from Questions
128 A Adjunct Questions: Effects on Learning

a continuum; one processes text information relative

Adjunct Questions: Effects on to other information. Research in cognitive processing
Learning of information indicates that the level at which one
processes information is related to the extent to which
MICHELE M. DORNISCH one remembers information; thus, the more a person
School of Education, Long Island University C. W. Post analyzes text material, the more one is able to remem-
Campus, Brookville, NY, USA ber the text.

Important Scientific Research and

Synonyms Open Questions
Supplementary questions; Supportive questions Much of the study of adjunct questions has focused on
the level of the questions and their effects on learning.
Definition Specifically, adjunct questioning research has focused
Adjunct questions are questions which are inserted into on two types of questions: verbatim or factual ques-
text with the intention of drawing attention to impor- tions that ask learners to repeat or recognize informa-
tant textual material. Adjunct questions are known to tion from text (Andre 1979) and higher-order questions
serve several functions, including both forward and that require learners to manipulate text information
backward effects. The forward effect alerts the reader (Winne 1979). Early studies suggested that there were
what to pay attention to in the passage. The backward two types of effects from factual postquestions: the
effect requires the reader to go back and reread sections specific backward effect and the general backward
and to be made aware of what is more significant in the effect. The specific backward effect is due to the review
passage. Research has indicated that adjunct questions of material that is actually questioned and improved
enhance comprehension by increasing the learner’s performance is evident on such questions, and the
attention to specific text information and, when used general backward effect is due to text material that is
skillfully, guiding learners in organizing and found near to the text that is actually questioned and
interpreting text material. improved performance is evident on related materials.
Whereas factual postquestions have backward effects,
Theoretical Background factual prequestions have forward effects. Research
A large body of research on adjunct questions has made indicates that prequestions may result in learners
apparent that through questioning student acquisition limiting their reading experience to a search for the
of content and learning can be improved. Early studies correct answers; thus, limiting their ability to recall of
in adjunct questioning indicated that questions facili- specific text information.
tate learner selection so that by answering questions, Research related to the use of higher-order ques-
learners focus their attention on specific concepts in the tions as adjunct questions (i.e., inferential, comprehen-
instructional materials. Subsequent adjunct question sion, application questions) has repeatedly aided
research demonstrated that the type of question asked students in performance on recall and recognition
directly influences both the level of cognitive tasks. Hamaker’s (1986) review of adjunct questions
processing and the type of information learned. makes clear that because higher-order processing likely
One of the major theoretical foundations on which induces integration and elaboration, higher-order
much of the research on adjunct questioning is based is adjunct questions will require the learner to produce
levels of processing (Craik and Lockhart 1972), which new information that they can then use in answer
suggests that information can be processed at varying subsequent test questions. Thus, performance on
levels of depth. Such levels of depth are located on related questions may be positively impacted. However,
a continuum where when one processes information it is not clear whether higher-order adjunct questions
shallowly, one processes the information at a surface positively impact performance on factual test ques-
level, whereas, when one processes information deeply, tions. Current research on elaborative questions and
one fully analyzes the information. It is important elaborative processing may be useful in addressing this
to note that levels of processing are located on question.
 Adjustability A 129

One way of understanding why deep processing These findings support claims that a question’s useful- A
should lead to better memory is that deep processing ness is increased when it is located closer to the text to
requires elaboration such that that text can be associ- which it refers. Position of question, however, also plays
ated with a greater number of other things allowing for an important role in decisions regarding the frequency
more pathways for retrieving the text information. of questions. For example, learning increases as
Some research suggests that for questions to be benefi- amount of text between questions decreases when
cial, they must require learners to transform the mate- learners are answering postquestions; however, when
rial (i.e., integrate across text or elicit and integrate answering prequestions, learning increases as the
prior knowledge) rather than to simply attend to amount of text between questions increases. Frequency
specific concepts. of questions requires careful consideration when
designing instruction that will implement various
Text Design question strategies.
The hundreds of adjunct question investigations that Effects of lookbacks, or allowing participants to
have been conducted provide suggestions regarding refer back to the text when answering massed or
text design. It is generally accepted, for example, that inserted postquestions, are also important to consider.
benefits for adjunct questions are greatest with Incidental learning is often limited when lookbacks are
repeated, rather than new, items (Anderson and Biddle discouraged (Andre 1979). Yet at the same time, when
1975). Other important considerations include place- learners are encouraged to look back, they may be less
ment of the questions, access to instructional text, and likely to study the entire text (Hamaker 1986).
number of questions.
Hamaker (1986) described four sequential arrange-
Cross-References
ments of experimental text and adjunct questions:
▶ Learning from Questions
massed prequestions, inserted prequestions, inserted
▶ Learning from Text
postquestions, and massed postquestions. Inserted
▶ Reading and Learning
questions are inserted in the text at various places,
▶ Socratic Questioning
while massed questions are presented together, either
at the beginning or at the end of the text. Prequestions
are presented prior to reading while postquestions are References
presented after reading. Prequestions are generally Anderson, R. C., & Biddle, W. B. (1975). On asking people questions
about what they are reading. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of
accepted to have forward effects while postquestions
learning and motivation. New York: Academic.
are generally accepted to facilitate backward effects. Andre, T. (1979). Does answering higher-level questions while reading
Forward effects occur when learners are cued to facilitate productive learning? Review of Educational Research, 49,
attend to information in the text. There is some 280–318.
speculation that because prequestions direct learners’ Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing:
attention to specific text content, they may limit the A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.
reading task to a search task in which the learner
Hamaker, C. (1986). The effects of adjunct questions on prose learn-
searches for answers in the text but may not construct ing. Review of Educational Research, 56, 212–242.
a strong representation or even comprehend the text. Winne, P. (1979). Experiments relating teachers’ use of hihgher
Backward effects occur when the learner reviews the cognitive questions to student achievement. Review of Educa-
material related to the questioned material. Backward tional Research, 49, 13–50.
effects are expected to improve performance on both
repeated test questions and related test questions.
Another important consideration for those using
adjunct questions in text design is how frequently
questions are presented. Research suggests that when Adjustability
given meaningful-learning questions, students gener-
ally perform better on total recall than when an equal ▶ Flexibility in Problem Solving: Analysis and
number of questions were provided more frequently. Improvement
130 A Adjustment

older brother. He included analysis of birth order and

Adjustment family constellation as diagnostic tools in the therapy
▶ Adaptability and Learning methods he proposed. With other children he was said
to get on well, was active and popular. His school
achievement was average and he graduated at the
customary time from the University of Vienna Medical
School in 1895.
Adler, Alfred (1870–1937) He briefly trained to be, and had a short stint
practicing, as an ophthalmologist. He subsequently
GUY MANASTER opened a general medical practice with an office in
Educational Psychology Department, The University of a lower-class section of Vienna near the Prater, a large
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA amusement park and circus. His patients included res-
taurant workers and waiters, circus acrobats and artists.
He saw in their ailments and weaknesses compensa-
Life Dates tions and overcompensations for their organ inferior-
Alfred Adler was born in a suburb of Vienna on Feb- ities that resulted in unusual strengths and skills.
ruary 7, 1870, the second son and second child of seven Through Adler’s student days, and beyond, the
siblings. His father was a middle-class Jewish grain country was caught up in political upheaval, discus-
merchant and his mother was a housewife. They had sion, and unrest. He was not passionately interested in
the choice of living in a mostly Jewish section of the city racial and religious differences or nationalist argu-
but chose to reside during most of Adler’s youth in ments. He attended political meetings without taking
neighborhoods that were primarily non-Jewish. Thus an active role. He held political convictions and sought
as Adler grew up he was largely spared the brunt of to be involved with the currents that were sweeping the
anti-Semitic activity that pervaded that period. His country and because of his friends’ involvements and
family did not stand out by religion or social status encouragement.
and Adler made that a positive aspect of his theory and He spent time at these meetings with a dynamic
life. Belonging, being a part of others, and equal to Russian student who was far more deeply involved,
others, were posited by Adler as critical elements of Raissa Timofeyewna Epstein. She was an avid commu-
a healthy outlook and lifestyle, and of social interest nist which Adler was not. But his views overlapped with
which he described as belonging in thought, feeling, various socialist positions and they had much in
and behavior. His sociability and openness in his common if not identical positions.
personal and professional life were reflected in his In 1897, Adler married Raissa Epstein and they
emphasis on respect and community in his theory. remained together until he died in 1937. A year after
As a young child, Adler had rickets; his movements they married their first child, Valentine, was born,
became restricted and he suffered spasms in his vocal followed by a second daughter, Alexandra, born in
cords. He contracted pneumonia at about the age of 4 1901; their son Kurt in 1905 and their last child, daugh-
and heard the doctor tell his parents that he might not ter Nellie, in 1909.
survive. He took all of these constraints as challenges In 1902, Sigmund Freud invited Adler and three
and incorporated this attitude into his theory as others to his home for the first of regular weekly dis-
an emphasis on “overcoming.” Later his movement cussions of work, philosophies, and problems of neu-
abilities returned; he became interested in music and rosis. These meetings proved to be the genesis of the
developed a strong singing voice. He resolved to Vienna Psychoanalytic Society of which Adler became
become a physician for the avowed purpose of president in 1910.
combating death. In 1915, as World War I took its toll on human
He saw the importance of finding one’s place in the misery, Adler was drafted to serve as a physician in the
family as this influenced personality development. This Austro-Hungarian army. He served in Vienna and in
aspect of his theory was no doubt in part the result of a Polish province of Austria. Confronted with the enor-
his competing in all possible ways with Sigmund, his mity of the suffering of war casualties, both physical
 Adler, Alfred (1870–1937) A 131

and psychological, he concluded, “one should not be in Cincinnati and Milwaukee and at several schools in A
content to cure mental illnesses, but one should make California. His lecture for teachers at the Opera House
every effort to prevent them.” He saw social interest, in Chicago was sold out and 2,500 applications to
community feeling, as the standard of an individual’s attend had to be turned down.
mental health. This was accompanied by his conviction During these later years, he took daily lessons in
that the benefits of social interest should run through English so he could confidently lecture in that
society in education, parenting, organizations, and language. He also, at 60, learned to drive a car. The
community. pace he set for himself in his personal and professional
After the war, he became more involved with life was remarkable.
politics through the Socialist-Democratic Party with In 1929, Adler was appointed a visiting professor at
particular emphasis on educational activities and Columbia University and further established his migra-
educational reform. He received permission to estab- tion to the United States when he was appointed to the
lish his first child guidance clinic in Vienna in 1922. He first chair of Medical Psychology in the United States at
welcomed parents, teachers, and visitors in the audi- Long Island University Medical College in 1932.
ence at open forum counseling sessions. By the end of Although he was, as it were, based in the United States
the 1920s, 32 clinics were being conducted in Austria he published on both sides of the Atlantic and oversaw
under his direction by school and parent–teacher asso- his clinics, albeit loosely and at a distance.
ciations and there were additional clinics in Germany. When the Austrofascists overthrew the Austrian
Adler became well known with many followers and Republic in 1934 they almost immediately abolished
persons interested in his theory and its applications. He school reform with related programs. Adler’s clinics
gave regular lectures at an adult education center and were closed; the educational reforms they practiced
also lectured as a member of the faculty at the Peda- philosophically contradicted the Fascists viewpoint.
gogical Institute, the Vienna teacher training college. Adler’s Jewish heritage may also have played a role
Adler’s name was put forward for a faculty appoint- (even though he had converted to Christianity long
ment at the University of Vienna but Freud used his before).
tenure and status as a Professor in the University of His wife, Raissa, and their oldest daughter, Valen-
Vienna Medical School to stop the approval of his tine, had remained in Europe until this time when so
application. many who were able fled the Nazis. Raissa moved to be
Starting in the 1920s, Adler spent more and more with Adler in New York. Valentine, whose political
time teaching in different formats with a major empha- views were closer to her mother’s, went to the Soviet
sis on prevention of mental illness, ill health, and Union. She was not heard from again. He made great
maladjustment. He continued to counsel and to attend efforts and every contact he had including Albert Ein-
to his clinics and to lecture but his evenings were stein to locate her, but to no avail.
increasingly occupied with discussions held at his Through the 1930s, Adler worked at a frenetic pace.
home with supporters, enthusiasts, and adherents. In the spring of 1937 he embarked on a tour of Europe,
From a weekly discussion at home, these grew to almost lecturing and meeting friends and colleagues. He was
nightly informal conversational sessions at the Café scheduled to lecture in Aberdeen on May 28. In the
Siller where lively conversations went on until the late days prior to this lecture, he mentioned that he was still
hours. upset not knowing his daughter Valentine’s where-
In 1926, he purchased a substantial home with large abouts and condition. He wrote that his heart was
grounds in Salmannsdorf, a suburb of Vienna. Here he breaking. Before he was due to lecture that evening he
hosted many distinguished Austrian and foreign took a walk in the neighborhood of his hotel and he
colleagues and students. collapsed from a heart attack. He died in the ambulance
In the same year, he began to spend more time in taking him to the hospital.
the United States. He met and counseled people in New
York and traveled across the country lecturing to a wide Theoretical Background
variety of audiences. His academic lectures drew large Alfred Adler originated Individual Psychology, a theory
crowds at Harvard and Brown as did his public lectures of personality and psychopathology, an approach to
132 A Adler, Alfred (1870–1937)

psychotherapy, and methods for self-help. His theory Psychoanalytic Research, that was soon renamed the
also embraces parent education, and education includ- Society of Individual Psychology.
ing teacher training. Moreover, Adler explored and The schism between Adler and Freud was academic,
encouraged the application of his theory to the fullest theoretical, and practical. Adler’s theory preached
range of social issues. Many of the basic tenets of the democratic, cooperative, and egalitarian values and
theory can be seen as emanating from his early life ways of living. In therapy and in the organization of
experiences and setting. the Society Adler followed his own advice. He was open
In line with his early interest in the social demo- to opinions other than his own and to involving
cratic movement and his practice with working class interested people without regard to their credentials.
patients, his earliest writings inquired into public Freud disagreed with opening the society to persons
health issues. His first professional publication, in of differing opinions, people without the “highest”
1898, was “Health Book for the Tailor Trade” which credentials, and conducting therapy with the therapist
showed the relation between the economic condition of and the client at the same level facing each other.
a trade and its disease, and the dangers for public health Thereafter Freud and Adler maintained a distant,
of a low standard of living. The approach in this book antagonistic, and rancorous relationship. Freud took
forecast the social science, sociological, and holistic numerous opportunities to disparage Adler and
underpinning of his future work. impede his success. He referred to Adler as if he were
In 1902, Sigmund Freud invited Adler and three a former student of his, an ungrateful and unworthy
others to his home for the first of regular weekly disciple. Adler took umbrage with this incorrect and
discussions of work, philosophies, and problems of unjust characterization, and countered it in conversa-
neurosis. These meetings proved to be the genesis of tions for many years. He considered that they had been
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society of which Adler colleagues.
became president in 1910. Adler’s theory was almost fully explained and
Those who attended these meetings presented and clarified in “The Neurotic Constitution” published in
discussed their own papers and evolving ideas. Freud’s 1912, which was considered by many to be Adler’s most
and Adler’s ideas increasingly diverged over the years important book. His last major construct, the focus on
and Freud became increasingly impatient with Adler’s social interest draws together his theory with a positive
independent positions and critiques. Adler could not mental health orientation for the individual and
accept Freud’s metapsychology, the mechanistic con- a positive view of the healthy and utopian human
cepts of libido and repression. He sought to understand community. This construct was not introduced until
neurosis in psychological and cultural terms. In this 1918.
vein, his 1907 publication “Study of Organ Inferiority Adler published articles, pamphlets, and books
and its Psychical Compensation” moved in a holistic throughout his professional life. His most popular
direction. With his 1910 paper on inferiority feelings book, “Understanding Human Nature,” was published
and masculine protest as overcompensation, Adler in 1927. This book, like several other publications, was
dropped “drive” as the operating concept and replaced based on lectures that were taken down and transcribed
it with “value.” The concept of masculine protest was by supporters and followers. Although this was
followed by striving for power and then striving for valuable, in that these materials might not otherwise
superiority as primary goals, teleological motivators. have been published, particularly his views on femi-
Then, holistically, these constructs were incorporated nism and “the woman question,” the quality of the
and developed into the notions of life plan, and then written material was not consistent.
lifestyle to represent the unified individual striving To assure the spread of Individual Psychology and
toward a self-created goal or goals. its validation Adler was active in establishing journals
Adler had reached a point of comprehensiveness in and professional societies and organizing international
the evolution of his theory by 1911 when he resigned Congresses. He founded the Zeitschrift fur Indivdual
from Freud’s psychoanalytic society and the editorship psychologie, the first Adlerian periodical, in 1914, but it
of its journal. About half of the members left with ceased publication with World War I. After the war,
Adler as he established first the Society for Free Individual Psychology groups in Vienna and elsewhere
 Administrative Capacity A 133

in Germany with supporters in various other countries In this model, an individual may learn and achieve A
formed the International Society of Individual Psychol- for personal reasons the individual does not
ogy. Journals were printed in succession in Europe and consciously understand and unrelated to generally
the United States until Adler’s death. Some were then accepted, socially accepted explanations. For instance,
revived and new ones initiated after World War II. a child who wants attention may strive to be valedicto-
The Individual Psychology News and the Bulletin rian or a school’s outstanding mischief. A child who
was brought out in 1940 by Rudolf Dreikurs in strives to be right may do well in math but not in art
Chicago and it became the American Journal of Indi- where there is no absolute right. A child who wants to
vidual Psychology in 1952 with the founding of the be liked may become teacher’s pet or the classroom
American Society of Individual Psychology. Heinz clown. The possibilities are endless for learning,
Ansbacher became editor in 1958 and renamed it adaptations and adjustments as are individual’s unique
the Journal of Individual Psychology: This pleased constructions.
Adlerians in other countries and additional journals People can learn to see things in new and different
proliferated across the national Adlerian societies in ways and thus alter their behavior without altering
Europe and Asia. their lifestyle. In Adlerian theory, lifestyle only changes
The first Congress of the International Society of with trauma and through therapy. Adler focused on the
Individual Psychology was held in Munich in 1922, with interest, activity, spontaneity, and creativity of the
others held though to 1930 when over 1,000 people learner as the ultimately crucial factor in the process.
attended the 5th International Congress in Berlin. Adler’s contributions to this process, beyond
The 6th Congress was held in 1954 in Zurich at which therapy, can be seen in such of his suggestions for
time the International Association of Individual group procedures in the classroom, applying logical
Psychology was formally proclaimed. The Association and natural consequences in school and family
holds meetings every 3 years. The 25th Congress discipline, Dreikurs’s four mistaken goals of children’s
commemorating the hundredth anniversary of Adler problem behaviors, and Adlerian approaches to school
founding the Society of Individual Psychology is sched- and counseling psychology.
uled to be held in Vienna in 2011.
Cross-References
Contribution to the Field of Learning ▶ Analytical Psychology and Learning
Alfred Adler is not considered a learning theorist or ▶ Freud, Sigmund
a specialist or expert in the field of learning. And yet ▶ Psychoanalytic Theory of Learning
learning is central to the unique, self-consistent,
socially oriented individual Adler describes who creates Further Readings
a lifestyle striving for a goal of success with the poten- Ansbacher, H. L., & Ansbacher, R. R. (Eds.). (1957). The individual
tial for social interest. psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Harper & Row.
In brief, in Adler’s model, the individual creates an Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious. New York:
Basic Books.
understanding of how he or she can belong in the social
Manaster, J. (1977). Alfred Adler: A short biography. In G. J. Manaster
world, of his or her place in the world, and acts to move et al. (Eds.), Alfred Adler: As we remember him (pp. 9–15).
toward that goal. That movement toward a goal (or Minneapolis: North American Society of Adlerian Psychology.
goals) is based on the individual’s conception of self, Orgler, H. (1973). Alfred Adler: The man and his work. London:
conception of the world, and conclusion about what he Sidgwick and Jackson.
Stepansky, P. E. (1983). In Freud’s shadow: Adler in context. Hillsdale:
or she has to do or be to fit into that world. Aspects of
The Analytic Press.
the environment, educational influences, are accepted,
and recognized and understood, as they seem, within
the individual’s lifestyle framework, to hold the poten-
tial for movement toward a lifestyle goal, for movement
toward success. The individual’s phenomenological Administrative Capacity
world thereby dictates the individual’s interests and
values. ▶ Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning
134 A Adolescent Learners’ Characteristics

In contrast to the concrete operational thinkers that

Adolescent Learners’ precede them, abstract thinkers are able to engage in
Characteristics complex proportionality reasoning, including analysis
of probability and physical systems. They can also think
KATIE DAVIS in a hypothetical-deductive manner, which involves
Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, generating testable hypotheses, controlling variables
MA, USA to isolate the cause, and extracting generalizable theo-
retical laws from empirical evidence. Historical per-
spective matures as well during adolescence, as
Synonyms individuals develop a greater appreciation for the way
Skill development during adolescence; Social and cog- in which present and past events shape the future.
nitive underpinnings of adolescents’ learning Finally, metacognition – the ability to think about
one’s thinking – emerges with formal operational
Definition thought. Learners who engage in metacognitive
Adolescent learners’ characteristics comprise the thought are able to monitor their learning and, as
various attributes that shape the way individuals a result, assume greater responsibility for their progress.
make meaning of their world. These attributes include With abstract thought also come new ideas about
specific skills, such as hypothetical-deductive reasoning knowledge and knowledge acquisition. In contrast to
and metacognition, which are tied to an individual’s younger children, who view knowledge acquisition as
stage of cognitive development. They also include a straightforward process of accumulating objective
individuals’ subjective views of the learning enterprise, facts, adolescents tend to adopt a more relativistic
for instance, their levels of motivation and mastery stance. Aware of the subjectivity of personal experience,
goals. All of these attributes are shaped in important adolescents may begin to doubt that true knowledge
ways by the social environment in which the learning can be acquired. Some adolescents may respond by
experience occurs. abandoning the pursuit of knowledge altogether,
while others may turn to dogmatic belief systems for
Theoretical Background relief from their anxiety-provoking doubt.
The characteristics of adolescent learners are shaped by Since Piaget formulated his theory of cognitive
the cognitive advances and distinct social experiences development more than half a century ago, there have
that accompany this stage of development. With been notable advances in the field of neuroscience that
respect to cognition, Jean Piaget (1897–1980), arguably contribute to our understanding of adolescent learners’
the most influential developmental psychologist of the characteristics. We now know that the frontal cortex
twentieth century, described adolescence as the period changes dramatically during adolescence. It is this part
during which individuals’ cognitive abilities fully of the brain that controls higher-level cognitive
mature. According to Piaget (1955), the transition thought processes such as planning, metacognition,
from late childhood to adolescence is marked by the and multitasking. Interestingly, though, researchers
attainment of formal operational thought, the hall- have found that not all higher-level cognitive abilities
mark of which is abstract reasoning. Because their increase as individuals move from childhood to ado-
thoughts are no longer constrained to their concrete lescence (Blakemore 2007). For instance, tasks that
reality, adolescents can consider possibilities beyond involve working memory and decision-making actually
their direct experiences. This ability to reason dip at puberty before increasing again from age 13 or 14
abstractly, in conjunction with expanded informa- to age 16 or 17. Researchers believe this dip can be
tion-processing and memory capacities, makes it explained by the fact that the onset of puberty prompts
possible for adolescents to grapple with sophisticated a sudden increase in the number of synapses in the
intellectual problems. frontal cortex, which disrupts functioning in this part
The attainment of formal operational thought is of the brain. As these synapses are pruned and
associated with a host of new skills that distinguish reorganized during the course of adolescence, cognitive
adolescent learners from their younger counterparts. functioning starts to increase again.
 Adolescent Learners’ Characteristics A 135

Other contemporary research into adolescent cog- in middle school than in elementary school. According A
nition finds a greater variation in adolescents’ cognitive to Eccles and her colleagues, this stage–environment
abilities and learning characteristics than Piaget origi- mismatch contributes to the negative aspects of
nally postulated. For instance, Fischer’s (1980) skill adolescent learners’ characteristics, including school
theory extends Piaget’s work by articulating several misconduct and low motivation levels.
levels of abstract thought. According to Fischer, single Other contextual contributors to negative learning
abstractions are the first to develop around the ages of outcomes in adolescence are group-specific. For
10–12 years. Individuals at this first level of abstract instance, researchers have found that both female stu-
thought can coordinate various concrete examples to dents and African American students perform worse on
define an abstract concept such as love or justice. From mathematics tests if they are first exposed to negative
about 14 to 16 years, individuals move to the next level stereotypes about their group’s mathematics abilities.
of abstract thought, called abstract mappings, defined The theoretical underpinnings of these findings postu-
as the ability to compare two abstractions along one late that exposure to negative stereotypes about one’s
dimension. Abstract systems develop toward the end of group arouses anxiety in the individual learner, which
adolescence, approximately 19–21 years. Individuals at in turn diminishes the learner’s cognitive capacity dur-
this level can now use two or more dimensions to ing the test-taking situation. This work on “stereotype
compare abstractions. Fischer claims that, for any threat” (see Steele 1997) suggests that students’ cogni-
given individual, these levels of abstract thought may tive abilities are impacted by the social environment in
develop at varying paces across different domains such which they find themselves.
as linguistic and mathematical reasoning. Thus, skill
theory accounts for cognitive variation both across the Important Scientific Research and
span of adolescence as well as within individual Open Questions
adolescents. In recent years, the proliferation of digital media tech-
Like other neo-Piagetian theorists, Fischer also nologies has altered the landscape of many learning
describes the important role that social and contextual environments. It is therefore important to consider
factors play in an individual’s development. how these new technologies may be impacting adoles-
A consideration of such factors may help to explain cent learners’ characteristics. Today’s American youth
why, despite the cognitive advances that take place are regular users – both in and out of school – of cell
during adolescence, the transition from elementary phones, personal computers, portable media players,
school to middle and high school is typically accompa- and video game consoles, many of which are Internet-
nied by an increase in dropout rates, school miscon- enabled. The ubiquity, portability, affordability, and
duct, and truancy, as well as a decline in grades and loss intuitive functionality of these devices have contrib-
of interest in school. Eccles and her colleagues attribute uted to a precipitous increase in youths’ media
these negative developments to a mismatch between consumption, which often consists of using multiple
adolescents’ developmental needs and the social condi- media devices simultaneously. Consider the adolescent
tions they experience in school (Eccles et al. 1993). who sits down at the desk in his or her bedroom to
They observe that adolescent learners thrive in school complete a homework assignment. As this adolescent
environments that acknowledge and support their surfs the web to find references for a school project, he
growing desire for autonomy, peer interaction, and or she is listening to music on an iPod, carrying on
abstract cognitive thinking, as well as the increasing multiple conversations with friends via text messaging,
salience of identity-related issues and romantic and keeping track of the latest news from his or her 251
relationships. Unfortunately, the researchers find that Facebook friends. Scholars have begun to examine the
the transition from elementary to middle school is impact of such an environment on the learning process.
typically marked by a greater emphasis on teacher While some scholars suggest that today’s youth have
control and discipline, student competition and social adapted to today’s media-rich landscape by becoming
comparison, and a parallel decline in opportunities for expert multitaskers, others have found evidence to
decision-making and self-management. There is even support the claim that the human brain is ill-equipped
evidence that schoolwork is less cognitively challenging to engage in multitasking and that juggling multiple
136 A Adolescent Literacy

tasks simultaneously diminishes the attention individ-

uals pay to any one task. As this line of inquiry moves Adult Education
forward, we will gain a more comprehensive view of the ▶ Adult Teaching and Learning
relationship between adolescents’ multitasking prac-
tices and their learning processes. The emerging field
of digital media and learning will likely also provide
insight into the impact of incorporating digital media Adult Leaning
technologies like video games and cell phones into
instructional practice. It remains to be seen whether ▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy
and how such technologies influence adolescents’ skill
development and subjective experiences of school.

Cross-References Adult Learners’ Characteristics

▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition
▶ Development and Learning (Overview) KATIE DAVIS
▶ Individual Differences in Learning Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge,
▶ Learning in the Social Context MA, USA
▶ Social Cognitive Learning

References Synonyms
Blakemore, S. (2007). Brain development during adolescence. Adult learning; Learning across the life span
Education Review, 20(1), 82–90.
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Definition
Flanagan, C., & Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during
Adult learners’ characteristics constitute the habits of
adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young
adolescents’ experiences in schools and families. The American mind that affect the way individuals approach the
Psychologist, 48(2), 90–101. learning process. These habits of mind are shaped by
Fischer, K. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: The control both internal cognitive processes and external social
and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 87, contexts. Learning in adulthood is distinguished by its
477–531.
self-directed and critically reflective nature, as well as
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1955). De la logique de l’enfant à la logique de
l’adolescent [The growth of logical thinking from childhood to
its rootedness in everyday experiences and the social
adolescence]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. roles associated with those experiences.
Piaget, J. (1954). La période des opérations formelles et le passage de
la logique de l’enfant à celle de l’adolescent [The period of formal Theoretical Background
operations and the transition from the child logic to the adoles- Decades of research in the behavioral and social sci-
cent one]. Bulletin de Psychologie, 7, 247–253.
ences confirm what philosophers, novelists, and other
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape
intellectual identity and performance. The American Psychologist, observers of mankind have always known – learning
52, 613–629. does not stop with the conclusion of formal education;
it is, rather, a lifelong process. We now know that,
instead of ending in adolescence, as developmental
psychologist Jean Piaget (1897–1980) postulated,
Adolescent Literacy cognitive development continues well into adulthood.
This broader view of development comes as welcome
▶ Content-Area Learning
news to those scholars who contend that the complex-
ities, ambiguities, and contradictions inherent in
modern life demand increasingly sophisticated
Adult Development responses from adults (Kegan 1994).
Eduard Lindeman (1885–1953) stands as a central
▶ Adult Teaching and Learning and pioneering figure associated with the field of adult
 Adult Learners’ Characteristics A 137

learning and education. Lindeman (1926) identified Whether at work, home, or at play, adults learn from A
four characteristics of adult learners that shape the the people with whom they share their common expe-
way they approach learning. According to Lindeman, riences. In addition to communities of practice, the
adults (1) require their learning to be personally rele- concept of “situated cognition” also contributes to
vant; (2) seek to apply their learning to real-life situa- our understanding of adult learning as an inherently
tions; (3) desire to engage in the learning process in social enterprise. Situated cognition refers to every
a self-directing manner; and (4) display individual aspect of the social environment that shapes the learn-
differences in learning, including differences in style ing process, including people, tools, and context
and pace, which increase with age. These characteristics (Merriam and Clark 2006). Within this framework,
all underscore the informal and contextual nature of learning is considered most likely to occur when it
learning in adulthood. Instead of the classroom, social feels authentic to the learner. Thus, apprenticeships,
roles provide the context of learning. That is, adults internships, and simulations are considered ideal
learn by drawing on and making sense of their experi- contexts for adult learners.
ences as worker, parent, spouse, and citizen. Their Kegan’s (1994) Subject–Object Theory provides
learning is situated in their personal biography and insight into how adult learners navigate the tension
the broader sociocultural context in which they live. between connection and independence in their learn-
Malcolm Knowles (1913–1997) studied under ing. According to Kegan’s stage theory of adult devel-
Lindeman and expanded on his ideas, particularly opment, a key cognitive achievement of adulthood is
Lindeman’s description of the self-directed nature of the transition from the “socialized mind,” which is
adult learning. Knowles (1980) described how dominant during adolescence, to the “self-authoring
self-direction permeates the entire trajectory of mind.” Kegan explains that connection and context
a given learning experience in adulthood, from diag- are still critical for self-authoring individuals; however,
nosing one’s learning needs and articulating reasonable these adults are more autonomously oriented toward
learning goals, to finding appropriate supports and, their contexts and the people within them. Within this
finally, evaluating learning outcomes. An important view, social context might be regarded as providing the
aspect of self-directed learning is the ownership that supportive foundation for learning, whereas self-
adults take of their learning, which infuses it with direction determines what is ultimately built upon
a sense of purpose. For this reason, the self-directed that foundation. Some adults are able to reach an
adult learner is a particularly motivated learner. even higher level of cognitive development, which
Mezirow (1991) further expanded upon the concept Kegan calls the “self-transforming mind.” Self-
of self-directed learning by articulating the important transforming adults have achieved distance from their
role of critical reflection. According to Mezirow, critical own ideology, making it possible for them to entertain
reflection entails examining one’s taken-for-granted competing ideologies simultaneously and find connec-
assumptions and considering how they shape, and tions among them.
perhaps distort, the way one views and makes sense of
the world. Adults who succeed in assuming this stance Important Scientific Research and
are more likely to engage in what Mezirow calls “trans- Open Questions
formative learning.” An important area of research that bears on adult
The idea of a self-directed learner is somewhat in learners’ characteristics concerns the effects of aging
tension with another adult learner characteristic: the on the learning process. Research on aging reveals
desire to learn in dialog with others. Scholars of adult age-related declines in the prefrontal cortex, which
learning contend that adults learn best within impacts a number of cognitive processes, such as work-
a “community of practice” defined as “a group of ing memory, processing speed, and executive function-
people who engage in a shared activity and who wish ing. While these declines do not necessarily prevent
to learn what other members know” (Merriam and learning, they may change how learning occurs toward
Clark 2006, p. 43). Given the variety of social contexts the end of the life cycle. The “Selective Optimization
that make up their lives, adults typically participate in with Compensation” (SOC) model developed by Baltes
multiple communities of practice simultaneously. and Baltes (1990) provides insight into the ways in
138 A Adult Learning

which the cognitive declines associated with aging may

affect adults’ approach to learning. The SOC model Adult Learning Styles
comprises three processes: selection, optimization,
and compensation. Selection refers to the decision to MARCIA CONNER
engage in fewer learning activities in light of one’s Bricolrs, Staunton, VA, USA
diminished cognitive capacities. The second process,
optimization, describes the proclivity of older adult
Synonyms
learners to engage in learning activities that allow
Behavior styles; Perceptual modalities; Teaching styles
them to use and strengthen their remaining cognitive
abilities. Lastly, older adults who make use of the pro-
Definition
cess of compensation are able to seek and employ new
Learning styles classify different ways people learn and
learning strategies in order to compensate for impair-
how they approach information. Learning styles differ-
ments in their cognitive functioning. Future research is
entiate the way each learner begins to concentrate on,
needed to investigate how theoretical frameworks like
process, absorb, and retain new and difficult
the SOC model might be used to support learning
information.
among older adults, particularly those adults with
If a person feels he or she can not learn something
various forms of dementia such as Alzheimer’s.
important – even after they use a method that a friend,
parent, colleague, or a teacher suggested – they might
Cross-References have a different learning style than that person and their
▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy approach might now be the best approach to pursue.
▶ Adult Learning Styles Each of us learn and process information in our own
▶ Adult Learning Theory special way, though we all share some learning patterns,
▶ Adult Teaching and Learning preferences, and approaches. Knowing our own style can
also help us realize that other people may approach the
References same situation in a way that is different from our own.
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on Learners of all ages may think they are dim, dumb,
successful aging: The model of selective optimization with com- lazy, or crazy because they cannot understand materials
pensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging:
the way the others do. When these learners can match the
Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
way they approach information with the way they learn,
Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern they see dramatic improvements in understanding,
life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. meaning making, self-image, and for students: grades.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From To reveal each person’s natural tendencies and
pedagogy to andragogy. New York: The Adult Education styles, it is important to use a comprehensive learning
Company.
style assessment that identifies each individual’s
Lindeman, E. C. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York:
New Republic. strengths and preferences across the full spectrum of
Merriam, S. B., & Clark, M. C. (2006). Learning and development: physiological, sociological, psychological, emotional,
The connection in adulthood. In C. Hoare (Ed.), Handbook of and environmental elements.
adult development and learning (pp. 27–51). Oxford: Oxford Learning style assessments provide an opportunity
University Press.
to learn how people are likely to respond under differ-
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
ent circumstances and how to approach information in
a way that best addresses particular needs.
Learning styles can be defined as the way each
person begins to:
● Concentrate on new and difficult information
Adult Learning ● Process this information
● Internalize and retain this information
▶ Adult Learners’ Characteristics ● Use this information
 Adult Learning Styles A 139

Theoretical Background ● Intrapersonal: possess access to one’s emotional life A

as a means to understand oneself and others
Perceptual Modalities
One of the most useful and widely used approaches to Mind Styles
assessing people’s learning styles examines how we take According to Anthony Gregorc, there are four basic
in information through our senses. Researchers call learning styles. Gregorc’s Mind Styles model catego-
these sorts of assessments “perceptual modality assess- rizes learners as Concrete Sequential (CS), Abstract
ments.” They look at how we see, hear, feel, and move Sequential (AS) Abstract Random (AR), and Concrete
through the world. Those perceptions deeply affect our Random (CR).
ability to learn. Whether we tend to rely more or less on
● Concrete Sequential (CS) learners are hardworking,
one sense than another has a tremendous influence on
conventional, accurate, stable, dependable, consis-
how we interpret new experiences and succeed in what-
tent, factual, and organized.
ever we work with each day.
● Abstract Sequential (AS) learners are analytic,
The Conner Learning Styles Assessment focuses
objective, knowledgeable, thorough, structured,
on people’s visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile
logical, deliberate, and systematic.
preferences.
● Abstract Random (AR) learners are sensitive,
Building Excellence by R. Dunn and S. Rundle
compassionate, perceptive, imaginative, idealistic,
identifies the following:
sentimental, spontaneous, and flexible.
● Perceptual Domain: auditory, visual word, visual ● Concrete Random (CR) learners are quick, intui-
picture, tactual and/or kinesthetic, verbal tive, curious, realistic, creative, innovative, instinc-
● Psychological Domain: analytic/global, impulsive/ tive, and adventurous.
reflective
● Environmental Domain: sound, light, temperature, Learning Styles Indicator
seating design David Kolb’s Learning Style Model classifies learners as
● Physiological Domain: time of day, intake, mobility having a preference for (1) concrete experience or
● Emotional Domain: motivation, task persistence, abstract conceptualization (how they take information
conformity, structure in) and (2) active experimentation or reflective obser-
● Sociological Domain: alone, pairs, small group, vation (how they internalize information).
large group, authority, variety
● Type 1 (concrete, reflective). A characteristic ques-
tion of this learning type is “Why?” Type 1 learners
Multiple Intelligences respond well to explanations of how course material
Howard Gardner asserts there are at least seven modal-
relates to their experience, their interests, and their
ities (referred to as intelligences) that can be used to
future careers. To be effective with Type 1 students,
describe your individual style. His work encourages
the instructor should function as a motivator.
everyone to think about learning in new and creative
● Type 2 (abstract, reflective). A characteristic ques-
ways. This work suggests people can be:
tion of this learning type is “What?” Type 2 learners
● Verbal-linguistic: sensitive to the meaning and respond to information presented in an organized,
order of words logical fashion and benefit if they have time for
● Musical: sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and reflection. To be effective, the instructor should
tone function as an expert.
● Logical-mathematical: able to handle chains of ● Type 3 (abstract, active). A characteristic question
reasoning and recognize patterns and order of this learning type is “How?” Type 3 learners
● Spatial: perceive the world accurately and try to respond to having opportunities to work actively
re-create or transform aspects of that world on well-defined tasks and to learn by trial and error
● Bodily kinesthetic: able to use the body skillfully in an environment that allows them to fail safely. To
and handle objects adroitly be effective, the instructor should function as
● Interpersonal: understand people and relationships a coach, providing guided practice and feedback.
140 A Adult Learning Styles

● Type 4 (concrete, active). A characteristic question Personality patterns focus on attention, emotion,
of this learning type is “What if?” Type 4 learners and values. Understanding these differences allows you
like applying course material in new situations to to predict the way you will react and feel about different
solve real problems. To be effective, the instructor situations. The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator and the
should stay out of the way, maximizing opportuni- Keirsey Temperament Sorter are two of the most
ties for the students to discover things for well-known personality pattern assessments. A lesser-
themselves. known assessment is Dellinger’s Psycho-Geometrics.
Social interaction looks at likely attitudes, habits,
Myers–Briggs and strategies learners will take toward their work and
The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator, based on the work of how they engage with their peers when they learn.
Carl Jung, identifies 16 personality styles based on: Some learners are independent, dependent, collabora-
How you relate to the world (extravert or introvert) tive, competitive, participant, and avoidant.
Reichmann and Grasha, Honey and Mumford, and
● Extraverts try things out, focus on the world around
Baxter-Magolda have developed assessments.
● Introverts think things through, focus on the inner
world of ideas
Important Scientific Research and
How you take in information (sensing or intuiting) Open Questions
Learning style is a concept used worldwide. For over
● Sensors (practical, detail-oriented focus on facts
30 years, the International Learning Styles Network
and procedures)
(ILSN) has been helping both children and adults
● Intuitors (imaginative, concept-oriented focus on
reach their full learning potential. In 1996, Professor
meanings and possibilities)
Rita Dunn began replacing the original assessments
How you make decisions (thinking or feeling) with updated online versions that catered to both
analytic and global learners and include both text and
● Thinkers are skeptical, tend to make decisions based
graphic images. The venerable research upon which the
on logic and rules
Dunn and Dunn Model was built continues as the
● Feelers are appreciative, tend to make decisions
assessments are improved.
based on personal and humanistic considerations
In recent years, opponents of learning styles have
How you manage your life (judging or perceiving). criticized its use, primarily in schools, where students
are being stereotyped based on the results of their
● Judgers set and follow agendas, seek closure even
assessments. They argue that learning preferences can-
with incomplete data
not be generalized and doing so limits, rather than
● Perceivers adapt to changing circumstances, resist
enhances, learning. Objections can often be addressed
closure to obtain more data
by ensuring that the results of these assessments is used
For example, one learner may be an ESTJ (extravert, primarily for learners themselves to better advocate for
sensor, thinker, perceiver) and another may be an INFJ themselves in formal education environments. If an
(introvert, intuitor, feeler, judger). instructor lectures without providing any visual cues,
There are other ways to organize learning style the learner could request a photo or illustration. If
models. These fall into general categories such as infor- a learner can focus most effectively in a certain envi-
mation processing, personality patterns, and social ronment, he or she can create that space for themselves.
interaction. This puts the onus on the learner.
Information processing distinguishes between the
way people sense, think, solve problems, and remember Cross-References
information. Individuals have a preferred, consistent, ▶ Adaptation to Learning Styles
distinct way of perceiving, organizing, and retaining ▶ Attitudes and Learning Styles
information. Kolb’s Learning Styles inventory, ▶ Cross-cultural Learning Styles
Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model, and Keefe’s Human ▶ Jungian Learning Styles
Information-Processing Model. ▶ Kolb’s Learning Styles
 Adult Learning Theory A 141

▶ Learning Style(s) Definition A

▶ Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles Learning is the transformative process of taking in
▶ Styles of Learning and Thinking information which, when internalized and mixed with
what we have experienced, changes what we know and
builds on what we can do. It is based on input, process,
References
and reflection. It is what changes us. Learning is what
Baxter-Magolda, M. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in College:
Gender related patterns in student development. San Francisco: makes us more vibrant participants in a world seeking
Jossey-Bass. fresh perspectives, novel insights, and first-hand expe-
Conner, M. L. (2004). Learn more now: 10 simple steps to learning riences. When shared, what we have learned mixes
better, smarter, and faster. Hoboken: Wiley. with what others have learned then ripples out,
Dellinger, S. (1989). Psychogeometrics: How to Use Geometric Psychol-
transforming organizations, enterprises, ecosystems,
ogy to Influence People. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Dunn, R. (1996). How to implement and supervise a learning style and the society around us.
program. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Learning can be defined formally as the act, process,
Dunn, R., Rundle, S. (2002). Building Excellence Survey (BES). or experience of gaining knowledge or skills that fosters
Performance Concepts International, Danbury, CT. the transformation. In contrast, memory can define the
Gartner, H. (1983). Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intel-
capacity of storing, retrieving, and acting on that knowl-
ligences. Basic Books, New York.
edge. Learning helps us move from novices to experts
Grasha, A. F., Richlin, L. (1996). Teaching With Style: A Practical
Guide to Enhancing Learning by Understanding Teaching and and allows us to gain new knowledge and abilities.
Learning Styles. Alliance Publishers, Los Angeles.
Gregorc, A. F. (1984). Gregorc Style Delineator: Developmental Tech- Theoretical Background
nical and Administrative Manual, Revised Edition. Gregorc The field of adult learning encompasses changes in how
Associates.
adults learn compared to how they learned when they
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1992). Using your learning styles. Maid-
enhead, UK: Peter Honey. were younger, their memory, intelligence, and cogni-
International Learning Styles Network (ILSN) is comprised of tion in context and amid life experience.
25 International Centers in 11 countries that provide additional It acknowledges that learning strengthens the brain
training, direction and support for the use of the Dunn & Dunn by building new pathways and increases connections
Model in over 100 countries worldwide. http://www.
that adults can rely on when they want to learn more.
learningstyles.net
Definitions that are more complex add words such as
Kolb, D. (1983). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning and Development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice comprehension and mastery through experience or
Hall. study.
Keefe, J. W. (1989). Learning style profile handbook: Accommodating Physiologically, learning is the formation of cell
perceptual, study and instructional preferences (Vol. II). Reston, assemblies and phase sequences. Children learn by
VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
building these assemblies and sequences. Adults spend
Keirsey, D. (1998). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Charac-
ter, Intelligence. Del Mar, Calif.: Prometheus Nemesis. more time making new arrangements than forming
Silver, H. F. (2000). So each may learn: Integrating learning styles and new sequences. Our experience and background allow
multiple intelligences. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. us to learn new concepts.
At the neurological level, any established knowledge
(from experience and background) appears to be made
up of exceedingly intricate arrangements of cell mate-
rials, electrical charges, and chemical elements. Learn-
Adult Learning Theory ing requires energy; relearning and unlearning requires
even more. We must access higher brain functions to
MARCIA CONNER generate the much-needed energy and unbind the old.
Bricolrs, Staunton, VA, USA Learning, from the most fundamental to complex,
is (1) any increase in knowledge, (2) memorizing infor-
mation, (3) acquiring knowledge for practical use,
Synonyms (4) abstracting meaning from what we do, and
Andragogy; Lifelong learning (5) a process that allows us to understand.
142 A Adult Learning Theory

People can learn from the moment of birth. Learn- the conclusion (later disproven by many) that adults do
ing can and should be a lifelong process. Learning not learn as effectively as younger people. Many of these
should not be defined by what happened early in life, studies have shown that declines occur in some groups
only at school. We constantly make sense of our expe- and at some times, but not with others. Typically, adults
riences and consistently search for meaning. In essence, score better on some aspects of intelligence as they age,
we continue to learn. and worse in others, resulting in fairly stable composite
Though humans like the familiar and are often measure of intelligence until very old age.
uncomfortable with change, the brain searches for Malcom S. Knowles was one of the first to propose
and responds to novelty. “Ah-ha!” you may think. that adult learners shared specific characteristics that
“That’s why I hated freshman English. No novelty!” supported their ability to learn through life. He iden-
Rote learning frustrates us because the brain resists tified the following distinctions:
meaningless stimuli. When we invoke the brain’s natu- Adults are autonomous and self-directed. They want
ral capacity to integrate information, however, we can to be free to direct themselves – even if that means
assimilate boundless amounts. This may also explain asking for assistance from others.
why sometimes a tough class, one you never thought Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experi-
you would get through, was one of your all-time ences and knowledge that may include work-related
favorites. activities, family responsibilities, and previous education.
Western society once believed adults did not learn. They need to connect learning to their knowledge
Even today, if you ask a group why adults cannot learn, based on experience.
it may surprise you how many begin answering the Adults are goal-oriented. When seeking to learn
question without challenging the premise. Unfortu- something new, they usually know what goal they
nately, many adults deny themselves what should be want to attain.
one of the most enriching parts of life because they Adults are relevancy oriented. They must see
assume they cannot learn. a reason for learning something. Learning has to be
We can learn from everything the mind perceives applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be
(at any age). Our brains build and strengthen neural of value to them.
pathways no matter where we are, no matter what the Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson
subject or the context. most useful to them in their work. They may not be
In today’s business environment, finding better interested in knowledge for its own sake. Instructors
ways to learn will propel organizations forward. Strong must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be
minds fuel strong organizations. We must capitalize on useful to them on the job.
our natural styles and then build systems to satisfy As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect.
needs. Only through an individual learning process Instructors must acknowledge the wealth of experi-
can we re-create our environments and ourselves. ences that adult participants bring to the classroom.
These adults should be treated as equals in experience
Important Scientific Research and and knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions
Open Questions freely when they are in a class.
The field of adult learning was pioneered by Thorndike, Since Knowles pioneering work, many still question
Bregman, Tilton, and Woodyard in their 1928 book, if adults learn differently than children. His proposi-
Adult Learning. It was the first systematic investigation tion that children preferred to learn from teachers, and
of adult learning. They looked at memory and learning adults learned best by being self-directed, seems biased
tasks of 14- and 50-year-olds, considering how they did by a culture heavily reliant on school rather than a clear
compared to younger learners. The tests, however, examination of children’s capacity to learn. It might be
made a direct comparison between the learning of more accurate to conclude that the only certain differ-
younger and older people, without considering differ- ence is that children have fewer experiences and
ences in adults approach, connecting what they are preestablished beliefs than adults and thus have less to
learning to what they already know, and this lead to relate.
 Adult Learning/Andragogy A 143

Cross-References published in 1951, while in 1957, Franz Pogeler, A

▶ Adult Learner Characteristics a German teacher published Introduction to Andragogy:
▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy Basic Issues in Adult Education (Knowles et al. 1998,
▶ Adult Teaching and Learning p. 59). A number of European educators also men-
▶ Humanistic Theory of Learning: Maslow tioned andragogy in their work, among them Dusan
▶ Jack Mezirow on Transformative Learning Savicevic, a Yugoslavian adult educator, who discussed
▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning the concept during a presentation in the USA in 1967.
Malcolm Knowles heard it at that presentation and in
References 1968 first used the term in an article in Adult Leader-
Cross, P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facil- ship. He then began promoting it as an important set of
itating learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. assumptions about the learning needs of individuals,
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From first for adult educators and later as a concept to be
pedagogy to andragogy. New York: Cambridge Books.
applied at any level of education where they are
Merriam, S. B. (Ed.). (1993, Spring). An update on adult learning
theory (New directions for adult and continuing education) (Vol. applicable and can help students learn.
57). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Originally defined by Knowles as “the art and
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning in adulthood: science of helping adults learn” (Knowles 1980, p. 43),
A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. andragogy delineates assumptions that describe
Thorndike, E., Bregman, E., Tilton, J. W., & Woodyard, E. (1928).
considerations necessary to develop effective learning
Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.
for adults. Knowles four original concepts include:
The Learner’s Self-concept discusses how adults
move from dependence upon their instructor to
a more mature, self-directed learning personality
Adult Learning/Andragogy (Knowles 1980, pp. 43–44).
The Role of the Learner’s Experience emphasizes that
DOLORES FIDISHUN adults have a wealth of experience from the many
University Libraries and Scholarly Communications aspects of their lives and want to use and be given credit
and Great Valley School of Graduate Professional for those experiences in any learning situation
Studies, Pennsylvania State University, Malvern, PA, (Knowles 1980, pp. 43–44).
USA The Student’s Readiness to Learn focuses on whether
the student recognizes a need or reason to learn some-
thing. They may want to improve their life, work, or
Synonyms social situation and will therefore seek instruction in
Adult leaning; Facilitated learning order to improve their circumstances (Knowles 1980,
pp. 43–44).
Definition The Student’s Orientation to Learning emphasizes
Although Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913–1997) the learner’s need to realize how they can use the
has been linked most closely with the word andragogy, knowledge they will gain. They will be more eager to
the term had a long history before he became associ- follow through on lessons if they understand how what
ated with it. In 1833, Alexander Kapp, a German gram- they learn can make their lives better tomorrow
mar teacher used it to describe Plato’s educational (Knowles 1980, pp. 43–44).
theory and later, in 1921, social scientist, Eugen A fifth assumption, Students’ Motivation to Learn
Rosenstock stated that “adult education required was added in 1984. Knowles felt that although students
special teachers, special methods, and a special philos- may have external motivation to learn such as work
ophy” (Knowles et al. 1998, p. 59) and used the term on requirements, the most powerful incentives tend to be
several occasions. Swiss psychologist, Heinrich internal, those that promote an individual’s growth and
Hanselmann used the word in his book Andragogy: development or help them to reach personal goals
Nature, Possibilities and Boundaries of Adult Education (Knowles et al. 1998, p. 68).
144 A Adult Learning/Andragogy

Later, Knowles’ writing discussed an additional younger students may come with a wealth of knowl-
concept, The Adult’s Need to Know why they should edge or experience in a particular area leading the
learn something (Knowles et al. 1998, p. 64). instructor to use strategies that are more likely to be
Although originally contrasted with pedagogy and associated with andragogy than pedagogy. In all, there
aimed completely at adults, the concept has grown to are situations where instructors will feel that andragogy
describe a continuum that moves from pedagogy to fits well while in others they may need to provide more
andragogy and applies to younger students as well as pedagogical type experiences for their students.
their adult counterparts allowing instructors to have The use of andragogical principles in a learning
more flexibility in implementing assumptions environment takes the focus off the instructor and
depending on the situation. makes them a facilitator of student learning. It is
necessary for the teacher to move a student whose
Theoretical Background concept of learning is more structured to a self-directed
Andragogy was originally contrasted with pedagogy. model through choices of activities and specific
Dusan Savicevic explains that “the traditional research support as the student moves away from dependency
paradigm was predominately oriented toward studying to a more independent self-concept of learning.
the phenomenon of learning of children and young Instructors must also acknowledge the student’s expe-
people” but “the main subject of andragogy is studying rience whether with life issues or on the job, and allow
the learning and education of adults” (Savicevic 2008, the student to use their knowledge to contribute to the
p. 361). Knowles’ initial explanations of the concept instruction, to move to another plane of learning or
also contrasted andragogy with pedagogy, the art and understand differences in their experiences versus the
science of teaching children. As years went on teachers current focus of learning.
in elementary and secondary schools as well as The teacher must also seek to understand why
colleagues told Knowles that they were applying the a student has chosen to undertake instruction. What
concepts from andragogy to those who were younger. has made them ready to learn this particular topic at
As a result Knowles came to think of andragogy as this time in their life and how can the instructor use this
“another model of assumptions about learners to be situation to move the student forward both as a learner
used alongside the pedagogical model” (Knowles 1980, and in learning the topic studied? As the teacher
p. 43). He felt that the two formed the two ends of develops lessons and experiences it is important that
a spectrum and gave educators alternative models to they can focus on what Knowles calls the student’s “full
work with, a second “tool kit” as some might describe life potential” (1980, p. 44). The faculty member
it, when working with any learner. As Knowles should be aware of the students’ orientation to learning
explained, “whenever a pedagogical assumption is so that what is learned today can be applied tomorrow
a realistic one, then pedagogical strategies are appro- to a student’s life experience. Using problem-centered
priate, regardless the age of the learner and vice versa” activities can directly link learning to real-life situa-
(Knowles 1980, p. 43). Today, andragogy is recognized tions. These life-centered or task-centered activities
as a set of assumptions that are primarily associated can help the facilitative instructor guide students into
with adult learning but are also well within the reper- what may be the first thing a student must understand,
toire of those who teach younger students. From an why they should know what they are undertaking to
adult educator’s perspective, it is assumed that some learn. As students develop an appreciation of their need
adult learners may need a more structured pedagogical to know a topic they can then relate more affectively to
approach, particularly as they begin their first educa- how it will make their life better tomorrow. In addition,
tional interaction after years of being trained in students will begin to develop a bigger motivation to
elementary and secondary schools. The goal of the learn the concepts taught if they find that the learning
instructor is to move the student to a more flexible, experience will meet higher internal goals that they are
student-focused learning environment, indicative of pursuing such as job satisfaction, quality of life or, as
the principles of andragogy. Some subjects, such as they develop further in the path of other andragogical
those that are more technical may also require more principles; a better self-concept that makes them more
pedagogical methods even for adults. In contrast, some independent. According to Knowles, these higher level
 Adult Teaching and Learning A 145

internal motivations will be more effective for adults References A

than external motivations. Donavant, B. W. (2009). The new, modern practice of adult educa-
tion: Online instruction in a continuing professional education
Important Scientific Research and setting. Adult Education Quarterly: A Journal of Research and
Theory, 59(3), 227–245.
Open Questions Holton, E. F., III, Wilson, L. S., & Bates, R. A. (2009). Toward
Many people refer to the theory of andragogy but development of a generalized instrument to measure andragogy.
others argue that it is not a theory. In his 1980 work, Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10(20), 169–193.
Knowles said that andragogy was a “model of assump- Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education; From
tions.” Merriam and Caffarella (1999) cite Hartree and andragogy to pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Cambridge Adult
Education.
Brookfield as among others who question whether
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., III, & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult
andragogy can be considered a full-blown theory. learner (5th ed.). Houston: Gulf.
Some educators posit that the assumptions have not Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood:
been tested empirically or are simply the result of A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
observation by its proponents. According to Merriam, Savicevic, D. (2008). Convergence or divergence of ideas on
in his autobiography Knowles himself commented that andragogy in different countries. International Journal of Lifelong
Education, 27(4), 361–378.
andragogy is “a model of assumptions about learning
or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for
emergent theory” (1999, p. 271).
Questions about andragogy’s status as a theory have
led to one stream of current research that focuses on
Adult Literacy
finding ways to measure the impact of the implemen- Is concerned with those adults who are experiencing
tation of andragogical principals on student learning. problems with basic literacy, numeracy, or with wider
Work by authors such as Holton et al. (2009) explores communication skills.
the effects of the implementation of instructional strat-
egies based on andragogy and seeks to quantitatively
substantiate the claims of Knowles and others that
andragogy positively enhances student learning. Adult Teaching and Learning
A second line of research focuses on the role of
andragogy in online learning design. Donavant (2009) MARK TENNANT
and others are exploring the impact of andragogical University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
principles as they are applied to the use of current
technology and online learning.
Finally, with the internationalization of today’s Synonyms
world, Dusan Savicevic and others continue to examine Adult development; Adult education; Experiential
andragogy and to seek an understanding of how its learning; Lifelong learning
tenants are used and interpreted internationally.
While Knowles built a body of work that gained respect Definition
worldwide, Savicevic has also continued to write and Adult teaching and learning refers to our understand-
further elucidate the role of andragogy in adult learn- ing of how adults learn, the context of their learning,
ing, particularly in Europe, stating that it continues to and the teaching practices deemed most suitable for
be “necessary to reconsider on a scientific basis and to adults.
study the elements of learning distinctive for adult
learning and education” (2008, p. 364). Theoretical Background
The contemporary interest in the distinctiveness of
Cross-References adult teaching and learning has its origins in the adult
▶ Adult Learner Characteristics education movement. As a movement, adult education
▶ Adult Learning Styles is presented in various contexts as holding the key
▶ Adult Teaching and Learning to democratization, internationalization, the good
146 A Adult Teaching and Learning

society, and personal and economic well-being. It opinions; and finally to be able to act in the world. The
includes university extension courses, workers’ educa- development of these capacities is informed, firstly,
tion, labor education, literacy and numeracy, migrant by what we know about adult intellectual and personal
education, indigenous education, continuing educa- development (Tennant and Pogson 1995), and, sec-
tion, and community education. Even though the ondly, by the literature on the role education plays in
majority of adult learning nowadays is not identified promoting significant personal and social change
with adult education (e.g., adults learning in the work- (Freire 1974; Mezirow 2003; Brookfield 2004).
place or adults studying at university), the legacy of the Because teachers and adult learners are adult peers,
adult education movement is apparent in the impor- there is a widely held view that the relationship between
tant ideas and practices it has fostered. Such ideas have teachers and adult learners should be participative and
to do with relationships between teachers and taught; democratic and characterized by openness, mutual
the recognition of learning; links between informal, respect, and equality. The question of how to realize
nonformal, and formal learning; engagement and this ideal adult teacher–learning relationship is a focus
participation in learning; learning from experience of much of the literature on adult teaching and learn-
and reflection; new understandings of our capacity to ing. This question is typically analyzed from three
learn across the life span; workplace and professional different perspectives: the political, philosophical, and
learning; and learning for individual, organizational, psychological. The political perspective concerns the
and social change. ideal distribution of power between teachers and
In this context there are four themes which have learners and among learners. In this connection Freire’s
pervaded the adult teaching and learning literature: the writings have been very influential, particularly his
autonomy and self-direction of adult learners, the dis- advocacy of what he calls “problem posing” education
tinctiveness of the adult teacher–learner relationship, as opposed to “banking education,” whereby the
the primacy of learning through experience, and the teacher assumes all the authority. The former is firmly
necessity of learning through collaborative community centered on the learners who determine the goals, and,
engagement. together with the facilitator, the direction of class ses-
“Self-directed” and “autonomous learning” consti- sions. The philosophical perspective refers to how the
tute foundation concepts in the literature on adult relationship serves the aims of the educational activity.
teaching and learning. The terms are constantly used In many instances the relationship may be partially
in journals, monographs, and texts, and have featured determined by the nature of the learning, for example,
in a number of national and international policy where the content demands significant expertise of the
documents. It evokes associations with a cluster of teacher – but the task is always to distribute power as
terms such as “learner-centeredness,” “independent evenly as the circumstances allow. The psychological
learning,” “self-teaching,” “autonomy,” “freedom,” perspective has to do with how the teacher and learners
and “needs-meeting,” all of which are enthusiastically relate at an interpersonal level – in particular, how the
embraced within the ethos of adult and lifelong learn- expectations and perceptions of learners are reconciled
ing. Self-directed learning as a practical and theoretical with the expectations and perceptions of the teacher.
concept is still strongly linked to the work of Knowles The importance and centrality of learning from and
and his model of the lifelong learner (Knowles 1984). through experience is widely accepted as a hallmark of
The term “self-direction” in learning has come to mean adult teaching and learning. This is so for a number of
four distinct phenomena: personal autonomy, the will- reasons; for example, it is argued that adults have
ingness and capacity to manage one’s own learning, an a more “street wise” practical approach to learning,
environment allowing some level of control by the and experiential methods allow them to capitalize on
learner, and the pursuit of learning independently of their practical experience. Secondly, adults typically
any formal course or institutional support. The empha- scrutinize ideas and knowledge in terms of accumu-
sis on autonomy in particular is linked with the devel- lated life experiences and not solely in terms of
opment of the capacity to think rationally, reflect, conceptual clarity, internal consistency, fit with exper-
analyze evidence, and make judgments; to know imental observation, and other academic criteria.
oneself and to be free to form and express one’s own Thirdly, adults demand a strong link between what
 Adult Teaching and Learning A 147

they are learning and some application in family, a feature of contemporary life, it is not surprising that A
community, or workplace settings, and experiential educators have an ongoing interest in how to effect
learning methods help to address this demand. Focus- such change. Different educators, of course, have
ing on the learner’s experience is an integral part of different interests, and transformative learning has
a tradition which places the learner at the center of the been variously critiqued, adapted, and adopted across
education process. The justification for learning based widely different contexts and widely different theoret-
on experience can also be found in the psychological ical perspectives. Despite the varieties of applications
literature. Cognitive psychology stresses the interactive and adaptations of transformative learning, a common
nature of the relationship between learning and expe- feature is a “disorientation” of some kind, variously
rience. Learning is an active process in the sense that described as disruption of one’s “world view,” “frame
learners are continually trying to understand and make of reference,” “meaning perspective,” or “taken-for-
sense of their experiences. In effect, learners reconstruct granted assumptions.” In Mezirow’s formulation, the
their experiences to match more closely their existing process of transformative learning commences
rules and categories for understanding the world. These with a “disorienting dilemma” which leads to a self-
rules and categories may also change to accommodate examination with others (in mutual dialogue),
new experiences. From another perspective, the a critical assessment of internalized assumptions, and
psychodynamic psychologies draw attention to the finally to a “perspective transformation” or new
emotionally laden nature of the relationship between “meaning perspective” which are more inclusive, dis-
experience and learning. In this regard the work of criminating, and reflective. Much of the theoretical
humanistic psychology has had a substantial impact debate and empirical findings since have been
on adult teaching and learning. In particular their concerned with identifying and elaborating on the trig-
emphasis on personal freedom, choice, and the validity gers, the processes, and the outcomes of transformative
of subjective experience can be seen in the importance learning.
adult educators attach to the concept of “self ” in
learning. Important Scientific Research and
The idea of learning through collaborative commu- Open Questions
nity engagement to achieve liberation from psycholog- Our understanding of adult teaching and learning is
ical repression or social and political oppression is continually informed by a wide range of research in the
a recurring theme in adult teaching and learning. It is social sciences and humanities. The disciplines of psy-
most commonly identified with the concepts of chology and sociology have been strong influences,
“conscientization” (Freire 1974) and “transformative particularly in conceptualizing adulthood as both an
learning” (Mezirow and Associates 2000), but it is ontogenetic and social category. Issues of culture, self-
also a feature of some contemporary conceptions of hood, identity, and difference are continually being
critical pedagogy, action research, models of the learn- explored in adult teaching and learning alongside
ing process, and techniques of facilitation. Freire more psychological approaches having to do with
(1974) adopts the term “conscientization” to describe motivation, group processes, learning styles, and
the process whereby people come to understand that adult development. The research targeted directly at
their view of the world and their place in it (their adult teaching and learning tends to be more context
consciousness) is shaped by social and historical forces specific as educational researchers recognize the over-
which work against their own interests. “Conscien- whelming influence of context in understanding the
tization” leads to a critical awareness of the self as dynamics of particular programs.
a subject who can reflect and act upon the world in
order to transform it. Many commentators have noted Cross-References
the dominance of the concept of transformative learn- ▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy
ing in the adult education literature (Taylor 2007); in ▶ Collaborative Learning
doing so they invariably acknowledge the centrality of ▶ Experiential Learning
Mezirow’s (2000) ideas in shaping debate and research ▶ Self-Regulated Learning
in the area. Given that fundamental personal change is ▶ Transformational Learning
148 A Advance Organizer

References However, in a more general conceptualization, the

Brookfield, S. (2005). The power of critical thinking for adult teaching requirement of advance organizers being more abstract
and learning. New York: McGraw Hill. than the material they precede was abandoned (Corkill
Freire, P. (1974). Education: The practice of freedom. London: Writers 1992; Mayer 1979). In this more general sense, advance
and Readers.
organizers can be defined as relevant introductory
Knowles, M. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston:
Gulf Publishing. materials presented during the initial phase of instruc-
Mezirow, J., & Associates (Eds.). (2000). Learning as transformation: tion. Their main function is similar to the function
Critical perspectives on theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey- specified by Ausubel: to provide ideational scaffolding
Bass. for the stable integration and retention of the learning
Taylor, E. W. (2007). An update on transformative learning theory:
material provided. The scaffolding includes the activa-
a critical review of the empirical research (1999–2005). Interna-
tional Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 173–191.
tion of relevant prior knowledge, but also the activation
Tennant, M., & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult of cognitive and metacognitive processes that enable
years. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. meaningful learning. Examples of advance organizers
include introductory paragraphs, examples, concept
maps, videos, and classroom discussions of the main
themes in familiar terms.

Advance Organizer Theoretical Background

Ausubel’s view on the role of prior knowledge is sum-
JOHANNES GURLITT marized by the introductory statement to his book on
Department of Educational Science, University of educational psychology: “If I had to reduce all of edu-
Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany cational psychology to just one principle, I would say
this: The most important single factor influencing
learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain
Synonyms this and teach him accordingly,” (Ausubel 1968).
Anchoring framework; Conceptual framework Advance organizers are based on the idea that new
information is linked to relevant, preexisting cognitive
Definition structures and that both the newly acquired and the
Advance organizers are pedagogic devices that bridge preexisting structures are modified in the process. This
the gap between what learners already know and what interactional process forms the core of Ausubel’s assim-
learners need to know (Ausubel 1968, 2000). They were ilation theory (Ausubel 2000). The assimilation of new
first formally introduced by Ausubel in 1960 to test the information includes relating same-level concepts
hypothesis that learning of unfamiliar verbal material (combinatorial learning), generalization processes cre-
can be facilitated by the advance introduction of rele- ating new subsumers (superordinate learning), and
vant subsuming concepts. Ausubel (1968) defined anchoring a new idea below a higher-level anchoring
advance organizers as “appropriately relevant and idea (subsumption), with the new idea being either
inclusive introductory materials [. . .] introduced in a new example of the original higher-level concept, or
advance of learning [. . .] and presented at a higher an extension, modification, or qualification of an
level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness” existing higher-level anchoring idea. This is linked to
(Ausubel 1968, p. 148). Thus, according to Ausubel, Bartlett’s (1932) view of cognitive functioning. Bartlett,
advance organizers should be more abstract or general the “forerunner of cognitive psychology” (Mayer
than the following learning material. Therefore, the 1979), conceptualized a schema as an organizing and
Ausubelean advance organizers are different from ini- orienting attitude or affect. He theorized that a schema
tially presented more concrete instructional aids such results from the abstraction and articulation of past
as overviews and previews, as the Ausubelean orga- experience and influences the interpretation of incom-
nizers provide more abstract, inclusive, and general ing data. This is closely related to Ausubel’s concept of
subsumers than the more detailed learning material an anchoring idea. However, in the Ausubelean sense
they precede. the interpretative process is cognitive rather than
 Advance Organizer A 149

attitudinal in nature (for related information, see only be beneficial if the material is potentially mean- A
▶ Anticipatory Schema in this encyclopedia). There- ingful but rather unfamiliar for the learner so he/she
fore, advance organizers provide opportunities for does not automatically relate the to-be learned infor-
learners to start from a schema to connect new infor- mation to prior knowledge. If the learners relate the
mation to existing concepts. When incoming informa- new content to the appropriate prior knowledge auto-
tion contradicts existing information as, for example, matically, the advance organizer would be superfluous
in refutational texts, prior knowledge structures may be redundant. Concerning possible assessments of learn-
refined, differentiated, or adapted. ing, tests should measure knowledge integration, trans-
Two different strands of research on advance orga- fer, or long-term retention rather than memorization.
nizers can be outlined. The first strand centers on the
Ausubelean subsumption hypothesis that learning and Important Scientific Research and
retention of unfamiliar but potentially meaningful Open Questions
material can be facilitated by the advance presentation Research on advance organizers yielded mixed results.
of relevant more abstract, general, and inclusive Some researchers have suggested that the use of
concepts. Ausubel attributed positive effects on advance organizers has either limited or no effects on
(1) the selective mobilization of relevant higher order understanding and recall. For example, Barnes and
structures to establish a subsuming focus for the new Clawson (1975) used a “voting technique” to review
learning material and thus increase the tasks meaning- 32 studies in favor versus against facilitative effects of
fulness and (2) the facilitation of an “optimal anchor- advance organizers. Finding more statistically nonsig-
age” below relevant and subsuming concepts. Ausubel nificant than statistically significant and facilitative
distinguished between expository and comparative effects, they concluded that organizers, as reviewed,
advance organizers: Expository advance organizers do not facilitate learning. From a methodological
provide an overview of the to-be studied concepts point of view, Luiten et al. (1980) correctly pointed
and should be used for relatively unfamiliar material. out that voting techniques do not take into account
They serve the purpose of providing relevant proximate positive effects that failed to reach significance and thus
subsumers that form a basis for superordinate connec- are biased against favorable findings. Proposing the
tions with the new learning material. Comparative more sophisticated meta-analysis method and analyz-
advance organizers can be used if learners possess ing 135 studies about advance organizers, he concluded
prior knowledge of a related topic. For example, if the that the average advance organizer has a small, but
to-be presented learning material is about major con- facilitative effect on immediate and delayed measures
cepts of information processing in human memory, of knowledge acquisition in different content areas,
a comparative advance organizer could be about the grade, and ability levels. From a theoretical point of
main concepts of memory in computers (assuming the view, Mayer (1979) analyzed 44 studies on advance
respective learners have prior knowledge about mem- organizers and considered whether the material was
ory components in computers) and later explicitly lacking a basic assimilative context or/and whether
compare and contrast similarities and differences. the advance organizer was likely to provide an assimi-
The second strand rests on the more general lative context. Refuting the conclusion of the Barnes
conceptualization of advance organizers including and Clawson (1975) review, Mayer explained the
concrete examples and discussions of the main themes absence of beneficial effects with the absence of specific
in familiar terms (e.g., Mayer 1979) and thus does not conditions that have to be met so advance organizers
limit advance organizers to more abstract, general, and can live up to their potential. Explanations included
inclusive concepts. Building on the idea that learning too short durations of advance organizer presentation,
involves relating new, potentially meaningful material advance organizers that seemed not enough related to
to existing knowledge, Mayer predicted the following the to-be learned material, procedures that included
conditions when and how advance organizers should tutors that provided individual remediation and thus
unfold their potential: The advance organizer should possible anchors, and learning material that consisted
provide or locate a meaningful context and encourage mainly of facts. He also pointed out that many advance
learners to use that context during learning. This can organizer studies that compared a group with an
150 A Advance Organizer

advance organizer to a control group that received Concluding, empirical evidence supports the theo-
either a control passage or nothing failed to control retical consideration that providing an anchoring
the information equivalency requirement and thus left framework in general facilitates learning. However,
the nature of the effect unclear. Studies that included the large amount of statistically nonsignificant results
advance organizers and similar organizers after study- reported by Barnes and Clawson (1975) points to the
ing the learning material (postorganizers) indicated fact that it is not easy to reach positive effects on
that the effect is rather at encoding than at retrieval. learning. Thus, interactions between the advance orga-
Studies that included a variation in the familiarity or nizer, the learning material, and learner characteristics
organization of the learning material indicated that have to be considered. For example, advance organizers
advance organizers were more beneficial for poorly cannot be useful if the to-be learned content is mainly a
organized and rather unfamiliar (e.g., technical) mate- collection of disconnected facts without a unifying
rial. In addition, advance organizers had stronger organization, or if learners do not need or use the
effects on conceptual posttest questions and on transfer advance organizer to connect new information with
than on recall. Studies also indicated interactions with relevant prior knowledge.
learner characteristics, favoring the use of advance Open questions include whether differently struc-
organizers for low-knowledge and low-ability students. tured advance organizers, including similar concepts,
However, other reviews do not support the latter lead to different learning outcomes (for related empir-
conclusion, for example the review from Luiten et al. ical studies see ▶ Concept Maps in this encyclopedia).
(1980) indicated that high-ability participants had an Related, it remains an open question whether advance
average effect size almost twice that of low-ability organizers only work through the selective mobiliza-
participants. One possible explanation is that many tion of selected concepts that are most likely part of the
studies failed to consider carefully the range of learning learner’s prior knowledge or whether advance orga-
material and posttest item difficulties. For example, nizers may also elicit specific processes that lead to
if the posttest items are too easy for many high- a deeper processing of the material provided. In addi-
knowledge or high-ability learners, no differences can tion, there has been ample research on text-based orga-
be found between those learning with an advance orga- nizers introducing simple, paragraph-long texts, but
nizer and those learning without one. Reviewing 30 a lack of research on more global text-adjuncts (e.g.,
experiments about advance organizers written in par- concept maps) that are most likely especially useful for
agraph form, Corkill (1992, p. 61) similarly concluded complex hypermedia material. Last, it remains an open
that “statements suggesting that the efficacy of advance question how long the initial phase of learning should
organizers has yet to be determined seem inappropri- be in prototypical settings.
ate.” Above and beyond, Corkill pointed out that we
cannot assume that subjects attend to an advance orga- Cross-References
nizer just because one is available, thus emphasizing ▶ Assimilation Theory of Learning
that additional guidance or specific tasks may be neces- ▶ Ausubel, David P.
sary for some groups of learners. Examples of such tasks ▶ Concept Maps
are paraphrasing or writing about how the advance ▶ Elaboration
organizer relates to prior knowledge. This relates to ▶ Schema Theory
the general point that a deep processing of the advance
organizer is necessary to facilitate beneficial effects. References
Corkill also presented evidence that concrete advance Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New
organizers can outperform abstract advance organizers York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
in a direct comparison. Extending the advance orga- Ausubel, D. P. (2000). The acquisition and retention of knowledge:
A cognitive view. Boston, MA: Kluwer.
nizer versus postorganizer debate, Corkill indicated that
Barnes, B. R., & Clawson, E. U. (1975). Do advance organizers
presenting or paraphrasing an advance organizer prior facilitate learning? Recommendations for further research based
to reading and having access to the organizer at recall on an analysis of 32 studies. Review of Educational Research,
may further facilitate long-term retention. 45, 637.
 Advanced Distributed Learning A 151

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social assistance for making decisions and solving problems.
psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press (Reissued,
A
A fundamental assumption in ADL is that education,
1995.).
training, and performance aiding can and should be
Corkill, A. J. (1992). Advance organizers: Facilitators of recall.
Educational Psychology Review, 4, 33–67. generated from the same underlying knowledge base
Luiten, J., Ames, W., & Ackerson, G. (1980). A meta-analysis of the and delivered on the same computer platform.
effects of advance organizers on learning and retention. American “Distributed” draws on an analogy with distributed
Educational Research Journal, 17(2), 211–218. computer networks in which every node is capable of
Mayer, R. (1979). Twenty years of research on advance organizers:
delivering key services needed to achieve a common
Assimilation theory is still the best predictor of results. Instruc-
tional Science, 8, 133–167. goal. “Distributed” signifies learning that can be
provided in classrooms with a teacher present, in the
field linking together widely dispersed teachers and
students, and standing alone with no teacher present
other than the computer platform and its software. In
Advanced Distributed Learning the ADL sense, “Distributed” is not just another word
for distance instruction.
J. D. FLETCHER “Advanced” in ADL implies affordable, interactive,
Science and Technology Division, Institute for Defense and adaptive learning. ADL relies on computer tech-
Analyses, Alexandria, VA, USA nology for affordable, scalable delivery. An army of
highly trained tutors, mentors, and advisors could
accomplish delivery of ADL services, but it would not
Synonyms be affordable. Costs would rise linearly with every user.
Corporate eLearning; Distributed learning model By contrast, once a capability is captured by computer
technology, it scales up readily – it can be delivered to
Definition a very large number of users with relatively small incre-
Although Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) is mental costs.
often associated with a United States Department of Researchers have emphasized the lack of individual
Defense (DoD) initiative, it is also a wide-ranging, interactivity in classrooms, its importance in learning,
scientific, and technical objective that is not tied to and its ready availability through the use of computer
any agency or organization. In the broadest sense, its technology (e.g., Fletcher et al. 2007; Graesser et al.
intent is to provide universal access to high-quality 2011). A goal of ADL is to make widely available the
education, training, and performance/decision aiding intense, immersive interactivity that characterizes
available on-demand, anytime and anywhere. This effective technology-based instruction and that has
objective has stimulated numerous research and proven its value in enhancing learner achievement
development efforts. Because the objective can only and motivation.
be practicably achieved through the use of technology, ADL objectives further emphasize adaptive learn-
ADL keys on applications of the continuing, rapid ing. If learning is not tailored to the needs of individual
development of computer technology, communica- learners, it will be of limited utility and effectiveness. It
tions, and networking. has long been recognized that tailoring instruction to
the needs, abilities, goals, interests, and even values of
Theoretical Background each student is critical for its effectiveness. Individual-
The words “Advanced,” “Distributed,” and “Learning” ization was early characterized as an educational imper-
each covers a range of capabilities. ative and an economic impossibility (Scriven 1975).
“Learning” in ADL is used as a catchall designator A key argument for using learning technology is
for education, training, and performance aiding. Edu- that it can deliver advice and instruction that is not
cation and training both seek to provide individuals only interactive and individualized, but also affordable.
with new, relatively long-lasting abilities. By contrast, Although often neglected, individualization is as criti-
performance aiding provides relatively short-term cal in performance and decision aiding as it is in
152 A Advanced Distributed Learning

instruction. If advice is not tailored so that individual infrastructure (currently manifest in the World Wide
problem solvers can understand it, it will be of little use. Web with its multifarious search engines), modular
ADL is contributing to what may be a third major object-oriented software architectures, Web 2.0 tech-
revolution in education, training, and performance nologies, and natural language processing. Given cur-
aiding. The first of these revolutions arose from the rent technological developments this future seems
development of writing, which made the content of inevitable. The emergence of wikis, blogs, instant mes-
learning accessible without requiring direct access to saging, and chat rooms adds another capability that
a sage, mentor, or subject matter expert. The second enables geographically dispersed students to collect
revolution arose from the development of moveable information and collaborate in a collegial fashion to
type and mass-produced books, which, in time, made solve problems, form opinions, and discuss all matters
the content of learning not just accessible but great and small. Lessons, simulations, and tests can still
affordable. be downloaded, but instructional, one-on-one dia-
Finally, computer technology is making most, if not logues between students and individual instructors,
the whole, of human learning universally accessible and mentors, or experts, computer and human, are becom-
affordable, but it is also doing the same for the adaptive ing increasingly likely. All this activity suggests that
interactions of effective learning environments. It is we are racing into an anytime-anywhere distributed
evolving to a future, envisioned by researchers in the learning future.
1960s (e.g., Uttal 1962) and pursued into the present The ADL vision is that a device delivering these
(e.g., Graesser et al. in press), in which education, capabilities will be portable, small enough to be carried
training, and performance aiding do not take place in a shirt pocket or worn as a personal accessory or even
solely through prefabricated lessons but are primarily as clothing. At present PDAs, laptops, mobile tele-
accomplished in the form of guided, natural language phones on steroids, and other computing capabilities
conversations. Learners and the computer in this future are beginning to serve as reliable sources of these learn-
will engage in dialogues not unlike those used for the ing capabilities, presaging their further development.
first 100,000 years or so of human existence. Some of the progress needed to achieve ADL objec-
Although not widely found, computer dialogues of tives will be independent of ADL activities. For
this sort have been available since the 1970s (e.g., Brown instance, the market-driven race to imbue computer
et al. 1982). This capability may provide an Aristotle for technology with natural language understanding
every Alexander, and a Mark Hopkins for the rest of us. should ensure development of affordable, mobile,
In addition to restoring guided dialogues as the pri- conversation-capable computing. Moore’s Law, which
mary mode for human learning, a common thread anticipates a doubling of computing power, with
through all three revolutions is the ADL objective of shrinking size and cost, every 18 months, will continue
making learning accessible, on demand, anytime and in effect for at least the next 10 years and probably
anywhere. longer. It should ensure availability of the devices
More specifically, ADL envisions a future in which needed for ADL.
users (learners and problem solvers) have full access to Conversely, some efforts specifically intended to
the global information infrastructure. This view keys achieve ADL objectives have utility beyond ADL. For
on three main components: (1) a global information instance, if objects are going to be collected from the
infrastructure fully populated by sharable instructional global information infrastructure for use by different
objects; (2) servers that locate and then assemble the individuals using different computer platforms, they
appropriate instructional objects into relevant learning will need to operate in whatever computer platform
materials; and (3) devices that serve as personal learn- and environment they find themselves. Objects drawn
ing associates by delivering these materials to individ- from the global infrastructure must be portable (able to
uals and teams (Fletcher et al. 2007). operate across many computer platforms), durable
This objective is a fairly straightforward extrapola- (despite modifications in underlying systems soft-
tion from such present capabilities as portable, increas- ware), reusable (operating within different application
ingly accessible computing, the global information programs), and accessible (locatable by all who seek
 Advanced e-Learning Technologies A 153

them). Specifications for achieving the first three of objective is just one component, will effect major A
these objectives have been made by the DoD ADL changes in the roles and functions of our existing
initiative with its Sharable Content Objects Reference instructional institutions and the way we staff, orga-
Model (SCORM). The DoD ADL initiative also joined nize, administer, and even fund them. What should the
with the Corporation for National Research Initiatives roles and responsibilities of these institutions be when
to develop the Content Object Repository Registration/ learning becomes ubiquitously available on demand?
Resolution Architecture (CORDRA), a system of reg- Technology and research for learning are proceeding
istries for objects that make them globally visible while apace. They present substantive but solvable challenges
ensuring control by their developers over access to that are being met with steady, discernable progress.
them (Fletcher et al. 2007). SCORM and CORDRA The administrative issues also need and deserve serious
have application for the management of any digital attention from all those concerned with learning. They
objects – well beyond the instructional objects they are currently receiving less attention, but they may
focus on. prove to be the most difficult and intractable challenges
for ADL and its objectives.
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions Cross-References
A critical element in this scheme is the server, which ▶ Adaptive Blended Learning Environments
will collect and assemble material on demand and in ▶ Advanced Learning Technologies
real time. This material will be tailored to the needs, ▶ Classification of Learning Objects
capabilities, intentions, and learning state of each indi- ▶ Distance Learning
vidual or group of individuals. Today, much of the ▶ Distributed Learning Environments
work of the server may be accomplished by ▶ Technology-Based Learning
“middleware” in the form of learning management
systems (LMSs). Within ADL, the term LMS implies References
a server-based environment that provides the intelli- Brown, J. S., Burton, R. R., & DeKleer, J. (1982). Pedagogical, natural
gence for delivering appropriate, individualized learn- language and knowledge engineering in SOPHIE I, II, and III.
In D. Sleeman & J. S. Brown (Eds.), Intelligent tutoring systems
ing content to students. LMSs are expected to
(pp. 227–282). New York: Academic.
determine what material to deliver, when, and to
Fletcher, J. D., Tobias, S., & Wisher, R. L. (2007). Learning anytime,
track student progress. However, the role of LMSs anywhere: Advanced distributed learning and the changing face
continues to evolve. In the future, they may be “fat” of education. Educational Researcher, 36(2), 96–102.
or “thin,” performing many or very few of these activ- Graesser, A. C., D’Mello, S. K., & Cade, W. (2011). Instruction based
ities. Their proper role remains an empirical issue. on tutoring. In R. E. Mayer & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of
research on learning and instruction (pp. 408–426). New York:
Research in technology-based instruction that
Routledge.
began in the 1960s will continue to evolve the models Scriven, M. (1975). Problems and prospects for individualization.
of learners, subject matter, and instructional strategies In H. Talmage (Ed.), Systems of individualized education
needed to develop the techniques needed to individu- (pp. 199–210). Berkeley: McCutchan.
alize instruction and realize this instructional impera- Uttal, W. R. (1962). On conversational interaction. In J. E. Coulson
(Ed.), Programmed learning and computer-based instruction
tive – affordably. One key capability needed to achieve
(pp. 171–190). New York: Wiley.
the ADL objective is to integrate these models with the
on-demand assembly of instructional objects to pro-
duce relevant and effective learning materials. Devel-
opment of this capability is the current, most pressing
challenge for ADL researchers. Advanced e-Learning
Another serious challenge for ADL does not involve Technologies
research on learning as much as management of
change. As described by Fletcher et al. (2007), the ▶ Remote Laboratory Experiments in Virtual
overall developmental capabilities, of which the ADL Immersive Learning Environments
154 A Advanced Learning Technologies

technologies and settings to be studied and developed

Advanced Learning within human learning scenarios – the experimental
Technologies approach – the last, enabling scientific progress both in
Informatics and in Psychology of human learning.
STEFANO A. CERRI
LIRMM: Laboratory of Informatics, Robotics and Theoretical Background
Microelectronics, University Montpellier2 & CNRS, Advanced Learning Technologies may be described and
Montpellier Cedex 5, France classified according to different criteria, such as their
historical development (from the PLATO – TICCIT
investments in the 1960s in the US, to current wikis,
Synonyms semantic web and social networks) or their links with
Artificial intelligence in education; Intelligent tutoring disciplinary works (Informatics, Psychology, Pedagogy,
systems; Learning environments; Technology enhanced etc.). Each and all these classifications are widely avail-
learning able already (▶ ITS: Intelligent Tutoring Systems or
▶ AI in Ed: Artificial Intelligence in Education or
Definition IEEE ICALT: International Conference on Advanced
Advanced Learning Technologies (ALTs) are artifacts Learning Technologies). What seems to us interesting
(technologies) that enable, support, or enhance human here is to present a couple of new criteria that may offer
learning, emerging from the most recent advances a frame of reference for the years to come. Classifica-
available in both areas. There are nowadays two real tion criteria should be now different because we are
challenges to be faced when trying to outline in detail facing a totally different world that is globally
this definition of ALTs as a meaningful, full-fledged connected through the Web where the role of ICTs
state of the art of the key concepts for future use, not becomes primary for science, education, and any socio-
just an historical overview of socio-technical economic domain. In this sense, most of the remarks in
approaches. The main technical challenge is due to this article are intertwined with the ones in the Web
the unprecedented speed of innovation that we notice Science one. The core observation is that on the current
in Information and Communication Technologies: Web, humans are both consumers and producers of
ICTs; in particular: the Web. The educational challenge Information and of Services, i.e., they have
is a consequence of the technical one. An account of a bidirectional access to the Web. Differently said, the
educational uses of technologies has to consider the modern Web consists of some billions of machines and
impact of ICT innovation onto unexpected changes of connected people. In this context, previous defini-
in human practices in any domain, modifying substan- tions are challenged; for instance the classical distinc-
tially the classical human learning cycle that since the tion between technologies and humans (artificial and
nineteenth century was mainly considered to be human autonomous agents) needs to be revisited.
managed within formal teaching institutions such as Reflecting on each word on turn: let us start with
the schools. Therefore, our interpretation of advanced Technologies. It is to be debated if current Information
will be in the sense of dynamic, experimental, to be and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are just tech-
implemented and evaluated in order to limit the risk nologies in the traditional term (artificial tools, arti-
that what we describe today as advanced will be con- facts that facilitate the human for the achievement of
sidered obsolete in a few months. This vision of ALTs, his/her goals) or rather, represent the modeling sub-
however, does not underestimate the interest for strate of current and future reality. For instance: social
a reasoned analysis of past experiences. On the one networks are just tools or – by including the millions of
side this analysis will guide us to avoid well-known humans connected – are they a new natural phenom-
pitfalls, on the other it will teach us lessons not only enon, as it is envisaged in the Web Science view? In the
about how to exploit the potential learning effects of latter hypothesis: where is the equilibrium between
current advanced technologies – the applicative a vision such that humans exploit technologies for
approach – but also how to envision, elicit, estimate, their superior needs and the dual one: technologies
evaluate the potential promising effects of new influence humans in their behavior, an issue that may
 Advanced Learning Technologies A 155

be classified under the topic of coadaptation? Are these of humans in open participatory learning infrastruc- A
technologies applications of previously defined princi- tures – serendipitous mashups foster creative integration
ples and design rules or rather do they emerge as the (Eisenstadt 2007). Anyway, the classical concepts of
evolution of a kind of natural selection process among ICT products optimizing the acquisition of knowledge
thousands of options available? and skills by interactive training are challenged by more
In this reflection, the contributions of Eileen modern concepts of peer-to-peer services adapting to
Scanlon and Tim O’Shea (2007) and Marc Eisenstadt the partner’s needs and collaborating in social networks
(2007) are a splendid synthesis of the last 40 years of in order to facilitate learning. More often as before,
research, developments, and practical those modern socio-technical scenarios enable human
implementations; successes and failures, directions to learning that otherwise would be impossible to
go and pitfalls to avoid. The main conclusions are that conceive, so that the administrator’s right question
we now have new topologies for learning which have no becomes more what would happen if we do not use
direct analogues in past educational practice (Scanlon technologies for learning as the traditional question:
and O’Shea 2007) . . . and the essence of the problem is why should we use them?
that new-tech disguising old ideas is almost certainly Thirdly, we are interested in learning technologies in
doomed to failure. Learning Management Systems and the sense of human learning. However, we know very
Learning Objects, for example, despite the noble inten- little about human learning. The relation teaching-
tions of many protagonists, can in fact conceal learning (effects of teaching) is not always clear (see,
neobehaviourist drill-and-practice thinking (Eisenstadt e.g., the no significant difference phenomenon Web site:
2007). http://www.nosignificantdifference.org/). We are fac-
The subsequent word to be examined is advanced. ing a kind of dichotomy between a natural process
This is rather self-explaining; however, the meaning (human learning) and the practice supposed to facili-
of the word concerns more likely the exploratory tate it (teaching). The opposition is similar to the one
nature of the infrastructures, tools, and practical of biology versus medicine: practicing medicine is not
implementations that one wishes to consider for worth unless the patient is healed. Similarly, the only
enabling, supporting, or enhancing human learning. interest of teaching is in its effects: that learners indeed
The issue is not so superficial, knowing that often learn. Medicine is an art while biology is a natural
people do not consider that the introduction of tech- science; we will never better our practices in medicine
nologies in human life, particularly in Education or unless we better understand the underlying biological
Learning, implies a profound modification of the phenomena concerned. For those reasons, it is impor-
human behavior. In principle, radical changes are tant to admit that technologies for teaching do not
regarded with suspect by the key actors. In our case, necessarily imply better or different learning. A vision
students (learners) are usually ready to accept, while of human learning may have a substantial influence on
teachers and administrators resist to the introduction the priorities to attribute to the development of tech-
of changes as most professionals often do with respect nologies for learning, the most radical difference being
to innovation (other historical examples being technol- the one between behaviorism, constructivism and
ogies for health or for the legal professions). Therefore, social constructivism which are treated extensively
advanced suggests a life cycle of innovation that cares elsewhere in this encyclopedia.
for an experimental part: similar to a spiral (software
development) approach based on trial and error as Important Scientific Research and
opposed to the waterfall one, in order to motivate and Open Questions
convince the actors of their own interest to adopt The most important scientific research question con-
changes in their practice. No major change in the cerns which discipline profits from the success of the
work practice will ever occur if it is not preceded by interdisciplinary projects in ALTs. These profit from
an experimentation that puts the actors and their disciplinary competences of humans, and may produce
motivation and awareness at the center of the imple- advances in each discipline but in quite different pro-
mentation itself. Some authors even reverse the argu- portions according to the choices made in the goals,
mentation by proposing to exploit the proactivity plans etc., adopted for the research process. In making
156 A Advanced Learning Technologies

progress in ALT, does one produce advances in under- opposite side, TICCIT was an early example of pure
standing learning, thus improving as a side-effect exploitation of the television for distance education
teaching practices, or rather the technologies experi- with no real ambitions of advances in technologies.
mentally developed in educational or learning scenar- In the case of ALTs, the most important advances
ios are significant for progress in Informatics? One of concerned with modeling human learning have been
the most interesting paradigm shifts in current Web obtained as a consequence of the need to tune (or
Technologies and Web Science is that new usage- adapt) interactions to individual learners. As Artificial
centered business processes do require to introduce Intelligence has demonstrated, modeling complex nat-
interoperability among machines and people but ural phenomena implies understanding them better. In
reuse old technologies. Another is that social software the case of learner modeling, it means understanding
success is hardly to be forecasted and may not be stable, better human learning. The domain of learner model-
will rather be dynamic, evolving, and volatile. So it is ing, opened by the foundational work of John Self
the case for the learning effect of informal learning (1974) has been at the core of years of quite profound
situations such as those offered by the Web. The accep- research of generic impact for human–computer inter-
tance is also variable with the age: digital natives behave action, where models have represented human compe-
differently as digital immigrants independently from tence, human skills and, more recently, human
their role of students, teachers, or administrators. emotions and personality traits. Adaptable interfaces
Within this totally new framework, the real open are now among the top priorities of any modern ICT
question concerns what are the established principles application.
that we may assume as valid and how to progress. However, the fundamental question on ALTs still
For instance, in the Bioinformatics of genome it is remains, after more than 50 years of research and
well known that the main effect is a progress in under- practice. The question is if ALTs are concerned with
standing the genome; minor effects though exists in the a more efficient production of teaching material by
availability of efficient algorithms for generic purposes using technologies, as it was the case for the CAI
(advances in Informatics). The opposite case considers (Computer-Assisted Instruction or its synonyms) that
the business domain (human learning in our case) as basically attempt to mimic the schoolteacher in trans-
a scenario for the elicitation of new ideas (not as an mitting content and examining the acquisition of the
application domain): an example being the seminal subject matter, or rather are called for stimulating
work done by Alan Kay around the Dynabook as well learning by dialogue and interaction in any area (learn-
as Smalltalk in the early 1970s. Fundamental advances ing environments), such as it is the case for (serious)
in Informatics research (the personal computer, the games, social networks, communities where learning
first real object oriented programming language, the may occur as a side effect of social interaction. In order
window interface, the integrated environment includ- to have once more a direct answer, one may refer to the
ing the language and the interface, etc.) emerged from arguments of one of the pioneers: John Seely Brown.
observations about the needs of children (the dynamic Related to this question, the distinction is sometimes
book; the small talk for small children) with an enor- made between formal and informal learning. In the
mous impact in the 40 following years. Similarly, the first case, today’s focus is ontologies (the intensional
PLATO system conceived in the 1960s by Don Bitzer representation of concepts and relations for reasoning,
and Paul Tenczar for military and educational purposes problem solving, and search), instructional design and
was a precursor of many currently used generic inter- experiments on the learning effects due to teaching
active technologies: the PLASMA flat 512 512 dot strategies. In the second case the issues are interaction
graphic display with images superimposed projected design, dialogue management and the evaluation of the
from a microfiche of color slides; an operating system success by other parameters such as motivation, impli-
with a kind of virtualization of student’s variables, cation in social networks, and professional impact
enabling in the 1970s the remote access of up to 1,000 of the actors. It is certain that both approaches are
simultaneous users, the TERM-TALK option for chat- synergic to one another.
ting, the interactive TUTOR programming language While Artificial Intelligence may pervade each of
that later became TENCORE for PCs, etc. On the the approaches, it does it in very different ways. In
 Adventure Learning A 157

order to understand how pioneers paved the way for Cross-References A

radical changes in the research and practice on ALTs, we ▶ Interactive Learning Services
refer to the inspiring paper of Jaime Carbonnell (1970): ▶ Learning as a Side Effect
the notion of mixed initiative dialogue has introduced ▶ Social Network Analysis and the Learning Sciences
a shift in the conception of classical, previous educa- ▶ Web Science
tional software (such as the one produced on PLATO)
by requiring the automated tutor to understand the References
learner’s question, needs, and statement. While in the Carbonell, J. R. (1970). AI in CAI: An artificial-intelligence approach
beginning this was supposed to require just some nat- to computer-assisted instruction. IEEE Transactions on Man-
ural language software able to recognize WH- questions, Machine Systems, 11(4), 190–202.
Cerri, S. A., Gouardères, G., & Nkambou, R. (Eds.) (2005). Learning
later the approach opened the research agenda on user
GRID services. Applied Artificial Intelligence Journal – Special
models and, in general, on dialogues including models Issue, 19, 9–10.
of the pragmatics of conversations such as those typical Eisenstadt, M. (2007). Does elearning have to be so awful? (time to
of modern Agent Communication Languages (perfor- mashup or shutup). In J. M. Spector, D. G. Sampson, Toshio
matives, speech acts). Okamoto, Kinshuk, S. A. Cerri, Maomi Ueno, Akihiro Kashihara
(Eds.). Proceedings of the 7th IEEE International Conference on
As a conclusion, ALTs are at the core of questions
Advanced Learning Technologies, ICALT 2007 (pp. 6–10). Wash-
and answers that have challenged informaticians since ington, DC: IEEE Computer Society.
the 1960s. ALTs have historically been prototypical for Ritrovato, P., Cerri, S. A., Salerno, S., Gaeta, M., Allison, C., &
most innovations in interaction models and technolo- Dimitrakos, T. (Eds.). (2005). Towards the learning grid – Advances
gies as well as, nowadays, in interactive, multi-centric, in human learning services. Frontiers in artificial intelligence and
heterogeneous, asynchronously communicating ser- applications (127th ed.). Amsterdam: IOS.
Scanlon, E., & O’Shea, T. (2007). New educational technology models
vice-oriented business (learning) processes (Cerri
for social and personal computing. In J. M. Spector, D. G.
et al. 2005; Ritrovato et al. 2005). In its essence, the Sampson, Toshio Okamoto, Kinshuk, S. A. Cerri, Maomi Ueno,
question concerns how to design interactions suitable to Akihiro Kashihara (Eds.): Proceedings of the 7th IEEE Interna-
have effects on a human partner in conversations where tional Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, ICALT
the meaning of design is far from the rigid definition of 2007 (pp. 11–14). Washington, DC: IEEE Computer Society.
Self, J. A. (1974). Student Models in Computer-Aided Instruction.
classical workflow and more in the sense of exploiting
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 6(2), 261–276.
open interactions for enhancing learning. This scien-
tific question fits well with very modern issues (service-
oriented computing: semantics, processes, agents).
A service is different from a product in the sense that
it is produced on the fly when required by the con- Advanced Resource Classrooms
sumer (dynamic) and its effectiveness is measured by
the consumer’s satisfaction, not just by its intrinsic ▶ High Performance Learning Spaces
performances. This recent paradigm shift in Informat-
ics fits better with the above mentioned concepts of
conversations among autonomous agents (such as
teachers, learners, or other actors in the community Adventure Learning
of practice) where the dimension of heterogeneity of
knowledge, competence, skills and motivation, the dis- GEORGE VELETSIANOS
tribution of resources and interests, the asynchronous Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
communication channels and patterns, the coexistence Instructional Technology, College of Education,
of artificial and human agents in the collaborative Austin, TX, USA
efforts, the ubiquity of bidirectional access worldwide
ought to be considered components of a Web Science
scenario where learning occurs everywhere at any time Definition
rather than classical ICT products in a traditional class- Adventure learning is an approach used to design
room equipped with some computers. online and hybrid education that provides students
158 A Adventure Learning

with opportunities to investigate and experience ● A researched curriculum that is inquiry-based

authentic topics within collaborative learning environ- ● Opportunities for collaboration and interaction
ments. Adventure learning environments and oppor- between learners, instructors, and experts
tunities can take one of two forms: ● Use of the Internet to facilitate the learning experi-
ence, including the delivery of the curriculum,
1. A team of individuals goes on an exploratory expe-
delivery of the media, and interaction between the
dition of a topic of interest. The expedition is
individuals partaking in the experience
adventure-based and occurs outdoors, at
● Timely delivery of media and text from the field to
a location that allows meaningful investigation of
enhance the curriculum
the topic of interest. For example, to explore
● Synchronized learning opportunities
a community’s flora, a team could kayak the length
● The provision of pedagogical guidelines to guide
of a local river to investigate local plants. The team
curricular and online learning environment use for
can then share media from the trail, along with
the instructor to effectively implement an adven-
findings and observations on an online learning
ture learning project
environment. At the same time, instructors and
● Adventure-based education to elicit excitement as
learners study the topic via an inquiry-based cur-
a result of the risk, danger, uncertainty, and hazard
riculum and through the online learning environ-
inherent in the adventure
ment. The learners interact with the explorers and
● Authentic narrative. The learning experience is
with other experts who provide input and insight
based on an authentic story/narrative that (a)
on the learners’ investigations. The data from the
unifies the expedition, curriculum, student activi-
trail and the opportunities for collaboration/inter-
ties, media, and learning experience under
action are synchronized with the learning activities
a common purpose and theme, and (b) serves to
that occur in the classroom.
encourage creativity and enjoyable learning
2. Teams of instructors and learners go on an explor-
experiences
atory expedition of a topic of interest. The expedi-
● Identification of a location and issue to explore
tion is adventure-based and occurs outdoors, at
(including investigation of the contextual factors
a location that allows meaningful investigation of
surrounding the location and issue)
the topic of interest. For example, to investigate
social inequality, the team may visit a city’s down-
Theoretical Background
town area to collect authentic data (e.g., photo-
Adventure learning is rooted in the socio-constructivist
graphs). The team’s observations, data, and
school of thought. In this perspective, individuals learn
findings are then shared on an online learning envi-
in social settings, through their interactions, collabora-
ronment. The topic is studied with the support of an
tion, and negotiation of meaning and understanding
inquiry-based curriculum and with the support of
with each other. Within this theory, learning becomes
other individuals who may contribute knowledge on
a negotiated process, and the roles of learners and
the topic. For instance, experts may be invited to
instructors shift. Specifically, learners are seen as
a videoconference to answer student questions. At
being active and legitimate participants, with the ability
the same time, instructors and learners in other
to make valuable contributions to the learning process.
classrooms can study the same topic and collaborate
Over time, as learners gain greater and more diverse
with others on the same online learning environ-
knowledge and understanding, they also become able
ment. These classrooms can (a) conduct their own
to assist and scaffold their peers. In turn, instructors are
local exploration of the issue, share their findings/
seen as guides, facilitators, supporters, aggregators, and
observations, and use the findings/data/observations
connectors.
from other classes, or (b) use the authentic findings/
Adventure learning embraces this concept of learn-
data/observations provided by other classes.
ing within a technology-rich context. In adventure
The design of adventure learning environments is learning environments, learners collaboratively inves-
grounded on the following principles (c.f. Doering tigate real-world issues and negotiate solutions to
2006; The Learning Technologies Collaborative 2010): posed problems, contribute their knowledge and
 Adventure Learning A 159

understanding of the studied issues, and support each Important Scientific Research and A
other in this process. Instructors and other experts Open Questions
scaffold student inquiry and assist learners in their Adventure learning is a relatively new development in
investigation of the topic. the field, as the first report delineating the approach
Finally, adventure learning is further informed by described above appeared in 2006 (Doering 2006).
four theoretical constructs, summarized below, but Since then, researchers have sought to operationalize
also cross-referenced within this volume (see section the adventure learning construct (e.g., The Learning
“Cross-References”): Technologies Collaborative 2010), while also synthesiz-
ing empirical research on the topic so as to push the
● Experiential learning. In adventure learning pro-
field forward (Veletsianos and Kleanthous 2009). It is
jects, learners are involved in the experience
important to note that since adventure learning is an
through observation of and participation in the
approach for the design of online and hybrid educa-
expedition, reflection, engagement with real data
tion, research on the topic is conducted within the
(e.g., videos posted on the online learning
context of ecologically valid learning environments
environment), and analysis. These activities
designed for specific purposes. Results from these
help learners create knowledge from their
investigations have indicated that the approach has
experience.
fostered student interest, motivation, and engagement
● Inquiry-based learning. Adventure learning curric-
(e.g., Doering and Veletsianos 2008a), has been flexible
ula and experiences are grounded in inquiry where
enough to enable multifaceted adoption within class-
learners seek answers to their own questions, for-
rooms (Doering and Veletsianos 2008a), and has
mulate hypotheses, design investigations to test
enabled learners to engage in inquiry-based practices
their hypotheses, and evaluate the results of their
that have been memorable and captivating (e.g.,
investigations. Evaluation in adventure learning
learners in a study conducted by Doering and
projects occurs within collaborative settings where
Veletsianos 2008b, reported that they discussed their
learners, instructors, and other experts discuss and
learning with their parents and parents asked teachers
reflect on findings.
to continue using the adventure learning projects in
● Authentic learning. Adventure learning experiences
their teaching). These results have also been observed
focus on a diverse set of authentic (or real-world)
in a long-term study of the approach (Veletsianos and
processes, data, and experiences. These range from
Doering 2010). The long-term investigation of the
engagement with real-world issues that are
approach (ibid) also noted that the social and partici-
complex (e.g., studying socio-scientific issues of
patory nature of the learning experience enabled stu-
global concern such as environmental degrada-
dents to develop a sense of community, while the
tion), to using real-world data (e.g., snow sam-
unfolding narrative of the approach assisted in medi-
ples). Within these investigations, learners enact
ating learning and engagement.
practices that are also authentic and include
While the adventure learning (AL) approach pro-
interacting and collaborating with others, engag-
vides much promise for the design and development of
ing with multiple perspectives, and reaching
powerful learning environments and experiences, there
diverse solutions to problems that do not encom-
is also much scope for scholarly contributions to
pass single solutions.
enhance the AL construct. The following areas may
● Open-ended learning environments. Adventure
yield important insights into the adventure learning
learning environments are instances of open-
approach and need to be addressed by future research:
ended learning environments. These are online
environments that support individual learner par- ● To what extent is the adventure learning model
ticipation, flexibility, and control. Open-ended applicable to higher education, out-of-school set-
learning environments are student-centered in tings, and diverse content areas? Most research to
that they do not impose a uniform and specific date has been conducted within the context of
learning sequence, and do not focus on specific socio-scientific investigations in K-12 schools.
content/goals (Hannafin et al. 1994). Research on environments and implementations
160 A Adversarial Growth

outside of K-12 may yield valuable insight with The Learning Technologies Collaborative. (2010). “Emerging”: A re-
regards to the effectiveness, complexities, and conceptualization of contemporary technology design and inte-
gration. In G. Veletsianos (Ed.), Emerging technologies in distance
adaptability of the approach in diverse settings.
education (pp. 91–107). Edmonton, AB: Athabasca University
● How can individual instructors effectively design Press.
and develop their own adventure learning projects, Veletsianos, G., & Doering, A. (2010). Long-term student experiences
how can they be supported, and what are the out- in a hybrid, open-ended and problem based adventure learning
comes of such projects? To date, most of the program. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(2),
280–296. Retrieved from http://ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/
research/design contributions on the topic are
veletsianos.html.
concerned with adventure learning environments Veletsianos, G., & Kleanthous, I. (2009). A review of adventure
developed by experts and used by teachers. What learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
happens when teachers become designers of adven- Learning, 10(6), 84–105. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/
ture learning projects? index.php/irrodl/article/view/755.
● What are the learning outcomes of adventure learn-
ing projects? While the effectiveness of the approach
has been demonstrated in terms of student interest,
excitement, and engagement, and teachers have
reported that they find the adventure learning Adversarial Growth
approach beneficial for student learning, current lit-
erature lacks empirical results on learning outcomes. ▶ Posttraumatic Growth
● What does learner participation and interaction
look like in adventure learning environments?
Prior research has highlighted the collaborative
nature of adventure learning projects, but no
research reports have been published on the nature Aesthetic Experience
and extend of learner participation in these online
learning environments. ▶ Science, Art, and Learning Experiences

Cross-References
▶ Authenticity in Learning Activities, and Settings
▶ Experiential Learning Theory
▶ Informal Learning Aesthetic Imagination
▶ Inquiry Learning
▶ Online Learning ▶ Imaginative Learning
▶ Open Learning Environments
▶ Socio-constructivist Models of Learning
▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments

Aesthetic Learning
References
Doering, A. (2006). Adventure learning: Transformative hybrid
PER-OLOF WICKMAN
online education. Distance Education, 27(2), 197–215.
Doering, A., & Veletsianos, G. (2008a). Hybrid online education: Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
Identifying integration models using adventure learning. Journal Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
of Research on Technology in Education, 41(1), 101–119.
Doering, A., & Veletsianos, G. (2008b). What lies beyond effectiveness
and efficiency? Adventure learning design. The Internet and
Higher Education, 11(3–4), 137–144.
Synonyms
Hannafin, M. J., Hall, C., Land, S., & Hill, J. (1994). Learning in open-
Development of judgment; Learning a taste; Sensori-
ended environments: Assumptions, methods, and implications. emotional learning; Transformation of aesthetic
Educational Technology, 34(8), 48–55. experiences
 Aesthetic Learning A 161

Definition representation of the inner emotional or motivational A

The term aesthetic was derived by the German philos- states of an individual or as conceptual representation
opher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762) of certain outer qualities of form. Learning amounts to
from the Greek word “aίsyZtά” (aı́stheta) meaning getting reality right through correct representations of
perception, which he used in the sense things perceived the world. Learning is genuinely cognitive and aesthetic
as opposed to things known. The current use of the term learning, accordingly, is also purely cognitive, or else it
originates from Baumgarten’s countryman and is not learning. Accordingly, the affective domain is not
colleague Immanuel Kant’s (1724–1804) adaptation in changed by learning. It is an inner reward or arousal
his Critique of Judgment of aesthetics as concerning system with already set distinctions in terms of emo-
judgments of taste, about our experiences of the beauti- tions and motivational states. Learning that something
ful and ugly and what is agreeable or disagreeable. is, for example, beautiful or agreeable either means
Hence, aesthetic learning is to be understood as the learning what kind of object someone intends by the
learning of certain ways of experiencing and word (because it is true that a person intends this
distinguishing things in the world that can be summa- object) or learning what kind of emotional reward or
rized in aesthetic judgments of taste. Aesthetic learning punishment that comes with the object with
in this inclusive sense does not concern merely the a concomitant motivational state assigned toward the
realm of art, but the transformation of aesthetic object. According to such a perspective, the role of
experiences and taste generally in life. aesthetics in learning is to create a positive motivation
to learn certain things.
Theoretical Background Adherents to the ▶ situated learning approach
As already noted by Kant, an aesthetic judgment says argue that aesthetic judgments and aesthetic experi-
something both about our inner feelings and about an ences can only be made sense of as part of an activity.
outer object or an event. In communication between An early representative of this approach is the Austrian-
people aesthetic judgments are used constantly. We, for British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951),
instance, talk about such central aspects of our life as who noted in his Lectures on Aesthetics that in under-
our daily work, food, clothes and friends in terms of standing aesthetic judgments we should not focus on
taste and whether we like them or not. Language the aesthetic words themselves and what they represent,
abounds with various aesthetic words describing our but on the whole situation in which they are used. He
feelings for different qualities of objects and events. argued that we learn to use aesthetic judgments in the
Such aesthetic judgments are not only made through same way as any other words of our language, i.e., as
spoken and written language, but also through part of certain activities. Especially the American phi-
gestures, facial expressions and sounds like sighs and losopher John Dewey’s work Art as Experience has been
laughter. influential within this school of research. He argued
Two major schools can be distinguished regarding that to understand the function of aesthetic experience
the meaning of aesthetic judgments and experiences we need to study how it is continuous with the normal
that have bearing theoretically on how aesthetic learn- processes of living (Shusterman 2000). He intended the
ing is construed. They can be summarized as represen- processes as wholes, integrating language, outer events,
tational and situated ▶ approaches to learning. These and inner reactions as activities of lived life. Learning is
two theoretical frameworks differ regarding their basic not about getting correct representations of the world,
assumptions about the function of an aesthetic judg- but as that of acquiring habits for coping with life.
ment as part of language and about what constitutes Generally, also sociological approaches as those of
learning. As a backdrop, a short description is given Pierre Bourdieu (1979/1984) and historical stances as
here of the representational school, but the emphasis is the emotionology of Peter Stearns and Carol Stearns
on the socioculturally oriented situated school of learn- (1985) have been influential in establishing the cultural
ing, where the term aesthetic learning is actually dependence of aesthetic learning. Aesthetic judgments
adopted. have important social and communicative compo-
The representational approach to learning sees nents, and are not merely designating readymade
an aesthetic judgment as either a conceptual private emotions or motivational states in relation to
162 A Aesthetic Learning

certain objects. Although not denying biological and so necessarily is closely connected to getting bodily and
physical ▶ constraints of learning, taste and aesthetic sensory involved in situations, no matter how intellec-
experience are studied as culturally embedded and how tual the activity may seem.
they need to be learnt in action as part of specific Aesthetic learning often entails learning to distin-
situations. guish certain qualities or objects aesthetically in differ-
ent ways depending on the situation and the purpose.
Important Scientific Research and Certain things can be experienced in negative ways in
Open Questions one activity and in positive ways in another. When an
Research has demonstrated the close association of aesthetically negative way of judging a certain object
aesthetic judgments and experiences with evaluations hinders a certain activity people can be seen to adapt by
and the learning of how certain objects and events are learning (1) how to avoid the activity as a whole;
conducive to purpose (Wickman 2006). Purpose in this (2) how to deal with the specific object to avoid it,
sense should be understood in a holistic way, as answer- but still be able to continue with the activity; or (3) to
ing a question about what people are doing. Aesthetic get used to the object (Wickman 2006). Such observa-
judgments are used to designate certain qualities dis- tions have been made in science in relation to feelings
tinguished and evaluating to what degree they are of disgust and in art in understanding new genres.
anticipated to be conducive to purpose, and also in Getting used to the object may entail that an individual
summing up to what degree they actually did further actively changes the context of experiencing the object.
the purpose. In this regard aesthetic learning is about Play seems to be a way that children adopt in getting
learning how to make distinctions concerning what used to certain objects. Often getting used to means
should be included and excluded in an activity. finding ways of overcoming anticipated negative aes-
Through the learning of such distinctions and judg- thetic experiences and learning that they eventually will
ments, aesthetic learning has a bridging function for not happen and that an unanticipated sense of fulfill-
cognitive as well as normative learning. ment will instead be the case. In artistic work, shifting
Aesthetic learning has both a creative side, depen- between the role of producer and onlooker is impor-
dent on imagination, fiction, and intuition, and tant in learning how to proceed with an artwork.
a socially subordinating side, fostering certain Aesthetic learning involves coming to understand
predetermined ways of distinguishing and aesthetically the kinds of activities that one can aesthetically be part
experiencing, which is dependent on copying (Schön of and hence entails also a transformation of oneself in
1991). This is the case in art as well as seemingly more relation to others, i.e., our identity. Although we know
cognitive practices like science. Many types of activities about the short-term learning processes, we need to
are already culturally well-established as traditional and know more about how they ad up, through our
customary ways of distinguishing and proceeding. upbringing and through education to what Bourdieu
Aesthetic learning here means learning to make these (1979/1984) called our habitus, i.e., the specific taste
distinctions and experiencing the social moments of that we share with people of similar background and
fulfillment according to cultural norms in aesthetic occupation as ourselves. How such learning occurs is of
terms, through language and emotionally. At the same importance to structure learning situations in educa-
time learning to take part and master new activities are tion that build up an interest to continue learning.
not fully predictable, and vague aesthetic anticipations Related to such learning is also the empathy side of
and judgments about how certain distinctions and aesthetic learning, how we come to understand and
discriminations further purpose necessarily mean that value other people’s taste, not only of those with
learning also has a risk and encompasses negative aes- whom we share a cultural background, but also with
thetic experiences. In learning to proceed successfully, those that have radically different backgrounds and
one needs also to learn what should be excluded or taste depending on, for example, class, ethnicity, gen-
avoided, something which typically is experienced in der, or sexual inclination. Answers to such questions
negative aesthetic terms. Aesthetic learning in this way are vitally important in our increasingly multicultural
means learning certain rules and norms for action and societies.
 Affective and Cognitive Learning in the Online Classroom A 163

Cross-References A
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning Affect Sequencing
▶ Cross-Cultural Factors in Learning and Motivation ▶ Monitoring Affective Trajectories During Complex
▶ Interests and Learning Learning
▶ Learning in Practice (Heidegger and Schön)

References
Bourdieu, P. (1979/1984). Distinction: a social critique of the judge-
ment of taste. London: Routledge. Affect Transitions
Schön, D. A. (1991). The reflective practitioner. How professionals think
in action. Aldershot: Ashgate. ▶ Monitoring Affective Trajectories During Complex
Shusterman, R. (2000). Pragmatist aesthetics: living beauty, rethinking Learning
art (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Stearns, P. N., & Stearns, C. Z. (1985). Emotionology: Clarifying the
history of emotions and emotional standards. The American
Historical Review, 90(4), 813–836.
Wickman, P.-O. (2006). Aesthetic experience in science education:
Learning and meaning-making as situated talk and action. Affective and Cognitive
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Learning in the Online
Classroom
JASON D. BAKER
Affect School of Education, Regent University, Virginia
Beach, VA, USA
▶ Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for
Learning
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling
Synonyms
▶ Mood and Learning
Distance education; Education; Knowledge; Learning;
Virtual classroom

Definition
Affect and Memory Affective and cognitive learning are two of the three
domains of educational activity (the third being
▶ Emotional Memory psychomotor learning) identified by Benjamin Bloom
in the seminal Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
published in 1956. The affective domain refers to emo-
tional and attitudinal engagement with the subject
matter while the cognitive domain refers to knowledge
Affect Dynamics and intellectual skills related to the material. These
domains have a long history of use within traditional
▶ Monitoring Affective Trajectories During Complex
classroom instruction and have also been applied to the
Learning
online classroom. The online classroom refers to the
virtual learning environment in which students and
instructors separated by distance and/or time engage
in planned instruction. Like their physical counter-
Affect Regulation parts, online classrooms vary widely, although they
often include areas for announcements, course mate-
▶ Extraversion, Social Interaction, and Affect Repair rials, discussion forums, assignments, and gradebooks.
164 A Affective and Cognitive Learning in the Online Classroom

Theoretical Background The first question that many ask when considering
Beginning with the 1948 Convention of the American distance education is “But is it as effective as face-to-
Psychological Association, a group of educators led by face education?” The answer is “yes,” although the
educational psychologist Benjamin S. Bloom worked to results are more nuanced than such an answer would
develop a classification scheme of educational out- suggest. A meta-analysis of 232 comparative distance/
comes. The hope was that such a classification would traditional instruction studies found that there was no
help educators to “begin to understand more average difference in academic achievement, there was
completely the relation between the learning experi- significant variability (Bernard et al. 2004). The authors
ences provided by these various [instructional] pro- found that “a substantial number of [distance educa-
grams and the changes which take place in their tion] applications provide better achievement results,
students” (Bloom 1956, p. 10). The result was are viewed more positively, and have higher retention
a taxonomy of educational domains including cogni- rates than their classroom counterparts. On the other
tive, affective, and psychomotor. hand, a substantial number of [distance education]
The initial publication resulting from this effort was applications are far worse than classroom instruction”
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook 1: Cog- (p. 406). So while the average achievement findings
nitive Domain (Bloom 1956). Although the overall confirm that the delivery medium is not the determin-
taxonomy was defined in this text, the primary focus ing factor in educational effectiveness, the wide vari-
was on the cognitive domain, which dealt with “recall ability indicates that there are noticeable differences on
or recognition of knowledge and the development of a course-by-course basis.
intellectual abilities and skills” (p. 7). The cognitive Such findings have resulted in an increased focus on
domain involves knowledge, comprehension, applica- the dynamics associated with the virtual classroom.
tion, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. This hierarchy Rather than merely looking at grades or other tradi-
is often referred to by the shorthand Bloom’s Taxon- tional measures of academic performance, researchers
omy and has been regularly employed in instructional have looked more deeply at the psychosocial dynamics
design and development since its publication. within the online learning environment and their rela-
Although identified in the original Taxonomy, the tion to affective and cognitive learning. The Commu-
affective domain did not receive its own companion nity of Inquiry framework (Garrison and Arbaugh
volume until 8 years later with the publication of Tax- 2007) is an increasingly popular model within online
onomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook 2: Affective course design. The Community of Inquiry model con-
Domain (Krathwohl et al. 1964). The affective domain siders overlapping degrees of presence, namely cogni-
relates more to the emotional aspects of learning tive presence, social presence, and teaching presence
including feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, within the online classroom.
motivations, and attitudes. The focus is more on the Russo and Benson (2005) examined the relation-
development of attitudes and behavior rather than on ship between perceptions of presence and affective and
the intellectual abilities associated with the cognitive cognitive learning in the online environment. They
domain. found that perceptions of instructor presence were
Cognitive and affective learning have been impor- positive correlated with affective learning and satisfac-
tant considerations with the emergence of online learn- tion. Cognitive learning, as measured by course perfor-
ing. Distance or online learning is planned learning mance and self-grading, was related to perceptions of
that occurs where the students are geographically the students’ own presence in the class. Such findings
(and often chronologically) separated from the instruc- are consistent with online learning research where
tor and often from each other as well. Distance educa- increased levels of presence are found to promote
tion existed long before the Internet and is not increased self-reports of affective and cognitive learn-
dependent on any particular technology or media, ing within the online classroom. However, there is
although online learning (and thus the online class- a need for more empirical research to better under-
room) is the dominant modality in the early twenty- stand the relationship between these dynamics and
first century. learning outcomes (Garrison and Arbaugh 2007).
 Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for Learning A 165

Important Scientific Research and ▶ Cognitive Learning A

Open Questions ▶ Cognitive Learning Strategies for Digital Media
Although initial inquires into the effectiveness of ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
online learning examined grades and other measures ▶ Distance Learning
of academic performance, recent efforts have consid- ▶ eLearning and Digital Learning
ered multiple dimensions such as affective and cogni- ▶ Learning by Design
tive learning. However, there is a significant difficulty ▶ Online Learning
associated with how to operationalize the variables and ▶ Virtual Reality Learning Environments
promote cross-disciplinary research.
Course grades have been the most common mea- References
sure of cognitive learning; however, grades can be prob- Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A.,
lematic because they have a restricted range (which Wozney, L., et al. (2004). How does distance education compare
limits their use in correlation studies) and do not to classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empirical liter-
necessarily measure the presence of new learning in ature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379–439.
a course. There are a number of self-report instruments Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook 1:
Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
used to measure cognitive and affective learning,
Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community
although they vary from single-item to 20-item instru- of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions. The
ments that are not consistent in their design. A recent Internet and Higher Education, 10(3), 157–172.
instrument by Rovai et al. (2009) presents a nine-item Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of
self-report scale which measures cognitive, affective, educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.
Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay.
and psychomotor learning; however, as with existing
Rovai, A. P., Wighting, M. J., Baker, J. D., & Grooms, L. D. (2009).
instruments, it depends on the self-reporting of the Development of an instrument to measure perceived cognitive,
student to determine the degree to which these affective, and psychomotor learning in traditional and virtual
domains are engaged. higher education classrooms. The Internet and Higher Education,
The online learning field would benefit greatly from 12(1), 7–13.
an increased focus on quantitative studies examining Russo, T., & Benson, S. (2005). Learning with invisible others: Per-
ceptions of online presence and their relationship to cognitive
the degree to which cognitive and affective learning
and affective learning. Educational Technology & Society, 8(1),
occurs within the virtual classroom, the instructional 54–62.
design and psychosocial dynamics that affect those
domains, and the practices that can promote the
achievement of learning objectives within these
domains. As online learning continues to grow outside
of the university setting, there should also be an Affective and Emotional
increased focus on the psychomotor domain. In these Dispositions of/for Learning
regards, the online learning field is akin to education in
general at the time that Bloom and his colleagues MICHAELA GLÄSER-ZIKUDA
developed the taxonomy of educational objectives. Department of Education, Institute for Educational
New models have been developed (e.g., Community Science, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena,
of Inquiry) and old ones have been applied (e.g., Germany
Bloom’s Taxonomy) but there is a need for empirical
research to validate and elucidate the varied activities
within the online classroom and the ways in which Synonyms
online instruction can be improved. Affect; Emotion; Feeling; Flow; Mood; Well-being

Cross-References Definition
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning Affect refers to the experience of feeling or emotion.
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives Affect plays a crucial role in the process of an
166 A Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for Learning

organism’s interaction with stimuli. Affect indicates an is a feeling where positive emotions and cognitions
instinctual reaction to stimuli before a typical cognitive dominate over negative emotions and cognitions
process starts. Affective reactions can occur without toward school, teachers, and classmates, and the
extensive perceptual and cognitive encoding, and can whole school context. It may not directly enhance
be made sooner and with greater confidence than student achievement but enables students to move
cognitive judgments (Zajonc 2000). toward their academic and social goals and a qualita-
Emotions are basic psychological systems regulat- tively good school life.
ing the individual’s adaptation to personal and envi- One of the important affective constructs
ronmental demands. They are closely related to supporting sustained participation and engagement is
cognitive, behavioral, motivational, and physiological the experience of flow. Flow was described by
processes, and therefore they are also important for Csikszentmihalyi (1990) as a holistic feeling while
learning and achievement. being absorbed in an action. The experience of flow
Emotions may be defined as a system of interacting depends on demands and individual’s abilities, and it
processes including subjective feelings, cognitive occurs if demands and abilities stay in a balanced rela-
appraisals, physiological factors, expressive behavior tion to each other. In comparison to emotion, flow is
and characteristics, as well as motivational tendencies. a more cognitive construct, and a process which is
Component models help to characterize and define relevant for learning and performance.
emotions. Emotions are multidimensional constructs Finally, stress may be characterized as a state of
which have an affective (subjectively experienced highest readiness of a person in an achievement
feeling), a cognitive (thoughts, achievement goals, situation. Stress is experienced when demands exceed
and expectations), an expressive (mimics, gestics), a individual’s abilities, or if they are called in question.
motivational (actional tendencies), and a physiological The rise, effects, and regulation of stress and anxiety
component (e.g., heart rate) (Scherer et al. 2001). Fur- show many similarities (Hembree 1988).
ther classification criteria include the concepts of
valence, activation, intensity, duration, and frequency. Theoretical Background
Furthermore, emotions are experienced in specific sit- In the field of educational psychology, emotions, feel-
uations (state-component), and they are biographically ings, well-being, and affect or mood, and school enjoy-
developed and enduring (trait-component). ment or learning enjoyment are important topics in the
Emotions are limited-in-time feelings. In contrast last 20 years. Definitions are not used consistently and
to mood and other emotion-related constructs, emo- different research domains and empirical studies on the
tions may be described very clearly (e.g., as enjoyment, structure of emotions have led to various classifica-
anger), and they are generally caused by a specific event tions. These classifications are related to specific
(e.g., a good mark, a conflict with another person). research fields, for example, in learning and achieve-
Mood and emotion are often applied as synonymies ment environment, the workplace, as well as in leisure
because they both may be characterized by affective time. Therefore, theoretical classifications of emotions
experience, specific physiological arousal, cognition, are determined to a large extent by the specific contexts
and mimics and gestics. But mood is typically of longer in which they are developed.
duration, less intensively, and not explicitly object- Theories concerning the classification and origins
related like emotion. In contrast to emotion, mood of emotions mainly followed the central paradigms in
may be classified in positive, neutral, or negative psychology and related scientific fields in biology and
dimensions. Further constructs similar to emotion are sociology. Mainly psychobiological approaches,
well-being, flow, and stress. psychoanalytical, cognitive theories, and integrative
Well-being is a specific concept that combines emo- approaches highlight emotions, their development,
tional and cognitive aspects, and it can be defined as an and their relevance for human life in general and
indicator of a learning environment (Diener 2000). especially for learning and achievement. Biologically
Well-being may develop over a short or a longer period oriented approaches relate to Darwin’s work. It is
and vary with respect to intensity. Well-being in school assumed that somatic processes, facial, vocal, and
 Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for Learning A 167

expressive aspects are characteristic for emotions, and a positive influence on learning and achievement, and A
their function in regulating social communication. negative-deactivating emotions would have a negative
Ekman (1972), inspired by Darwin’s approach, takes impact. But it remains unclear how emotions influence
emotional expressions to be important parts of “affect learning and achievement. A simple positive effect of
programs” – complex responses found in all cultures positive emotions or a simple negative effect of negative
and human populations. Intercultural studies show emotions may not be assumed. However, negative
that six basic emotions may be differentiated: happi- deactivating emotions may be detrimental for learning
ness, surprise, anxiety, anger, sadness, and disgust. Psy- and achievement.
choanalytic theories in orientation to Sigmund Freud Test anxiety, for example seems to occur primarily
understand emotions as closely related to satisfaction during elementary school. Some studies document
or dissatisfaction of drives. Freud described emotions a sharp increase in mean frequency and intensity
as functions of the “Ego” that serve as signal for behav- from grade 1 to 4, resulting in a high prevalence in
ioral and cognitive processes. Cognitive theories late childhood. This development trend is congruent to
assume that emotions are induced by cognitive the decrease of average academic self-concept and the
appraisals. One important theory is the attributional decrease of enjoyment in learning.
theory explaining emotions as a result of causal attri- To understand why emotions play an important
butions in learning and achievement. Expectancy the- role for learning and achievement, appraisal theories
ories assume that emotions in future are induced by offer a framework to understand and to explain causes
event- and coping-related expectancies (Pekrun). of emotions (Smith and Lazarus 1993). One and the
Social learning approaches emphasize the influence of same situation is experienced in different ways,
social interaction and cultural environment, and depending on the person’s interpretation of the situa-
thereby the development of individual specificity of tion. In orientation to appraisal theories, and especially
emotions (Bandura). In general, social influence on for the context of learning and achievement, Pekrun
emotions is mediated by cognitive processes through developed the control–value approach. This approach
observing and interpreting the behavior of significant points out that subjective control of the learning and
other persons, like parents, peers, or teachers. Finally, achievement situation, as well as the subjective value of
integrative approaches to emotions complement, learning process and achievement are crucial for the
instead of contradict, each other. interpretation and emotional experience. Students
Emotions may initiate, terminate, or disrupt infor- experience different situations in instruction and
mation processing and result in selective information value these situations depending on previous experi-
processing, or they may organize recall (Pekrun et al. ences, the social context, their personal goals, their
2002). Thus, emotional processes have an evaluational interests, and other personality factors (Pekrun et al.
relation to learning, instruction, and achievement. 2002). For test anxiety, the relevance of missing possi-
Pekrun’s conceptual model of emotions specifically bility of control is very well analyzed (Hembree 1988).
experienced in an academic and achievement context Furthermore, it has been described that different
represents a classification schema that takes the tradi- aspects of instruction may cause anxiety, for example,
tional criteria of valence (positive vs negative) and unstructured learning material, lack of feedback, and
activation (activating vs deactivating) into account, lack of transparency in achievement demands. For stu-
and classifies academic emotions in orientation to dents’ test anxiety, negative correlations to academic
these criteria. It is assumed that discrete academic achievement were reported in numerous studies. Fur-
emotions have specific effects on learning and achieve- thermore, test anxiety has been shown to correlate with
ment. The model distinguishes between emotions that parent, peer, and teacher behavior, such as punishment
are positive-activating (enjoyment, pride, hope), posi- after failure and competition in classroom. The influ-
tive-deactivating (relief, relaxation), negative-activating ence of the social context and the learning environment
(anxiety, anger, shame/guilt), and negative-deactivating on learning and achievement emotions was empha-
(boredom, hopelessness, disappointment). It may be sized by Pekrun et al. (2002). Instruction, value system,
expected that positive-activating emotions do have concession of autonomy, expectancies, and learning
168 A Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for Learning

and achievement goals, but also achievement feedback, But still some questions remain open. First, further
and consequences do have an influence on students’ detailed analysis is needed to understand differences
emotions. between emotions in specific learning and achieve-
Attributions and self-concept are related to emo- ment situations. Also causes and consequences of
tions, as well. Internal attributions of success, e.g., many emotional experiences are still unclear. School
having adequate abilities, were related to positive and learning are associated by most of the students
achievement-related emotions. A negative self-concept with more negative experiences and feelings. And it
and negative expectancies of achievement played a role seems that school itself contributes to this estimation
in creating feelings of anxiety or hopelessness by performance pressure, and learning environments
(Hembree 1988). Emotions also have an effect on that do not consider individual needs. Therefore, it
learning and achievement, mediated by attention, is an important issue for school, and for research in
self-regulation, and motivation (Pekrun et al. 2002), this context to focus on reduction of boredom, anxi-
thus directing the person toward or away from learning ety, frustration, and to enhance enjoyment, satisfac-
matters in learning situations. Positive emotions also tion, and pride. Consequently, a theoretically and
facilitate self-regulation in learning. Students’ per- systematically oriented development of instructional
ceived self-regulation correlated significantly positive approaches and interventions is needed. Generally, in
with positive emotions, whereas perceived external the education system changes are needed. Modifica-
regulation correlated with negative emotions. The tions that focus more on the influence of individual
experience of competence and autonomy in learning needs and affective aspects in students’ learning might
has been stressed out as important for self-regulation be reached by creating a student- and competence-
and the experience of self-determination. Furthermore, centered learning culture, developing adequate ways
information processing and learning strategies are of assessment, and organizing schools as life-oriented
influenced by emotions. Positive emotions, such as environments.
enjoyment and pride are correlated to deeper and inte-
grated processes of information and understanding, Cross-References
and thereby to elaboration. Negative emotions are ▶ Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional
related to rigid information processing on the surface and Behavioral Disabilities
level, and correlate stronger with memorization. ▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Attention and Implicit Learning
Open Questions ▶ Attitudes To(wards) Learning
Generally, research on learning and instruction has ▶ Autonomous Learning
recognized that emotional dispositions and emotional ▶ Aversive Motivation and Learning
experiences are crucial conditions for information ▶ Avoidance Learning
processing, cognition, motivation, and social interac- ▶ Climate of Learning
tion. Numerous studies have described which emotions ▶ Coping with Stress
are experienced in learning situations, and how they ▶ Creativity, Problem Solving and Feeling
interact with cognition, learning strategies, motivation, ▶ Effects of Anxiety on Affective Learning
achievement, and the learning environment. Up to ▶ Emotional Intelligence and Learning
now, this is well documented and analyzed for “anxi- ▶ Emotional Regulation
ety.” Especially it should be clarified how emotions ▶ Emotions: Functions and Effects on Learning
influence cognitive processes. Results of mood research ▶ Feeling-Based Learning/Feelings and Learning
point out that negative or positive emotion does not ▶ Flow Experience and Learning
simply have a contrary effect on learning. Rather it has ▶ Joyful Learning
to be differentiated with respect to demands, tasks, and ▶ Learned Aggression in Humans
context. Effects of emotions are specific, and they may ▶ Learned Helplessness
enhance or hinder learning processes. ▶ Learning by Feeling
 Affective Dimensions of Learning A 169

▶ Learning to Feel A
▶ Mood and Learning Affective Dimensions of
▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories Learning
▶ Motivation Enhancement
▶ Motivation to Learn SOUMAYA CHAFFAR1, CLAUDE FRASSON2
1
▶ Needs of/for Learning School of Information Technology and Engineering,
▶ Neuropsychology of Emotion University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
2
▶ Personality and Learning Département d’Informatique et de Recherche
▶ Relaxation and Learning Opérationnelle, Université de Montréal,
▶ Resilience and Learning Montreal, QC, Canada
▶ Risks of Learning and Failure
▶ School Climate and Learning
▶ Self efficacy and Learning Synonyms
▶ Self-Determination of Learning Emotional aspects in learning; Emotional dimensions
▶ Socio-Emotional Aspects of Learning of learning; Emotional factors in learning
▶ Stress and Learning
▶ Surprise and Anticipation in Learning Definition
▶ Volition for Learning Affective Dimensions of Learning represents one of the
▶ Well-Being three dimensions of learning identified by Illeris
(2002). It is a complex concept that refers to dimen-
References sions for affective learning. According to Martin
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experi- and Reigeluth, there exist six dimensions for affective
ence. New York: Harper & Row. learning: emotional, social, esthetic, moral, spiritual,
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and and motivational (Martin and Reigeluth 1999). In
a proposal for a national index. The American Psychologist, 55(1),
the literature, the terms Emotional Dimensions of
34–43.
Ekman, P. (1972). Emotions in the human face. New York: Pergamon
Learning and Affective Dimensions of Learning are
Press. often used to designate the relationship between
Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, and treatment of test anxiety. emotions and learning (e.g., fears associated with
Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77. formalized learning).
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic Although there is no consensus about the meaning
emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement:
of the term emotion, there is an agreement that emo-
A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational
Psychologist, 37(2), 91–105. tional states are considered complex processes that
Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (Eds.). (2001). Appraisal change in time and are affected by several factors.
processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research. Oxford: Oxford An emotion represents a mental state, such as
University Press. happiness or fear, that arises spontaneously rather
Smith, C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Appraisal components, core
than through conscious effort and is often accompa-
relational themes, and the emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 7,
233–269.
nied by physiological changes. The majority of
Zajonc, R. (2000). Feeling and thinking: Closing the debate over the emotional theories concur that appraisals are neces-
independence of affect. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Feeling and thinking: sary causes of emotions; however, there are divergent
The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 31–58). Cambridge: theories like James-Lange’s theory which claims that
Cambridge University Press. emotion could arise due to physiological changes.
This theory has been criticized by several recent
researchers who think completely the opposite
(Critchley et al. 2005). According to the appraisal
Affective Conditioning theory, emotions arise from mental evaluation of
events or situations depending on a person’s goals
▶ Evaluative Conditioning (Ortony et al. 1988).
170 A Affective Dimensions of Learning

Theoretical Background consist of a series of adjectives describing the individ-

Some researchers in neurosciences and psychology (e.g. ual’s current emotion, for instance, bored, joyful, and
Damasio 1994; Isen 2000) have proved that emotions sad. The challenge posed by this technique is choosing
are widely related to diverse cognitive processes such as words that describe the current situation. The ques-
attention, long-term memorizing, problem solving, tionnaire-type scale represents a set of questions related
decision making, etc. In fact, some studies have found to emotional states. For example, to measure anxiety,
that human beings tend to code more information if the participants are asked to indicate their current
the tone of the material corresponds to their emotional feelings on a 4-point scale.
states (Isen 2000). For example if the learner is happy,
he would encode more information when the material Facial Expressions
was also emotionally positive. Similarly, it has been Emotional expressions have received great attention
demonstrated under various circumstances that from both psychologists and computer science
human beings have a tendency to retrieve, from mem- researchers interested in developing systems that detect
ory, information which is coherent to their current emotions. Paul Ekman is among the first researchers
emotional states (Isen 2000). For example, if the learner who studied the expression of emotions. He created,
is happy he would recall more easily happy material. along with his colleague Friesen, a system called FACS
In addition, positive emotions are fundamental in (Facial Action Coding System), which measures facial
learning processes; they play an important role to muscle movements (Ekman and Friesen 1978). All
improve creativity and flexibility in problem solving subsequent research in the field is based on this pioneer
and to enhance performance on the task at hand. They work. In computer science, researchers have used
also may increase intrinsic motivation. However, negative various approaches to model the mechanism involved
emotions such as anxiety can give rise to disorders of in the automatic detection of facial expressions. This
attention, slow decision latency, and deficit in inductive mechanism consists of extracting and classifying facial
reasoning. They also have two types of effects: impair- characteristics. The extraction can be applied to the
ment effect related to reduced performance and bias effect face entirely (considered like a whole), or locally,
related to prioritization of treating stimuli which have while focusing on the most expressive parts of the
negative impact or valence (Matthews and Wells 1999). face, which depend on the facial expression itself.
Mayer and Salovey defined emotional intelligence
as: “ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express Prosody Speech
emotions; the ability to access and/or generate feelings The detection of emotion through voice analysis has
when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand not received as much attention from researchers as the
emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emo- detection of emotions using facial expressions. The first
tions to promote emotional and intellectual growth” voice-related work studied the contents of each word.
(Mayer and Salovey 1997). According to this definition, Recently, researchers started investigating the prosodic
emotional intelligence is very important in learning and acoustic aspects, e.g., analyzing message features
environments. In the classroom, the teacher who has like intonation, duration, power, and articulation.
emotional intelligence abilities would maintain atten- Petrushin, for example, developed a system, geared
tion and learners’ interest by making jokes, for exam- toward call center applications, that uses voice to detect
ple, when he feels that his students are bored, he emotion in real time using neural networks. His system
attempts to manage their emotional state in order to can classify two emotions (calm and agitated) with
keep a good atmosphere for learning. 77% accuracy rate (Petrushin 1999).
Because of the importance of emotional dimen-
sions in learning and thought processes, several tech- Physiological Changes
niques for measuring emotion have been developed: Another technique for detecting emotion consists of
tracking physiological changes, for example, blood
Self-Report Techniques pressure, heart rate, skin conductance, muscle tension,
This technique includes adjective checklists and etc. This technique is efficient when studying arousal,
a questionnaire-type scale. The adjective checklists but is not as useful in detecting a specific emotion
 Affective Dimensions of Learning A 171

because it is very difficult to establish a relationship 3. Love or rejection of some object’s aspects (love/ A
between physiological changes and specific emotions. rejection)
On the one hand, some different emotions can have the
In the OCC model, the authors define three criteria
same physiological changes. On the other hand, so
of evaluation:
many factors could trigger physiological changes that
it would be difficult to link them to a given emotion. 1. Goals which represent the criterion employed to
In spite of the various approaches proposed to evaluate events
measure emotion, this task continues to be challenging 2. Standards which represent the criterion employed
in real scenarios. Human beings could have the same to evaluate the agent’s actions
feelings but express them differently. This is why some 3. Attitudes which represent the criterion employed to
researchers have combined different techniques to evaluate aspects of object
improve the automatic recognition of emotions. How-
All these criteria are used to indicate 22 emotion
ever, such methods for emotion detection present two
types.
limitations: (1) the use of sophisticated technology in
OCC model was the basis for most computational
a learning context can interfere with learning as noted
systems modeling emotion because of its effectiveness
by Picard who found that people may feel uncomfort-
in simplifying the emotional states’ representation. In
able in the presence of video, cameras, or physical
addition, it offers clear and distinct evaluation criteria
sensors and that their presence may interfere with
(goals, preferences, and moral standards). This model
emotion recognition; and (2) it requires significant
provides a reliable representation of the virtual agents’
effort and financial resources. Thus, some researchers
emotions, but it is too general for modeling the user’s
thought about considering the potential causes of emo-
emotion. Indeed, each individual exhibits different
tions in the detection process.
emotions following the same event. These reactions,
according to Hess, depend not only on events, but
Potential Causes of Emotions also on several other factors such as sex, personality,
Some psychology theories attempt to determine the current emotion, etc. Thus, emotions change over time
origin of emotion by studying the relationship between in response to an emotional event and according to
cognition and emotion. Appraisal theories of emotion, individual traits.
in particular, consider that cognition is the core element
in producing emotion (Ortony et al. 1988). They argue
that emotion arises as a result of a cognitive evaluation of
Important Scientific Research and
events or objects according to a person’s goals and con-
Open Questions
Most existing learner models focus only on the learner’s
cerns. For example, let us take the case of a student who
knowledge about the domain. However, the learner
has just received an email indicating that he had passed
model should describe both cognitive and emotional
a course. An emotion will occur following this situation
information about the learner. Emotional model should
according to his cognitive evaluation. If the event is
inform us about the emotional and the motivational
important for the student’s goals (to have the diploma),
state of the learner. It would focus on identifying the
he may, for example, express joy. This evaluation is done
learner’s emotional state in order to choose the right
according to some criteria or variables as defined in the
teaching strategy used by the tutor. In addition, during
appraisal models. For instance, in the OCC model, emo-
learning activities, we should pay attention to various
tions are regarded as valenced reactions (positive or
factors that could trigger negative emotions. The tutor’s
negative) to environment perceptions. The environment
role is then to intervene at the appropriate moment to
in this model is composed of agents, events, and actions.
alleviate the effects of these factors as far as possible and
Thus, emotions arise as a consequence of
to adapt tutorial actions in order to stimulate positive
1. Whether the event is desirable or not (satisfaction/ emotions and achieve instructional goals. Initially,
dissatisfaction) adapting tutorial actions in learning environment
2. Approval or disapproval of the agent’s actions was mainly based on the learner’s intellectual skills.
(approval/disapproval) Then, given the importance of emotions in cognitive
172 A Affective Learning

processes and learning, selecting tutorial actions takes and models. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories
into account not only the cognitive state but also the and models. London: Erlbaum.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In
emotional one which becomes an essential component
P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emo-
of the learner’s model (e.g., Chaffar et al. 2009; Conati tional intelligence: implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New
2002). York: Basic Books.
The concept of Emotional Dimensions of Learning is Ortony, A., Clore, G., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of
sometimes so general that it raises and leaves many emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Petrushin, V. (1999). Emotion in speech: recognition and application to
important questions:
call centers. Artificial neural networks in engineerin.
● What emotions are relevant to learning?
● What emotions are good for learning?
● What are the best techniques to detect the learner’s
emotional state? Affective Learning
● What are the best methods for inducing good emo-
tions for learning? ▶ Emotional Learning
▶ Evaluative Conditioning
Cross-References ▶ Superlearning
▶ Emotional Learning
▶ Emotion-Based Learning
▶ Learning by Feeling
▶ Learning to Feel
▶ Stress and Learning
Affective Priming and Learning

References DIRK HERMANS, HELEEN VANDROMME, ELS JOOS

Chaffar, S., Derbali, L., Frasson, C. (2009). Inducing positive
Center for the Psychology of Learning and
emotional state in Intelligent Tutoring Systems. AIED’2009: Experimental Psychopathology, Department of
14th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Psychology University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Education, IOS Press, Brighton, UK.
Conati, C. (2002). Probabilistic assessment of user’s emotions in
educational games. Journal of Applied Artificial Intelligence, 16,
555–575.
Synonyms
Critchley, H. D., Rothstein, P., Nagai, Y., O’doherty, J., Mathias, C. J., Evaluative priming
& Dolan, R. J. (2005). Activity in the human brain predicting
differential heart rate responses to emotional facial expressions. Definition
Neuroimage, 24, 751–762. At a procedural level, affective or evaluative priming
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: emotion, reason and the
refers to a reaction time procedure. It is a variant of the
human brain. New York: Gosset/Putnam Press.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial action coding system:
classical (associative) priming tasks in which the effects
investigator’s guide. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. of related or unrelated prime stimuli are observed for
Hess, U. (2001). The experience of emotion: situational influences on responses to target stimuli. A classic example of an
the elicitation and experience of emotions. In A. Kaszniak (Ed.), associative priming effect is the finding that one
Emotions, qualia, and consciousness. Singapore: World Scientific responds faster to the target word “doctor” if it is
Publishing.
preceded by the prime word “nurse” than when it is
Illeris, K. (2002). The three dimensions of learning: contemporary
learning theory in the tension field between the cognitive, the preceded by “roof.” In affective priming tasks, primes
emotional and the social. Copenhagen: Roskilde University Press. and targets are evaluatively related or unrelated rather
Isen, A. M. (2000). Positive affect and decision making. Handbook of than associatively. In these studies, a typical finding is the
emotions. New York: Guilford. observation of statistically shorter response latencies for
Matthews, G., & Wells, A. (1999). The cognitive science of attention
affectively congruent trials (positive–positive, negative–
and emotion. Handbook of cognition and emotion. New York:
John.
negative) as compared to affectively incongruent trials
Martin, B., & Reigeluth, C. (1999). Affective education and the (positive–negative, negative–positive) (e.g., Fazio et al.
affective domain: Implications for instructional-design theories 1986). In these studies, the asynchrony between the
 Affective Priming and Learning A 173

onset of the prime and the onset of the target is so brief example, perhaps, is the differential sensitivity to A
(e.g., 250 ms) that these effects are to be attributed to extinction which refers to the repeated unreinforced
fast-acting automatic processing. presentation of the CS after acquisition. During acqui-
More recently, the affective priming task is used as sition, an organism may be confronted with a series of
an indirect measure of stimulus valence (attitudes). trials in which a tone CS is contingently followed by an
Rather than demonstrating that valenced stimuli auto- electric shock. Subsequent extinction would then con-
matically activate their affective meaning from mem- sist of repeated presentations of the CS, which is now
ory, the procedure is now used to assess the “unknown” no longer followed by the shock. This procedure is
valence of prime stimuli (e.g., “if the prime facilitates known to significantly impact conditioned responding
responses to positive targets and inhibits responses to to the CS. With increasing numbers of CS-only trials,
negative targets, this would indicate that the prime is US-expectancy and fear responding will dissipate.
positive”). As such, affective priming tasks have been With respect to evaluative learning, a crucial find-
employed in human conditioning research to assess ing has been that this type of learning is less impacted
(changes in) the evaluative meaning of the conditioned by extinction. One explanation for this finding relates
stimuli. to the “informational value” of the CS-only trials. As
a result of these trials, the organism can learn that the
Theoretical Background CS is no longer a valid predictor for the US. This
Classical conditioning typically refers to a procedure in knowledge is then translated in reduced US-expectancy
which two or more stimuli are presented. Due to this and fear. In contrast, with respect to the evaluative
“learning experience,” changes in responding are meaning of the CS, information about the statistical
observed. For example, in fear conditioning prepara- contingency between CS and US is assumed to be less
tions, an originally neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) con- relevant. An example might illustrate this point.
tingently precedes the presentation of an aversive Assume that you encounter a certain new perfume
stimulus (e.g., an electric shock). As a result of these (CS) in the context of someone you really like (US).
presentations, changes in responding to the neutral Over time, this scent may acquire a positive valence.
(conditioned) stimulus (CS) can be observed, such as Encountering this perfume, however, later on, in the
increases in self-reported fear or increased levels of skin absence of the loved one (extinction procedure) does
conductance responding (SCR) in the presence of the not bring upon corrective information about the odor.
CS. In addition, because the CS is a valid predictor of It does not “destroy” previous knowledge.
the aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), participants
will start to expect the aversive stimulus (uncondi- Important Scientific Research and
tioned stimulus) on the basis of the CS. These behav- Open Questions
ioral changes have traditionally been the focus of The study of (changes in) evaluative meaning as a result
Pavlovian fear conditioning studies. of classical conditioning has attracted a lot of attention
Based on extensive work on evaluative condition- during the last 30 years (see Hofmann et al. 2010). In
ing, it is now known that classical conditioning pro- animal studies, these evaluative changes have tradition-
cedures may also engender a completely different type ally been studied using behavioral preference tests. In
of outcome. More specifically, it has been demon- humans, on the other hand, verbal rating scales are
strated that CSs can acquire the evaluative meaning of typically employed. Because ratings are easily
the stimulus (US) with which they have been associ- influenced by social desirability (or other response
ated. Originally, neutral stimuli that were contingently strategies), indirect measurement procedures like the
presented – or even merely co-occurred – with a clearly affective priming task are provided a valuable
positive (or negative) US are subsequently experienced alternative.
as more positive (or negative) (Hofmann et al. 2010). An extensive series of studies in humans has dem-
This outcome has attracted much scientific attention, onstrated that evaluative changes that are produced by
because empirical work suggests that changes in evalu- an evaluative conditioning procedure are reflected in
ative responding follow different learning rules than affective priming measures (for an overview, see
other outcomes (e.g., US-expectancy, fear). The best Hermans et al. 2003). For instance, in a study by
174 A Affective Priming and Learning

Hermans et al. (2005), pictures of different brands of The most important probably pertains to the psycho-
yoghurts (CSs) were contingently presented with metric properties of this procedure (e.g., reliability).
a positive or negative odor (US). Rating data showed Research on this issue is scarce, but several labs are
that this acquisition procedure resulted in a reliable conducting relevant research at this moment.
evaluative learning effect. This could be corroborated A second issue pertains to the development of variants
by the results of the priming task in which the yoghurt of the affective priming procedure (and related mea-
CSs were used as primes. Participants responded faster sures such as the Implicit Association Test) for studying
to positive target words and made fewer errors when acquired valence. The priming measure as described
they were preceded by a yoghurt CS that had been here has a disadvantage in that it cannot be used as an
associated with a positive odor, as compared to online measure (like is the case for SCR). In the exam-
a CS that had been associated with a negative odor. ple of the study by Vansteenwegen et al. (2006), skin
A reversed pattern was present for negative targets. conductance responding was measured on a trial-by-
Similar affective priming effects have been observed trial basis, whereas affective priming was only sched-
for a variety of stimuli (including visual and gustatory), uled after acquisition and after extinction. This could
and using different variations of the acquisition proce- be an important methodological difference. Because of
dure (e.g., fear conditioning preparation). this limitation, more recently, an online version of the
In a study by Vansteenwegen et al. (2006), a fear affective priming task was developed that allows track-
conditioning preparation was used. Participants ing changes in valence on a more trial-by-trial basis
were presented with two pictures of a human face, (Kerkhof et al. 2009). Another limitation of the prim-
one of which was contingently followed by an ing procedure could be that valence is always assessed
electrocutaneous stimulus (CS+), while the other was in a relative way (e.g., CS + as compared to CS).
not (CS–). After eight acquisition trials, a lengthy Future research could aim at developing variants that
extinction phase followed which consisted of 24 allow the assessment of stimulus valence without the
unreinforced presentations of both CSs. Evaluative use of neutral comparison stimuli.
changes as a result of acquisition and extinction were
assessed by means of an affective priming task that was Cross-References
scheduled immediately after acquisition and extinc- ▶ Conditioning and Anxiety
tion. As a measure of US-expectancy, skin conductance ▶ Evaluative Conditioning
responses were obtained throughout the experiment. ▶ Expectancy Learning and Evaluative Learning
The authors observed that whereas fast extinction was ▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
obtained for expectancy learning, as measured by the ▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
SCR, the affective priming task clearly showed resis-
tance to extinction of evaluative learning. Because References
a differentiation between the two types of learning Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R.
was demonstrated in one and the same paradigm (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of
using an extended extinction procedure, and because Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229–238.
indirect measures were used for both types of learning, Hermans, D., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (2003). On the acquisition and
activation of evaluative information in memory: The study of
this demonstration was considered as strong evidence
evaluative learning and affective priming combined. In J. Musch
for resistance to extinction of evaluative conditioning
& K. C. Klauer (Eds.), The psychology of evaluation: Affective
(Vansteenwegen et al. 2006, p. 75). Without going into processes in cognition and emotion (pp. 139–168). Mahwah: Law-
further details about the validity of the distinction rence Erlbaum.
between evaluative learning and expectancy learning, Hermans, D., Baeyens, F., Lamote, S., Spruyt, A., & Eelen, P. (2005).
these data clearly indicate the usefulness and sensitivity Affective priming as an indirect measure of food preferences
acquired through odor conditioning. Experimental Psychology,
of the affective priming task for measuring conditioned
52, 180–186.
valence. Hofmann, W., De Houwer, J., Perugini, M., Baeyens, F., & Crombez,
There are a number of open questions for future G. (2010). Evaluative conditioning in humans: A meta-analysis.
research on affective priming for acquired valance. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 390–421.
 Affordance and Second Language Learning A 175

Kerkhof, I., Goesaert, E., Dirikx, T., Vansteenwegen, D., Baeyens, F., are those possibilities that are to be perceived and
D’Hooge, R., & Hermans, D. (2009). Assessing valence indirectly
A
recognized. Affordances can be expressed as “verb-
and online. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 1615–1629.
able.” For example, a rock near the river affords “sit-
Vansteenwegen, D., Francken, G., Vervliet, B., Declerq, A., & Eelen, P.
(2006). Resistance to extinction in evaluative conditioning. Jour- able” or apple on the branch affords “eat-able.” Kono
nal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, (2009) refers to affordances as the potentials of the
71–79. environment. He notes that it can be expressed as the
circular functional process between an animal and
surrounding environment. This idea can be expressed
as follows (Fig. 1):
Affective Responses So affordance is the property of the environment
that is determined by the relation to an individual or an
▶ Emotions in Cognitive Conflicts animal. The term “relation” means that affordance is
relative to an observer. For example “a stone” in the
above figure affords standing but relative to the size of
animal.

Affective Schema Theoretical Background

▶ Emotional Schema In this chapter, the term affordance will be explicated
through different perspectives, and then it will be tied
to the notion of language and language learning.
Language is still a complex phenomenon in nature.
The notion of language and language acquisition is
Affective Value grounded in the theory of language acquisition (lin-
The affective properties of a stimulus, characterized by guistics) that is in turn the reflection of the philosophy
a degree of hedonicity (or valence) and physiological of learning (psychology). Many theories, models, and
arousal (or activity). frameworks have come into existence to propose the
wizardry of language acquisition, but each one stands
in one particular angle. If these views about the process
of language acquisition in different angles become con-
vergent, it leads to the ecology of language learning.
Affordance and Second Affordance is placed within the ecological perspective
Language Learning of learning and is assumed to be one of its mainsprings.
Brown (1993) defines ecology of language acquisition
LEILY ZIGLARI in a way that the “seeds of predisposition” and “roots of
Department of Applied Linguistics, Science &
Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

A horizontal, flat,
extended, rigid
Synonyms surface
Meaning potentials; Mediated signs; Mediation; Poten-
stand on support
tial opportunities; Relevance

Definition An animal
Gibson (1979, p.127) has noted the term affordance as
“what (the environment) offers the animal, what it
provides or furnishes, either for good or ill.” However, Affordance and Second Language Learning. Fig. 1
Singleton and Aronin (2007) note that real affordances A surface affords support (Kono 2009, p. 359)
176 A Affordance and Second Language Learning

competence” in the “climate of context” through “ger- perception

mination strategies” produce “fruit of performance.”
Nonetheless, the course of language acquisition is too
complex and many factors such as the caregivers, the environment affordance agent
way of interaction with the child, the beliefs about child
(meaning potential) (ability)
language learning, and the kind of child activities all
codetermine and affect this process (Leather and van activity
Dam 2003). Moreover, the kind of society in which the
child is being reared, the kind of scaffolding that adults Affordance and Second Language Learning. Fig. 2
provide for the child, elicitation methods as well as Affordance in context (Van Lier 2004, p. 96)
participation of the child in the communicative event
are all culture-bound.
1982; Forrester 1999). Affordances have been catego-
Affordance rized as natural, social/cultural affordances, cognitive
The idea of affordance dates back to 1954 when Gibson affordances, and actualized affordances and ▶ potential
in his theory of visual perception argued that the con- affordances (Reed 1988; van Lier 2004; Heft 2007a, b).
cepts of motion can be understood relationally. Before Forrester talks about the conversational affordances in
that time, perceptual psychologists, as Greeno (1994) terms of intonation patterns, back channels, and turn-
discusses in his article, had talked about perception taking signals, and assumes this kind of affordance is
when an observer was stationary. To Gibson, this status directly available to the learner. In sum, the three fea-
of stationary disregards some crucial factors embedded tures of affordance according to van Lier (2004) are as
in the perception. Perception is different from the follows: relationship between a person and a linguistic
stimulus–response theory as some perceptual psychol- expression – available to the active interlocutor to pick
ogists believed. J. J. Gibson and E. J. Gibson argued that up if relevant – used for further action and which leads
in ▶ perceptual learning the observer does not produce to a higher level of interaction.
an associated response to a stimulus, but rather
perceives differentiating qualities of stimuli in the envi- Affordance and Language Learning
ronment. In other words, in perceptual learning, as van Lier (2004) argues that affordance is the first level
Greeno (1994) argues, the focus is on the process of of language awareness with which the learner can estab-
“differentiation.” In 1979, Gibson proposed the theory lish a direct relationship with a property in the envi-
of affordance as the perceived opportunities for action ronment. The notions of language, language learner,
provided for the observer by an environment. To him and language learning will take a different perspective if
affordances refer to the opportunities for action or we bring the theory of affordance to the fore. From this
interaction that are offered to an individual in perspective, language is not a range of accumulated
a context in which language is one part of it. This objects or signs in the environment to be taken into
theory affected many fields such as learning and the mind of the learner for processing (input) nor is it
communication. Ecological study of language as van retrieved from memory (output); rather it is a relation-
Lier (1998) proposed concerns for the way of relating ship between the learner and the context, and so the
the individual to the environment through language or language learner should actively establish such
other sign systems (semiotics). In semiotics, a sign is a relationship with the environment. Language learn-
neither an object nor thought, but a relationship or ing will ultimately occur through active participation
mediated affordance between the individual and the out of which affordances and learning opportunities
social, physical world. will arise. In the collaborative learning of Vygotsky,
Van Lier (2004) has diagrammed the role of many opportunities will be created for learners to
affordance in our life (Fig. 2). develop the use and understanding of target language.
The notion of affordance was first supposed to be The two concepts of “creating opportunities” and
direct and relevant, but was later expanded to be indi- “developing the use and understanding of the target
rect and mediated (Reed 1988; Shotter and Newson language” have been reiterated as “affordance” and
 Affordance and Second Language Learning A 177

Pre-microgenesis activity transitional stage post-microgenesis activity

A
Linguistic
Awareness/ MG modification
Pre-microgenesis Consolidation
consciousness Affordance and/or Closure
Activity stage stage
acknowledgement

Affordance and Second Language Learning. Fig. 3 Microgenesis phases (Gánem-Gutiérrez 2008, p. 129)

“learning,” respectively in the literature. It is, therefore, error. Therefore, it is an alluring question how these
obvious that there is a link between affordance affordances can be learned and developed. Affordance
and learning. Gánem-Guitérrez (2008) refers to is the relationship between learner’s abilities and the
microgenesis affordance to elaborate the process of environment on the one hand and the perception and
language development. In this pattern, activity leads activity on the other hand. The emerging result is
to affordance. Pre-microgenesis activity includes “meaning.” It is also said that the affordances in the
organizational talk and awareness/consciousness stage environment should be relevant to the organism, but
(represented below) (Fig. 3). the question is what features of the environment are
Organizational talk entails learners’ speech or read- relevant. This question can be answered in two ways: in
ing aloud while preparing the task. In the awareness one sense, some affordances are naturally relevant as
stage that occurs in the social plane, the learner realizes flowers to the bee or the rock near the river for a person
that there is a gap between his or her knowledge of L2 to sit on; whereas in the case of other cultural or
and that of the native speaker. Subsequently, this social manufactured objects, it is the intended use of them
or inter-psychological plane leads via microgenesis that signifies the relevance. Moreover, there exists the
affordance to the intra-psychological plane whereby notion of “mediation” in the sense that there are some
the learner modifies the language verbally and the tools in the environment that mediate activity. In the
knowledge will be finally internalized. Microgenesis case of first language learning, these tools can be ges-
affordance includes the kinds of assistance (e.g., reply, tures, points, joint attention, and in higher level of
paraphrase, co-construction, corrective feedback) pro- language learning the tools encompass words, gestures,
vided to the learner by the experts or the characteris- bodily expressions or semiotic resources (McCafferty
tics of linguistic environment that help the learner to 2002), and private speech (Vygotsky). Carr (2000)
modify his or her L2 knowledge. In this regard, mul- notes that technological affordance needs to have the
tilinguals can perceive the environment and relevant three features of transparency, challenge, and accessi-
affordances much better than monolinguals since their bility to be understood and used by the learners.
linguistic knowledge helps them to develop awareness
that has an influential effect on language learning. Conclusion
In the case of language learning, it is tricky to learn the
Important Scientific Research and language that is in the environment and transmitted to
Open Questions the learner; on the contrary, the learner must pick it up
Zukow-Goldring and Arbib (2007) take the two con- while being involved in meaningful activities. Further-
cepts of affordance and effectivities as complementary more, we cannot pick the necessary parts of language
to talk about abilities to perceive opportunities for up if we do not have enough attention. So perception,
action in the environment and also the repertoire of action, attention, and consciousness totally form the
what the body can do. They note that affordances and theory of relevance. Perception should be recognized in
effectivities present at birth can be developed when the language learning classes where the teacher takes the
learner is engaging in the activities or through trial and learner’s attention in the form of noticing, focusing,
178 A Affordance and Second Language Learning

and consciousness. The first level of attention-getting is that meaning does not come from the words and their
affordance or direct perception. In fact, without pro- syntactic relations. Many aspects of linguistic environ-
viding the affordance in language learning classes, the ment such as voice quality, gesture, and facial expres-
students are unable to move to the higher levels of sion allusively provoke meaning construction.
perception that are action, cognition, and interaction. Moreover, the behavior of an individual is not stable
I referred somewhere (Ziglari 2008) that the objects or any longer, and can be influenced by his or her cogni-
features of the environment which are more frequent tion and perception of the affordances as well. By
and regular afford the individuals to perceive and act deliberately changing the environmental affordances,
upon them. In other words, the frequency and regular- the perception and action of the individuals can be
ity offer potential actions to the organism. Learning is controlled.
not fixed and can be modified as the learners experi-
ence different settings and become aware of different Cross-References
affordances. In the theory of affordance, the concepts of ▶ Affordances
language, learning, educational context, and curricu- ▶ Attention, Memory, and Meditation
lum should be reiterated as follows: ▶ Ecology of Learning
Learning will be emanated from the learners’ activ- ▶ Mediated Learning and Cognitive Modifiability
ity and is located in a meaningful and affordable situ- ▶ Perceptions of the Learning Context and Learning
ation and through their joint interaction it becomes Outcomes
explorative and experiential. Moreover, perception is
an indistinguishable part of affordance. Without per- References
ceptual capabilities, no learner can benefit from the Brown, H. D. (1993). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.
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Carr, M. (2000). Technological affordance, social practice and learn-
ence to language context, the theory of affordance
ing narratives in an early childhood setting. International Journal
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experiential, and developmental curriculum, to name Ellis, N. C. (2006). Language acquisition as rational contingency
the words of van Lier 1998. The result of such meth- learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(1), 1–24.
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in which the students learn language collaboratively. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Forrester, M. (1999). Conversation and instruction within appren-
So it can be concluded that language is not acquired
ticeship: Affordances for learning. In P. Ainley, & H. Rainbird
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In sum, language knowledge and the ability to Gánem-Gutiérrez, A. (2008). Microgenesis, method and object:
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language classroom. Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 120–148.
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more affordances will be perceived. Moreover, the more Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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More interestingly, citing McArthur and Baron
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(1983), Kono notes that the theory of affordance can Theory of Social Behavior, 19, 1–30.
change the definition of meaning. Meaning is not fixed Heft, H. (2007b). The social constitution of perceiver-environment
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linguistics. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 43,
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356–373.
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McArthur, L. Z., & Baron, R. M. (1983). Toward an ecological theory 2. (n.) An affordance may refer to a perceived
of social perception. Psychological Review, 90, 215–238.
A
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Neisser, U. (1992). Distinct systems for “where” and “what”:
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tion. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Convention of the restrictive definition that requires an agent to be
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New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. a possible action to an agent (Norman 1988).
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Unlike the traditional definition, a perceived
development: implicate orders, joint action and intentionality.
In G. Butterworth, & P. Light (Eds.), Social cognition: Studies in affordance is primarily a relationship between an
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A sociocultural perspective. Boston: Kluwar. (continuum) of affordance. This usage combines
Ziglari, L. (2008). Affordance and second language acquisition. Euro- the ease of perceiving and/or perceived ease of
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Neurocomputing, 70, 2181–2193. from a theoretical standpoint.

Theoretical Background
The affordance is a theoretical construct that represents
Affordance the potential for an action to occur between an agent
and an environment. This “potential for action” is an
BENJAMIN D. NYE, BARRY G. SILVERMAN existential relationship between an agent and an envi-
Electrical and Systems Engineering Department, ronment. In many cases, this relationship is simplified
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA by considering only a part of an agent’s environment as
offering an affordance. An example of an affordance is
the potential to open a door using a doorknob. “Open-
Synonyms ing by doorknob” affordance exists between an agent
Action possibility; Afforded action; Affording; Func- with hands and a door having a functional doorknob.
tional affordance; Perceived affordance No affordance exists if an agent lacks hands (and sim-
ilar abilities) capable of opening the door or if the
Definition doorknob is broken. This oversimplifies an agent’s
1. (n.) An affordance is an action possibility formed by environment; pulling a door open uses support from
the relationship between an agent and its environ- one’s feet, for example. However, many affordances
ment (Gibson 1977, 1979). For any combination of may be considered dyadic relationships between an
agent or environment, any given affordance either agent and an object and these are the most commonly
exists or does not exist. There is no middle ground. studied.
The most inclusive definition of affordances Originally, affordances were developed for studying
considers only the physical possibility of an action perception. This is because when an agent perceives the
occurring. An agent does not need to be aware of the world, it becomes aware of the ability to do certain
afforded action, such as the affordance of opening actions – even if those actions are not occurring or
a secret door. This definition is rooted in perceptual might never occur. There is a need for this term because
psychology and its primary source is The Ecological the potential for an action to occur is quite different
Approach to Visual Perception by Gibson (1979). than an action occurring and warrants its own
180 A Affordance

construct. For example, a person learning that a closed be determined by their ability to perceive beneficial
door is “opening” is different than that it is “openable.” affordances they have available (Gibson 1979). From
The concept of the “affordance” succinctly describes an evolutionary standpoint, organisms will survive
the relationship that an agent has perceived, which is because their perception helps them to act when
that a potential action exists. presented with stimuli. Gibson described how an agent
could have an affordance to perform some action (such
Theoretical Underpinnings as eating bananas) and how its perceptual capabilities
The Gestalt school first published concepts similar to detect these affordances through invariant characteris-
the affordance. Jon Von Uexküll described the “func- tics (i.e., yellow coloring). Gibson questioned: if an
tional coloring” of objects in his discussion of how organism could detect actions using its senses (direct
organisms might perceive the world in terms of its perception), then what is the benefit of a mental model
action possibilities (Von Uexküll 1920). Later work by that duplicates the sensory information into a new set of
Koffka describes the perceived meaning of objects in nonaction constructs (indirect perception)? This
similar terms, effectively describing perceived supported Gibson’s theory of direct perception, though
affordances (Koffka 1935). These initial constructs it did not rule out the possibility of indirect perception
were limited because they tended to describe as a complementary process.
affordances as requiring perception and were dyadic
between an agent and an object. Perceptual Recent Theoretical Work
psychologist James Gibson introduced the term Theoretical work on affordances has been slowed by
affordance in “The Theory of Affordances” (Gibson confusion about affordances and overloading of
1977). This definition, which was clarified in his later the term “affordance” (McGrenere and Ho 2000). The
book The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Gib- main alternative definition was introduced in The
son 1979), defined an affordance as a relationship Psychology of Everyday Things by Donald Norman
between an agent and its environment. This is broader (1988). Norman’s usage of affordances brought
than an agent–object relationship, since multiple parts Gibson’s theory to the design of user interfaces within
of an environment might be important to performing the human–computer interaction (HCI) community.
a given action (e.g., banging two rocks together). This The text provided a theoretical basis for implementing
extension allowed affordances to be stated indepen- user interfaces with perceptually salient affordances.
dently of any particular agent or environment, making Norman’s usage in this text refers to perceived
it a central construct in Gibson’s work on direct affordances, ones that an agent knows, and how these
perception and evolutionary perception. make certain actions salient. Unfortunately, Norman’s
Affordances were a central piece of Gibson’s later terminology made affordances seem like a perceptual
work on direct perception (Gibson 1979). Direct construct rather than an objective relationship.
perception theories posit that organsisms perceive the Norman later clarified his usage to be closer to the
environment directly in terms of the actions it affords. Gibson definition, but the alternative meaning had
For comparison, indirect perception theories typically already gained widespread acceptance in this new
propose that an agent must first develop an internal community. Affordance can also indicate a property
representation of the world based upon physical prop- of an object, which refers to a concept more akin to
erties of the environment (Rock 1997). By stating salience or utility, a third meaning. By this definition,
perception in terms of affordances, Gibson’s theory a button could be said to “have affordance” in the same
explained how an agent’s perceptual capabilities can way it might “draw attention” or “have utility.” This
be tuned to guide an agent’s behavior without requir- definition does not provide a meaningful construct for
ing conscious analysis of an “inner world.” analysis and its inconsistent usage causes great
The concept of affordances helps examine ecologi- confusion. While the definition of affordances has
cal perception, which accounts for perception in an primarily found a consensus, these alternate definitions
evolutionary and agent-based context. In this view, still cause confusion in some disciplines.
the role of perception is to enable beneficial action. Formalizations have been a factor in building con-
Gibson stated that agent’s competitive advantages will sensus about the definition of affordances. Affordances
 Affordance A 181

have since been formalized mathematically by component of perception to be the passive absorption A
a number of formulations, including the Stoffregen of the environment. Instead, perception’s main role is
(2003), Chemero (2003), and Steedman (2002) formu- to guide action in a direct manner. Ongoing research
lations. These formalizations define affordances sym- attempts to build ontologies of affordances (e.g.,
bolically, in mathematical language. This makes them Sanders 1997) and to explore how organisms detect
more amenable for experiment design and for compu- affordances (Gibson and Pick 2000).
tational implementation. Different formalizations uti- Researchers build on this by studying how
lize assumptions that make them alternatively useful affordances are learned. Eleanor Gibson’s work on
for perception, planning, or concise representation. affordance learning considers the primary learning
Researchers have extended affordance theory process to be differentiation (Gibson and Pick 2000).
beyond the classical view of affordances. Gibson’s sem- Differentiation is a process where new affordances are
inal work distinguished between perceived affordances learned by generating a distinction between one of its
and the more general definition of affordances. As existing affordances with a new, more specific
affordances became a major topic in literature, addi- affordance – causing a more general action to be split
tional classifications for affordances were created into multiple, more specific actions. Affordance discov-
(Gaver 1991). Figure 1 shows the relationships between ery experiments expose infants and children to novel
affordances and an agent’s perceptual information. The tasks under different conditions and examine how they
x-axis determines if an affordance exists, while the learn. Researchers also study imitation and social learn-
y-axis determines if an affordance perceptually seems ing of affordances. Animal imitation research studies if
to exist. Figure 2 gives examples that fit these catego- a particular animal is capable of affordance learning,
ries, for the possibility that a handed creature could such as Klein and Zentall (2003).
open a door. Applied science uses affordances in the fields of
human–computer interaction, robotics, and agent-
Important Scientific Research and based simulation. Human–computer interaction uses
Open Questions affordances to determine general principles of interface
The study of affordances advances research in the design that are optimized to allow the function of a tool
behavioral science domain as well as the applied science to be obvious from its appearance (Norman 1988).
domain. In the behavioral sciences, affordances are Robotics researchers use affordance-based learning for
used to study perceptual psychology, learning, and situated robotics, such as autonomous vehicles or
imitation. Perceptual psychology uses affordances robot arms. Some of these robots can discover actions
within the realm of direct perception research. Gibson’s from its environment, either through exploration or
work on direct perception laid the groundwork for imitation (Chemero and Turvey 2007). Agent-based
a new branch of perception theory. This branch of simulation uses simulated humans who interact with
perceptual theory does not consider the main the environment through its affordances (Silverman

Yes Yes

Painting of Door Real Door

Perceptual Information

Perceptual Information

False Perceptible
Affordance Affordance

Correct Blank Wall Secret Door

Hidden
Rejection Affordance
No No
No Yes No Yes

Ability to Perform Action Ability to Perform Action

Affordance. Fig. 1 Categories of potential affordances Affordance. Fig. 2 Potential “Openable” affordances
182 A Affordance

et al. 2006). In this paradigm, agents and their environ- concept of potential intentionality is somewhat abstract
ment are designed separately, with affordances defining and hard to define in real terms. The Norman definition
the possible activities between them. Affordances also restricts affordances further, limiting them to potential
contribute to systems research. John Holland’s work on actions which are readily perceived within the environ-
complex adaptive systems contained in Hidden Order ment. This requires an affordance to be either perceived
(Holland 1996) presents a mechanism for adaptation (known) or perceptible (readily known from its appear-
based upon affordances and the schema theorem, ance). Finally, a fully specified and deterministic view
a proof based on the genetic algorithm. posits that the only possible action is the one that is
While affordances have been a useful concept going to occur. These are but a few debates ongoing
within theoretical, empirical, and applied disciplines, about affordance theory, which will have implications
they have fundamental open questions. These ques- for the meaning and practical uses of the concept.
tions are connected to the meaning of abstractions,
the origins of knowledge, dualism, and the mind– Cross-References
body problem (Gibson and Pick 2000). Others are ▶ Action Schemas
primarily of a semantic nature, such as those addressed ▶ Affordances in AI
by Michaels (2003). A key question is how information ▶ Cognitive Modeling with Simulated Agents and
about affordances is perceived and encoded (Gibson Robots
and Pick 2000). This relates to the origins of knowledge ▶ Human–Computer Interaction and Learning
and the nature of memory. ▶ Modeling and Simulation
Other unresolved issues with affordances relate to ▶ Visual Perception Learning
their underlying constructs, such as the definition of an
action. Actions exist as part of patterns of continuous
References
behavior. This causes a classification problem of what
Chemero, A. (2003). An outline of a theory of affordances. Ecological
should be considered an action. The determination Psychology, 15, 181–195.
that an action is “possible” is an even thornier issue, Chemero, A., & Turvey, M. (2007). Gibsonian affordances for
one that underlies the disagreements between the Gib- roboticists. Adaptive Behavior, 15, 473–480.
son and Norman definitions. Figure 3 shows different Gaver, W. (1991). Technology affordances (pp. 79–84). New York:
scopes of possibility, which are shown from the most ACM Press.
Gibson, E. J., & Pick, A. D. (2000). An ecological approach to perceptual
inclusive to the most specific. In the most inclusive
learning and development. New York: Oxford University Press.
definition, an affordance is any action that could phys- Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J.
ically occur during the interaction of an agent and its Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 67–82).
environment, even unintentionally. Gibson’s view Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
requires the potential for intentionality when an agent Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
acts on an affordance, implying that an agent must be
Holland, J. (1996). Hidden order: How adaptation builds complexity.
either predisposed to certain behavior or change its Reading: Addison-Wesley.
disposition regarding to a behavior. However, the Klein, E. D., & Zentall, T. R. (2003). Initation and affordance learning
by pigeons (Columba livia). Journal of Comparative Psychology,
117, 414–419.
Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. London: Lund
Scope of Possibility Associated Definition
Humphires.
1. Physically Possible - McGrenere, J., & Ho, W. (2000). Affordances: Clarifying and evolving
2. Purposefully Possible J. Gibson, 1979 a concept. Proceedings of Graphics Interface 2000, Montreal,
pp. 179–186.
3. Perceptible Norman, 1988 Michaels, C. F. (2003). Affordances: Four points of debate. Ecological
4. Perceived - Psychology, 15(2), 135–148.
Norman, D. A. (1988). The design of everyday things. New York:
5. Deterministic -
Doubleday.
Rock, I. (1997). Indirect perception. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Affordance. Fig. 3 Definitions of the possibility of an Sanders, J. T. (1997). N ontology of affordances. Ecological Psychology,
action 9(1), 97–112.
 Affordances in AI A 183

Silverman, B. G., Johns, M., Cornwell, J. B., & O’Brien, K. (2006). Theoretical Background A
Human behavior models for agents in simulators and games: Affordances are a concept rooted in the field of percep-
Part I: Enabling science with PMFServ. Presence: Teleoperators &
tual psychology, as part of Gibson’s seminal work on
Virtual Environments, 15(2), 139–162.
Steedman, M. (2002). Formalizing affordance. Proceedings of the 24th ecological perception (Gibson 1979). An affordance is
Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 834–839. an action possibility formed by the relationship
Stoffregen, T. A. (2003). Affordances as properties of the animal- between an agent and its environment. For example,
environment system. Ecological Psychology, 15(2), 115–134. the affordance of “throwing” exists when the grasping
Von Uexküll, J. (1920). Kompositionslehre der Natur: Biologie als
and pushing capabilities of an agent are well matched
undogmatsche Naturwissenschaft. Ausgewählte Schriften. In
T. Von Uexküll (Ed.), Frankfurt am Mail. Berlin: Propyläen- to the size and weight of an object. This capacity for
Verlag (reprinted 1980). throwing is not a property of either the agent or the
object, but is instead a relationship between them. This
relationship-oriented view of the potential for action
has a growing following in the applied sciences, as it
Affordance-Based Agents presents advantages for functionality and design over
traditional AI techniques.
▶ Affordances in AI The first major usage of affordances within the
applied sciences was in the human–computer interac-
tion community as a result of the Norman (1988) book,
The Psychology of Everyday Things. Design techniques
Affordance-Based Design emerged within the interface community, attempting
to make the affordances of a user interface obvious to
▶ Affordances in AI
its intended users in the form of a tool indicating its
function. The intent was that the look and feel of the
application would help communicate information
about its affordances. While affordances had made
Affordances in AI an inroad into the computer science community,
Norman’s usage of the concept was constrained
BENJAMIN D. NYE, BARRY G. SILVERMAN compared to Gibson’s definition and not well suited
Electrical and Systems Engineering Department, for artificial intelligence purposes.
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Usage of affordances into the artificial intelligence
community started with the intent to build better
autonomous agents. Traditional AI approaches have
Synonyms had problems dealing with complex, dynamic environ-
Affordance-based agents; Affordance-based design ments (Maes 1993). There were two primary issues.
Firstly, agents designed for one environment tended
Definition to be poorly designed for any other environment.
Affordances in AI (artificial intelligence) refer to This was the result of an agent being the sole focus of
a design methodology for creating artificial intelligence knowledge engineering. Since an agent’s available
systems that are designed to perceive their environment actions were designed as intrinsic properties of an
in terms of its affordances (Sahin et al. 2007). agent, the agent itself would have to be designed
Affordances in AI are adapted from affordances intro- around its environment. Affordances provide
duced in The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception a pattern to decouple actions and agents by making
by Gibson (1979). Design methodologies in the applied actions available through affordances.
sciences use affordances to represent potential actions A second issue with traditional AI in complex and
that exist as a relationship between an agent and its dynamic environments was that traditional approaches
environment. This approach to artificial intelligence is were processing information from the environment
designed for autonomous agents, making it suitable for with little concern as to its ultimate purpose: action.
robotics and simulation. Computer vision approaches exemplify this problem.
184 A Affordances in AI

Even if an agent has perfect segmentation and feature

recognition capabilities, this new form of information
may be hard to translate into appropriate actions.
Simply put, knowing the objective properties of the Affordances in AI. Fig. 1 Stoffregen’s formalization
environment still leaves the agent with the problem of (Adapted from Stoffregen (2003))
figuring out what to do with that information. In
a static environment with little data collection cost,
this approach may work quite well. However, if the overview of the prevalent formalizations. Stoffregen’s
environment is constantly changing and there is formalization will be presented as an example formu-
a large amount of information, an agent could waste lation in Fig. 1, to help explain how affordances are
major resources collecting essentially useless and implemented in a computational context (Stoffregen
quickly outdated information without being any more 2003). Figure 1 shows this formulation. In this formu-
informed about its relevant actions. By focusing agent lation, Wpq is a system including an agent Zq and part of
perception around the detection of affordances, less the environment Xp . p are some traits of the environ-
importance is placed on processing sensory informa- ment and q are properties of the agent, respectively.
tion simply for the sake of a well-defined “mental h represents the potential affordance, which exists due
image” of its environment that may have little utility to the relationship between the properties p and q
for navigating that environment (Gibson 1979). In this (f represents that it is a relationship between these).
way, the affordance-based paradigm can lead designers Under this formalization, the affordance is said to exist
to a system that reacts quickly and effectively within its if the system Wpq contains the affordance h but neither
environment. This advantage primarily benefits AI of the subsystems Xp or Zq contain this affordance. This
developers for embedded applications. While robotics formulation ensures that the affordance emerges due to
research has been most interested in this aspect, it is the relationship between agent and environment,
also relevant to web agents such as automated shoppers rather than a property of either alone.
or Web site interface testers. A common approach to implementing affordances
As with most design decisions, each advantage is by defining affordances in terms of relationships
comes at a cost. While affordances can be used to between properties of an agent and properties of the
make agents reusable across multiple environments, environment. In other words, a programmer will define
the conditions that determine the existence of an the relationship f in terms of the attributes of the agent
affordance can become increasingly complex as (q) and the environment (p). For example, the
a function of the environment. For example, the affordance “can traverse” could exist if the agent had
affordance “can throw” must be represented more elab- wheels and the ground was rigid and flat. Any combi-
orately if mass and an agent’s strength are considered. nation of agent and landscape that fits the affordance’s
While a more traditional representation allows agents conditions would be able to take that action. Likewise,
to define their possible actions in their own terms, the the “can traverse” affordance could be enabled for an
affordance paradigm establishes global rules for the agent with flippers and a watery environment. It can be
availability of an action. This could be a drawback in readily seen that affordances provide a straightforward
some systems. Similarly, for a fixed environment where way for defining where different actions exist. Espe-
detailed maps of all information are needed to perform cially when allowing for nesting of affordances,
an action, affordance-based AI will provide little affordances defined in terms of other affordances, this
advantage over traditional systems. For example, if an can be a powerful tool for abstracting the potential for
agent’s “actions” consist of segmenting and labeling action.
images, then traditional machine vision techniques Affordances can then come full circle and be used
could be a better fit. for perception, in an artificial intelligence context. The
There are a variety of ways of implementing simplest approach is to design an environment where
affordances in artificial intelligence, which are based an agent directly perceives affordances. For a person
on different mathematical formalizations of the working in modeling and simulation, it is possible to
affordance concept. Sahin et al. (2007) gives an design the affordance relationships in terms of the
 Affordances in AI A 185

qualities of the agents and elements of the environ- formalizations focus on issues of perception and A
ment. This allows an agent to directly see the existence rather than inference. Research developing
affordances available to them at any given time, if formal representations helps drive the use of
they are allowed to evaluate the existential conditions affordances in AI at the theoretical level.
for the given action. Cognitive architectures such as The formalizations of affordances enable applied
PMFServ use affordances as fundamental elements of uses of affordances. Robotics research currently uses
perception that can be observed within the environ- affordances to help deal with the problem of autono-
ment (Silverman et al. 2007). For embedded autono- mous robots in complex environments. One research
mous agents, the situation is more complicated. The topic is to have a situated agent learn about actions in
environment for an agent can be mapped into proper- its environment. This approach is based on the theo-
ties, emulating the affordance-only perception situa- retical work by Gibson (1979) and also the later work
tion. Alternatively, an agent can be built to learn on learning of affordances by Gibson and Pick (2000).
invariant properties through experience or imitation. One implementation of this is to have a goal-directed
These different techniques provide a basis for applied agent which gets feedback from outcomes in its envi-
research in AI. ronment through unsupervised or supervised learning,
a design similar to empirical affordance learning
Important Scientific Research and research done with children. A common paradigm is
Open Questions that a stationary robot has certain available movements
The use of affordances within AI and adaptive agents for interacting with objects within its environment
has been growing over the decade. The increase in such as Cog, shown in Fig. 2 (Fitzpatrick and Metta
usage is evident in the development of new formaliza- 2003). The robot will be presented with different objects
tions in order to accommodate new uses. An early and allowed to manipulate the objects to learn invariant
formalization by Turvey (1992) presented a first pass properties that help infer if an affordance is present.
at representing affordances. However, efforts to imple- Research also has demonstrated the ability of robots to
ment affordance-based adaptation did not truly catch learn affordances from other robots, enabling basic
on until almost 10 years later. Three formalizations imitation and social learning (Montesano et al. 2008).
were presented by Steedman (2002), Stoffregen Affordances have also gained a foothold in the agent-
(2003), and Chemero (2003) in close succession. Addi- based modeling and design community. Software-based
tional representations have been developed since then, agents are also autonomous, but they are embodied
including Chemero and Turvey (2007) and Sahin et al. within a stylized environment, application, or even the
(2007). These formalizations suit different needs. The internet. Affordance-based design has been applied to
Steedman version, for example, is built for planning web agents, such as would be used within a semantic
and computational logic. The Stoffregen and Chemero web. Economic applications, such as a comparative

Begin Find end-effector Sweep Contact! Withdraw

Affordances in AI. Fig. 2 Cog, A Robot used to learn affordances (Source: Fitzpatrick and Metta (2003))
186 A Affordances in AI

shopping or price bidding, are one of the goals of such Agent-based simulation has been using affordances
research. Agents in virtual environments, such as games, to help build cognitive agents for some time.
can also be based on affordances in order to assist agent Affordance theory provides a plausible cognitive pro-
navigation or context-based adaptation. cess for perception in humans, the ecological theory of

CountrySim country stability simulation

Non-Kin Village Simulation

Affordances in AI. Fig. 3 PMFServ affordance-based agent applications

 Agent-Based Computational Economics A 187

perception. This makes affordance theory a desirable Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. New York:
Basic Books.
A
choice for cognitive modelers seeking a biologically
Raubal, M. (2001). Ontology and epistemology for agent-based
plausible model for perception. PMFServ, a project
wayfinding simulation. International Journal of Geographical
started in 1998, is a cognitive architecture built up Information Science, 15(7), 653–665.
from descriptive models of cognition from the social Sahin, E., Çakmak, M., Dogar, M. R., Ugur, E., & Üçoluk, G. (2007).
sciences and an early adopter of affordance-based per- To afford or not to afford: A new formalization of affordances
ception (Silverman et al. 2007). Affordance theory toward affordance-based robot control. Adaptive Behavior, 15(4),
447–472. ISAB.
allows PMFServ agents’ cognitive models to perceive
Silverman, B. G., Bharathy, G., Nye, B. D., & Eidelson, R. J. (2007).
actions within the environment, rather than endowing Modeling factions for “effects based operations”: Part I- leaders
agents with a particular set of actions. This paradigm and followers. Computational & Mathematical Organization The-
allows agents to learn and adapt to new contexts and ory, 13(4), 379–406. Springer.
also facilitates reuse of agents, actions, and environ- Steedman, M. (2002). Formalizing affordance. In Proceedings of
ments. Simulations using PMFServ agents, shown in the 24th annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society
(pp. 834–839).
Fig. 3, have modeled country stability, insurgent cells,
Stoffregen, T. A. (2003). Affordances as properties of the animal-
and even an Iraqi village known as the Non-Kinetic environment system. Ecological Psychology, 15(2), 115–134. Law-
Village, upon which a cultural training game runs. rence Earlbaum.
These agents are designed for adaptation, decision- Turvey, M. T. (1992). Affordances and prospective control: An outline
making, and emotional concerns. Alternatively, of the ontology. Ecological Psychology, 4, 173–187.
affordances have also been used by finer-grained agents
that simulate spatial problems such as path-finding
(Raubal 2001). Each of these areas has significant
opportunities for further exploration, as affordance- Afforded Action
based AI is still maturing as a field-drawing off of
▶ Affordance
formalizations developed within the last decade.

Cross-References
▶ Affordances Affording
▶ Artificial Intelligence
▶ Cognitive Modeling with Simulated Agents and ▶ Affordance
Robots
▶ Modeling and Simulation
▶ Robot Learning
After School Tutorial Programs
References ▶ Learning and Development After School
Fitzpatrick, P., & Metta, G. (2003). Grounding vision through
experimental manipulation. Philosophical Transactions The
Royal Society: Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences,
361(1811), 2165–2185.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Agency
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Gibson, E. J., & Pick, A. D. (2000). An ecological approach to perceptual ▶ Biographical Learning
learning and development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Maes, P. (1993). Behavior-based artificial intelligence. In Proceedings
of the fifteenth annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society
(pp. 74–83), Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colo-
rado, Boulder. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale. Agent-Based Computational
Montesano, L., Lopes, M., Bernardino, A., & Santos-Victor, J. (2008). Economics
Learning object affordances: From sensory motor maps to imi-
tation. IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 24(1). ▶ Learning Agent and Agent-Based Modeling
188 A Agent-Based Modeling

Agent-based models involve two main components.

Agent-Based Modeling Firstly, these models entail the definition of
a population of agents. The agents are the computa-
ELIO MARCHIONE, MAURICIO SALGADO tional representation of some specific social actors –
CRESS: Centre for Research in Social Simulation, individual people or animals, organizations such as
Department of Sociology, University of Surrey, firms, or bodies such as nation-states – capable of
Guildford, Surrey, UK interacting, that is, they can pass informational
messages to each other and act on the basis of what
they learn from these messages. Thus, each agent in the
Synonyms model is an autonomous entity. The artificial popula-
Agent-based simulation; Artificial societies; Individ- tion can include heterogeneous agents, which is useful
ual-based modeling when the researcher wants to build a model of a certain
phenomenon with different agents’ capabilities, roles,
Definition perspectives, or stocks of knowledge. Secondly, ABM
Agent-based modeling is a computational method that involves the definition of some environment. The envi-
enables researchers to create, analyze, and experiment ronment is the virtual world in which the agents act. It
with models composed of autonomous and heteroge- may be an entirely neutral medium with little or no
neous agents that interact within an environment in effect on the agents, as in some agent-based models
order to identify the mechanisms that bring about based on game theory, where the environment has no
some macroscopic phenomenon of interest. meaning. In other models, the environment may be as
carefully designed as the agents themselves, as in some
Theoretical Background ecological or anthropological agent-based models
There is an increasing interest in agent-based modeling where the environment represents complex geograph-
(ABM) as a modeling approach in the social sciences ical space that affects the agents’ behavior.
because it enables researchers to build computational One of the main objectives of ABM is to falsify, by
models where individual entities and their cognition experimental means, the hypothesized mechanisms that
and interactions are directly represented. In comparison bring about the macroscopic phenomenon the
to alternative modeling techniques, such as variable- researcher is interested in explaining. Following
based approaches using structural equations or sys- the definition provided by Hedström (2005),
tem-based approaches using differential equations, a mechanism describes a constellation of entities (i.e.,
ABM allows modelers to simulate the emergence of agents) and activities (i.e., actions) that are organized
macroscopic or system regularities over time, such as such that they regularly bring about a particular type of
ant colonies, flock of birds, norms of cooperation, outcome. We explain an observed macroscopic phe-
traffic jams, or languages, from local interactions of nomenon by referring to the mechanisms by which the
autonomous and heterogeneous agents (Gilbert 2008). phenomenon is regularly brought about. In ABM, these
The emergent properties of an agent-based model are mechanisms are translated as the model microspeci-
then the result of “bottom-up” processes, the outcome fications, that is to say, the set of behavioral and simple
of agent interactions, rather than “top-down” rules that specify how the agents locally behave and
direction. In fact, the absence of any form of top- react to their environment (which includes, of course,
down control is the hallmark of ABM, since the other agents). Once the population of agents and the
cognitive processes, behaviors, and interactions at the environment is defined, the researcher can implement
agent-level bring about the observed regularities in the the microspecifications and run the computer simula-
system- or macro-level. For this reason, ABM is most tion in order to evaluate whether these rules bring
appropriate for studying processes that lack central about the macro-phenomenon of interest, over the
coordination, including the emergence of macroscopic simulated time. When the model can generate the
patterns that, once established, impose order from the type of outcome to be explained, then the researcher
top down. has provided a computational demonstration that
 Agent-Based Modeling A 189

a given microspecification (or mechanism) is in fact Another inspiring application of ABM is due to A
sufficient to generate the macrostructure of interest. Epstein and Axtell (1996). Their model, named
This demonstration, called generative sufficiency “Sugarscape,” replicates market behavior. Agents are
(Epstein 1999), provides a candidate mechanism- located on a grid and trade with neighbors. There are
based explanation of the macro-phenomenon. The just two commodities: sugar and spice. All agents con-
agent-based modeler can then use relevant data and sume both these, but at different rates. Each agent has its
statistics to gauge the generative sufficiency of a given own welfare function, relating its relative preference for
microspecification by testing the agreement between sugar or spice to the amount it has “in stock” and the
“real-world” and the generated macrostructures in the amount it needs. The expected market-clearing price
computer simulation. On the other hand, when the emerges from the many bilateral trades. An analysis of
model cannot generate the outcome to be explained, such a model allowed them to state that the quantity of
the microspecification is not a candidate explanation of trade is less than that predicted by neoclassical theory,
the phenomenon and the researcher has demonstrated since agents are only able to trade with their neighbors.
the hypothesized mechanism to be false. Therefore, There are a number of studies that apply agent-
agent-based models can be used to perform highly based models to investigate opinion dynamics and
abstract thought experiments that explore plausible customer behavior. These models are mostly concerned
mechanisms that may underlie observed patterns. with understanding the influence of friends, families,
Finally, it can be said that the interest in ABM and other social factors on the development of political
reflects a growing interest in complex adaptive systems opinions and on shaping customers’ taste; for instance,
by social scientists, that is to say, the possibility that explaining the spread of extremist opinions within
human societies may be described as highly complex, a population or identifying factors, not related to the
path-dependent, nonlinear, and self-organizing sys- quality of a product, that might affect consumer
tems (Macy and Willer 2002). The emphasis on pro- behaviors.
cesses and on the relations between entities that bring Several scholars have applied agent-based models to
about macroscopic regularities, both of which can be investigate cooperation, reciprocity, and long-term
examined by ABM, accounts for the developing link strategies. These authors understand cooperation as
between this theoretical perspective and ABM research. the emergence and maintenance of persistent relations
among actors within a shared environment. Their aim
Important Scientific Research and is to design mechanisms that yield cooperative behav-
Open Questions iors. One aspect of this work is the investigation of the
Agent-based models have become a standard tool in role played by the creation and destruction of links
most branches of the social sciences, ecology, biology, between firms, such as supply chains and small firms
linguistics, anthropology, and economics. The scien- clustered in industrial districts. ABM approaches have
tific researches that are briefly described in the rest of been successfully used to test the performance of dif-
the section have been chosen to illustrate the diversity ferent network structures with respect to innovation,
of the problem areas where ABM has been used knowledge, financial links, and other firm features.
productively as well as issues where there is as yet not Whether to conceive agent-based modeling as
full agreement. a mode of building theory or as an attempt for imitation
One of the most famous ABMs was proposed by is one of the current debates on ABM. Computer pro-
Thomas Schelling (1971). His model aimed to explain grams, like scientific theories, have semantic signifi-
observed racial segregation in American cities. cance; each line of code stands for other things for the
Although this is an abstract model, it has influenced user of those programs and theories. However, theories
recent work on understanding the persistence of segre- do not possess the causal capability of computer pro-
gation in urban centers. The striking finding of this grams, which act on those machines where they are
study, as explained by Schelling, is that even quite low loaded, compiled, and executed. Therefore, according
degrees of racial prejudice could yield the strongly to this perspective, computer programs allow
segregated patterns typical of US cities in the 1970s. a researcher to refine and adjust the theory by
190 A Agent-Based Simulation

observing and measuring the causal features that this References

brings about. Contrarily, several scholars understand Russell, S. J., & Norvig, P. (2003). Artificial intelligence: A modern
ABM as tool for imitation. They maintain that the approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
knowledge produced by means of ABM is valid only if
it reproduces some feature known by experience.
Hence, this line of thinking suggests that the adequacy
of imitation rather than any derivation from theoretical
principles is the only successful criterion to build
Age-Related Differences in
a sound agent-based model. Achievement Goal
Differentiation
Cross-References
▶ Artificial Intelligence MIMI BONG
▶ Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems Department of Education, Korea University,
▶ Computer Simulation Model Anam-dong, Seoul, South Korea
▶ Learning Agents and Agent-Based Modeling
▶ Modeling and Simulation
Synonyms
References Achievement goal orientations; Learning and perfor-
Epstein, J. M., & Axtell, R. L. (1996). Growing Artificial Societies: mance goals; Mastery and performance goals; Task-
Social Science from the Bottom Up. USA: Brookings Institution. and ego-involvement
Epstein, J. M. (1999). Agent-based computational models and gen-
erative social science. Complexity, 4(5), 41–60.
Gilbert, N. (2008). Agent-Based Models. California: Sage Publications. Definition
Hedström, P. (2005). Dissecting the Social: On the Principles of Ana- Students engage in achievement strivings for a variety
lytical Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. of reasons and with diverse purposes. Achievement
Macy, M. W., & Willer, R. (2002). From factors to actors: Computa- goals refer to these reasons, goals, and purposes under-
tional Sociology and Agent-Based Modeling. Annual Review of lying individuals’ achievement-related behaviors.
Sociology, 28(1), 143–166.
Achievement goals often function as a primary moti-
Schelling, T. C. (1971). Dynamic Models of Segregation. Journal of
Mathematical Sociology, 1, 143–186. vator driving students’ cognition, affect, and actions in
specific learning situations. For young children, the
goal of improving their competence is the most impor-
tant such reason when they demonstrate achievement
Agent-Based Simulation behaviors. Because young children have strong mastery
motivation and are not attuned to social comparison
▶ Agent-Based Modeling information just yet, the goal of validating their com-
petence is less meaningful than that of acquiring new
knowledge and developing new skills. In comparison,
achievement behaviors of older students are often
Agents guided by other types of goals as well, including the
In artificial intelligence (AI), an agent is an autono- goals of demonstrating their superiority or concealing
mous entity, which acts upon an environment and their inferiority relative to others. Similar to most other
directs its activities toward achieving some specified belief systems, achievement goals tend to be more
intentions. Intelligent agents are able to learn and clearly differentiated as children grow older.
apply knowledge to achieve their goals. Russell and
Norvig (2003) distinguish five classes of agents in Theoretical Background
dependence on their intelligence and capability: Simple Many theorists working in the area of motivation
reflex agents, model-based reflex agents, goal-based research in the late 1970s and early 1980s have inde-
agents, utility-based agents, and learning agents. pendently come up with similar conceptualizations
 Age-Related Differences in Achievement Goal Differentiation A 191

that explain fundamental differences in the nature of in achievement settings. Whereas the target or outcome A
individuals’ achievement strivings (e.g., Ames and goals represent “what” individuals try to accomplish,
Archer 1988; Dweck and Leggett 1988; Nicholls 1984). achievement goals represent “why” they try to accom-
Dweck and colleagues, for example, observed that plish those specific goals, aims, or objectives. Therefore,
children responded to failures in markedly different individuals who strive to attain the same objective may
ways, with some children showing a particularly debil- do so with different purposes in mind. Achievement
itating pattern of emotional and behavioral responses. goals offer more accurate explanations and predictions
These different reactions followed failure feedback that for individuals’ responses to achievement situations
emphasized ability as having either fixed or malleable than do target goals and hence have quickly become
characteristics. When the children attributed their fail- one of the most actively pursued topics in the class-
ure to lack of ability and also believed that their ability room motivation research (Pintrich 2003).
is more or less fixed, they demonstrated the most Researchers generally agree that there are three
maladaptive and helpless pattern. More specifically, major types of achievement goals students may pursue
they avoided challenge, slackened effort prematurely in academic situations. A mastery goal is rooted in
with a hint of potential failure, and used ineffective belief that ability is malleable and improves with new
strategies when facing obstacles. learning. Students adopting a mastery goal thus engage
This led Dweck to suggest that children subscribe in learning activities for the purpose of developing their
different theories of intelligence and these theories in competence. They define success as a progress, task
turn guide children to attach different meanings to mastery, and gaining understanding, and view occa-
their achievement behaviors and confront achievement sional failures as part of natural learning processes that
situations with different purposes (Dweck and Leggett do not necessarily indicate low ability. In contrast,
1988). According to Dweck, children who subscribe an belief that ability is fixed and something that one either
“incremental” theory of intelligence pursue a learning possesses or does not possess leads individuals to adopt
goal, whereas those who subscribe an “entity” theory of a performance goal. Students pursuing a performance
intelligence pursue a performance goal. Dweck thus goal define success as normative superiority and view
distinguished between two contrasting purposes and failures as indicative of low ability.
named them a learning goal and a performance goal, A performance goal is further divided into
respectively, whereas Nicholls (1984) contrasted task- a performance-approach and a performance-avoidance
involvement and ego-involvement to capture similar goal (Elliot and Harackiewicz 1996), depending on
differences in the quality of children’s achievement whether one’s goal is to validate their superior compe-
strivings. Ames and colleagues (Ames and Archer tence or conceal their incompetence, respectively.
1988) also proposed a distinction between a mastery Students with a performance-approach goal seek
and a performance goal that are associated with differ- opportunities to outperform others, achieve easy
ent patterns of cognition, affect, and motivation in success, and when coupled with high competence,
specific learning situations. occasionally choose difficult tasks that could document
Although these new concepts were called by slightly their relative excellence. Those with a performance-
different names, all of them shared important com- avoidance goal, on the contrary, try to achieve for the
monalities. They were all competence-based goals and purpose of avoiding the negative possibility of
represented subjective meanings and purposes attached performing poorly compared to others and being
to one’s endeavor in the given achievement situation. judged by others as lacking ability. These students
Depending on the types of reasons or purposes of avoid challenge, use self-defeating strategies, and suffer
achievement-related behaviors, there existed noticeable from feelings of low competence.
differences in the ways students defined success, When Bong (2009) assessed achievement goals of
approached and carried out academic tasks and activ- more than 1,000 elementary and middle school
ities, and responded to failure. students in Korea, important age-related differences
Achievement goals should be distinguished from were observed in both the strength of correlation
typical goals, aims, or objectives that individuals pursue among the achievement goals and the degree of
192 A Age-Related Verbal Memory Decline

endorsement of each achievement goal across the age These researchers argue that the seeming advantage of
group. Achievement goals of younger children were a performance-approach goal is short-lived and will
more strongly correlated with each other than those disappear quickly when students start experiencing
of older students. Children in Grades 1–4 in elementary difficulties and repeated failures. Longitudinal research
school also reported that they pursued a mastery goal over multiple years will be able to shed light on the true
more strongly than they did other achievement goals. nature of a performance-approach goal.
In contrast, older students in Grades 5–9 endorsed
a performance-approach goal as the most important Cross-References
reason for their achievement behaviors. ▶ Academic Motivation
▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation
Open Questions ▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
More recently, Elliot and colleagues (e.g., Elliot and ▶ Motivational Variables in Learning
McGregor 2001) proposed a 2 2 framework that ▶ School Motivation
distinguishes achievement goals by goal definition
(i.e., mastery vs performance) and goal valence (i.e., References
approach vs avoidance). Accordingly, they argued that Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom:
a mastery goal could also be differentiated into students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of
a mastery-approach and a mastery-avoidance goal. Educational Psychology, 80, 260–267.
Bong, M. (2009). Age-related differences in achievement goal differ-
Whereas a mastery-approach goal refers to the desire
entiation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 879–896.
to learn new things and improve one’s ability, Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to
a mastery-avoidance goal represents the desire to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.
avoid the aversive prospect of not learning as much as Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance
possible and getting worse at things one used to per- achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational anal-
ysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461–475.
form well. A mastery-avoidance goal is said to be most
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 2 achievement
relevant for individuals with a strong perfectionist ori- goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80,
entation, the elderly, and those who begin to focus on 501–519.
maintaining their level of performance after having Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., &
reached their peak in a particular domain. The litera- Thrash, T. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory:
ture is not conclusive at this point regarding the psy- necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology,
94, 638–645.
chological reality of this goal. More investigations are
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-
needed to test validity of this framework, especially approach goals: good for what, for whom, under what circum-
among younger populations. stances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93,
Another area that has been under constant debate is 77–96.
the role of a performance-approach goal. Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: conceptions of
ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
A performance-approach goal demonstrated positive
Psychological Review, 91, 328–346.
relationships with many adaptive outcomes, most Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role
notably performance indexes. Motivation theorists are of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal
divided over the implications of this finding. Some of Educational Psychology, 95, 667–686.
advocate the benefit of adopting a performance-
approach goal, which often yields tangible gains such
as improved test scores (e.g., Harackiewicz et al. 2002).
Others point to the harmful emotional consequences Age-Related Verbal Memory
associated with a performance-approach goal upon
failure and warn educators to discourage students
Decline
from adopting such a goal (e.g., Midgley et al. 2001). ▶ Verbal Learning and Aging
 Aging Effects on Motor Learning A 193

involves the progressive association between isolated A

Aging Effects on Motor elements of movement, eventually allowing for rapid
Learning sequence execution. These two types of skill learning
are thought to rely on distinct underlying neural
JOAQUIN A. ANGUERA1, JIN BO2, RACHAEL D. SEIDLER3 substrates and cognitive strategies at different stages
1
Departments of Neurology and Physiology, University of the learning process (cf. Doyon et al. 2003).
of California, San Francisco, CA, USA The early stage of motor learning is associated
2
Psychology Department, Eastern Michigan University, with engagement of the dorsolateral prefrontal and
Ypsilanti, MI, USA parietal cortices, and is susceptible to interference
3
Department of Psychology, School of Kinesiology, from secondary cognitive tasks. We have recently
Neuroscience Program, and Institute of Gerontology, shown that, while young adults engage spatial working
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA memory during the early stage of sensorimotor adap-
tation, age-related deficits in adaptation are associated
with a failure to engage spatial working memory
Synonyms processes (Anguera et al. 2011). An extensive literature
Skill acquisition in the elderly demonstrates that older adults rely more on cognitive
resources for the control of simple actions than young
Definition adults; in terms of motor learning, however, it appears
Motor learning, also referred to as skill acquisition, has that older adults are less likely to engage the relevant
been described as the processes associated with practice cognitive processes (cf. Anguera et al. 2011; Bo et al.
or experience that lead to a relatively permanent change 2009).
in one’s capability for responding. Older adults show In terms of motor sequence learning, we have
impairments in skill acquisition when compared to recently reported that older adults exhibit a slower
their younger counterparts; that is, they learn at rate of learning and form shorter chunk lengths asso-
a slower rate and typically do not attain the same ciating individual movement elements (Bo et al. 2009).
performance level as young adults, despite extended In addition, older adults exhibit an overall reduction in
task practice. Recent work has identified many of the both working memory capacity and sequence chunking
factors underlying age deficits in motor learning, patterns, indicating that working memory impair-
paving the way for new rehabilitative interventions. ments partially explain age-related deficits in motor
sequence learning. In combination, these two examples
Theoretical Background document that age-related cognitive deficits affect
The study of motor learning has a rich history, motor learning ability.
spanning more than 100 years. Recent technological
advancements in neuroimaging have provided Important Scientific Research and
researchers with the ability to map time-varying net- Open Questions
works of brain activity to theories regarding changes in We have demonstrated an important role for spatial
motor behavior. A greater understanding of the cogni- working memory in the two major types of motor skill
tive and neural underpinnings of skill acquisition in learning. Moreover, age-related spatial working mem-
young adults has led to an enhanced understanding of ory deficits contribute to declines in skill acquisition.
the mechanisms of age-related learning deficits. However, it is likely that other cognitive and sensori-
Motor learning researchers have typically classified motor physiological processes also play a role (cf.
learning into two distinct categories: sensorimotor Seidler et al. 2010). An important future direction will
adaptation and sequence learning. Sensorimotor adap- be to measure and take into account both peripheral
tation involves the modification of one’s movements and central neurophysiological changes that occur with
to compensate for changes in sensory inputs or senescence to better understand how each contributes
motor output characteristics. Motor sequence learning to deficits in motor learning. Moreover, approaches to
194 A Agreeableness

improve motor learning performance in older adults, References

such as working memory training or the provision of Anguera, J. A., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Willingham, D. T., & Seidler,
alternate strategies, are potential avenues that could R. D. (2011). Failure to engage spatial working memory contrib-
facilitate meaningful interventions that would improve utes to age-related declines in visuomotor learning. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(1), 11–25.
one’s quality of life.
Bo, J., Borza, V., & Seidler, R. D. (2009). Age-related declines in visuo-
The use of brain imaging techniques to study spatial working memory correlate with deficits in explicit motor
changes in brain structure and function with age has sequence learning. Journal of Neurophysiology, 102, 2744–2754.
contributed greatly to our understanding of perfor- Doyon, J., Penhune, V., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2003). Distinct contri-
mance declines with age. Such work suggests that bution of the cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebellar systems to
motor skill learning. Neuropsychologia, 41, 252–262.
older adults recruit compensatory brain networks to
Page, S. J., Szaflarski, J. P., Eliassen, J. C., et al. (2009). Cortical
maintain cognitive task performance. While some plasticity following motor skill learning during mental practice
studies report evidence of compensatory recruitment in stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 23, 382–388.
for motor control as well, there is no evidence that Seidler, R. D., Bernard, J. A., Burutolu, T. B., Fling, B. W., Gordon,
older adults exhibit over-activation of brain regions M. T., Gwin, J. T., Kwak, Y., & Lipps, D. B. (2010). Motor control
when learning new motor skills. In fact, our recent and aging: Links to age-related brain structural, functional, and
biochemical effects. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
findings have demonstrated that older adults show
34(5), 721–733.
a failure to effectively engage essential cognitive pro- Williamson, J. D., Espeland, M., Kritchevsky, S. B., Newman, A. B.,
cesses during the early learning period (Anguera et al. King, A. C., Pahor, M., Guralinik, J. M., Pruitt, L. A., & Miller,
2011). Clearly, additional brain imaging studies need to M. E. (2009). Changes in cognitive function in a randomized trial
be performed to provide a deeper understanding of the of physical activity: Results of the lifestyle interventions and
independence for elders pilot study. Journal of Gerontology Series
neural mechanisms of motor learning in aging.
A – Biological Sciences and Medical Science, 64, 688–694.
The older adult population in the USA in 2030 has
been projected to be nearly twice as large as it was in
2000. This dramatic shift in population demographics
will result in an increased need for programs and Agreeableness
interventions that not only improve activities of
daily living, but also spur a faster recovery for One of the big five personality factors. Individuals
individuals afflicted with an injury or neurological scoring high on this dimension are empathetic,
insult. Novel rehabilitative strategies based on motor friendly, generous, and helpful.
learning principles have shown to be effective. For
example, individuals affected by stroke that
underwent mental motor training have reported AIME - Amount of Invested
better functionality in their upper extremities and
greater gains in activities of daily living than those
Mental Effort
seen with standard physiotherapy (Page et al. 2009).
KATHERINE S. CENNAMO
Broader-based interventions have led to improvements
Department of Learning Sciences and Technologies,
in both cognitive and motor function in older adults
School of Education, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg,
(Williamson et al. 2009). Such approaches, based on
VA, USA
current mechanistic understandings of motor learning
and brain plasticity, may extend independent living
and quality of life. Synonyms
Amount of invested mental effort; Attention; Concen-
tration; Mental effort; Mental workload; Use of cogni-
Cross-References tive capacity
▶ Implicit Sequence Learning
▶ Procedural Learning Definition
▶ Sensorimotor Adaptation AIME is an acronym that stands for “amount of invested
▶ Sequence Learning mental effort.” First proposed by Gabriel Salomon in
 Alertness and Learning of Individuals with PIMD A 195

1983, he defines the construct of AIME as “the number of perceptions and attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology,
76, 647–658.
A
of non-automatic elaborations (▶ Elaboration) applied
Salomon, G., & Leigh, T. (1984). Predispositions about learning from
to a unit of material” (Salomon 1983, p. 42). In cogni-
print and television. The Journal of Communication, 34, 119–135.
tive theories of learning, elaboration involves connecting
new information with related information, often stored
as prior knowledge. When new information is mentally
connected to related information, it can be stored in
terms of a more inclusive concept in the learner’s mental Alertness and Learning of
schemata. The increased contact with the learner’s men- Individuals with PIMD
tal schemata that results from the conscious, non-
automatic generation of elaborations, or mental effort, VERA S. MUNDE1, CARLA VLASKAMP1, WIED RUIJSSENAARS1,
is presumed to facilitate the retention and retrieval of the BEA MAES2, HAN NAKKEN1
1
new material. In contrast to automatic processing, Department of Special Needs Education and Child
which is fast and effortless, non-automatic processing Care, University of Groningen, Groningen,
is deliberate, conscious, and very much under the con- The Netherlands
2
trol of the individual. Because AIME is assumed to be Parenting and Special Education Research Group,
a voluntary process that is under the control of the Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
individual, and as such is available for introspection, it
is measured through self-report questionnaires.
AIME has been studied in relation to learner’s pre- Synonyms
conceptions of a medium of presentation, such as tele- Attention; Behavior state; Concentration; Engagement;
vision, video, and print. In a series of studies, Salomon On-task behavior; Responsiveness
(Salomon 1983, 1984; Salomon and Leigh 1984) con-
sistently found that students reported investing more Definition
effort in processing a text-based lesson than in Although individuals with profound intellectual and
processing a lesson presented through the oral and multiple disabilities (PIMD) form a heterogeneous
representational symbol systems employed by televi- target group, with every individual experiencing
sion. Furthermore, these studies noted a significant a different combination of possibilities and disabilities,
positive correlation between the amount of mental a number of characteristics are similar for the entire
effort students reported and their achievement scores. group. Individuals with PIMD all suffer from severe or
These findings initiated a series of similar research profound intellectual and motor disabilities, mostly
studies investigating the extent to which preconcep- caused by damage to the central nervous system.
tions of the processing requirements of a medium Additionally, sensory disabilities and secondary
may influence the amount of mental effort expended impairments such as seizure disorders, pulmonary
in learning from a medium, especially television and infections, and skeletal deformations are common. As
video, that continued through the mid-1990s. a consequence, individuals in the target group reach
a maximal developmental age of 24 months and most
Cross-References of them are confined to a wheelchair. Language in any
▶ Children’s Learning from TV form, for example, speech, signing, or use of symbols,
▶ Mental Effort will be limited or nonexistent. Because of the complex-
▶ Schema(s) ity and severity of their disabilities, their daily support
needs are qualified as pervasive (Nakken and Vlaskamp
2007).
References In the care of individuals with PIMD, alertness has
Salomon, G. (1983). Television watching and mental effort: A social
been described as “being open for or focused on the
psychological view. In J. Bryant & D. Anderson (Eds.), Children’s
understanding of television. New York: Academic. environment.” Descriptions in the behavioral sciences
Salomon, G. (1984). Television is “easy” and print is “tough”: the can be distinguished as being of two types. On the one
differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function hand, authors refer to alertness as the internal state of
196 A Alertness and Learning of Individuals with PIMD

an individual which becomes manifest and observable the environment; (2) being awake, but focused on
in the individual’s behavior; on the other, alertness is oneself and not in contact with the environment; and
described as the level of an individual’s interaction and (3) being asleep, without any focus or contact. More-
engagement with the environment. The main differ- over, the position of stereotypical behavior within these
ence in the descriptions here is that of focus: either on observation schemes has been discussed. On the one
the individual or on interaction with the environment. hand, stereotypical behavior has been described as
a separate alertness level; on the other, researchers
Theoretical Background state that stereotypical behavior can occur on all levels.
In general, “being alert” is one of the most important Another point of view is that stereotypical behavior is
preconditions for learning and development. Activities a form of communication or coping rather than being
to promote learning and development need to be related to alertness levels (Munde et al. 2009).
started at the “best moment.” Only if individuals are In a second step, and based on the individual
open to the environment, can the stimuli that are description of alertness expressions, DSPs can choose
presented enter the consciousness of the individual. the “best moment” during the day for a person with
This is also true for individuals with PIMD. As they PIMD. To do so, DSPs can register alertness levels along
are dependent on others for almost all daily activities with the influencing effects of internal and external
and experiences, it is very important for parents and factors at that moment. Internal factors such as being
direct support persons (DSPs) to choose the “best ill or being tired have to be taken into account when
moment” to stimulate these children. However, DSPs observing alertness. These may cause the individual to
regularly face a number of problems concerning that react differently to the environment than in a “normal”
“best moment.” Individuals with PIMD use preverbal situation. Additionally, external factors such as tactile
communication involving signals such as reflex stimulation or additional, possibly irritating stimula-
responses, sounds, facial expressions, and bodily move- tion from the direct environment can be manipulated
ments. Because only subtle signals show whether they to determine the impact of those factors on the differ-
are alert or not, such signals are difficult to interpret for ent alertness levels. Consequently, the two following
DSPs. Sometimes these signals are so subtle that they points can be considered as most important: (1) staff
even go unnoticed. The communicative repertoire is training to make DSPs aware of alertness expressions
not only limited, but may include idiosyncratic ways of along with observing individuals with PIMD can offer
communicating. Not only can the same signal have a first step in increasing the alertness level of their
a different meaning for different individuals, but the clients; and (2) in order to influence alertness in indi-
same signal shown by the same individual in different viduals with PIMD, individual differences in prefer-
situations can also mean something else (Vlaskamp ences for and reactions to stimuli always need to be
2005). Additionally, the severity and complexity of the taken into account. In general, external factors are
disabilities can have an impact on the alertness expres- expected to have more impact on alertness than inter-
sions of an individual with PIMD. If a person is blind, nal factors.
for example, he/she might not use their eyes or head to
show his/her focus on an object, or if a person suffers Important Scientific Research and
from cerebral palsy, he/she might not be able to point Open Questions
or grasp. Quick and irregular changes in alertness levels In 1993, Guess and his colleagues were the first to
are another complicating aspect. Individuals with describe alertness in this target group (Guess et al.
PIMD often show short periods of “being alert” alter- 1993). Subsequently, their differentiation of nine
nating with periods of “being drowsy” (Mudford et al. observable alertness levels has been used as a standard
1997). Since these periods sometimes only last for a few scheme, with modifications by other researchers over
seconds, it is even more important to see and use them. the years. Although these observation schemes resem-
A first step in choosing the individual’s “best ble each other, a number of questions concerning
moment” is to register the individual alertness expres- alertness observations still need to be answered. One
sions carefully. Alertness is mostly described on three point of discussion is that of scoring frequency. Because
different levels: (1) being alert and actively focused on of the quick and irregular changes, continuous
 Algorithmic Learning Theory A 197

observation would provide the maximum of informa- the activity himself/herself or present already known A
tion. This is, however, time-consuming and almost preferred stimuli, higher alertness levels are most likely
impossible to realize in clinical practice. Conducting to occur. In the future, further research with larger
observations based on videotapes can help to solve groups needs to be conducted, because all the above-
these problems. Observers can stop the tapes to note mentioned assumptions have until now only been
alertness levels and look at the video pictures for found in case studies or based on personal experiences.
a second time in order to register environmental con-
ditions. But again, this is not always a possibility for
Cross-References
DSPs and very time-consuming as well. Another dis-
▶ Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional
cussion point is who can reliably conduct the observa-
and Behavioral Disabilities
tions. Several studies show that alertness in individuals
▶ Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for
with PIMD can be observed reliably by proxies as well
Learning
as by external observers. Consequently, neither the
▶ Attention and Implicit Learning
observations of the proxies alone nor those of external
▶ Behavior Systems and Learning
observers alone should be judged as being the most
reliable; both should be seen as complementary.
Note that previous studies are mostly based on References
behavioral observations, because DSPs are able to reg- Guess, D., Roberts, S., Siegel-Causey, E., Ault, M., Guy, B., & Thomp-
ister the behavior itself, the meaning of the behavior, son, B. (1993). Analysis of behavior state conditions and associ-
ated environmental variables among students with profound
and the context information at the same time. In con-
handicaps. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 97, 634–653.
trast, neurological and physiological measurements of Mudford, O. C., Hogg, J., & Roberts, J. (1997). Interobserver agree-
alertness are difficult to carry out and even more diffi- ment and disagreement in continuous recording exemplified by
cult to interpret for this target group. Thus, observa- measurement of behavior state. American Journal on Mental
tions seem to be the most suitable method for Retardation, 102, 54–66.
Munde, V. S., Vlaskamp, C., Ruijssenaars, A. J. J. M., & Nakken, H.
determining alertness levels in individuals in the target
(2009). Alertness in individuals with profound intellectual and
group. However, despite the valuable information that
multiple disabilities: A literature review. Research in Developmen-
observations provide, the subjectivity of observations tal Disabilities, 30, 462–480.
remains an issue. Determining alertness levels using Nakken, H., & Vlaskamp, C. (2007). A need for a taxonomy for
neurological and physiological measurements may, profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. Journal of Policy
therefore, reveal interesting additional information. and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 4, 83–87.
Vlaskamp, C. (2005). Assessing people with profound intellectual and
Carrying out such measurements for individuals with
multiple disabilities. In J. Hogg & A. Langa (Eds.), Assessing
PIMD remains another challenge for future research. adults with intellectual disability: A service provider’s guide
A subsequent step following measurements of alert- (pp. 39–51). Oxford: Blackwell.
ness should be to influence and improve alertness levels
in individuals with PIMD. However, methods that are
possible for this have not been clearly described.
Although researchers and DSPs agree that external
factors in general can have an impact on alertness
levels, there are different assumptions about the effect Algorithm Quasi-Optimal
that different methods have. Most obviously, treatment
▶ AQ Learning
activities and stimulation can be applied, whereas tac-
tile and vestibular stimuli seem to have the greatest
impact. Presenting stimuli in a one-to-one interaction
and reducing stimuli in the environment can, there-
fore, help to promote alertness. Additionally, individ-
ual differences in preferences and reactions remain Algorithmic Learning Theory
the most important point of interest. When DSPs
give a person with PIMD the opportunity to choose ▶ Mathematical Linguistics and Learning Theory
198 A Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning

because what-is-to-be-learned in OBE is not a content

Aligning the Curriculum to topic as such, but how the teacher would intend the
Promote Learning students’ behavior to change as a result of their learning
a topic or group of topics. The assessment is in terms of
JOHN BIGGS1, CATHERINE TANG2 how well the students achieve those intended learning
1
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China outcomes; the assessment and the outcome require the
2
Educational Consultant, Sandy Bay, Tasmania same activity. Many universities claim to address
▶ graduate attributes or university learning goals,
such as lifelong learning, critical thinking and the like,
Synonyms which are themselves learning outcomes and thus lend
Constructive alignment
themselves to be addressed by OBE. The traditional
curriculum on the other hand is topic-based, which
Definition makes alignment between the topics in the tested cur-
Alignment as used in curriculum theory refers to
riculum, in the written curriculum and in the taught
a deliberate and intrinsic connection between aspects
curriculum harder to achieve as this requires alignment
of the curriculum and assessment methods, and ideally
on several fronts. A further difficulty with topic-based
including teaching methods, institutional policies, and
assessment is that it is mediated by the students’
climate. Teaching and learning then take place in an
“understanding” of the topic, a vague term that needs
integrated system, in which all components interact
to be firmly pinned down, but often is not.
with and support each other. In this article, alignment
According to ▶ constructivist learning theory, stu-
is addressed primarily in the postsecondary context.
dents construct knowledge through their own activities,
and these activities too need to be aligned to the intended
Theoretical Background learning outcomes. As Shuell (1986, p. 429) says:
The concept of alignment in curriculum has been
around for many years. Aligning assessment tasks to " If students are to learn desired outcomes in
what it is intended students should learn, and grading a reasonably effective manner, then the teacher’s fun-
student on how well they reach preset standards, as in damental task is to get students to engage in learning
▶ criterion-referenced assessment (CRA), is an exam- activities that are likely to result in their achieving those
ple of one form of alignment. An example of outcomes. . . . what the student does is actually more
nonaligned assessment is when students are graded important in determining what is learned than what
not on what they have learned as such, but on how the teacher does.
they compare with each other, as in norm-referenced
This important statement introduces the notion
assessment (NRA). As for the broader curriculum,
that the teacher, in addition to aligning assessment to
Tyler (1949) talked about integration between aims,
the intended learning outcomes, needs also to engage
teaching, and assessment, and later, English (1975)
student’s learning activities in a way that is likely to
argued for a “tight relationship” between the tested
achieve the intended learning outcomes.
curriculum, the taught curriculum, and the written
Constructive alignment (Biggs and Tang 2007) is
curriculum if optimal test results are to be achieved.
a design for teaching that operationalizes these points.
Cohen (1987), focusing on the effects of CRA on learn-
In constructive alignment (CA), we need to:
ing, called such alignment the “magic bullet” in
increasing student performance. Because students 1. Describe the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) in
learn what they perceive they will be tested on, an the form of a verb that denotes how the content or
aligned test means that the students will be focusing topics are to be dealt with and in what context.
on what it is intended that they should be learning. 2. Create a learning environment using teaching/
▶ Outcomes-based education (OBE) makes the learning activities (TLAs) that address that verb
link between what-is-to-be-learned and the criteria of and therefore are likely to bring about the intended
assessment rather more explicit than it is in CRA itself, outcome.
 Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning A 199

3. Use assessment tasks (ATs) that also contain that particularly in achieving higher order outcomes, A
verb, together with rubrics that enable one to because all the components in the system are designed
judge how well students’ performances meet the to reinforce each other in supporting learning, while
criteria. students themselves are clearer not only in what they
4. Transform these judgments into standard grades. are to learn and to what standard, but on how they
might best go about learning it. Accordingly, in many
The verb in the ILO becomes the common link by
systems worldwide, ▶ quality assurance of teaching
which alignment can be achieved between the ILO, the
assumes that alignment is a good indicator of
teaching/learning activities, and the assessment tasks.
a quality teaching environment.
Some ILOs would require low-level verbs such as
“describe,” “enumerate,” “list”; others middle level,
such as “explain,” “analyze,” “apply to familiar Important Scientific Research and
domains,” “solve standard problems,” while at an Open Questions
advanced level, appropriate verbs would include Constructive alignment is a design for teaching rather
“hypothesize,” “reflect,” “apply to unseen domains or than a theory as such, so that research and develop-
problems.” The teaching/learning activities and assess- ment, and evaluation studies under different condi-
ment tasks for that ILO would then address that same tions and contexts, are the kinds of studies that are
verb. For example, an ILO in educational psychology most needed at this stage. Several studies of individual
might read: “solve a disciplinary problem in the class- courses have been reported, but large-scale meta-
room by applying expectancy-value theory.” The TLA analyses are needed so that the effect sizes of construc-
might be a case study of a particular classroom situa- tively aligned courses can be compared with traditional
tion requiring the students to apply the theory and teaching, and with each other. For example, it is possi-
solve the problem, while the assessment would be in ble that constructive alignment may be more effective
terms of how well the problem was solved. Grading is in professional courses than in the basic arts and sci-
best achieved using rubrics by which the quality of the ences, as the outcomes in the former are more easily
solution as a whole may be judged. Typically in definable in terms of what graduates are suppose to be
a semester length course, there would be no more able to do, but this has yet to be established.
than five or six ILOs, with some ILOs addressing several
topics.
Traditionally in university teaching, both the peda- Cross-References
gogy and the assessment have been held constant, the ▶ Action Research on Learning
lecture and tutorial being the default in many subjects ▶ Alignment of Learning, Teaching and Assessment
and the invigilated examination the default assessment ▶ Constructivism and Learning
method. These methods of teaching and assessment do ▶ Curriculum and Learning
not align at all well with high-level ILOs especially. ▶ Schema(s)
Large classes and limited resources may make it diffi-
cult to build the same verb into the teaching/learning
activities and assessment tasks, in which case the teach-
References
Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for quality learning at university.
ing and the assessment should be as congruent as pos-
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill and Open University Press. A revised
sible with the intended learning outcome. In fourth edition due in 2011.
implementing constructive alignment, it is useful to Cohen, S. A. (1987). Instructional alignment: Searching for a magic
use ▶ action research, by keeping a data base on the bullet. Educational Researcher, 16(8), 16–20.
quality of student learning and adjusting aspects of English, F. W. (1975). School organization and management.
Worthington: Charles A. Jones Publishing Company.
alignment in repeated cycles, in order to achieve
Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of
▶ quality enhancement in teaching. Educational Research, 56, 411–36.
Preliminary studies suggest that a constructively Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction.
aligned system is effective in promoting learning, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
200 A Alignment of Learning, Teaching, and Assessment

example, the pedagogy for teaching mathematics will

Alignment of Learning, vary from the pedagogy for teaching economics.
Teaching, and Assessment There are many different types of models used to
align learning, teaching, and assessment. Commonly
VICKI S. NAPPER used models include unit plans, individualized educa-
Department of Teacher Education, Weber State tion plans (IEP), and the teacher work sample meth-
University, Ogden, UT, USA odology (TWSM).
The unit plan is considered to be the foundational
model for alignment of the various elements of instruc-
Synonyms tion. A unit plan is comprised of several chunks of
Academic process; Curriculum; Individualized educa- instruction (individual lessons) that are organized in
tion plan (IEP); Instructional outcomes; Instructional a logical sequence to teach a general concept. The unit
planning; Lesson plan; Mental model; Teacher work planning process breaks the general concept into smaller
sample method (TWSM); Unit plan; Ways of thinking chunks of instruction containing knowledge, skills, and/
and practicing or dispositions to be taught. These chunks of instruction
are each critical pieces of the larger concept and are
Definition arranged in a logical sequence for learning (lessons).
Alignment of learning, teaching, and assessment is The assessment of the effectiveness of the teaching pro-
a process where each of the critical elements (learning cess occurs during the lessons and often culminates in
objectives, assessment of learning, and anticipated a unit test for all concepts learned in the unit. There are
knowledge, skills, and/or dispositions) of instruction many different instructional methods for teaching a unit
interact and support learning outcomes. It is also or lesson such as discovery learning, inquiry, critical
a process of taking instructional ideas from a personal thinking, problem-based learning, direct instruction,
mental model and transforming those ideas through an drill and practice, and lecture. The chosen instructional
instructional design process into a functional unit for method usually reflects the underlying philosophical
teaching and learning. approach toward learning held by the instructor.
The individualized education plan (IEP) is most
Theoretical Background commonly associated with instructional planning for
The idea of alignment of learning, teaching, and assess- students with unique needs beyond the anticipated
ment is foundational to formal education and has skills level of average achievement students. The IEP
gained importance with the growth of the instructional usually involves a group of stakeholders (teacher, par-
standards-based movement in modern educational set- ent, remediation specialist, medical specialist, etc.) who
tings. Alignment of the various processes of teaching determine what will be taught to the student and to
with the outcomes of learning has a beginning as far a specific level of achievement. The IEP is more detailed
back as the 1600s in Europe with the “normal schools” than a unit plan because it is specific to one individual
to train teachers. The purpose of normal schools was to learner. Assessment of the learner’s progress with their
support teaching of content through establishment of IEPs is also defined by that plan. In the USA, the IEP
teaching standards (norms) that included how to pre- process is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities
sent instruction to encourage learning. This process has Education Act (IDEA), originally enacted in 1975 and
become known as “pedagogy.” The word pedagogy updated in 2004.
comes from late sixteenth century from French The teacher work sample method (TWSM) is pri-
pédagogie, from Greek paidagōgia “office of marily used to prepare pre-licensure teachers. The
a pedagogue,” from paidagōgos. Pedagogy is the study TWSM is an instructional design model for teaching
of the methods and activities of teaching and has how to align instructional methods, assessment, and
become a foundational process for learning how to anticipated learning outcomes. This model is widely
teach. Pedagogies (instructional methods) although used in preservice teacher education programs. The
containing basic information on teaching, also contain methodology was developed by Western Oregon Uni-
specific methods for teaching a type of content. For versity (Girod 2002). The TWSM approach for clearly
 Alignment of Learning, Teaching, and Assessment A 201

defining and articulating learning outcomes with the reading competence then the question or method A
assessment was found to be effective in highly struc- should assess only reading competence not a different
tured environments such as those provided by teacher skill such as the ability to write an outline.
preparation programs but was less effective in actual Another important reason for breaking the concept
school environments because of the differences in per- into smaller pieces is to create doable instructional
formance tasks due to the idiosyncratic nature of chunks for teaching and for learning during a lesson.
teacher practices (Girod et al. 2006). The organization is critical to what is learned, how it is
Although there are a variety of defined models for taught, where it is taught, and what instructional
alignment of the various components of instruction, support materials are used to support learning and
there are some common underlying principles of teaching. After the instructional chunks are created
design. These include: (1) identifying what is to be and logically organized, the points in time of assess-
learned, (2) determining the important chunks to be ment can be determined for each instructional chunk.
taught and in what order the knowledge, skills, and/or Refer to Gagne et al.’s (1981) Nine Events of Instruction
dispositions will be taught, (3) alignment of assessment for a highly researched model for organizing learning
with the chunks of instruction in order to determine if events.
learning occurred, and (4) evaluation of the overall The third task is assessment of learning outcomes
effectiveness of the process of instruction. during instructional events. Assessment may be either
The first element of designing instruction always formative or summative. Formative assessment is often
begins with clearly identifying what is to be learned an informal event such as verbally questioning students
(instructional outcomes or objectives). This may be about what is being learned during instruction. The
determined by reviewing existing educational guide- formative assessment process is considered to be
lines for learning levels (grades) for types of content important during the instructional events to help
(curriculum) or by using formal instructional design gauge if the desired learning is being achieved. If
evaluation (task analysis) of a problem to determine if formative assessment indicates that learning is not
there is a lack of learning, lack of tools, or a lack of occurring or is not accurate, then the instruction is
motivation. Once the type of lack or educational guide- either repeated or revised. Summative assessment is
line is determined then the instructional outcomes can the formal event that determines if the instructional
be formally stated. This statement is in terms of what outcomes were achieved at the end of learning and at
will be learned, in what conditions of learning, and how what level of success. Alignment of instruction with
it will be assessed and at what degree of proficiency. assessment is considered to be effective if the results
Once the instructional outcomes are decided, the of evaluation match the outcome statement and degree
second task of design is begun. The learning process is of success of the learning created during the first task of
organized into smaller chunks of instruction. The instructional design.
chunks are the defined knowledge, skills, and/or dispo- The types of assessment may include paper-pencil
sitions critical to learning. These instructional chunks tests, oral examination, performance-based activities,
are frequently combined. For example, a lesson may be or many other types of tests. Refer to the updated
taught on how to outline (knowledge) and include version of Bloom’s Taxonomy for levels of knowledge
affective reasons (dispositions) as to why outlines are and levels of proficiency. D. R. Krathwohl’s Taxonomy
good ways to express what is known with the antici- of Affective Domains may be used as a guideline for
pated expectation that the student will both know how assessing intended outcomes for dispositions.
to create outlines but also want to use outlines in the The final step of aligning learning, teaching, and
future to help organize his/her thoughts. It is generally assessment is analysis of the completed process. This is
at this stage of preparing the learning process that the final analysis of the unit of instruction for degree of
previously identified instructional outcomes are success in achieving the desired learning outcomes
aligned with assessment methods. The importance of identified by the learning objectives. Teacher reflection
assessing learning outcomes with questions or methods on the final results of instruction is considered to be
that actually determine if learning occurred is the crit- important and has become a part of the contemporary
ical part of this step. For example, if you are assessing process of teaching pedagogy. The reflective process
202 A Alikeness

helps to identify areas of strength and weakness in the Girod, G. R., Schalock, G. M., & Cohen, N. (2006, January). The
overall alignment of learning, teaching, and assessment Teacher work sample as a context for research. Paper presented at
the American Association of Colleges for teacher education
and promotes revision of materials to improve instruc-
conference. San Diego, CA. Retrieved from http://scholar.
tional outcomes for the next cycle of teaching. google.com/
An effective model for the general instructional design Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J. D. (1993). Instructional media
process is the ADDIE model (analyze, design, develop, and the new technologies of instruction. New York: Macmillan.
implement, evaluate). The choice of support materials for Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.
Public Law 108–446. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
teaching and learning is a highly specialized part of the
Robert Gagne, et al. (1981). Planning and authoring computer-
instructional design process and includes rules for choice assisted instruction lessons. Educational Technology, 9(21),
of materials that best support the activity of learning. For 17–21. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com
an instructional design model that integrates materials
and media into the lesson, refer to the ASSURE model
(analyze; state objectives; select instructional methods,
media, and materials; utilize media and materials; and
evaluate and revise) developed by Heinich et al. (1993).
Alikeness
▶ Analogy/Analogies: Structure and Process
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
All areas of alignment of learning, teaching, and assess-
ment continue to be important areas of research. With
Allegory
the growth of distance learning environments, many
researchers are pursuing research to determine if the ▶ Intuition Pumps and Augmentation of Learning
alignment process of place-based instructional content
and remotely or digitally offered instruction are similar
or different. The instructional standards-based move-
ment has also generated research to answer the ques-
All-Pervading Learning
tions of what is an appropriate sequence (alignment) of
content to teach and how to appropriately assess learn- ▶ Ubiquitous Learning
ing outcomes for the content across broad ranges of
learners and learning environments.

Cross-References Alternative/Commonsense
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning
Conceptions
▶ Assessment in Learning
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives ▶ Preconceptions and Learning
▶ Everyday Learning, Instruction and Technology
Designs
▶ Gagne, Robert M.
▶ Games-Based Learning Altruism and Health
▶ Interactive Learning Environments
▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments CAROLYN E. SCHWARTZ
DeltaQuest Foundation, Inc., Tufts University Medical
References School, Concord, MA, USA
Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for
learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy
of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Girod, G. R. (2002). Connecting teaching and learning: A handbook for Synonyms
teacher educators on teacher work sample methodology. (ERIC Compassion; Empathy; Generativity; Kindness; Social
Document: 463282). Washington, DC: Library of Congress interest behaviors
 Altruism and Health A 203

Definition adulthood, although they are assumed to be present at A

Altruism refers to behaviors or attitudes that are all stages of the life cycle. Rowe and Kahn’s model of
focused on helping others. This helping can be related successful aging posits that social participation requires
to (1) emotional support behaviors, such as listening the mobilization of both cognitive faculties and physical
fully without trying to direct the other’s actions; functioning, which inhibit the deterioration of well-
(2) general helping behaviors, such as small kindnesses being in old age. Other theoretical models of the rela-
that make others feel more comfortable or assist others tionship between altruistic practice and health focus on
in tangible ways (e.g., carrying books for someone, the distraction inherent in altruistic activities. For
holding a door open); (3) having a helping orientation example, these behaviors might alleviate boredom, and
or worldview that values and prioritizes being helpful enhance well-being by providing a sense of being useful
and kind to others; and (4) having a capacity to listen to others, and thus a sense of purpose and meaning in
to or help others without feeling burdened by their life. By counteracting negative emotions and reducing
needs or wishes. psychological stress, they are posited to enhance physi-
cal health. Several different terms have been used in the
Theoretical Background literature to describe the altruism construct, including
The link between altruistic practice and health has been helping behavior, altruistic activities, and generativity.
discussed from several theoretical perspectives. Erik A promising theoretical model linking altruism and
Erikson’s concept of generativity refers to the individ- health builds on response shift theory, and integrates
ual’s concern for the welfare of future generations and these other models into a model that focuses on the
for the world at large. In his developmental model, internal changes that might impact perceived quality of
Erikson noted that generative concerns peak in middle life or health (Fig. 1) (Schwartz et al. 2009). Response

Antecedents

Perceived
Quality of Life
Direct
d

Response
cte

Catalyst
rve

Shift
pe

Mechanisms
se
Ex
Ob

Moderated
Appraisal
Response
Shift

Projecting Disengagement Openness

outward from patterns of to changes
self-reference in internal standards,
values, and
conceptualization

Altruism and Health. Fig. 1 Response shift theory explains the link between altruism and health. It posits that altruistic
practice causes the individual to project outward by focusing on others. By so doing, the individual disengages from
patterns of self-reference, and emerges with a refreshed and more positive perspective on his/her own problems or
challenges
204 A Altruism and Health

shift refers to the idea that when individuals experience bereaved elderly spouses, and better mental health in
changes in health state, they may change their internal healthy adults (Schwartz et al. 2003).
standards, their values, or their conceptualization of Although there has been some suggestive research
a target construct, such as quality of life, health, and documenting a benefit of helping others in chronically
pain. Response shift theory (Sprangers and Schwartz ill people, most research on the health benefits of altru-
1999) explains discrepancies between expected and ism has addressed healthy samples using observational
observed levels of perceived quality of life (far right research designs. It is possible that the altruism–health
on figure) in physically ill patient populations after connection is a correlational illusion: one must be well
health state changes (catalysts of response shift, far left enough – physically and mentally – to be able to help
on figure). These changes would directly (i.e., health others. Thus, perhaps it is not that altruism causes
state changes impair or enhance perceived quality of wellness but rather that wellness is a necessary condi-
life) and indirectly impact perceived quality of life (i.e., tion for altruism.
response shifts moderate or mediate perceived quality Future work should use data collected prospectively
of life via stable characteristics or behavioral mecha- over a clinically meaningful period of time to allow
nisms). Stable characteristics of the individual causal inference. It might also include measures of
(antecedents), such as personality characteristics, higher levels of well-being (e.g., Ryff ’s measure of psy-
would interact cognitive or behavioral mechanisms chological well-being (Ryff 1989)), as past research has
(e.g., altruistic practice, social support) to cope with documented numerous benefits at a more existential
these health changes, and result in response shifts. level. Finally, it would be worthwhile to include
Figure 1 shows how altruistic practices are posited to a measure of appraisal processes (Rapkin and Schwartz
lead to response shifts: altruistic practice causes the 2004) so that the response shift theoretical model can
individual to project outward by focusing on others. be tested.
By so doing, the individual disengages from patterns
of self-reference. That is, by getting outside of oneself, Cross-References
one gets a hiatus from the burden of one’s everyday ▶ Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in
problems and challenges, after which one has Animal Communities
a different perspective and these problems or challenges ▶ Altruistic Learning
do not seem too big or difficult or burdensome. ▶ Calibration
This disengagement enhances perceived quality of life ▶ Change of Values Through Learning
in the face of disability or pain. The resulting response ▶ Cognitive Self-Regulation
shifts then lead to changes in reported quality of life. ▶ Emotional Intelligence and Learning
▶ Emotional Regulation
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Flow Experience and Learning
Open Questions ▶ Learning the Affective Value of Others
There is a growing and solid body of evidence that ▶ Observational Learning: The Sound of Silence
positive behavioral factors can play an important role ▶ Prosocial Learning
in health, and in particular, the health benefits of altru-
ism (Post 2007). Research on populations representing
a broad range of age has documented that people who
References
Post, S. G. (2007). Altruism and health: Perspectives from empirical
engage in altruistic activities are happier and healthier,
research. New York: Oxford.
and that these benefits extend as much as 50 years later. Rapkin, B. D., & Schwartz, C. E. (2004). Toward a theoretical model of
These activities might include volunteer work or quality-of-life appraisal: Implications of findings from studies of
spending time providing emotional support to others response shift. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 2(1), 14.
in their community. Even committing regular acts of Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on
the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality
kindness to strangers has been shown to increase
and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
subjective well-being. Altruistic activities have also Schwartz, C., Meisenhelder, J. B., Ma, Y., & Reed, G. (2003). Altruistic
been associated with enhanced physical functioning social interest behaviors are associated with better mental health.
and lower morbidity rate, reduced mortality among Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(5), 778–785.
 Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in Animal Communities A 205

Schwartz, C. E., Keyl, P., Bode, R., & Marcum, J. (2009). Helping others Synthesis (1975). As distinct from eusociality which is
shows differential benefits on health and well-being for male and
A
based on irreversible determination of sterile and fertile
female teens. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(4), 431–448.
casts, cooperative breeding is less rigorous. It refers to
Sprangers, M. A., & Schwartz, C. E. (1999). Integrating response shift
into health-related quality of life research: a theoretical model. a breeding system in which individuals other than
Social Science & Medicine, 48(11), 1507–1515. parents (“helpers”) behave altruistically providing
additional care for offspring. Many species possess
more flexible types of social organization than eusoci-
ality and semisociality. However, some social systems
are based on facultative division of labor and on
Altruistic Behavior and temporal limits on breeding for some members of
Cognitive Specialization in communities.
Animal Communities Altruistic behavior in animal communities is based,
to a greater or lesser extent, on the division of roles
ZHANNA REZNIKOVA between individuals depending on their behavioral,
Laboratory of Behavioural Ecology of Animal cognitive, and social specialization. Social specialization
Communities, Institute of Systematics and Ecology of is connected with social roles and tasks performed by
Animals, Siberian Branch RAS and Novosibirsk State community members. Behavioral specialization can be
University, Novosibirsk, Russia expressed in differences in diets, techniques of getting
food, selective reactions to certain stimuli, escaping
predators, nestling, and so on. Relatively stable groups
Synonyms can exist in populations that differ by complexes
Cooperation; Division of labor of behavioral characteristics (Bolnick et al. 2003).
Some specimens can possess complex behavioral
Definition repertoires which enable them to learn pretty fast and
In contemporary evolutionary biology, an organism is effectively within a specific domain. This ability can be
said to behave altruistically when its behavior benefits called individual cognitive specialization. Cognitive
other organisms, at a cost to itself. The costs and ben- specialization in animal communities is based on
efits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness or the inherited ability of some individuals to form asso-
expected number of offspring. So by behaving altruisti- ciations between some stimuli easier than between
cally, an individual reduces the number of offspring it is other stimuli and thus more readily learn certain
likely to produce by itself, but increases the number that behaviors. Altruistic behavior in animals does not nec-
other individuals are likely to produce. Eusociality can essarily rely on intelligence and the ability to learn.
be considered an extreme form of altruism in animal However, the presence of “cognitive specialists” facili-
communities. This is the highest level of social organi- tates the tuning of integrative reactions of a whole
zation in animals. To be considered eusocial, an animal animal community to unpredictable influences in its
society should meet the following criteria: reproductive changeable environment.
altruism (which involves reproductive division of labor
and cooperative alloparental brood care), overlap of Theoretical Background
adult generations, and permanent (lifelong) philopatry. Altruistic behavior of animals is still enigmatic for
Eusociality was firstly described in social insects, and evolutionary biologists in many aspects. Charles Dar-
later discovered in several other organisms including win famously developed a group-selection explanation
eusocial rodents (several rodent species of the African for the apparent self-sacrificing behavior of neuter
family Bathyergidae) and shrimps. The next level in the insects; however, he found this phenomenon difficult
hierarchy of social organizations in animals is coopera- to explain within the frame of his theory of evolution
tive (communal) breeding. This level corresponds to by natural selection. Analysis of these problems became
“semisociality” in a classification system of social levels possible on the basis of ideas of gene dominance and
originally suggested by C. D. Michener (1969) and then fitness outlined by R. Fisher (1930). J. B. Haldane
developed by E. O.Wilson in his Sociobiology: A New (1932) suggested that an individual’s genes can be
206 A Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in Animal Communities

multiplied in a population even if that individual never restrictions on the display of intelligence by the mem-
reproduces, providing its actions favor the differential bers. For instance, eusocial rodents, termites, and ants
survival and reproduction of collateral relatives. In the condemned to digging or babysitting or suicide
1960s and 1970s, two theories emerged which tried to defending cannot forage, scout, or transfer pieces of
explain evolution of altruistic behavior: kin selection (or information. Furthermore, subordinate members of
inclusive fitness) theory, due to W. Hamilton (1964), cooperatively breeding communities sacrifice their
and the theory of reciprocal altruism, due primarily to energy and possibly cognitive skills to dominating indi-
R. L. Trivers (1979) and J. Maynard Smith (1974). The viduals, serving as helpers or even as sterile workers.
theory of reciprocal altruism is an attempt to explain Cognitive specialization in animal communities is
the evolution of altruism among non-kin. The basic based on the ability of some individuals to learn faster
idea is straightforward: it may benefit an animal to within specific domains. In eusocial animals, cognitive
behave altruistically toward another, if there is an specialization between groups of sterile workers can
expectation of the favor being returned in the future: serve for the maintenance of colony integrity. For
“If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours” principle. example, in Myrmica ants, some members of a colony
Whereas “kin altruism” is based on animals’ ability to learn to catch difficult-to-handle prey much easier and
recognize relatives and to adjust their behavior on the earlier in the course of the ontogenetic development
basis of kinship, reciprocal altruism requires certain than others do. These individuals can serve as “etalons”
cognitive prerequisites, and among them the ability to for those members of communities that possess poorer
recognize community members and to keep in mind skills and can learn from others by means of social
aftereffects of repeated interactions. A good example learning (Reznikova and Panteleeva 2008). In several
here is the finding by G. S. Wilkinson (1984) of blood highly social ant species (such as red wood ants), a rare
sharing in vampire bats, which is based on partner case of cognitive specialization between team members
fidelity among non-kin individuals. In primates, there have been described (Ryabko and Reznikova 2009).
is experimental evidence that reciprocal altruism relies There are stable teams within ants’ colony each
on sophisticated cognitive abilities that make current containing one scout and 4–8 foragers. Only scouts
behavior contingent upon a history of interaction and are able to solve complex problems and pass informa-
calculation of mutual rewards and punishes (deWaal tion to other team members. For instance, scouts mem-
2000). orize and transfer the information about a sequence of
Both kin altruism and non-kin altruism in animal turns toward a goal; they also can perform simple
societies are based on the division of roles and thus on arithmetic operations. Such feats of intelligence cannot
great individual variability that includes behavioral, be performed by the foragers. Cognitive specialization
cognitive, and social specialization. It is worth noting within ants’ team very much increase effectiveness of
that in many eusocial species social specialization is solving problems while searching for food (Reznikova
based on the division of roles between members of 2007). In ant species with low level of social organiza-
morphologically distinct castes. For example, termites, tion, specialization does not predict individual effi-
social aphids, social shrimps, naked mole rats, and ciency. Surprisingly, little is known about cognitive
some ants produce special casts of soldiers. In contrast, specialization in other eusocial organisms, although
cognitive specialization is based on intricate distinction there is some evidence of great differences in cognitive
between individuals reflected in their learning abilities abilities between individuals in some eusocial species.
rather than on morphological and physiological traits. For example, in honeybees, a few active foragers in
a hive can solve problems demanding abstraction and
Important Scientific Research and classificatory abilities at a similar level with monkeys
Open Questions and dogs (Mazokhin-Porshnyakov 1969), and in naked
There are several variants of division of social roles in mole rats, some colony members use tools while
animal communities, from division of labor in kin gnawing on substrates (Shuster and Sherman 1998).
groups to a thin balance between altruism and “para- In cooperatively breeding animals, members of
sitism” within groups of genetically unrelated individ- a society sacrifice their specific behavioral and cogni-
uals. Task allocation in animal communities can impose tive abilities to provide food and protection for the few
 Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in Animal Communities A 207

reproductive community members and their offspring. specialization” in cooperatively hunting mammals, A
Social groups can be made up of individuals who such as wolves, wild dogs, and lions, seems rather
specialize in certain helping behaviors or those who flexible. However, it is still enigmatic if there is room
perform a number of behaviors to differing degrees. for intelligence, or cognitive specialization in these and
For example, in a gregarious bird, noisy minor many other situations is based on a high level of
Manorina melanocephala, a considerable number of inherited predisposition. A hypothesis which explains
subordinates that were never seen to provision the how community members can learn efficiently com-
young, help intensively with predator mobbing. Fur- plex forms of behavior, based on behavior fragments
thermore, bad provisioners contribute more to mob- that they already have in their repertoire, was suggested
bing than good provisioners (Arnold et al. 2005). In by Reznikova and Panteleeva (2008). It could be adap-
meerkats, there is a high variation between helpers in tive for members of different species to have dormant
provisioning rates as well as in their exploratory activ- “sketches” of complex behavioral patterns being
ity. Meerkats exhibit teaching of prey-handling skills implemented on several carriers and then distributed
and social learning of the use of new landmarks, so by means of social learning. The authors call this “dis-
individual variability in learning capacities of helpers tributed social learning” because fragments of useful
influences the prosperity of a group (Clutton-Brock behavioral programs are distributed among members
2002; Thornton and Malapert 2009). Both in coopera- of a population and remain cryptic until appropriate
tive breeders and in highly social species with more changes in the environment occur, such as climate
flexible breeding systems, behavioral and cognitive spe- changes or appearance of new abundant prey, or new
cialization is tightly connected with division of labor predators, and so on. Indeed, it could be rather costly
during joint actions. For example, cooperative hunting for animal brains to be equipped with complex stereo-
is based on clearly coordinated actions of individuals types for all possible vital situations. Propagation of
which are specialized on different tasks demanding complex stereotypes, new for certain populations, is
different behavioral peculiarities and cognitive skills. based on relatively simple forms of social learning
Such division of labor includes “flush and ambush” which underlies species’ predisposition to learn certain
strategies in Harris’ hawks, “driving and blocking” sub- behaviors and does not require feats of intelligence from
tasks in chimpanzees, “center and wing” roles in lion- animals. This hypothesis has been experimentally tested
esses, “driver and barriers” subtasks in bottlenose on ants, and there is much to be done for investigating
dolphins, and so on (see Gazda et al. 2005, for a review). how it can work in vertebrates. There remains an
explanatory gap between the growing body of data on
Future Research displaying cognitive specialization in highly social spe-
In virtually all cooperative species, there are large indi- cies and our understanding of possible relations
vidual differences in altruistic behavior, the causes and between altruistic behavior and cognitive specialization.
consequences of which remain poorly understood
despite 30 years of research on the evolution of coop- Cross-References
eration. To date, very few studies have used experi- ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
ments to test the role of cognitive specialization in ▶ Animal Intelligence
integrity of animal communities. The intriguing prob- ▶ Cognitive Aspects of Deception
lem is how behavioral and cognitive flexibility interacts ▶ Imitation: Definition, Evidence, and Mechanisms
with inherited propensities of community members. ▶ Learning Set Formation and Conceptualization
As altruistic behavior in many species is based on social ▶ Linguistic and Cognitive Capacities in Apes
specialization and division of labor within communi- ▶ Social Learning in Animals
ties, it is likely that cognitive specialization manifests ▶ Theory of Mind in Animals
itself only within distinct strategies. It is still an open
question whether clearly distinct behavioral strategies References
used by community members are based on an evolu- Arnold, K. E., Owens, I. P. F., & Goldizen, A. (2005). Division
tionary stable package of features or they are based on of labour in cooperatively breeding groups. Behaviour, 142,
flexible decision making. For example, “professional 1577–1590.
208 A Altruistic Learning

Bolnick, D. I., Svanbäck, R., Fordyce, J. A., Yang, L. H., Davis, J. M., Definition
Hulsey, C. D., & Forister, M. L. (2003). The ecology of individ- Altruistic learning describes the manner in which
uals: incidence and implications of individual specialization. The
self-orientated decision-making systems learn about
American Naturalist, 161, 1–28.
Clutton-Brock, T. A. (2002). Breeding together: Kin selection and their social environment in a way that yields altruistic
mutualism in cooperative vertebrates. Science, 296, 69–72. behavior. Based on neurobiological accounts of human
deWaal, F. B. M. (2000). Primates: A natural heritage of conflict decision-making, processes such as reinforcement
resolution. Science, 289, 586–590. learning and observational learning in game-theoretic
Fisher, A. R. (1930). The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford:
social interactions lead to altruistic behavior, both as
Clarendon Press.
Gazda, S. K., Connor, R. C., Edgar, R. K., & Fox, F. (2005). A division
a result of computational efficiency and optimal infer-
of labour with role specialization in group-hunting bottlenose ence in the face of uncertainty. Evolutionary pressure
dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) off Cedar Key, Florida. Proceedings acts not over the object of learning (“what” is learned),
of Biological Science, 272(1559), 135–140. but over the learning systems themselves (“how” things
Haldane, J. B. S. (1932). The causes of evolution. London: Longmans are learned), enabling the evolution of altruism in
and Green.
otherwise selfish individuals.
Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour.
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–52.
Maynard Smith, J. (1974). The theory of games and animal conflicts. Theoretical Background
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 47, 209–221. Many apparently pro-social and cooperative social
Mazokhin-Porshnyakov, G. A. (1969). Insect vision. New York: interactions are self-beneficial, incurring immediate
Plenum Press.
costs that are more than recovered in future exchanges,
Michener, C. D. (1969). Comparative social behaviour of bees.
Annual Review of Entomology, 14, 299–342.
such interactions being typically formalized within
Reznikova, Zh. (2007). Animal intelligence: From individual to social Game Theory. However, extensive experimental evi-
cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. dence points to the fact that humans behave positively
Reznikova, Zh. & Panteleeva, S. (2008). An ant’s eye view of culture: toward each other even in situations where there is no
propagation of new traditions through triggering dormant self-interested beneficial capacity. Arguments against
behavioural patterns. Acta Ethologica, 11(2), 73–80.
altruistic interpretations of this type of observation
Ryabko, B., & Reznikova, Zh. (2009). The use of ideas of information
theory for studying “language” and intelligence in Ants. Entropy, include suggestions that individuals do not understand
11(4), 836–853. “the rules of the game,” are prone to misbelieve they (or
Shuster, G., & Sherman, P. W. (1998). Tool use by naked mole rats. their kin) will interact with opponents again in the
Animal Cognition, 1, 71–74. future, or falsely infer they are being secretly observed
Thornton, A., & Malapert, A. (2009). Experimental evidence for
and accordingly act to preserve their reputation in the
social transmission of food acquisition techniques in wild meer-
kats. Animal Behaviour, 78, 255–264.
eyes of beholders (i.e., experimenters). However, these
Trivers, R. L. (1979). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly objections have wilted in the face of both experimental
Review of Biology, 46, 35–57. evidence (Fehr and Fischbacher 2003), and insights
Wilkinson, G. S. (1984). Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat. from the neuroscience of learning which suggest that
Nature, 308, 181–184. the evolution of altruism might not be as unexpected
as economists have traditionally thought (Seymour
et al. 2009).
At the heart of arguments about altruism is the
difficult question as to why evolution endows other-
wise highly sophisticated brains to behave selflessly.
Altruistic Learning This forces attention toward the decision-making
systems that subserve economic and social behavior
BEN SEYMOUR, WAKO YOSHIDA, RAY DOLAN (Lee 2008), and raises a question as to whether they
Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, London, UK are structured in a way that yields altruism either
inadvertently, or necessarily.
Humans have at least three distinct decision
Synonyms systems (Dayan 2008). Goal-directed (“cognitive”)
Cooperative learning decision-making systems function by building an
 Altruistic Learning A 209

internal model of the environment and derive an cooperatively in situations when not doing so might A
explicit representation of outcome states and state- have a greater selfish benefit, yielding true altruism.
transitions that lead to a specific outcome. Habits, on A second potential mechanism of learning is by
the other hand, lack specific knowledge of outcome of observation of others, and this is especially important
a decision, being acquired through experience, and when you lack information about the structure of
involve processes such as associative reinforcement. a particular social interaction, and the particular char-
Lastly, innate (“hard-wired,” or Pavlovian) decisions acteristics of others you will interact with. As long as
represent the expression of inherited behavioral success in others is discernible, observational learning
response repertoires that reflect basic, reliable knowl- allows you to learn through reverse engineering the
edge gleaned from evolutionary success. policies and intentions of others (Ng and Russell
2000), or simply by imitating their actions. In princi-
Important Scientific Research and ple, even though the individual you observe might be
Open Questions cooperating for purely selfish reasons, it will usually not
Decision neuroscience has addressed how these basic be possible to infer this with certainty, not least because
decision-making systems operate within social interac- the selfish benefits of cooperation are often long-term.
tive environments. For example, many classic game- Hence learning pro-cooperativity in this manner will
theoretic paradigms mandate that you choose whether generalize across both selfish and truly altruistic social
to cooperate or defect, with your payoff depending on interactions, as long as long term benefits outweigh any
both your and the other’s choice. A goal-directed, losses incurred through using this mechanism.
cognitive decision-making policy can consider multi- A critical feature of both mechanisms, and decision
ple future scenarios, with an internal model of other systems in general, is that they deal with learning pro-
people’s intentions and planned actions (“Theory of cesses optimized for dealing with the vast diversity and
Mind”). It can also infer that he or she also has complexity of situations that arise in the real world.
a sophisticated enough goal-directed system, and That is, they very rarely specify a particular action to
hence realize via reciprocal inference that mutual coop- take in a particular situation (as the innate system
eration is often worthwhile (Camerer et al. 2004). There does), their evolutionary selection deriving from their
is nothing truly altruistic about this, since you are both utility as a general decision process. Hence, any eco-
simply trying to maximize your own payoff in an nomically suboptimal propensity to yield true altruism
environment that contains another intelligent agent. is dwarfed by other abilities to behave near-optimally
It does, however, require an ability to resist a short- across new, diverse, and uncertain situations. Indeed,
term temptation to exploit mutual reciprocity for that pro-social behavior is likely to be self-beneficial in
immediate benefit, which often exists in game- the vast majority of evolutionary situations (since
theoretic paradigms. humans tend to live in small communities where reci-
Habits operate by allowing recently experienced procity and reputation formation are strong) suggests
rewards to reinforce actions that are statistically that the innate decision-making system might actually
predictive of good outcomes. If a positive outcome is “hard-wire” cooperativity in humans, although this has
reliably predicted by an action, then the value of that so far been difficult to determine experimentally.
action is enhanced. In novel social interactions, the
goal-directed system will initially dominate. In a stable Cross-References
environment as experience is accumulated, cooperative ▶ Altruism and Health
actions that reliably predict positive outcomes become ▶ Goal Theory/Goal Setting
habitized, saving the substantial computational cost ▶ Learning the Affective Value of Others
associated with the complex internal modeling of ▶ Reinforcement Learning
hypothetical interactions. Furthermore, habits may
References
generalize across similar “games.” Habits are efficient,
Camerer, C. F., Ho, T. H., & Chong, J. K. (2004). A cognitive hierarchy
but since they do not explicitly represent outcomes, model of games. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119, 861–898.
they trade this with the risk of occasionally acting Dayan, P. (2008). The role of value systems in decision making.
suboptimally. This means that they are prone to acting In C. Engel & W. Singer (Eds.), Better than conscious? Decision
210 A Ambitions

making, the human mind, and implications for institutions Theoretical Background
(pp. 51–70). Frankfurt: MIT Press. Amnesia is often caused by neurological damage, in
Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2003). The nature of human altruism.
particular to the hippocampus and wider medial tem-
Nature, 425, 785–791.
Lee, D. (2008). Game theory and neural basis of social decision poral lobes (MTL), as well as the medial diencephalon.
making. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 404–409. Causes of neurological amnesia include physical
Ng, Y.N., & Russell, S. (2000). Algorithms for inverse reinforcement trauma (e.g., head injury, surgery), disease (e.g.,
learning. In Proceedings of the seventeenth international confer- Alzheimer’s disease), infection (e.g., herpes simplex
ence on machine learning (pp. 663–670). San Francisco: Morgan
encephalitis), chronic drug and alcohol abuse, and
Kaufmann.
Seymour, B., Yoshida, W., & Dolan, R. (2009). Altruistic learning.
reduced blood flow to the brain. The damage can be
Frontiers in Behavioural Neuroscience, 3, 23. bilateral (implicating both sides of the brain), or
unilateral (implicating either the left or right side of
the brain). Unilateral damage results in amnesia
for specific materials: left-sided damage affects mostly
memory for verbal material, while right-sided damage
Ambitions especially affects memory for nonverbal material (e.g.,
faces and spatial maps). Neurological amnesia can
▶ Goals and Goalsetting: Prevention and Treatment of
result in both retrograde and anterograde amnesia.
Depression
A similar, but transient form of amnesia can also be
induced pharmacologically, by, e.g., the benzodiazepine
diazepam or the anticholinergic drug hyoscine. Func-
tional amnesia, a psychiatric disorder which can be
Amnesia and Learning caused by severely stressful life-events, is much rarer
and only results in retrograde amnesia.
MAARTEN SPEEKENBRINK Amnesia involves the inability to recollect person-
Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences, University ally experienced events (episodic memory) and factual
College London, London, UK information (semantic memory, e.g., “Paris is the cap-
ital of France”). Both are forms of declarative memory
and are what is commonly understood by “memory.”
Synonyms In retrograde amnesia, there is a difficulty in remem-
Learning and amnesia; Learning and loss of memory bering declarative information acquired before the
onset of amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is often tempo-
Definition rally graded, being more severe for information
Amnesia refers to a difficulty to remember information encountered in the recent than in the more distant
encountered before (retrograde amnesia) and/or after past. Depending on the severity of the neurological
(anterograde amnesia) the event that caused it. Amne- damage, the memory loss may cover a period from
sia is often caused by neurological damage, in particu- a year to decades. This temporal gradation suggests
lar to the medial temporal lobes (MTL). Amnesia that while the MTL and medial diencephalon play
specifically affects recollection of personally experi- a crucial role in the consolidation of memory, they
enced events (episodic memory) and facts (semantic are not themselves the repositories of long-term
memory). Other, non-declarative types of memories memory.
are relatively spared. For instance, individuals with Anterograde amnesia involves difficulties in learn-
amnesia can often learn new skills and habits, and ing new facts and events after the onset of amnesia;
show priming and simple conditioning effects. These amnesic individuals show profound forgetfulness. In
spared forms of learning have in common that they are severe cases, this has been described as forgetting events
expressed as a gradual change in behavioral perfor- almost as soon as they have happened. Amnesic indi-
mance over repeated learning instances. Crucially, viduals show impaired declarative learning whether
they don’t require recollection of the learning instances memory is tested by free recall (e.g., recalling as many
themselves. items as possible from a previously studied list), cued
 Amnesia and Learning A 211

recall (e.g., presenting the first letter of the to-be- performance rather than recollection. In principle, A
remembered item), or recognition (presenting items these tasks can be learned by gradual strengthening
and asking whether they came from a previously stud- stimulus–response associations, without the need for
ied list). Interestingly, anterograde amnesia seems spe- conscious recollection of the experienced training epi-
cific to declarative memory. Other forms of memory sodes. Indeed, it has been found that amnesic patients
are relatively spared. Amnesia does not affect short- can learn new semantic knowledge in such a way. For
term memory. For instance, individuals with amnesia instance, it has been found that amnesic individuals
are able to repeat short sequences of digits, as long as can learn simple factual statements after many repeti-
they can actively rehearse the sequence during the tions. A factor that may enhance such learning in
retention period. Intact short-term memory is crucial amnesia is the reduction of interference from compet-
to most tasks and, for instance, allows one to have ing alternatives. Non-declarative memory typically
a normal conversation. Non-declarative memory is involves emitting the strongest response from the avail-
also typically spared in amnesia. In particular, amnesic able actions, so performance is increased by strength-
individuals have been shown to be relatively ening the correct response. When responses are freely
unimpaired in the following forms of learning (Gabri- chosen, individuals can inadvertently strengthen the
eli 1998; Squire et al. 1993): incorrect response. This is prevented in “errorless”
learning, where individuals are prevented from making
● Motor and perceptual skill learning. Unimpaired skill
incorrect responses during training, thus reducing
learning has been shown for a number of tasks,
interference from incorrect responses in later tests.
including mirror tracing, rotary pursuit (tracking
Errorless learning has been shown to sometimes
a moving object), response sequence learning
drastically improve declarative memory in amnesia
(matching responses to visual cues that occur in
(e.g., Wilson et al. 1994).
a fixed sequence), and reading mirror-reversed text.
The finding that amnesic individuals are relatively
● Priming. Priming involves the facilitation of a
unimpaired in non-declarative learning tasks has led to
response through previous exposure to related mate-
the claim that declarative and non-declarative memory
rial. Individuals with amnesia have been found to
are supported by neurologically and functionally inde-
exhibit unimpaired levels of repetition priming,
pendent memory systems (e.g., Squire et al. 1993).
identifying stimuli more rapidly when they have
According to this view, declarative learning depends
been presented before, despite being not able to
on the MTL and medial diencephalon, the areas
recollect the previously presented information.
affected in amnesia. Non-declarative learning depends
● Simple conditioning. Certain forms of simple con-
on other brain structures, in particular the basal
ditioning are also spared in amnesia. One example
ganglia, and is not affected by amnesia.
is eye-blink conditioning, where presentation of an
auditory tone signals an air puff directed to the eyes.
As long as the tone overlaps with the air puff, the
Important Scientific Research and
tone itself starts to elicit an involuntary eye-blink.
Open Questions
Early research on the effects of amnesia on learning
However, if there is a brief interval between the tone
comes from single-case studies. A famous and exten-
and the air puff, amnesic individuals show reduced
sively studied patient is H.M., who, following a bilateral
learning of this conditioned response.
lobectomy (large parts of both sides of the MTL were
● Probabilistic category learning. These tasks involve
removed), retained normal intellect but suffered severe
predicting an outcome from a number of cues
anterograde amnesia (as well as graded retrograde
which are probabilistically related to the outcome.
amnesia). A problem with single-case studies is that
It has been found that amnesic individuals’ predic-
the results can depend on the precise nature of the
tion accuracy increases at a similar rate to controls
brain damage. This makes direct generalization to
(Knowlton et al. 1994; Speekenbrink et al. 2008), at
other individuals with amnesia problematic. Research
least in the initial stages of learning.
with animals allows precise control over the neurolog-
The non-declarative forms of learning above have ical damage, but may not always directly apply to
in common that they are directly expressed through amnesic humans. The results of research comparing
212 A Amphetamine, Arousal, and Learning

groups of amnesic patients to matched controls can References

give inconsistent results. Patient groups are usually Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory.
relatively small and include patients with a wide variety Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 87–115.
of neurological profiles, which may partly explain Knowlton, B. J., Squire, L. R., & Gluck, M. (1994). Probabilistic
classification learning in amnesia. Learning & Memory, 1, 106–120.
inconsistent results between experiments.
Speekenbrink, M., Channon, S., & Shanks, D. R. (2008). Learning
While there is little disagreement that amnesia strategies in amnesia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
involves a profound loss of episodic memory, its impact 32, 292–310.
on semantic memory is more controversial (Spiers et al. Spiers, H. J., Maguire, E. A., & Burgess, N. (2001). Hippocampal
2001). Semantic learning is spared in some amnesic amnesia. Neurocase, 7, 357–382.
Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B., & Musen, G. (1993). The structure
individuals, despite severe episodic memory problems,
and organization of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 44,
and other amnesic individuals are able to learn seman- 453–495.
tic information after many repetitions. Wilson, B. A., Baddeley, A., Evans, J., & Shiel, A. (1994). Errorless
While non-declarative learning is often found to be learning in the rehabilitation of memory impaired people.
relatively unimpaired, there are studies that do show Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 4, 307–326.
significant impairments. It is important to note that
results on amnesia are typically comparative to
unimpaired control individuals. Thus, unimpaired per-
formance means that no difference could be detected
between amnesic and control individuals. But, due to Amphetamine, Arousal, and
the relatively small sample sizes in patient studies, these Learning
null findings may be due to lack of statistical power.
A more cautionary conclusion is that amnesia impairs CATERINA BREITENSTEIN1, STEFAN KNECHT2
1
performance on non-declarative tasks to a lesser extent Department of Neurology, University of Muenster,
than performance on declarative tasks. This implies Muenster, Germany
2
that declarative and non-declarative memories are not Neurocenter at Schön Klinik Hamburg Eilbek, Schön
necessarily independent, which has led to a debate Klinik Hamburg-Eilbek, Hamburg, Germany
whether memory consists of multiple systems, or is
really a unitary system. A related issue concerns the
implicit nature of non-declarative memory. Declarative Synonyms
memory is usually taken to be explicit, requiring direct Monoaminergic drug; Neuroenhancement; Neuro-
access to conscious recollection. Non-declarative mem- modulation; Psychostimulants
ory is taken to be implicit, acquired without awareness,
and inaccessible to conscious recollection. The explicit/ Definition
implicit distinction is often taken to be synonymous to Amphetamine (alpha-methylphenethylamine), first
the declarative/non-declarative distinction. Thus, synthesized by the Romanian chemist Lazăr
amnesia is taken to involve impaired explicit, but Edeleanu in 1887, is an indirect sympathomimetic
unimpaired implicit learning. However, the idea that psychostimulant drug, which centrally and periph-
learning can occur in the complete absence of aware- erally stimulates the release of endogenous biogenic
ness is controversial. Moreover, amnesic patients can amines by binding to the monoamine transporters,
show conscious insight into what they have learned in thereby phasically increasing extracellular levels of
non-declarative tasks (Speekenbrink et al. 2008). norepinephrine, and to a smaller degree dopamine
and serotonin. The most studied compound is its
Cross-References d-isomer, dextroamphetamine, which has a higher bio-
▶ Explicit Learning availability and fewer systemic effects compared to the
▶ Habit Learning in Animals racemic mixture (containing levo- and dextroamphet-
▶ Implicit Learning amines in equal amounts). After oral administration of
▶ Memory Dynamics a typical dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight in human
 Amphetamine, Arousal, and Learning A 213

adults, blood plasma levels reach their maximum after modify two different dopaminergic processes: Tonic A
30–120 min and decline after 5–6 h, due to the short dopamine levels, maintained by slow irregular cell fir-
plasma half-life (12–13 h). Behavioral drug effects ing, contribute to maintaining alertness during learn-
(of therapeutic doses) are increased arousal, mood ing and working memory functions. Phasic dopamine
elevation, improved concentration, and suppressed release enhances learning via increasing intrinsic
appetite. The most common central side effects are reward signals (Schultz 2007). Either of these two
insomnia and agitation; the most common peripheral dopamine functions is enhanced by dextroamphet-
side effects are hypertension and cardiac arrhythmias. amine (Breitenstein et al. 2006). Fourth, dextroam-
phetamine also increases extracellular levels of other
Theoretical Background monoamines like serotonin, and may, therefore, affect
Learning involves changes in synaptic strengths learning by other mechanisms like elevated mood
induced by activity-dependent coincident firing of states.
pre- and postsynaptic neurons (▶ Neurotransmission).
Additionally, synaptic strength is affected by Important Scientific Research and
heterosynaptic modulatory input (▶ Neuromodulation). Open Questions
Over the past decade, there has been an enormous Current clinical indications for dextroamphetamine
interest in drugs with the potential to boost “normal” are narcolepsy (with the goal of increasing alertness)
learning as well as functional recovery after brain injury and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders (by improv-
(▶ Neuroenhancement). Animal studies have shown ing attention). Both animal work and several small
that dextroamphetamine effectively increases general clinical trials with stroke patients indicate that pharma-
brain excitability and enhances the formation of new cological interventions coupled with intense behavioral
neural networks when administered together with inten- training can enhance recovery days to weeks poststroke
sive sensory stimulation/behavioral training. Studies of (Barbay and Nudo 2009). Among the most effective
healthy human adults have demonstrated increased drugs, when given at sufficiently high doses, with
working memory functions, procedural and associative respect to both motor and language recovery after
learning performances, and improved retention of ver- stroke in humans is dextroamphetamine. To date,
bal material after oral dextroamphetamine administra- there is a lack of randomized controlled clinical trials
tion. The relationship between dextroamphetamine supporting “class 1” evidence for treatment efficacy in
doses and learning efficiency, however, seems to follow stroke patients (Martinsson et al. 2007). Reasons for
a U-shaped curve, with maximum learning success at the paucity of relevant studies may be safety concerns
medium drug doses (Goldstein 2009). Furthermore, the due to dextroamphetamine’s cardiovascular side effects
optimal drug dose may differ between individuals and its addiction potential. Furthermore, explanations
depending on their specific set of genetic polymor- for the inconsistency of amphetamine effects across
phisms (e.g., catechol O-methyl transferase=COMT, studies may be offered by the different dosing and
brain-derived neurotrophic factor=BDNF; DRD2). timing schemes. The long-term administration of
Learning enhancement by dextroamphetamine amphetamine under routine clinical conditions may
may be accomplished via four different molecular also yield detrimental effects due to its sleep-depriving
pathways. First, its effects on noradrenergic neurotrans- effects, which may impair ▶ sleep-dependent memory
mission lead to more focused attention during learning consolidation and thus hamper the relearning of lost
processes. Secondly, an indirect contribution to functions.
enhanced learning and memory may be through The as of yet unresolved question is how exactly
a neuromodulatory facilitation of NMDA-receptor- amphetamine administration modulates learning.
gated mechanisms in memory-relevant brain structures Future studies have to elucidate which of the four afore-
like the hippocampus, leading to the induction of long- mentioned molecular pathways presents the major
term potentiation and subsequently to more effective mediating mechanism of amphetamine’s learning
memory consolidation (Kandel 2001). Third, dextro- enhancement to determine whether the effect is (a)
amphetamine’s effects on dopamine transmission can a simple increase in arousal (which could also be
214 A Amygdala

achieved by administration of safer substances, like caf-

feine) or (b) a more direct neuromodulatory effect in Analogical Coherence/
memory/internal-reward-related brain structures. If Correspondence
learning enhancement could be achieved without (car-
diovascular) arousal, alternate substances or procedures MARCELLO GUARINI
(like physical exercise) could be more safely applied, Department of Philosophy, University of Windsor,
particularly in patients with critical cerebrovascular con- Windsor, Ontario, Canada
ditions, like hypertension and cardiac disease.

Cross-References Synonyms
Multi-constraint theory of analogical thinking; Parallel
▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
constraint satisfaction theory of analogy; Retrieval or
▶ Acceleration of Learning in Networks
mapping
▶ Arousal and Paired-Associate Learning
▶ Associative Learning
▶ Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder
Definition
An analogy can be thought of as the existence of a type
▶ Dreaming as Consolidation of Memory and
of similarity relationship between at least one source
Learning
domain and one target domain that are not identical. It
▶ Drug Conditioning
may also be thought of as the linguistic, imagistic, or
▶ Exercising and Learning
other expression of such a relationship. Finally, analogy
▶ Neuropsychology of Learning
can refer to the cognitive processes involved in com-
▶ Superlearning
paring the source and the target of an analogy, where
that comparison may be made for different purposes.
References Correspondences are the mappings between the source
Barbay, S., & Nudo, R. J. (2009). The effects of amphetamine on and the target making up the analogy. Sometimes “cor-
recovery of function in animal models of cerebral injury:
respondence” is used to refer to the mapping of
A critical appraisal. NeuroRehabilitation, 25, 5–17.
Breitenstein, C., Floel, A., Korsukewitz, C., Wailke, S., Bushuven, S., & a specific element in the source domain to the target;
Knecht, S. (2006). A shift of paradigm: From noradrenergic to sometimes it refers to the overall comparison or set of
dopaminergic modulation of learning? Journal of the Neurologi- mappings between domain and target. Herein, “corre-
cal Sciences, 248, 42–47. spondence” will be used in the former sense. The
Goldstein, L. B. (2009). Amphetamine trials and tribulations. Stroke,
coherence or multi-constraint approach to analogy
40, S133–S135.
Kandel, E. R. (2001). The molecular biology of memory storage:
computes correspondences between source and target
A dialogue between genes and synapses. Science, 294, 1030–1038. elements by using the constraints of similarity, struc-
Martinsson, L., Hardemark, H., & Eksborg, S. (2007). Amphetamines ture, and purpose. Each of these constraints is soft; this
for improving recovery after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, is to say that they are assigned weights and need not be
1, CD002090. perfectly satisfied in every case. The interpretation of
Schultz, W. (2007). Multiple dopamine functions at different time
source and target that satisfies the most constraints, or
courses. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 259–288.
is most coherent, is selected. The coherence approach
allows for a graded notion of analogy – things can be
more or less analogous. In the limiting or ideal case,
there is an isomorphism between source and target
elements in the analogical mapping.
Amygdala
A part of the limbic system, located in the medial Theoretical Background
temporal lobe of the brain. The amygdala is found The classical Greek term for analogy – analοgίa or
just anterior to the hippocampus, and has been shown analogia – is sometimes translated as “proportion” or
to be critical for the processing of emotional informa- even “ratio.” It was not uncommon for thinkers like
tion and the formation of emotional memories. ▶ Aristotle to use mathematical examples such as 2 is
 Analogical Coherence/Correspondence A 215

to 4 as 4 is to 8 to explicate the notion of analogia. two things analogous. If any sort of similarity will do, A
However, the concept was not restricted to mathemat- then anything can be said to be analogous to anything
ics. Toe is to foot as finger is to hand would also be else. Some constraints would appear to be needed for
considered an analogia. The key idea is that there is a more informative notion of analogy.
some sort of relation or pattern that is common to both As we have already seen, commonality of relational
the source and to the target. As Cameron Shelley (2003) structure between the source and target is one of the
makes clear, the classical notion of analogia is not constraints used by the coherence or multi-constraint
restricted to a single relation (such as x is twice y, or approach to analogy. This approach also stresses the
x is an appendage of y) holding between a source and importance of a specific sort of similarity in understand-
target. More complex patterns may be at issue. More- ing analogy. Sometimes referred to as semantic similar-
over, classical theorists understood that analogies could ity, this constraint is about the network of relationships
be used not only to explain but also to argue or per- that hold in the concepts involved in a purported anal-
suade. These classical views had a powerful influence ogy. For example, concepts can be related to one another
on medieval thinkers, and work on analogy continues as superordinate or subordinate. If Lassie and Spot are
to the present day. Contemporary work on analogy dogs, then they are both subordinates of the concept
retains some of the insights of classical theorists. mammal, which is a subordinate of the concept animal,
The structure mapping approach is currently the which is a subordinate of living thing. Fish is not
dominant paradigm for understanding analogy in a subordinate of mammal, but it is a subordinate of
psychology and cognitive science, and it preserves the living thing. Say John is a human being and Charley is
classical emphasis on the importance of relational a goldfish. Looking simply at the hierarchy we have just
structure. The solar system is like the atom – this examined, it might make sense to say that Lassie and
analogy draws on the sharing of a 2-place or relational Spot are more similar to one another than to John since
predicate, x revolves around y, shared by the planets Spot and Lassie are dogs and John is not. It might also
and the sun as well as by electrons and the nucleus of an make sense to say that Lassie and Spot are more similar
atom. More complex relations are also possible: three- to John than they are to Charley given that Spot, Lassie,
place relations (e.g., x is between y and z), four-place and John are all mammals and Charley is not. Of
relations, and so on. It is also possible to assert relations course, this is much too simple since there are many
about relations, or higher order relations. First order different relationships that can hold between concepts
and higher order relations are often referred to as besides superordinate and subordinate. That said, the
relational structure, and they figure centrally in the idea is that semantic similarities holding between
psychological/cognitive theory of analogy pioneered concepts are operative as constraints on how analogies
by Dedre Gentner (1983). (Not all similarities are rela- are constructed, retrieved from memory, or under-
tional: the sun and corn are similar because they share stood. Sometimes perceptual similarities are also built
the attribute or monadic predicate “is yellow.”) Analog- into this notion of semantic similarity.
ical coherence approaches can be seen as a variation on Purpose is the third constraint postulated by the
the structure mapping approach. They compute corre- coherence approach. Some of the applications or pur-
spondences between source and target by using rela- poses of analogy making include explaining, arguing,
tional structure as one source of constraints, but there or persuading, forming new concepts, generating pre-
are other sources as well. Before getting to that, a few dictions, solving problems, and evoking an emotional
words are in order about why constraints are needed. response. Say that Lassie is a loyal dog and Spot is not,
Any two things may be said to have properties or and that we are in a context where this is well known.
relations of some sort in common. My beta fish and I are Someone in this context who wants to disparage John
both alive; we are both millions of kilometers away from for his lack of loyalty may well compare him to Spot
the sun; we both live in the Milky Way galaxy; the force for the purpose of evoking a negative, disapproving
of gravity acts on both of us, as does the electromagnetic emotional reaction toward John. If Henry is a loyal
force, and we could go on and on outlining the many man, the analogizer may find it more useful, for the
trivial similarities that hold between my beta fish and purpose of disparaging John, to compare John with
me. But this does not shed much light on what makes Spot than with Henry. While this sort of analogy goes
216 A Analogical Coherence/Correspondence

against the superordinate and subordinate semantic that theory of analogy could make a contribution to
similarities considered in the previous paragraph, our understanding of concept learning and conceptual
there may well be enough other semantic similarities change (and that work on these later areas could
or structural correspondences to fulfill the purpose of improve our understanding of analogy).
the analogy. For other purposes, the purported analogy As Holyoak and Thagard (1995) point out, much
may not work at all. work remains to be done. Analogies may be visual or
In the coherence or multi-constraint approach to imagistic, and while some work has been done on the
computationally modeling analogy, positive and negative subject, more remains to be done with visual and other
weights are assigned to the different possible connections sensory modalities. Some analogies may even be multi-
between source and target elements in a way that instan- modal. For example, it might be argued that a scene in
tiates the aforementioned constraints, and a coherence one movie is analogous to a scene in another movie, and
optimization or constraint satisfaction algorithm is run the analogy may consist in the correspondence of ele-
to maximize the satisfaction of as many constraints as ments pertaining to plot structure, visual images, and
possible. Different sets of possible correspondences sounds. The definition of analogical coherence offered
between the source and target essentially compete against above is silent on the nature of the elements that corre-
one another for acceptance. spond to one another in an analogy. While much of the
work on analogy has focused on linguistic representa-
Important Scientific Research and tions of concepts, not all work has this focus, and more
Open Questions work will likely be done that does not have this focus.
The originators of the coherence approach to under- For these reasons, the nature of the elements being
standing analogy are Keith Holyoak and Paul Thagard. mapped (linguistic/conceptual, imagistic, auditory,
The basic idea of the three constraints at work was being multimodal, or whatever) has been left open.
formulated in the mid-1980s, and powerful connec- Finally, the limits and scope of analogical coherence
tionist implementations (see ▶ Connectionism) began need to be better understood. For example, Dirk
to arrive by the late 1980s and early 1990s. (See Holyoak Schlimm (2008) has provided a thought-provoking
and Thagard [1995, Chap. 10] for a history of the early critique of the limits of the structure mapping
years of this approach.) They developed a computa- approach in domains such as mathematics. The direct
tional implementation of the coherence approach for target of the critique is the work of Gentner and her
carrying out analogical mappings – the Analogical collaborators, but the critique suggests limits for any
Constraint Mapping Engine (ACME). They also devel- approach making the mapping of structural relations
oped an implementation for retrieving analogues from central to understanding analogy (and this includes the
memory – Analogue Retrieval by Constraint Satisfac- multi-constraint approach). The point of the critique is
tion (ARCS). Holyoak and Hummel (2001) went on to not that there are no analogies in mathematics; rather,
develop a more biologically realistic implementation of it is that mathematical analogies are best understood
the multi-constraint theory of analogy called LISA using an axiomatic approach to modeling.
(Learning and Inference with Schemas and Analogies).
Thagard and Shelley (2001) have incorporated the ana- Cross-References
logical coherence into HOTCO (hot coherence), ▶ Analogical Model(s)
a strategy for constructing artificial neural networks ▶ Analogy/Analogies: Structure and Process
that model the analogical transfer of emotions (as well ▶ Analogy-Based Learning
as other aspects of cognition). The range of possible ▶ Case-Based Learning
applications of analogy is vast, including but not limited ▶ Learning Metaphors
to: analogical modeling of language, analogical reason- ▶ Measures of Similarity
ing, analogical reasoning in animals, analogical reason- ▶ Memory Structure
ing of young children, and problem solving. From the ▶ Mental Models
early days of the coherence approach to analogy, it was ▶ Model-Based Reasoning
understood that schemas would play an important role ▶ Model-Based Learning
in the analogical transfer of information. It was thought ▶ Similarity Learning
 Analogical Models A 217

References contexts – that is, various feature vectors for which no A

Gentner, D. (1983). Structure mapping: A theoretical framework for outcome vector has been assigned (or if one has been
analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155–170. assigned, it is ignored).
Holyoak, K. J., & Hummel, J. E. (2001). Toward and understanding of In AM, the resulting predictions are not based on
analogy within a biological symbol system. In D. Gentner, K. J.
any learning stage for which the data set has been
Holyoak, & B. N. Kokinov (Eds.), The analogical mind
(pp. 161–195). Cambridge, MA/London, England: MIT Press analyzed in advance in order to discover various
(a Bradford book). kinds of potential relationships between the feature
Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1995). Mental leaps: Analogy in creative vectors and their associated outcome vectors. Neural
thought. Cambridge, MA/London, England: MIT Press (a Brad- nets, decision trees, and statistical analyses that deter-
ford book).
mine the significance of the features in predicting the
Schlimm, D. (2008). Two ways of analogy: Extending the study of
analogies to mathematical domains. Philosophy of Science, 75,
outcomes all rely on first learning something about the
178–200. data set and then using that information to make pre-
Shelley, C. (2003). Multiple analogies in science and philosophy. dictions. AM, on the other hand, directly uses the data
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. set to make a prediction for each specific feature vector
Thagard, P., & Shelley, C. (2001). Emotional analogies and analogical in the test set.
inference. In D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, & B. N. Kokinov (Eds.),
The analogical mind (pp. 363–399). Cambridge, MA/London,
England: MIT Press (a Bradford book). Theoretical Background
The basic theory of AM (Skousen 1989, 1992; Skousen
et al. 2002) was developed during 1979–1987 and works
from the hypothesis that in trying to predict the out-
come (or behavior) for a vector of features, we consider
Analogical Models all possible combinations of those features. Using
a simple quadratic measure of uncertainty (not the
ROYAL SKOUSEN traditional logarithmic one of information theory),
Department of Linguistics and English Language, we select those combinations of features that never
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA permit any increase in the uncertainty. Those combi-
nations that increase the uncertainty are referred to as
heterogeneous and are eliminated from the analysis.
Definition Another way to look at AM is to view each combi-
▶ Analogical Models derive from a general theory for nation of features and its predicted outcome as a rule
predicting behavior called Analogical Modeling (AM). that maps from the feature combination to the out-
Although most work in AM has been done in come. The homogeneous combinations can be consid-
predicting language behavior, the theory is general ered “true rules,” the heterogeneous ones as “false
enough so that it can be applied to almost any kind of rules.” In other words, AM uses only the true rules;
problem involving classification or categorization the false rules are ignored. Given that we have deter-
according to a predefined set of outcomes. Predictions mined the true rules, the question then becomes: What
are directly based on a data set of exemplars. These are the chances of using a particular true rule to predict
exemplars give the outcome for various configurations the outcome? The false rules, of course, are all assigned
of variables, which may be structured in different ways a probability of zero. Among the conceptual possibili-
(such as strings or trees). ties for assigning a probability to a true rule are
The most common method in AM has been to the following: (1) each rule is equally probable;
define the variables so that there is no inherent struc- (2) the probability is proportional to the frequency of
ture or relationships between the variables (that is, each the rule in the data; (3) the probability is proportional
variable is defined independently of all the other vari- to the square of the frequency of the rule. Over time, it
ables). In this case, the variables can be considered has become clear that the third choice is the simplest
a vector of features. In the data set, each feature vector and most natural since it directly uses the same qua-
is assigned an outcome vector. The data set is used to dratic measure of uncertainty that is already needed to
predict the outcome vector for a test set of given determine which rules are true (that is, which feature
218 A Analogical Modeling of Language

combinations are homogeneous in behavior). More- an appendix by Deryle Lonsdale suggests ways of
over, the third choice has provided the most accurate applying AM to nonlinguistic problems, such as ana-
results in predicting language behavior, including the lyzing congressional voting records and identifying
appropriate degree of fuzziness that occurs at the toxic mushrooms.
boundaries of linguistic behavior. One serious problem in applying AM has been the
exponential explosion in running time and memory
Important Scientific Research and requirements. Adding one variable to an analysis basi-
Open Questions cally doubles these requirements. More recently,
AM has had considerable success in explaining actual Skousen has developed ▶ Quantum Analogical Model-
language behavior and has commonly been referred to ing, a quantum mechanical approach to AM that pro-
as ▶ Analogical Modeling of Language. The first work vides a simultaneous method of determining which
in AM began with Royal Skousen’s description of the feature combinations are homogeneous in behavior,
indefinite article in English and the past tense in Finn- thus reducing the exponential explosion to a tractable
ish (Skousen 1989), and this was followed by Bruce algorithm in no more than quadratic time and space.
Derwing and Royal Skousen on the past tense in
English (Derwing and Skousen 1994), David Edding- Cross-References
ton on various problems in Spanish morphology ▶ Analogical Modeling of Language
(Eddington 2004), and Harald Baayen and his col- ▶ Quantum Analogical Modeling
leagues in the Netherlands on various aspects of
Dutch morphology (Ernestus and Baayen 2003). Steve References
Chandler has provided a thorough comparison of AM Derwing, B., & Skousen, R. (1994). Productivity and the English past
with connectionist models of language as well as with tense: Testing Skousen’s analogy model. In S. D. Lima, R. L.
a number of competing instance-based models. Chan- Corrigan, & G. K. Iverson (Eds.), The reality of linguistic rules
dler has shown how AM, a single-route approach to (pp. 193–218). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Eddington, D. (2004). Spanish phonology and morphology. Amster-
language description (that is, AM has a single concep-
dam: John Benjamins.
tual mechanism), can readily handle various experi- Ernestus, M., & Baayen, R. H. (2003). Predicting the unpredictable:
mental results that were earlier claimed to be possible Interpreting neutralized segments in Dutch. Language, 79, 5–38.
only in dual-route approaches to language; moreover, Skousen, R. (1989). Analogical modeling of language. Dordrecht:
Chandler has found evidence from various psycholin- Kluwer.
Skousen, R. (1992). Analogy and structure. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
guistic results that only AM seems capable of explaining
Skousen, R., Lonsdale, D., & Parkinson, D. B. (2002). Analogical
(see Chandler’s article in Skousen et al. 2002). modeling: An exemplar-based approach to language. Amsterdam:
One important aspect of AM is that the analysis is John Benjamins.
not restricted to just the important or crucial variables.
We need to include so-called unimportant variables in
order to make our predictions robust. The unimportant
variables are crucial for predicting the fuzziness of
actual language usage. Specifying unimportant vari- Analogical Modeling of
ables also allows for cases where the preferred analogy Language
is not a nearest neighbor to a particular given context,
but is found in a gang of homogeneous behavior at STEVE CHANDLER1, ROYAL SKOUSEN2
1
some distance from the given context. Department of English, University of Idaho,
Another important aspect is that AM requires Moscow, ID, USA
2
imperfect memory. In order to model the variability Department of Linguistics and English Language,
of language properly, it is necessary to assume that Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
access to exemplars is probabilistic and works on
a random basis.
A useful source for applying AM to various sorts of Synonyms
linguistic problems can be found in Skousen et al. 2002; Language modeling
 Analogical Modeling of Language A 219

Definition past tense of grive (about three fourths of the time) and A
There are today several theoretical approaches to grove (about one fourth of the time). The crucial
modeling language which posit an analogical basis for theoretical question has now become whether an
linguistic behavior, including ▶ connectionist models analogical model such as AM is adequate to account
and exemplar-based models. Although connectionist for both the irregular behavior just noted and the
models do not retain individualized memories for regular behavior that generativists have cited to
instances of linguistic behavior, the exemplar-based motivate their models of language. The research to
models all have in common that they operate on date suggests strongly that it is.
a new instance of linguistic behavior by comparing it Skousen developed AM primarily as a usage-based
systematically to remembered examples of similar alternative to the rule-based competence grammars of
instances and then choosing from memory one or ▶ generative linguistics and, to a lesser extent, to the
more of those previously experienced examples to connectionist models that were then attracting consid-
serve as the basis for an analogical interpretation or erable attention either as alternatives to generative
prediction of behavior for the new instance. Those ▶ grammar or as supplements to them (the so-called
models differ crucially, however, in how they identify ▶ dual mechanism models as described in Pinker
the examples from memory that are to serve as the basis 1999). Consequently, Skousen developed AM indepen-
for the analogical operation. This entry describes dently of parallel theoretical developments then under-
specifically how Royal Skousen’s ▶ Analogical Model way in cognitive psychology (the Generalized Context
(AM) interprets and predicts linguistic behavior. Model, only later applied to language) and largely inde-
pendently of work in computational linguistics in
Theoretical Background Europe (memory-based learning). Since AM is essen-
Throughout the history of Western thought about tially an exemplar-based (or instance-based) model of
language, grammarians and linguists have almost all categorization, it often is compared directly to both
assumed, either explicitly or implicitly, that linguistic connectionist models of language behavior as well as
usage – that is, the production and comprehension of to other exemplar-based approaches to modeling lin-
language – operated analogically. In 1966, however, guistic and cognitive behavior. Steve Chandler (2002,
Noam Chomsky argued that all such appeals to 2009) has provided a thorough comparison of AM with
analogical processes are vacuous as a linguistic theory connectionist models of language as well as with com-
because they cannot account explicitly for the creative peting exemplar-based models, and he has described
aspects of linguistic usage such as whether a speaker of various theoretical and empirical advantages that the
American English might choose to express the nonce AM appears to exhibit over those competing models.
verb grive as grove in the past tense, presumably on Most importantly, AM researchers have reported
analogy with familiar English verbs such as drive or results from various psycholinguistic studies that only
dive, or as grived, on analogy with regular verbs such exemplar-based models seem capable of explaining and
as gripe or dive. (In American English the verb dive that only AM seems capable of explaining without
typically takes the irregular past tense form dove.) Iron- additional theoretical assumptions (Chandler 2002,
ically, much subsequent research has demonstrated 2009).
consistently that any adequate model of language Skousen’s Analogical Model predicts the behavior of
must include some sort of analogical mechanism of a linguistic form by first comparing it systematically,
just the sort that Chomsky rejected (e.g., Pinker feature by feature, with similar forms that have been
1999). To date, connectionist approaches have pro- encountered before and are retained in one’s long-term
vided the most popular framework for incorporating memory, the data set (in computer simulations,
analogy into linguistic models. Skousen’s AM, however, a corpus of examples exhibiting the linguistic behavior
offers an alternative rebuttal to Chomsky’s criticism of of interest). The model then compares the new form
analogical models in general, and it exhibits several with all the verbs in memory that share any phonolog-
theoretical and empirical advantages over the connec- ical features with it. Thus, a nonce verb such as grive
tionist approaches. For example, it predicts explicitly, (represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet as
and accurately, that a speaker will produce grived as the [graiv]) would be compared with all the verbs in
220 A Analogical Modeling of Language

memory that share the following phonological seg- behavior. The AM includes no such assumptions or
ments or subsets of segments with it: [grai_], [gr_v], preliminary analyses and simply treats all of the
[g_aiv], [_raiv], [g _ _ v], etc. Notice that some feature remembered features, or variables, that the forms in
subsets (supracontexts in AM) such as [_ _ aiv] corre- the corpus (data set) exhibit as potentially of equal
spond to both the irregular verb dive with its past tense importance. The value of this assumption shows up
form dove (in American English) and to the regular readily in even so seemingly simple an issue as
verb jive. Once the set of forms from the data set predicting the English indefinite article form, a or an
sharing each supracontext has been identified, another for which including seemingly “unimportant”
procedure within the AM program then determines variables makes possible several unexpected yet robust
which of those supracontexts, if any, introduce addi- predictions about indefinite article usage in English.
tional uncertainty – in an information-theoretic sense The conventional “rule” governing the English
– about what the possible outcomes might be. Those indefinite article form seems to base the choice exclu-
heterogeneous supracontexts, and their associated sively on the initial sound of the next word. Knowing
verbs, are eliminated from further consideration in that the following sound, whether consonant or vowel,
the analogical process. The verbs associated with the “determines” the article form (a before consonants, an
remaining supracontexts, the homogeneous ones, before vowels), a linguist could specify only the sylla-
become part of the analogical set, the set of candidate bicity of the following sound and thus predict a/an
sources for an analogical inference. Finally, a decision without error. Basically, that solution would be speci-
rule selects one or more of the forms in the analogical fying a single rule analysis for the indefinite article
set to become the basis for an analogical operation on form. Yet in modeling the behavior of the indefinite
the target item. article, AM specifies not only the first sound of the
From its beginning, AM has shown considerable following word but also the subsequent sounds in
success in replicating within a single theoretical frame- that word, supposedly unimportant variables. But by
work a variety of actual language behaviors, including adding these other variables, AM is able to predict
categorical behaviors (such as voice onset time), com- several behavioral properties of the indefinite article
peting regular and irregular behaviors (as in the English that are not predicted by the traditional, rule-based
past tense), and idiosyncratic behaviors. Skousen’s ini- account: (1) the one-way error tendency of adult
tial work dealt successfully with issues as diverse as speakers to replace an with a (but not a with an);
English indefinite article form, Finnish past tense verb (2) children’s errors favoring the extension of a, but
forms, and terms of address in Colloquial Egyptian not an, such as a upper, a alligator, a end, a engine, a egg,
Arabic (Skousen 1989). Subsequent work by others and a other one; and (3) dialects for which an has been
has extended the AM to an even more diverse set of replaced by a, but not the other way around. In other
linguistic issues in phonetics, phonology, and mor- words, the “unimportant” variables turn out to be
phology, in an increasing variety of languages, and crucial for predicting the fuzziness of actual language
addressing an ever broader array of linguistic data usage. Finally, another unexpected but important con-
sources, such as child language acquisition studies, sequence is that AM can predict the indefinite article
studies of psycholinguistic representation and even when the first sound is obscured (i.e., when one
processing, and studies of sociolinguistic variation cannot tell whether that sound is a consonant or
(see Chandler 2009 for a recent survey of AM research). a vowel). In such cases, the other variables are used to
Impressively, as illustrated below, the application of guess the syllabicity of the obscured sound or even the
AM to linguistic data – even to data thought to be word itself, thus allowing for the prediction. In other
already well-described and well-understood – has words, AM allows for robustness of prediction. If we
often revealed new details about linguistic behavior assume a symbolic rule system with only one rule (one
beyond those that originally motivated the study. For based on the syllabicity of the first sound), then no
example, other exemplar-based models of language rely prediction is possible when that sound is obscured.
crucially on anticipating – through preliminary analy- Some early exemplar-based models sought to iden-
sis of a data set – which variables appear to convey more tify the “nearest neighbor,” the example most closely
information than others about a form and its predicted resembling the target form, as the basis for an
 Analogical Modeling of Language A 221

analogical extension. However, this approach is empir- AM posits that one’s knowledge of a language – the A
ically wrong, and such models often predict incorrect ability to speak a given language – does not reside in
results. Other exemplar-based models address this a set of resident linguistic generalizations about the
problem by adding a preliminary procedure which language. Instead it resides in a process that allows
evaluates the predictive value of different features and one to accumulate examples of linguistic usage and
then weights the features accordingly before running then use those examples to interpret or produce new
the analogical program. Unfortunately, since those instances of usage “on the fly” by identifying one or
weighted feature values do not transfer to different more of those previous experiences as the basis for
data sets or to different tasks, they have to be operating on the instance analogically. To date, AM
recalculated each time a data set is revised (e.g., new has been applied to only a relatively few types of
exemplars added) or applied to a new task. Again, linguistic usage. Nonetheless, it has proven not only
however, when forms are represented more generally capable of modeling linguistic behavior extremely
and include variables that a priori may seem accurately but as well as – and often better than – the
“unimportant,” the test for homogeneity leads AM to alternative models of language can. Moreover, its appli-
predict the preferred analogy even when it is not based cations have often led to unexpected, deeper insights
on a nearest neighbor to the target form. Sometimes, into the nature of language behavior, such as those
the correct exemplars are found in a gang of homoge- described above.
neously behaving examples that are not the ones that As a relatively new approach to the modeling of
resemble the target form most closely. An important language, many of the details of applying AM to
example of this occurs in predicting the past tense for language have yet to be worked out fully. For example,
the Finnish verb sortaa “to oppress.” Standard rule there are outstanding questions regarding how to
analyses of Finnish as well as nearest-neighbor represent linguistic exemplars most appropriately. In
approaches to language prediction argue that the past particular, it is not yet clear how best to represent the
tense for this verb should be sorsi, whereas in fact it is hierarchical structure of more complex linguistic con-
sorti. Yet when AM is applied to predicting the past structions, and it is not yet clear how to integrate the
tense in Finnish, it is able to predict the correct sorti, effects of variables from different linguistic domains
mainly because AM indirectly discovers that the such as the mutual contributions of phonological
o vowel is the “crucial” variable in predicting the past representations and semantic representations to
tense for this particular verb. In previous analyses (typ- predicting past tense forms. There are also unanswered
ically based on the historically determined “crucial” questions regarding which of the decision rules avail-
variables), the o vowel was ignored. But AM, by spec- able to AM might apply under different circumstances.
ifying both “important” and “unimportant” variables See Skousen (2009) for further discussion of these and
uniformly across the whole word, is able to predict this related issues.
“exceptionally behaving” verb correctly.
Cross-References
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Connectionism
Open Questions
The field of linguistics is currently undergoing a major
paradigmatic shift in theory as more and more linguists
References
Chandler, S. (2002). Skousen’s analogical approach as an exemplar-
move away from the generative theory that has domi- based model of categorization. In R. Skousen, D. Lonsdale, &
nated linguistics for the past half century. Analogical D. B. Parkinson (Eds.), Analogical modeling: An exemplar-based
modeling described here represents one of the most approach to language (pp. 51–105). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
radical departures from the established theoretical par- Chandler, S. (2009). Exemplar-based models. In D. Eddington (Ed.),
adigm yet proposed. Virtually all theories of language Quantitative and experimental linguistics (pp. 100–158). Munich:
LINCOM Europa.
posit that the brain somehow develops a set of resident
Pinker, S. (1999). Words and rules: The ingredients of language. New
linguistic generalizations about one’s language that York: Basic Books.
then becomes the basis for speaking that language Skousen, R. (1989). Analogical modeling of language. Dordrecht:
(that is, it becomes one’s grammar for the language). Kluwer.
222 A Analogical Problem-Solving

Skousen, R. (2009). Expanding analogical modeling into a general practice as well as in learning and problem solving.
theory of language prediction. In J. P. Blevins & J. Blevins (Eds.), Reasoning via analogies suggests significant relation-
Analogy in grammar: Form and acquisition (pp. 164–184).
ships, helps to make connections between different
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
concepts, and conveys knowledge from an understood
Further Reading domain to one that is less familiar or not directly
Chomsky, N. (1966). Cartesian linguistics. New York: Harper & Row.
or immediately observable. Moreover, analogical rea-
soning can provide the base for interpreting possible
causal relations and facilitating innovation and creative
learning of new conceptual knowledge and general
Analogical Problem-Solving principles via abstraction.
▶ Analogy-Based Learning
Relevance
Analogies and analogical reasoning have been consid-
ered a central part of human intelligence and cognition
Analogical Reasoning and cognitive abilities like memory access, adaptation,
learning, and creativity (Gust et al. 2008). Understood
WENDELIN KÜPERS as a proclivity to take what we perceive, to abstract it,
School of Management, Massey University (Albany and to find resemblances to prior experiences, the
Campus), Auckland, New Zealand ability to make analogies is the very essence of human
thought (Hofstadter and Sander 2010). Accordingly
analogy-making pervades human thinking in the
Synonyms forms of categorizing, imagining, speaking, and
Argument by analogy; Case-based reasoning; Meta- guiding in unfamiliar or decision-making situations.
phorical thinking Analogical reasoning provides a means of enhancing
human capacity for creative yet disciplined thought
Definition and learning in a way that allows us to grasp and deal
with the many-sided character of phenomena. The
Analogical Reasoning and Its Uses educational value of analogical reasoning is evident,
Analogical reasoning or argument by analogy can be not only by that they allow effective learning of a new
defined as a specific way of thinking, based on the idea domain by transferring knowledge from a known
that because two or more things are similar in some domain, but as it promotes noticing and abstracting
respects, they are probably also similar in some further principles across domains.
respect. Integrating various human-level reasoning Practically speaking, analogical thinking is the basis
mechanisms, arguing by analogical thinking, use anal- of much of problem solving in the sense that many of
ogies by transferring knowledge from one particular these problems are solved based on previous examples.
entity (the analogue or source) to another one (the This involves abstracting details from a particular set of
target). Furthermore, it refers to the linguistic form, problems, comparing and resolving structural similar-
which corresponds to the process of relating the source ities, and extracting commonalities between previously
and the target. As specific form of inference or reason- distinct realms. Furthermore, analogical reasoning
ing, analogies draw conclusions by applying heuristics and particularly analogy counterarguments (Shelley
to propositions or observations as well as by interpo- 2004) are also relevant to critical thinking and
lating logical steps or patterns. Analogies focus on argumentation.
relating specific particularities in two or more cases or
things to form the basis for a conclusion involving an Theoretical Background
additional aspect rather than using standard deductive, The ancient theoretical reflection on analogy
inductive, or abductive argument forms. (analοgia, i.e., proportionality) and analogical reason-
Analogical reasoning is used, among others, in sci- ing interpreted comparison, metaphor, and images as
ence, jurisprudence, and politics, but also in every-day shared abstraction, and then used them as arguments.
 Analogical Reasoning A 223

Throughout history there have been many links Factors that influence the success of an explanatory A
between models and multiple analogies in science and analogy also include systematicity (conveying an
philosophy (Shelley 2003). Analogical thinking is ubiq- interconnected system of relations), base specificity,
uitous in all cognitive activities and has been identified (degree to which the structure of the base domain is
as being at the core of cognition because it plays a role clearly understood), transparency (ease with which the
in elementary and componential information processes correspondences can be seen), and scope (reach of
as a base for intelligent behavior (Holyoak et al. 2001). applicability).
There have been several theories proposed to
explain analogical reasoning. One of the most well-
Analogical Reasoning Through
known is the structure mapping theory (Gentner
Metaphorical Thinking
1983). According to this theory, the use of analogy
Analogical processes can take many linguistic forms
depends on an aligned mapping of elements from
like exemplification, comparisons, similes, allegories,
a source to target. The mapping takes place not only
or parables, and in particular (conceptual) metaphors.
between objects, but also between relations of objects
Referring to the Greek origin metaphorikos – from the
and between relations of relations. This shows the
Greek roots meta, (beyond, across) and pherein (carry-
significance of analogy as being more than similarity
ing over, or bearing) – metaphors can be used to mark
in that analogical reasoning involves shared structural
key factors and make analogues more obvious. They are
relations, relational commonalities, and associated
ways in which terms that originally apply to one
sub-processes. Based on background knowledge
domain are projected onto another domain in order
retrieved from memory for sources that are similar to
to structure experience and create meaning. Metaphors
the target, individuals determine whether there is
can be seen as part of developing a symbolic under-
a good match between what is retrieved and the target
standing and vehicle for meaningful structuring of and
when reasoning analogically.
communication about the world. As part of analogical
Relating and comparing two analogies foster learn-
reasoning, metaphorical thinking is a basic mode of
ing and can lead to new inferences, reveal meaningful
symbolism, a creative form that is effectuated through
differences, or form abstractions. To avoid pitfalls,
using and crossing of images for bridging between
analogical mapping requires ensuring that the base
worlds. Liberating imagination, the use of metaphors
domain is understood well, that the correspondences
can provide a way of seeing a thing as if it were some-
are clear, and that differences and potentially incorrect
thing else, thereby enable bridging between abstract
inferences are clearly flagged. However, analogical
constructs and concrete things or between the familiar
comparison has also been shown to improve learning
to the unknown. According to Lakoff and Johnson’s
even when both examples are not initially well under-
(1980, 1999) embodied realism, our abstract conceptu-
stood (Kurtz et al. 2001).
alization and reasoning, including our thought and
The multi-constraint theory of Holyoak and
symbolic expressions and interactions, are tied
Thagard (1995) outlines those factors that govern and
intimately to our embodiment and to the pervasive
limit the use of constructed analogies. Specifically,
characteristics of our experience. Accordingly, the use
these are related to the match in structure, meaning,
of metaphors in analogical reasoning translates an
and purpose between the source and the target.
experienced reality into a perceptible object that has
According to this theory, analogies can be considered
emotive import as well as discursive content. In this
coherent to the extent that it satisfies the following
way, the use of metaphors in analogical reasoning has
constraints:
and mediates meanings that transcend traditional
● Structural consistency: each mapping is a one-to- inference models (e.g., deduction, induction, abduc-
one correspondence. tion). Processing a form of emotional and imaginative
● Semantic similarity: corresponding concepts are rationality, the use of metaphors in analogical reason-
similar in meaning. ing allows criticizing and bridging the gap between the
● Pragmatic effectiveness: the analogy provides infor- objectivist and subjectivist interpretations (Lakoff and
mation relevant to the issue in question. Johnson 1980).
224 A Analogical Reasoning

Important Scientific Research and Rather it is assumed that analogical inference making
Open Questions transcends similarities at hand (Cornelissen 2006).
One important field of future research concerns relating Thus, using an analogy is itself a more creative act
analogical thinking to noncognitive dimensions like through which features of importance are constituted
embodied, sensual, emotional, or esthetic processes. and not simply transferred. This understanding allows
For overcoming a purely propositional interpretation seeing that meaning-structures emerge from blending
of analogical reasoning, it will be important to inquire the source and the target as well as its relations while
into the implication of the fact that the analogical recognizing their irreducibility that they are irreducible
reasoning process is essentially embodied. One impor- to each other. By reassembling elements from existing
tant question would be how embodied perceptual knowledge bases in a novel fashion analogizing can be
tendencies or felt senses enable or constrain the ability interpreted as an inventive and artful practice.
to choose and recognize an appropriate analogous Furthermore, as analogies do not necessarily lead to
comparison or solution. Furthermore, it would be a distinct or conclusive meaning structure, and inter-
revealing to further investigate the status of imagination pretations potentially change each time the analogy is
and how imaginary processes and effects operate in the revisited, they remain ambiguous and help shape
domains of analogical reasoning. With regard to levels, related knowledge domains not only in certain ways,
in addition to an individual-based perspective, it but also at certain points in time. The relevance of an
becomes important considering systematically what analogical source for a target domain shifts over time,
and how collective dimension and co-creative practices not necessarily rendering old comparisons or domain
constitute or impact analogical reasoning and its interactions obsolete, but allowing for new and differ-
sharing. In this context, linking forms of schematic ent relationships.
analogical reasoning and learning with individual With regard to more complex interpretation, there
feelings and collective emotions or moods provide is also the need for further research on the constitution
a promising new area for future research. and dynamics of compound analogue, which are com-
Whether competence in analogical reasoning pro- prising of many different metaphors and interwoven
gress is a content-free manner, or if and how it is highly features.
dependent on specific domains is contested. As analog-
ical reasoning cannot be properly understood in Cross-References
a vacuum, it needs to be situated and further explored ▶ Analogical Coherence/Correspondence
in the context of wider issues, including the theory and ▶ Analogical Learning
practice of development. ▶ Analogical Model(s)
Moreover, it is vital to widen and deepen the scope ▶ Analogical Modeling (of Language)
for the application of conventional approaches to ▶ Analogical Reasoning in Young Children
analogical reasoning by promoting analogical diversity, ▶ Analogous Learning/Analogy-Based Learning
not analytical closure. For this the significance of ▶ Analogy-Based Learning
analogies and tropes – that privilege dissimilarity or ▶ Mental Model
discordant similarity, like anomaly, paradox, or irony, ▶ Metaphorical Models of Learning
which are operating from within a cognitive discomfort
zone – need to be acknowledged. As such divergent
References
forms of analogical reasoning permit the coexistence
Cornelissen, J. P. (2006). Making sense of theory construction: Met-
of multiple perspectives, they not only promote aphor and disciplined imagination. Organization Studies, 27,
plurivocality but also provide the basis of generative, 1579–1597.
transformative, and frame-breaking insights and Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for
knowledge generation and may help to create a new analogy. Cognitive Science, 7, 155–170.
Gust, H., Krumnack, U., Kühnberger, K.-U., & Schwering, A. (2008).
theory (Oswick et al. 2002).
Analogical reasoning: A core of cognition. KI - Zeitschrift
As there are always dissimilarities between an Künstliche Intelligenz, 1(08), 8–12.
analogy and its target domain, there are doubts that Hofstadter, D., & Sander, E. (2010). The essence of thought. New York:
a faithful mapping of the structural aspects happens. Basic Books.
 Analogical Reasoning by Young Children A 225

Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1995). Mental leaps. Analogy in creative Theoretical Background A
thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Most psychological research on the development of
Holyoak, K. J., Gentner, D., & Kokinov, B. N. (2001). Introduction:
reasoning by analogy was based on a set of assumptions
The place of analogy in cognition. In D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, &
B. N. Kokinov (Eds.), The analogical mind: Perspectives from formulated by Piaget (Piaget et al. 1977). Piaget argued
cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. that there were two levels of reasoning involved in
Kurtz, K. J., Miao, C. H., & Gentner, D. (2001). Learning by analogical successful analogizing, reasoning about “lower-order”
bootstrapping. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 10, 417–446. relations and reasoning about “higher-order” relations.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago:
For example, in the item analogy cat:kitten::horse:foal,
University of Chicago Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embod- the relations between cat and kitten and between horse
ied mind and its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic and foal were considered to be lower-order or first-
Books. order relations. These are the relations that link term
Oswick, C., Keenoy, T., & Grant, D. (2002). Metaphor and analogical A with term B and term C with term D. There are
reasoning in organization theory: Beyond orthodoxy. Academy of a number of possible lower-order relations, such as
Management Review, 27(2), 294–303.
“nurtures,” “gives birth to,” and “looks like.” The
Shelley, C. (2003). Multiple analogies in science and philosophy.
Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. higher-order relation in this analogy was considered
Shelley, C. (2004). Analogy counterarguments: A taxonomy for to be something like “offspring.” Piaget argued that
critical thinking. Argumentation, 18(2), 223–238. developmentally, lower-order relations were easier to
reason about than higher-order relations, being
ontologically simpler.
In a series of experiments, Piaget found evidence
that supported these theoretical assumptions. In sem-
Analogical Reasoning by Young inal studies, Piaget and his colleagues asked children
Children aged from 5 years to adolescence to sort sets of pictures.
The pictures first had to be paired on the basis of the
USHA C. GOSWAMI lower-order relations. Examples of intended pairings
Centre for Neuroscience in Education, University of are bird:feather, ship:rudder, dog:dog hair, and bicycle:
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK handlebars. The pairs then had to be sorted into anal-
ogies. For example, an intended analogy was bicycle:
handlebars::ship:rudder. Younger children tended to
Synonyms pair the pictures idiosyncratically, not even recognizing
Relational reasoning the lower-order relations. For example, one child
paired the bird with the ship, explaining that you see
Definition both at the lake. Piaget argued that during this
The first definition of analogy came from Aristotle. He preoperational reasoning, even class-type relations
defined an analogy as “an equality of proportions . . . were not stable. Children aged 7 years and above, who
involving at least 4 terms . . . when the second is related were thought to be in the more mature concrete opera-
to the first as the fourth is to the third” (Aristotle, tional stage of reasoning, could pair the pictures
Metaphysics). This type of “classical” analogy is still correctly. They could also find analogies by trial and
used in intelligence testing, and is called the item analogy. error. However, if the experimenter changed an analogy
Its terms and their relations are signified as A:B::C:D. to violate the relational similarity constraint (e.g.,
A typical instantiation might be cat:kitten::horse:foal. suggesting the analogy ship:rudder::bicycle:pump),
This key criterion of an equality of relations is also these children would agree with the countersuggestion.
captured by the “relational similarity constraint” applied Piaget argued that analogical reasoning was still imma-
to problem analogies. In problem analogies, one struc- ture, as children were only able to reason successively
ture or domain is used to make an analogy to another, as about the lower-order relations. The ability to reason
in Rutherford’s use of the structure and relations of about similarities between these lower-order relations
elements in the solar system to explain the structure appeared only to develop in adolescence, during
and relations of elements in the hydrogen atom. Piagetian formal operations. Only formal operational
226 A Analogical Reasoning by Young Children

children were able to resist successfully the countersug- Finally, a popular theory in the 1980s about chil-
gestions of the experimenter. However, it can be asked dren’s analogizing was that there was a “relational shift”
whether the younger children tested were familiar with in children’s ability to use analogies. Gentner and her
some of the key relations, such as steering mechanism, colleagues (e.g., Gentner and Toupin 1986) argued that
required to solve the analogies. Further, in each of younger children relied on perceptual similarity in
Piaget’s analogies, it can be argued that the higher- analogy tasks, whereas older children used conceptual
order relation is actually “relational identity.” In the similarity. Hence, younger children were not affected
analogy ship:rudder::bicycle:handlebars, the lower- by relational structure. For example, when explaining
order relation is steering mechanism. The analogy is why a cloud is like a sponge, a younger child (5 years)
a good one because the pairing of relations obeys the might say “because both are round and fluffy.” An older
relational similarity constraint. child (9 years) might say that “both store water and
The information-processing approach to cognition later give it back to you.” Gentner suggested that when
also concluded that analogy was late developing. Infor- perceptual relations and conceptual relations are
mation-processing accounts were pioneered by Stern- aligned, younger children will reason successfully in
berg, who tested children with verbal item analogies analogy tasks. However, when they conflict, younger
(e.g., narrow:wide::question: answer). His data children will use a matching strategy based on percep-
suggested that children were reasoning by association tual similarity (“mere appearance matching”).
in analogy tasks (Sternberg and Nigro 1980). The chil-
dren (7–9 years) appeared to be reasoning consecu- Important Scientific Research and
tively about associations between the terms in the Open Questions
analogy, without recognizing higher-order relational More recent research into reasoning by analogy by
structure. When the D term in an analogy was highly young children has questioned all of these early
associated with the C term (as in question:answer), then assumptions. It is now believed that even very young
children were faster and more successful. However, as children can reason by analogy, as long as the analogy is
the experimental format depended on the child listen- in a familiar domain. The key is relational familiarity.
ing to a series of possible answer options before Even 3-year-olds can use the relational similarity
responding, younger children may have relied upon constraint, and can resist perceptual or associative
word association because of high memory load. distractors when relations are familiar.
Early studies of children’s ability to solve problems For example, Goswami and Brown (1989, 1990)
by analogy also found apparent late-developing com- devised a series of multiple-choice item analogies
petence. Here, children were typically told about based on pictures. In their tasks, the child had to select
a problem, problem A, and how to solve it. They were the D term to complete an analogy from a series of
then given a similar problem, problem B. The test of possible D terms that were simultaneously available.
analogy was whether they would realize that by making Some of the wrong answers were “mere appearance”
an analogy from problem A, they could solve problem distractors or associative distractors. In Goswami and
B. In one classic study (Holyoak et al. 1984), children Brown (1989), analogies were based on causal relations.
were told about a magic genie who had to transfer his Causal relations were chosen because children under-
precious jewels from his bottle to a new home in stand simple causal relations like cutting, wetting, and
another bottle. He rolled up his magic carpet and melting by at least the age of 3–4 years. The causal
carefully rolled the jewels through it to solve his prob- relations were instantiated in familiar entities, such as
lem. Children were then given a new problem involving chocolate is to melted chocolate as snowman is to?, and
transferring some small balls on a table in front of them playdoh is to cut playdoh as apple is to?. Different possi-
to another bowl which was out of reach. They had to ble solutions included the wrong object undergoing the
solve the problem without moving from their chairs. correct causal transformation, a perceptual similarity or
The experimenters expected the children to roll up “mere appearance” match, and the correct object under-
a sheet of paper that was lying on the table, and roll going the incorrect causal transformation. Knowledge of
the balls through it into the bowl. However, only 30% the causal relations required to solve the analogies was
of children aged 4–6 years thought of this solution. measured in a control condition. Goswami and Brown
 Analogical Reasoning by Young Children A 227

found that both analogical success and causal relational important question is how to build developmental A
knowledge increased with age in children aged from 3 to connectionist models of reasoning by analogy.
6 years. The 3-year-olds solved 52% of the analogies and A recent connectionist simulation of the development
52% of the control sequences, the 4-year-olds solved of analogical reasoning demonstrated that analogical
89% of the analogies and 80% of the control sequences, completion can be an emergent property of the way
and the 6-year-olds solved 99% of the analogies and that relational information is represented in a (neural)
100% of the control sequences. There was also network that learns perceptual instances (Leech et al.
a significant conditional relationship between perfor- 2008). The connectionist model was given repeated
mance in the analogy condition and performance in experience of perceptual instances such as “apple,”
the control condition. This was interpreted as evidence “cut apple,” and “knife,” and from these learned how
that successful analogical reasoning depended on to complete the causal relation analogies used by
relational familiarity. Goswami and Brown (1989). Further, the model did
Similar competence by young children was shown not show a “relational shift” during development.
in problem analogy paradigms by Brown and her col- Converging evidence (Bulloch and Opfer 2009)
leagues. Brown and Kane (1988) designed some animal demonstrated that the “relational shift” is actually an
defense mechanism analogies for 3-year-olds, and epiphenomenon of children’s developing sensitivity to
compared analogical transfer on the first pair of prob- the predictive accuracy of different types of similarity.
lems with transfer after the children had experienced They asked children aged 3–5 years to generalize novel
three different analogies. These biological analogies information in two types of problems, offspring prob-
were based on camouflage by color change, camouflage lems and prey problems. Relational matches increased
by shape change, and camouflage by mimicry of a more with age in the offspring condition, and perceptual
dangerous animal. For example, for shape change, the matches increased with age in the prey condition.
children were told about the walking stick insect, which Bulloch and Opfer argued that even young children
can resemble a twig or leaf, and the pipe fish, which can can be cognitively flexible, as long as they have
resemble a reed. The measure of analogical reasoning sufficient understanding of the knowledge base that is
was performance on the final analogy pair. Children relevant to the experiment.
were asked “How could the hawkmoth caterpillar stop
the big bird that wants to eat him?” In this context of Cross-References
multiple analogies (which Brown called the A1A2, B1B2, ▶ Analogy/Analogies – Structure and Process
C1C2, or “learning to learn” paradigm), 70–80% of the ▶ Analogy-based Learning
3-year-olds showed reasoning by analogy with the final ▶ Analogical Reasoning
problem pair (i.e., unaided solution of C2). In contrast, ▶ Default Reasoning
successful solution of the first analogy pair (i.e., ▶ Inferential Learning and Reasoning
solution of A2) was 25%. ▶ Schema-based Reasoning
Overall, more recent research has shown that even
very young children can reason by analogy, in both References
item analogy and problem analogy formats. However, Brown, A. L., & Kane, M. J. (1988). Preschool children can learn to
it is critical for successful reasoning that they are famil- transfer: Learning to learn and learning by example. Cognitive
iar with the relations on which the analogies are based. Psychology, 20, 493–523.
Bulloch, M. J., & Opfer, J. E. (2009). What makes relational reasoning
smart? Revisiting the perceptual-to-relational shift in the devel-
Important Open Questions opment of generalization. Developmental Science, 12, 114–122.
The most pressing question in current research is how Gentner, D., & Toupin, C. (1986). Systematicity and surface similarity
to explain the age differences that can still be found in in the development of analogy. Cognitive Science, 10, 277–300.
certain analogical reasoning paradigms. General cogni- Goswami, U., & Brown, A. L. (1989). Melting chocolate and melting
snowmen: Analogical reasoning and causal relations. Cognition,
tive factors such as the ability to hold and integrate
35, 69–95.
relations in working memory and the ability to inhibit Goswami, U., & Brown, A. L. (1990). Higher-order structure and
competing irrelevant distractors look likely to play relational reasoning: Contrasting analogical and thematic
an important role (Richland et al. 2006). Another relations. Cognition, 36, 207–226.
228 A Analogical Reasoning in Animals

Holyoak, K. J., Junn, E. N., & Billman, D. O. (1984). Development stimuli. Practically as well as definitionally then,
of analogical problem-solving skill. Child Development, 55, demonstrations of analogical reasoning by animals
2042–2055.
tend to require the application of perceived similarities
Leech, R., Mareschal, D., & Cooper, R. P. (2008). Analogy as relational
priming: A developmental and computational perspective on the between problems or stimulus sets that are physically
origins of a complex cognitive skill. Behavioural & Brain Sciences, quite dissimilar.
31, 357–378.
Piaget, J., Montangero, J., & Billeter, J. (1977). La formation des Theoretical Background
correlats. In J. Piaget (Ed.), Recherches sur L’Abstraction
Rattermann and Gentner (1998) described a relational
Reflechissante I (pp. 115–129). Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France.
shift whereby human children accomplish analogy only
Richland, L. E., Morrison, R. G., & Holyoak, K. J. (2006). Children’s when terms of object (physical) similarity can be put
development of analogical reasoning: Insights from scene analogy aside in favor of relational similarity. Although human
problems. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 94, 249–273. infants spontaneously detect sameness and difference, as
Sternberg, R. J., & Nigro, G. (1980). Developmental patterns in the evidenced for example by habituation and
solution of verbal analogies. Child Development, 51, 27–38.
dishabituation paradigms, the conceptual mapping of
those relations emerges much later in development.
Because several errors in analogical reasoning by
4- and 5-year-old children were due to a focus on
Analogical Reasoning in object-based similarity (i.e., attempted matching due
Animals to similar physical features rather than deeper rela-
tional mappings), Rattermann and Gentner (1998)
TIMOTHY M. FLEMMING, DAVID A. WASHBURN concluded that surface similarities drive reasoning
Department of Psychology & Language Research skills until a point at which knowledge of the objects
Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA or situations therein is mastered, giving way to the
search for possibilities beyond that which is already
known. This relational shift from object properties to
Synonyms common relational structures is itself a shift in atten-
Reasoning by analogy; Relational matching by animals; tion enabled by more generalized object expertise.
Similarity-based problem solving by animals Because the shift is dependent upon the amount and
kind of knowledge an organism possesses in each spe-
Definition cific domain, the point at which animals “become
Unlike other examples of similarity-based reasoning analogical” varies by context.
that depend on physical likeness (e.g., one can recog- Thomas (1980) placed analogical reasoning abilities
nize even novel instances of a chair because of its at the endpoint of an increasingly complex 8-level
similarity to prototypical chairs), analogical reasoning ordinal scale of a learning-intelligence hierarchy.
is problem solving based on relational or functional According to this perspective Levels 1–5 include basic
similarities, such that knowledge from a familiar stimulus–stimulus and stimulus–response learning
domain is applied to a novel problem that is not overtly including habituation (Level 1), classical conditioning
alike. Thus, reasoning by analogy is judgment of rela- (Level 2), operant conditioning (Level 3), chaining
tions-between-relations (Thompson and Oden 2000). (Level 4), and discrimination learning (Level 5). Levels
The mapping of knowledge from one domain to 6–8 outline a continuum of conceptual abilities from
another is central to the assumption in formal analog- the ability to make class distinctions based on physical
ical reasoning that relational concepts are held constant similarities, a competency present in many nonhuman
from one domain to the other. The challenge then for animals. At Level 6 is class concept learning (like trans-
the study of analogical reasoning by nonhuman position). Levels 7 and 8 (conditional and bicondi-
animals (henceforth “animals”) is to infer whether tional concepts, respectively) include the kinds of
responding reflects this mapping of relations between learning that rely not on physical or functional similar-
concepts, rather for instance than generalization of ities, but on relations-between-relations that form the
learning on the basis of the physical similarity of necessary foundation for analogical reasoning.
 Analogical Reasoning in Animals A 229

Important Scientific Research and Conversely, there is a growing literature showing A

Open Questions that animals without language training, predominantly
Is the capacity for analogical reasoning uniquely human? non-ape species, fail on a simple test of analogical
From Wolfgang Köhler’s pioneering studies of reasoning (see Flemming, Beran, and Washburn 2007
▶ transposition learning by chickens to recent findings for a review). In many of these studies, the animals
that nonhuman primates can learn and use symbols responded in a ▶ computer-task paradigm by manip-
that represent numerical quantities and referential ulating a joystick in response to computer-graphic
meanings (see Rumbaugh and Washburn 2003), there stimuli. For example, given a sample of two identical
have been numerous demonstrations that a wide stimuli (AA), the animals are unable reliably to select
variety of animals can learn generalizable, rule-like two other stimuli that are identical to one another (BB)
relations. The question of which animals, if any, can rather than a pair of nonmatching stimuli (CD). This
apply ▶ relational learning to analogical reasoning has test is termed the relational matching-to-sample para-
not produced so clear an answer. Premack (1976) digm (in contrast to the identity matching-to-sample
reported that a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) named experimental paradigm), because the correct response
Sarah, after extensive training with plastic tokens for requires selection on the basis of relation rather than
the words “same” and “different,” was capable of physical identity. For example, they can recognize stim-
completing and creating analogies. In one study, she uli like EF as being different, but they cannot match this
was provided with three terms of an analogy: two relation by selecting two other different stimuli (GH);
identical or nonidentical geometric chips to the left rather, they are equally likely to choose stimuli (II) that
of her symbol for same, and one geometric chip fail to complete the analogy. That is, monkey species
positioned to the right of the same symbol. Sarah was seem predisposed to respond to such problems on the
then required to find the correct right-side companion basis of physical rather than relational similarity, lead-
chip to complete the analogy. If the chips on the left ing to the claim that so-called analogical apes can be
were identical, she would find the chip from a set of distinguished from so-called paleological monkeys
alternatives that was identical to the single chip in the (Thompson and Oden 2000). Only with additional
right-side position. Likewise, if the left-side chips methodological conditions to encourage a focus on
were nonidentical, she chose the nonidentically global stimulus features and extensive training can
related companion for the right-side chip, matching monkeys show even limited evidence of relational
the relation instantiated in the left-side pair. In subse- matching-to-sample.
quent studies, Sarah was also able to create analogies Are monkeys “paleological” as opposed to “analogical
without benefit of a sample relation, and could apes” and humans? Investigations of analogical reason-
form analogies on the basis of function as well as ing via simple cognitive mechanisms in birds and non-
appearance. ape primate species often lead researchers to a common
Is symbol training required for analogical reasoning? conclusion that the behavior of their animals reflects, at
Premack (1976) and Thompson and Oden (2000) the very least, a precursor to formal analogical reason-
suggested that Sarah’s symbols for same and different ing. Wasserman and colleagues (e.g., Cook and
played a critical role in these demonstrations, provid- Wasserman 2007; Fagot, Wasserman and Young 2001)
ing her with a concrete means of encoding conceptual- presented multiple icon arrays in a relational matching-
relational information that is otherwise abstract. Given to-sample paradigm to pigeons, baboons, and humans.
knowledge of these labels, the task of matching then Using the same 16-icon identical/nonidentical stimulus
became one of covert symbol matching – mapping one arrays for both sample and choices, Cook and
mental representation of a label to the other. At least in Wasserman (2007) demonstrated successful matching
the case of abstract relations, acquisition of conceptual of same and different arrays. With a reduction in ▶ the
knowledge necessary for analogical reasoning is depen- amount of perceptual variability of stimulus arrays in
dent upon these specific language-like skills – a finding relational matching-to-sample, as in discrimination
that is generally consistent with the human- tasks, chance performance was observed in pigeons.
developmental trajectories of analogical reasoning Much like their discriminative behavior with the
and language acquisition. relational concepts, pigeons relied on contrasts of
230 A Analogy Therapy

perceptual variability for the matching of these arrays Kennedy, E. H., & Fragaszy, D. M. (2008). Analogical reasoning in
suggesting more limited abstract conceptual abilities a capuchin monkey (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psy-
chology, 122, 167–175.
in birds.
Premack, D. (1976). Intelligence in ape and man. Hillsdale: Lawrence
Recent evidence suggests that although a predispo- Erlbaum Associates.
sition to attend locally to stimulus features rather than Rattermann, M. J., & Gentner, D. (1998). More evidence for
globally to relations exists, the so-called paleological a relational shift in the development of analogy: Children’s per-
monkey can pass a relational matching-to-sample task formance on a causal mapping task. Cognitive Development, 13,
453–478.
given conceptually guiding scaffolding or altogether
Rumbaugh, D. M., & Washburn, D. A. (2003). Intelligence of apes and
different relations (i.e., not identity/nonidentity, but other rational beings. New Haven: Yale University Press.
rather above/below spatial relations). Fagot and Parron Thomas, R. K. (1980). Evolution of intelligence: An approach to its
(2010) demonstrated relational matching in baboons assessment. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 17, 454–472.
(Papio papio) under conditions in which the separation Thompson, R. K. R., & Oden, D. L. (2000). Categorical perception
between elements in pairs of stimuli was gradually and conceptual judgments by nonhuman primates: The
paleological monkey and the analogical ape. Cognitive Science,
increased across training. This gradual spatial separa-
24, 363–396.
tion encouraged the often difficult but necessary shift
in attention from local (physical features) to global
(relation) stimulus processing. Although monkeys
tend not to focus their attention on structural similar-
ities as is required for relational matching and analog-
Analogy Therapy
ical reasoning, they nonetheless possess similar
PAUL BLENKIRON
rudimentary capabilities to map knowledge from one
Hull-York Medical School, Bootham Park Hospital,
domain to another. Other researchers (e.g., Kennedy
York, North Yorkshire, UK
and Fragaszy 2008) found that capuchin monkeys
(Cebus apella) showed analogical reasoning in
a search task involving hidden food under cups of
various sizes. Synonyms
Metaphor therapy; Narrative therapy; Stories in
Cross-References psychotherapy
▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
▶ Analogical Reasoning Definition
▶ Analogical Reasoning by Young Children The word analogy comes from the Greek “analogia,”
▶ Conditioning meaning “in proportion.” An analogy is a comparison
▶ Matching-to-Sample Experimental Paradigm between one thing and another to show how they are
alike – usually in order to explain or clarify. For exam-
References ple, a person’s health may be compared to the sea,
Cook, R. G., & Wasserman, E. A. (2007). Learning and transfer of in that the ebb and flow of the tides echoes the balance
relational matching-to-sample by pigeons. Psychonomic Bulletin between health and illness. Metaphor is a related
& Review, 14, 1107–1114. term (from the Greek meta – sharing something in
Fagot, J., & Parron, C. (2010). Relational matching in baboons
common – and pherien – to carry or change).
(Papio papio) with reduced grouping requirements. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 36, 184–193. A metaphor uses a familiar object or idea to describe
Fagot, J., Wasserman, E. A., & Young, M. E. (2001). Discriminating something to which it does not literally apply (“A is B”).
the relation between relations: The role of entropy in abstract For example, “He is under the weather” or “The jour-
conceptualization by baboons (Papio papio) and humans ney of life.”
(Homo sapiens). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Psychotherapy can be defined as any psychological
Behavior Processes, 27, 316–328.
treatment that uses the relationship between therapist
Flemming, T. M., Beran, M. J., & Washburn, D. A. (2007). Disconnect
in concept learning by rhesus monkeys: Judgment of relations and client to produce changes in thoughts, feelings, and
and relations-between-relations. Journal of Experimental Psychol- behavior. There are many different talking treatments,
ogy: Animal Behavior Processes, 33, 55–63. but they all share certain fundamental principles. These
 Analogy Therapy A 231

include establishing a confiding relationship, providing ● An improved client–therapist relationship A

a rationale that explains how a therapy works, and ● Greater retrieval of early memories
allowing individuals to acquire insight alongside the ● Heightened personal impact (evoked emotions and
learning of new behavior. interpretations)
A therapist’s effectiveness depends upon their delib- ● Better integration of logical and emotional
erate use of language. Analogy therapy combines sym- responses (“heart” versus “head”)
bolic or indirect communication with the intention to ● Quicker learning of new concepts
heal (Blenkiron 2005). Important tools of figurative ● Clearer targets and goals
expression include the story, anecdote, analogy, meta- ● Improved global psychological health
phor, simile, allusion, image, joke, and quotation.
Narrative is a helpful learning tool for therapists as
Although these concepts overlap, key words that may
much as their clients. Aesop’s Fable of The Sun and the
help to distinguish between them include “like” (sim-
Wind reminds clinicians that encouragement through
iles), “is/are” (metaphors) and “as in/as if ” (analogies).
guided discovery is a more powerful tool for change
For example, “My brain is like a computer” is a simile
than direct persuasion or argument. Indeed, many
but “My brain is a computer” is a metaphor. A more
psychological models are really no more than meta-
detailed comparison becomes an analogy: “As in
phors that serve to link theory with practical under-
a computer, my brain has a large amount of memory.
standing. For example, an individual with a spider
It needs an experienced operator to make the software
phobia does not need to hear the jargon of behavior
work and to add new data”. Even longer themed descrip-
therapy and operant conditioning in order to under-
tions of imaginary or past events are known as stories.
stand that avoiding spiders will lead to short-term relief
but maintain the problem in the longer term. Thera-
Theoretical Background pists might help clients to grasp this concept – the self-
Across history, religion, philosophy, science, and the perpetuating cycle of avoidance – by comparing it to
arts, narrative has played an essential role in how we “scratching an itchy rash,” “borrowing on credit cards,”
understand ourselves and the wider world. Metaphor is or “giving in to the school bully.”
the language of change and modern psychotherapies A particular strength of analogy therapy lies in its
have change as their central goal. Research from neu- inherent flexibility and wide range of clinical applica-
ropsychology (Cahill et al. 1994) shows that individuals tions. Metaphor can be used in order to
remember verbal information best when it is
● Clarify meaning and understanding
● Interesting ● Communicate flexibly (and express the
● Organized into sensible chunks inexpressible)
● Expressed through slang or humor ● Gain a new view or insight (“Is the glass half empty
● Linked to mental images or half full?”)
● Stimulating to all the senses (sight, sound, smell, ● Increase rapport between therapist and client
and touch) ● Bypass emotional defenses
● Emotionally arousing ● Develop specific skills and outcomes (e.g., learn to
● Triggered later by cues from everyday life ignore a self-critical “devil’s voice”)
● Inspire and motivate (e.g., Dick Whittington’s suc-
Evidence indicates that narrative and metaphor are
cess against the odds)
efficient ways in which to communicate important
therapeutic messages. For example, Martin, Paivio, The main schools of psychotherapy have incorpo-
and Labardie (1990) demonstrated that a person’s recall rated metaphor pragmatically into their clinical prac-
of therapy is linked to their use of metaphors and tice. For example, considerable research evidence
images during therapy sessions. A review of the supports the effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy
research literature (Blenkiron 2010) confirms that (CBT). Story and analogy allow individuals to use CBT
introducing stories and analogies into therapy can principles to modify their thinking and behavior in
result in a range of clinical benefits: everyday situations. Consider the example of John,
232 A Analogy Therapy

who becomes upset when he notices his friend Bill wish to be viewed as a “real man.” Family and systemic
walking past him in the street without saying “hello.” therapists use analogy to improve communication and
However, Bill is not deliberately ignoring John; he is restore the balance. They treat problems by changing
simply late for an appointment and is not wearing his how the whole “system” works rather than focusing on
spectacles. By encouraging John to weigh up the evi- one particular individual. For example, when one fam-
dence for and against a thought such as “Bill doesn’t ily said that they were “falling apart,” their therapist
like me” being true (“like a jury in a court of law”), he asked them to consider what they would actually do if
can generate alternative and more helpful explanations they were living in a crumbling house. This helped
for this situation. This anecdote helps to convey an them to work together, generate ways of repairing the
important concept in CBT: emotional distress is caused “faulty foundations” and build new “concrete” goals
not by what happens, but by the way in which it is into a firmer family structure.
interpreted (Beck 1976).
Psychodynamic therapy focuses on discovery: the Important Scientific Research and
“why” rather than the “what” of a person’s problems. Open Questions
It translates experience into coherent stories that make A working psychological model of analogy therapy
sense and act as guides for future action. As stories combines the goals of therapy with a client’s prior
interweave, “the light dawns,” “the ice breaks,” and knowledge and experience (see figure). The aim is to
“the penny drops.” Sigmond Freud (1856–1939) used create something meaningful and useful. However, cli-
metaphor to “access the unconscious.” He regarded nicians should be aware of the potential limitations as
dreams as the way we communicate with ourselves well as the benefits. Unhelpful metaphors may restrict
through metaphors. For example, a dream about win- and condition. For example, saying “I can only deal
ning a race might represent successful promotion at with my problems by putting them in a box” could
work. Carl Jung (1875–1961) highlighted the impor- hinder longer-term change. In addition, the use of
tance of myths, fables, and proverbs handed down the “stock” analogies may be culture specific and not appli-
generations. Jung described “metaphorical prototypes” cable to every client group. Whether a metaphor is
known as archetypes. These are universal human sym- effective will depend on its personal meaning for the
bols, such as the hero, that are commonly portrayed in client, and so a shared understanding of its meaning is
fantasies and fairy tales across all cultures. Milton desirable. However, dissecting a story too much can
Erickson (1901–1980) made insightful points with remove its spontaneity and appeal. Finally, a therapist’s
anecdotes. For example, if we placed a wooden plank job is not to think up fanciful analogies without a clear
on the ground, each of us could walk on it. But if it were purpose. William of Occam (a thirteenth-century
raised 200 ft into the air, who could then walk on it? Franciscan scholar) cautioned against offering an
He also demonstrated use of different ways of ending unnecessarily complicated explanation when a simple
a therapeutic story such as having no ending (cliff one would do. This principle of cutting away superflu-
hanger that encourages an individual to work it out), ous facts is known today as “Occam’s Razor.” A good
the surprise ending (to stimulate thought), and the anecdote should be a passport to effective communi-
tragic ending (for someone who resists advice or cation rather than a substitute.
change). Biological research is emerging to suggest that there
Counseling is practiced widely in primary may be a “metaphor center” in the human brain. The
healthcare systems. Analogy can enhance generic skills left angular gyrus lies at the crossroads of the frontal,
(empathy, warmth, and genuineness) by increasing temporal, and parietal areas. It is much bigger in
understanding (for example, describing anxiety as humans than primates, and was especially large in the
a normal “flight or fight” survival response). It can brain of Albert Einstein – the celebrated mathematical
also validate emotional suffering – trying to function genius who reported thinking more in pictures than
with clinical depression is “like running with a broken words (Witelson et al. 1999). Patients who suffer
leg.” Narrative therapy involves listening to a person’s damage to the left angular gyrus have great difficulty
difficulties and then helping that person to retell their understanding proverb, metaphor, and analogy. For
“story.” A man learned to understand his anger as his example, they interpret the phrase “all that glitters is
 Analogy Therapy A 233

Goals of Therapy Client’s Background

A
Assessment & Formulation ‘Sphere of Experience’
Problems & Targets Beliefs, culture, life events
Education & Relapse Prevention Job, hobbies, relationships

Story/ Analogy / Metaphor

Arising from therapist or client
Developed in session

Therapist helps client to:

CHANGES 1. Link analogy to own situation
IN 2. Apply it to their problems
THOUGHTS,
FEELINGS
AND
BEHAVIOUR
Helpful to client Not helpful
(Apt, improves empathy, (Rejected as unappealing,
leads to new insights) irrelevant or confusing)

Reinforce Review
Explore parallels further (images, emotions) Focus on other therapy approaches
Record learning Use of humour
Homework: make practical changes (client) Try out other analogies later
Revisit in later sessions (therapist)

Analogy Therapy. Fig. 1 Analogy Therapy: A Generic Model (Blenkiron, 2010, Adapted with permission, Wiley-Blackwell)

not gold” in a literal way (“Well, you know a shiny piece outcome in specific types of mental disorder such as
of metal doesn’t mean its gold, it could be copper”). depression, panic attacks, or obsessive-compulsive dis-
More good quality studies are needed into the use order? However, this uncertainty is no different to
of analogy and narrative as therapy tools. Doing many other areas of psychotherapy research where the
research in this area is challenging. Evidence-based “active ingredients” are not fully understood.
care deals with populations, but clinicians deal with
individuals. Moreover, qualitative research involves Cross-References
joining together many personal anecdotes with the ▶ Analogical Model(s)
detail removed. Yet several unanswered questions ▶ Analogy/Analogies: Structure and Process
remain. In what situations are analogies and stories ▶ Cognitive-Behavior Family Therapy
more useful than other therapeutic techniques? Are ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
standardized (“manual-based”) metaphors any more ▶ Learning Metaphors
or less effective than personalized metaphors developed ▶ Socratic Questioning
in the therapy session to suit a particular individual? Is
the what (content) of less importance than the how References
(manner of exploring a common language)? Does Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders.
training in analogical interventions lead to a better New York: International Universities Press.
234 A Analogy/Analogies: Structure and Process

Blenkiron, P. (2005). Stories and analogies in cognitive behaviour In the first phase, a source situation is encoded within
therapy: A clinical review. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychother- the mind. The second phase involves searching for,
apy, 33, 45–59.
selecting, and accessing a relevant encoded source
Blenkiron, P. (2010). Stories and analogies in cognitive behaviour
therapy. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. situation. The third phase then involves mapping the
Cahill, L., Prins, B., Weber, M., & McGaugh, J. (1994). Beta- source representation onto the target situation; during
adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature, this phase the source representation may be adapted
371, 702–704. and modified in various ways.
Martin, J., Paivio, S., & Labardie, D. (1990). Memory-enhancing
It was maintained that thinking by analogy involves
characteristics of client-recalled important events in cognitive
and experiential therapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 3,
the abstraction of a schema from the source domain
239–256. and its mapping onto the target domain. More pre-
Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., & Harvey, T. (1999). The exceptional cisely, an analysis of the process of analogical reasoning
brain of Albert Einstein. Lancet, 353, 2149–2153. predicts that during the presentation of the source
people would derive a general schema of the situation.
When faced with the target, they would apply the
schema to such a situation (Holyoak and Thagard
Analogy/Analogies: Structure 1996).
and Process This is a view which is supported by a considerable
amount of empirical data. Firstly, the quality of the
ALESSANDRO ANTONIETTI schema that people derive from the source is positively
Department of Psychology, Catholic University of correlated with the strength of the transfer from the
the Sacred Heart, Milano, Italy source to the target. Such a transfer sometimes occurs
only when people have represented the source in an
abstract format. Furthermore, experimental manipula-
Synonyms tions designed to encourage the formation of general-
Alikeness; Correspondence; Homology; Likeness; ized schemata increase the rates of transfer from the
Simile; Structural equivalence source to the target.
According to an alternative interpretation, thinking
Definition by analogy is based on the summation of activation
It has been noticed that in many disciplines the devel- resulting from multiple features shared by the source
opment of a novel theory or perspective depends on and the target. If the sum of activation exceeds some
applying an analogy drawn from a different domain of threshold, the representation is retrieved and it can be
knowledge. Thinking by analogy is based on the trans- used for further processing, such as an explicit source-
fer of ideas from one domain or situation (the source) target mapping (Anderson 1993). Retrieval by summa-
to another domain or situation (the target). This tion of activation can provide a general mechanism for
process induces to apply some of the information or flexible access to information in the memory that is
principles from the first domain to the second one. related to a novel input.
This extension leads one to view the second situation
from a different perspective or to interpret it in a new Important Scientific Research and
way that allows for the discovery of new meanings Open Questions
(Gentner et al. 2001). Thinking by analogy can be investigated by presenting
Thinking by analogy is considered to be a central a pair of pictures involving a causal relation – for
component of human cognition and it has been argued instance, an egg (first picture) that is broken (second
that analogy is an important aspect of cognitive ability picture); respondents are asked to complete a second
and the hallmark of intelligence. pair of items in which the first (e.g., a lightbulb) is given
and the second must be chosen from a set of alterna-
Theoretical Background tives only one of which (a broken lightbulb) involves
Thinking by analogy can be divided into the following the same causal relation as the first pair. This kind of
three phases: representation, retrieval, and application. analogy is called proportional analogy (A : B = C : ?).
 Analogy-Based Learning A 235

Alternatively, spatial analogy tasks can be Cross-References A

employed: for example, children can be asked to indi- ▶ Analogical Coherence/Correspondence
cate on a picture representing a tree or a mountain the ▶ Analogical Modeling of Language
points relative to the head, the shoulders, the legs, and ▶ Analogical Reasoning of Young Children
so on, of the tree or the mountain, respectively ▶ Analogy-Based Learning
(Goswami 1992). In this task the correct answer is ▶ Analogy Therapy
achieved by transferring the human body schema ▶ Heuristics and Problem Solving
onto the target object (the tree or the mountain) so ▶ Measures of Similarity
as to identify the analogous counterparts of some ▶ Mental Model(s)
body parts. ▶ Schema(s)
A third way to investigate thinking by analogy ▶ Schema-Based Reasoning
consists in telling a story and then asking respondents
to map the narrative schema embedded in such a story References
onto a novel set of characters so to produce a new, but Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of mind. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum
similar, tale. Associates.
Anolli, L., Antonietti, A., Cantoia, M., & Crisafulli, L. (2001).
Finally, in analogical problem-solving tasks a target
Accessing source information in analogical problem solving.
problem to be solved is presented (Keane 1988). Such
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 237–261.
a problem is preceded by a source problem describing a Gentner, D., Holyoak, K. J., & Kokinov, B. N. (Eds.). (2001). The
situation structurally similar to the target, which has analogical mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
been previously solved by means of a set of strategies Goswami, U. (1992). Analogical reasoning in children. Hillsdale: Law-
which can be applied also to the target problem. rence Erlbaum Associates.
Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. R. (1996). Mental leaps: Analogy in
It should be noted that association tasks, asking
creative thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
individuals to list objects and situations similar to Keane, M. (1988). Analogical problem solving. Chichester: Ellis
a given one or to look for similarities between pairs of Horwood.
given objects or situations, can also be used to assess
thinking-by-analogy skills.
Much interest has also been focused on the effects
produced by different degrees or kinds of source-target
correspondences – for instance equivalence versus Analogy-Based Learning
similarity, superficial versus structural similarity, dis-
sociated versus synthesized similarity, similar versus ALESSANDRO ANTONIETTI
nonsimilar story lines and object correspondences, Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the
literal versus remote analogies, latent versus manifest Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
analogies, or different kinds of superficial similarity
and of procedural features. However, despite the wide
range of topics investigated, a certain number of Synonyms
unsolved questions still remain. Analogical problem-solving; Analogical reasoning;
One of the main questions is the following: does an Learning by examples
adequate degree of activation of source information
really enable the transfer from the source to the target? Definition
Results from experiments on source access showed When we have to face a new situation, we may retrieve
that activation is not the critical process. The mere knowledge that we have acquired previously about
activation of the mental representation of the source is a different situation which is similar to the present
ineffective unless an individual realizes the source- one. This occurs since we realize that the new situation
target connection. This awareness does not seem to is structurally (namely, at an abstract level) isomorphic
derive from a summation mechanism but it seems to to that we have experienced in the past, even though the
be produced by some sort of insight (Anolli et al. superficial features of the two situations are quite dif-
2001). ferent. Students can take benefit from such a process
236 A Analogy-Based Learning

when they have to comprehend a new concept: if the discover nontrivial correspondences between different
new concept is structurally similar to a familiar or ancient populations. The final result should be that
previously learned concept, the understanding of the understanding of both Roman and previous civiliza-
former can be facilitated by the latter since the familiar tions is enlarged and a wider historical view is reached.
concept highlights, in a way that is easy to be under- Further, students are stimulated to be more open-
stood, the essential characteristics of the new concept minded. Activities based on the search for analogies
(Gentner 1997). In this sense, the analogy provides may be carried out also to find similarities between
learners with an anticipatory schema. customs and habits of ancient people and of contem-
Another possibility is that the familiar concept or porary people. This should help learners to link
procedure is embedded in a worked example which cultural notions to everyday-life experience.
students master, so that they can easily identify the Another way to foster learning by analogy is the
same concept in the new case and apply the familiar following. Teacher can consider a literary analogy, for
procedure to it. instance, “The old age is the evening of the life.” It can
When the task to be carried out is a problem and the be rewritten into a proportional analogy: “old age:
aim is to foster students to generalize what they have life = evening: day.” Now the task is to try to change
understood in solving such a problem and to assimilate the first element of the second couple of the analogy.
the strategies they have followed to solve the problem Students might find that the best answer is “old age:
so that they can apply them in the future to other kinds life = sunset: day.” The next step is to modify the second
of situations, the educational procedure is sometimes element: “old age: life = sunset: sun.” The work goes on
called case-based learning. by looking for a good substitute of the first element
again: “old age: life = moon: sun.” After a certain num-
Theoretical Background ber of steps, the “chain” of variations proposed by
It is worth noting that learning by analogy is not only students leads to realize that the original concept of
a way to prompt the understanding of hard concepts, “old age” has been enriched because it has been linked
but it is a skill which merits to be trained per se. In fact, to different elements, each eliciting interesting conno-
one of the goals of school instruction is to develop the tations. Another possibility is to give students only the
ability to transfer knowledge from one domain to first part of the original analogy: “The old age is the . . .
another, by stressing the similarities existing between of the . . .” and to ask for many different completions
them, in order to cope successfully with novel (“The old age is the quiet of the storm,” “The old age is
situations. the rest of the labor,” “The old age is the falling asleep of
Initially students can be taught to find analogies the nature.”) Also in this case new connotations can
within a given domain. A good way to do so is to hint emerge and a deeper understanding of old age is
learners at reminding objects, situations, or concepts achieved.
that show similarities with the issue at hand. For
instance, in history lessons, after the presentation of Important Scientific Research and
a new topic – e.g., the Roman civilization – students Open Questions
might be asked to look for as many analogies as possible Can the ability to learn by analogy be taught? Some
between ancient Greeks and Romans. When pupils techniques – such as synectics – have been devised
cannot find further analogies, teacher begins to work to train to produce creative analogies in order to solve
on the analogies that have been produced. He/she starts professional problems and also some computer-based
from the analogy mentioned by most students, for instructional systems have been designed to enhance
example “Both Greeks and Romans used ships.” analogy-based learning. However, only programs to
Which new similarities can be drawn from this anal- train specific subcomponents of learning by analogy
ogy? Why did Greeks use ships? To trade, by the other have been experimentally tested (Alexander et al.
things. Thus, it can be hypothesized that Romans, like 1998).
Greeks, had coasting trade. The work goes on in this Learning by analogy is a multidimensional ability
manner. The aim is to “spread out” all the potential whose components have different developmental
resources of the analogy in order to lead students to trends because of the involvement of different general
 Analytic Learning A 237

mental functions (e.g., abstract intelligence, linguistic A

competence, divergent thinking). Because there is not Analytic Learning
a unique mechanism underlying learning by analogy,
a range of different skills must be trained (Richland and AYTAC GOGUS
McDonough 2009). Center for Individual and Academic Development,
If students are trained to pay attention to analogies, Sabanci University CIAD, Istanbul, Turkey
reflecting about them, and re-elaborating them, fluid-
ity and flexibility in thinking improve. Learners
become more able to identify common aspects in dif- Synonyms
ferent realities and to transfer ideas from a domain to Analytical learning; Derivational analogy; Explanation-
another. This helps to think divergently and to solve based learning; Knowledge-based learning; Sequential
novel problems. In other words, a general mental learning
“mobility” leads to see familiar things with new eyes
and to face new challenging situations by applying Definition
schemata drawn from past experience (Clemens 2008). The word analytic comes from the Greek word
“α᾽ nalutikός ” (analytikos), which means having the
Cross-References ability to analyze and divide the whole into its compo-
▶ Analogical Modeling of Language nents or elements. Analytic Learning is an analytical
▶ Analogy/Analogies approach to learning that uses prior knowledge as
▶ Anticipatory Schema a base from which concepts can be described, hypoth-
▶ Retention and Transfer eses can be developed, and concepts can be rationally
▶ Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning Processes generalized by analyzing the components and the
structure of the concepts. Analytic learning allows the
References learner to process information, break it into its
Alexander, P. A., Murphy, P. K., & Kulikowich, J. M. (1998). What component parts, and generate hypotheses by using
responses to domain-specific analogy problems reveal about critical and logical thinking skills.
emerging competence: A new perspective on an old acquain-
tance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 397–406.
Clemens, J. (2008). Creative model construction in scientists and
Theoretical Background
students. The role of imagery, analogy and mental simulation. Cognitive style refers to the ways individuals think,
Amsterdam: Springer. perceive, remember, and use information. Assessing
Gentner, D. (1997). Reasoning and learning by analogy. The American the cognitive style of the learners and matching one’s
Psychologist, 52, 32–34. cognitive style with the best appropriate instruction are
Richland, L. E., & McDonough, I. M. (2009). Learning by analogy:
important in the field of education. Since the mid-
Discriminating between potential analogs. Contemporary Educa-
tional Psychology, 35(1), 28–43.
1940s, several models of cognitive styles have emerged
(Riding 2001). Riding (2001) grouped cognitive style
into two fundamental dimensions: wholist-analytic and
verbal-imagery. The wholist-analytic dimension reflects
how individuals organize and structure information
and identifies whether an individual tends to organize
Analogy-Based Modeling information into wholes or parts. The verbal-imagery
▶ Dynamic Modeling and Analogies dimension describes individuals’ mode of information
representation in memory during thinking and iden-
tifies whether an individual is inclined to represent
information during thinking verbally or in mental
pictures.
Analysis of Learning Data Analytic learning and explanation-based learning
(EBL) are used as synonyms (e.g., Mitchell 1997;
▶ Educational Data Mining Thrun 1995). In the fields of artificial intelligence and
238 A Analytic Learning

computer science, analytical learning or explanation- analytical learning uses prior knowledge and deductive
based learning is a form of machine learning which reasoning to augment the information provided by the
concerns the design and development of algorithms training. Mitchell (1997) indicates that in analytical
in mathematics, computer science, or related sciences. learning, prior knowledge is used to analyze and explain
Thrun (1995) indicates that machine learning can be how each observed training example satisfies the target
divided into two major categories: inductive learning concept so that training examples can be generalized
and analytical learning and defines two types of learn- based on logical rather than statistical reasoning. Mitchell
ing as below: (1997) follows:
" Inductive learning techniques, like decision tree learn- " One way is to develop learning algorithms that accept
ing . . .artificial neural network learning, generalize sets explicit prior knowledge as an input, in addition to the
of training examples via a built-in, domain- input training data. Explanation-based learning is one
independent inductive bias. [Inductive learners] typi- such approach. It uses prior knowledge to analyze, or
cally can learn functions from scratch, based purely on explain, each training example in order to infer which
observation. Analytical approaches to learning, like example features are relevant to the target function
explanation-based learning, . . . generalize training and which are irrelevant. These explanations enable it
examples based on domain-specific knowledge. to generalize more accurately than inductive systems
[Analytic learners] employ a built-in theory of the that rely on the data alone . . . Inductive logic program-
domain of the target function for analyzing and gen- ming systems . . . use prior background knowledge to
eralizing individual training examples . . . Analytical guide learning. However, they use their background
learning techniques learn from much less training knowledge to infer features that augment the input
data, relying instead on the learner’s internal domain descriptions of instances, thereby increasing the
theory. They hence require the availability of an appro- complexity of the hypothesis space to be searched. In
priate domain theory. (Thrun 1995, p. 302) contrast, explanation-based learning uses prior knowl-
edge to reduce the complexity of the hypothesis space
Thrun (1995) presents empirical results obtained
to be searched, thereby reducing sample complexity
for applying the explanation-based neural network
and improving generalization accuracy of the learner.
learning algorithm to problems of indoor robot navi-
(Mitchell 1997, p. 308)
gation. Thrun (1995) states that analytical learning is
the most widely studied machine learning approach to Mitchell (1997) summarizes the three perspectives
provide a theory of the domain which typically consists on analytical learning or explanation-based learning
of a set of rules. Thrun (1995) categorizes analytical (EBL) “as [1] theory-guided generalization of
learning in a three-step procedure of explain, analyze, examples,. . . as [2] example-guided reformulation of
and refine, as summarized below: theories,. . . as [3] ‘just’ restating what the learner
already ‘knows’ ” (Mitchell 1997, pp. 319–320).
" (1) Explain. Explain the training example by chaining
According to the first perspective, domain theory is
together domain theory rules. (2) Analyze. Analyze the
utilized to make rational generalizations from exam-
explanation in order to find the weakest precondition
ples; relevant and irrelevant attributes can thus be dif-
under which this explanation leads to the same result.
ferentiated. The second perspective refers to the
Features that play no part in an explanation are not
reformulation of the original domain theory through
included in this weakest precondition. The generalized
deduction and classification of what is observed in
explanation forms a rule, which generalizes the training
the examples’ specific inferential steps and then
example. (3) Refine. Add this generalized explanation to
combining them to form a rule. The third perspective
the rule memory. (Thrun 1995, p. 303)
refers to the sufficiency of the original domain theory
Thrun (1995) makes the point that people learn when it can adequately explain and predict the classifi-
analytically by explaining, analyzing, and refining the cation of the observed examples (Mitchell 1997). These
information. perspectives help to understand the capabilities and
Mitchell (1997) also mentions analytic learning in limitations of analytical learning or explanation-based
his book Machine Learning. Mitchell (1997) states that learning.
 Analytic Learning A 239

Langley (1989) compares analytic learning with of rules that reduce memory load or increase efficiency A
empirical learning. According to Langley (1989), ana- can allow successful completion of tasks that were not
lytic learning transforms domain knowledge into some possible before learning . . . Thus, analytic methods can
other form but empirical learning uses domain knowl- lead to changes in external behavior, though in differ-
edge to rewrite instances in another language. Langley ent ways than do empirical techniques. (Langley 1989,
(1989) emphasizes that analytic learning influences p. 255)
efficiency of performance while empirical learning
Minton (1993) describes how meta-level theories
influences accuracy of performance:
are used for analytic learning. According to Minton
" Learning involves some change in performance, and (1993), “analytic learning systems are characterized by
one of the main goals of machine learning is to develop a theory-driven component that generates hypotheses
algorithms that improve their performance over time. by analyzing a domain and several analytic approaches
However, there are many different aspects of perfor- have been used for speed-up learning, in which the goal
mance. For instance, early work on empirical methods is to improve problem-solving efficiency” (p. 922).
emphasized classification accuracy on training sets, Analytic learning exploits problem-solving experience
while more recent work has focused on transfer of through explaining, analyzing, and making generaliza-
accuracy to separate test sets. In contrast, most work tions on the domain.
on analytical learning has been concerned with
increasing the efficiency of the performance system. Important Scientific Research and
(Langley 1989, p. 253) Open Questions
An individual’s learning style is determined by
Langley (1989) also states that analytic learning uses
a combination of five factors (Terregrossa et al. 2009):
deductive reasoning method while empirical learning
uses inductive reasoning method. ● Environmental (e.g., noise, light, temperature, and
design)
" A more substantive issue concerns the nature of the
● Emotional (e.g., motivation, persistence,
learning process. Empirical learning methods extend
conforming, and structure)
a system’s original knowledge base, leading it to
● Sociological (e.g., learning from peers vs learning
behave differently on some situations than it did at
alone)
the outset. Yet such methods involve an inductive
● Physiological (e.g., visual, auditory, tactual, and
leap from instances to general rules or schemas, and
kinesthetic)
this leap is inherently unjustified. . .. In contrast, many
● Psychological (global-deductive vs analytic-
analytic methods simply compile the results of a proof
inductive)
into a different form. The resulting rule is justified, in
that it does not change the deductive closure of the Terregrossa et al. (2009) state that analytic and
system’s knowledge . . . As a result, most analytic global learners have different environmental, emo-
techniques have no means for moving beyond the tional, sociological, physiological, and psychological
knowledge they are given. The rules they generate preferences. According to the empirical study
may alter their processing efficiency, but these rules conducted by Terregrossa et al. (2009), preferences for
do not change the system’s external behavior, as do noise, light, design, persistence, and intake distinguish
inductive learning methods. (Langley 1989, p. 255) analytic learners from global learners. Terregrossa et al.
(2009) summarize the differences between analytic and
Langley (1989) concludes that analytic methods
global learners:
cannot lead to behavioral changes but can lead to
changes in external behavior: ● Analytic learners prefer to learn alone, while global
learners prefer to learn in pairs, with peers, or as
" Analytic methods cannot lead to behavioral changes – part of a team.
also holds only under unrealistic assumptions. All ● Analytic learners process information by induction,
performance systems have effective limits on their reasoning from specific facts to a general conclu-
memory and processing time. As a result, the addition sion, while global learners process information by
240 A Analytic Learning

deduction, reasoning from a general conclusion to better, ceteris paribus, on exams. Students who prefer
specific facts. greater physical mobility in the learning process
● Analytic learners learn best in a quiet, brightly performed more poorly. However, there is little evidence
lighted, and formal learning environment, while to suggest that students with more analytical learning
global learners learn best with background noise, preferences did better. In learning the more global
soft light, in a relaxed learning environment. course material, a preference for conforming to profes-
● Analytic learners prefer to start and finish one pro- sor instructions was again found to be more productive,
ject at a time, and do not snack while learning; as was stronger motivation. Students with a preference
however, global learners simultaneously work on for auditory (lecture) learning were at a disadvantage in
several projects, take frequent breaks, and enjoy this segment of the course. Importantly, in the more
snacks when learning. global part of the course, student exam performance
was found to be directly related to food intake and
According to Riding (2001), the analytic learner has
inversely related to the formality of design of the study
focused attention, noticing and remembering details,
venue and persistence in the completion of tasks. These
has an interest in operations, procedures, and proper
three results were statistically significant and support
ways of doing things, and prefers step-by-step, sequen-
the hypothesis that students with global learning style
tial organizational schemes. However, the wholist or
preferences perform better when consonant teaching
global learner attends toward scanning, leading to the
methods are in place. (Terregrossa et al. 2009, p. 1)
formation of global impressions rather than more pre-
cisely articulated codes. The analytic learner is gifted at Dunn, Dunn, and Price (as cited in Terregrossa et al.
critical and logical thinking but the wholist or global 2009) developed the productivity environmental pref-
learner is more gifted at seeing similarities than differ- erence survey (PEPS) to identify participants’ learning
ences (Riding 2001). Both the analytic and the wholist style profiles. Terregrossa et al. (2009) conclude that
have its strengths and weaknesses. In order to compen- five of the 20 learning style variables from the PEPS
sate for the weaknesses of each, Riding (2001) suggests survey instrument can be utilized as discriminators in
that: order to categorize a student as an analytical learner or
a global learner: preference for noise, preference for
● Wholists benefit from information in advance of
strong light, preference for greater formality of design
learning, which shows the structure of a topic, its
in the location where the studying/learning takes place,
components, and analytical map.
preference for being persistent (avoiding interruptions
● Analytics benefit from information in advance of
while studying), and preference for food intake while
learning that gives an overview of the whole topic
studying.
and provides the holistic approach.
Terregrossa et al. (2009) investigate how a natural Cross-References
experiment occurring in the teaching of principles of ▶ Explanation-Based Learning
microeconomics allows examining the relationship ▶ Metalearning
between student achievement, student learning styles ▶ Sequential Learning
(analytic versus global), and the dichotomous
nature (analytic versus global) of the method of References
instruction. Terregrossa et al. (2009) indicate that better Langley, P. (1989). Toward a unified science of machine learning.
exam performance is linked to global learning style Machine Learning, 3, 253–259.
preferences and global teaching methods, but there is Minton, S. (1993). An analytic learning system for specializing
heuristics. Proceedings of the 13th International Joint Conference
little evidence to conclude that better exam performance on Artificial Intelligence, 2, 922–928.
is linked to analytic learning style preferences and ana- Mitchell, T. M. (1997). Machine learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
lytic teaching methods: Riding, R. J. (2001). The nature and effects of cognitive style.
In R. Sternberg & L. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on thinking,
" In learning the more analytical content, students with a learning, and cognitive styles. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum
preference for conforming to professor instructions did Associates, Inc.
 Analytical Psychology and Learning A 241

Terregrossa, R., Englander, F., & Englander, V. (2009). The impact of necessary for successful learning, but will dominate at
learning styles on achievement in principles of microeconomics:
A
different points in the process. The functional pairings
a natural experiment. College Student Journal, 43(2), 1–9.
allow the ego to differentiate or abstract new contents
Thrun, S. (1995). An approach to learning mobile robot navigation.
Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 15, 301–319. along a rational or irrational trajectory. Undiffer-
entiated learning comprises a crude mixture of rational
and irrational functions. Higher learning comprises
contents that have been fully abstracted along one of
Analytical Learning the functional lines. With greater abstraction comes
increased ego utility of the content; stripped of its
▶ Analytic Learning context, the content is more generally applicable and
easier to reflect upon. The great success of science rests
on the capacity to abstract via the thinking function.
Although this ego structure is common to all, its use
Analytical Psychology and is not uniform from person to person. We each display
Learning a preference for one pole of the pair over the other,
a strength and weakness typified respectively by sta-
ROBERT SAMUEL MATTHEWS1, CHARLOTTE HUA LIU2 mina or tiring of attention and concentration during
1
School of Education, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, the learning process. This account of ego variation is
South Australia, Australia one of the earliest psychological theories to argue that
2
University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia an individual shows a preference in their approach to
learning and was a forerunner to various learning style
theories (Jung 1977). As a personality preference, it has
Synonyms formed the basis of the widely used and researched
Complex psychology and learning; Jungian psychology Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (Briggs Myers and
and learning Myers 1995).
We tend to think of learning as a primarily
Definition conscious process; however, the ego is also thought to
It is analytical psychology’s view that in the structure of function in unconscious processes, for example, the
the ego and its involvement in the learning process lies ego is present in dreams. The learning processes
its major contribution to accounts of formal learning. of consciousness described above are understood to
There are three key consequences from this view of the continue unconsciously. This gives explanation to
ego: higher order learning is distinguished from lower new insights appearing spontaneously in consciousness
order learning by its greater abstraction and differenti- and is a justification for including “downtime” in the
ation of psychological contents along functional lines; learning process.
individual preferences exist in the abstraction process,
leading to implications for learning styles; and the ego Theoretical Background
is active in both the conscious and the unconscious, In analytical psychology, the formulation of ego struc-
suggesting learning occurs in both conscious and ture and its involvement with psychological contents
unconscious states. and learning derives from the central concept of the
The ego structure comprises the attitude pairing of complex (Jung 1969). This view of the complex has its
extroversion and introversion and two functional origin in the accounts of early psychologists and
pairings, the rational pair of thinking and feeling, and psychiatrists such as Eugene Bleuler, Pierre Janet, and
the irrational pair of sensation and intuition. The Sigmund Freud. Jung extended these ideas through his
attitude pairing governs whether the ego’s interest is experimentation with word association studies to
primarily given to the object of learning (extroversion) formulate his unique model.
or to the existing conscious contents that relate to the Generally speaking, a complex is a structured
learning object (introversion). Both attitudes are arrangement of elements comprising a whole. In
242 A Analytical Psychology and Learning

analytical psychology, it signifies the unit of psychic that are given primary value. Successful learning
content as an arrangement of irrational perceptions, requires both extroversion and introversion.
rational apperceptions, and a feeling intensity. Each The four functions of ego have quite specific elab-
complex is both conscious and unconscious. orations in analytical psychology. Sensation is the per-
A strongly conscious complex is typified by substantial ception of sensory information of an outer event and
abstraction of the contents and a low feeling intensity; informs us that something is. In order to know what
the reverse is true for a strongly unconscious complex. this outer event is, what we think about it, existing
Developmentally speaking, the earliest complexes conscious contents are applied and the event becomes
are acquired and not formally learnt. They arise from recognized. Such recognition may happen almost
a collision of the infant’s nature and their experiences instantaneously or require substantial directed concen-
with the environment (Samuels et al. 1986). In the first tration. This matching or differentiating of contents is
few years of life, islands of consciousness emerge and an apperceiving process. Feeling, the other rational
coalesce to form the ego complex (the ego itself is apperceptive process is an evaluative response to the
considered a complex). Complexes arising during this event, it tells us how it is for us, whether the event is
time are strong in feeling tone and largely unconscious. emotionally pleasant or unpleasant. Intuition tells us
It is possible, particularly in later life, to bring the the possibilities surrounding an event, the implications
unconscious contents of these complexes into con- or outcomes. These possibilities are not consciously
sciousness, but this is a personal process of integration processed thoughts, but appear spontaneously fully
rather than one of formal collective learning and will formed in the mind and are thus an irrational process.
not be pursued further in this discussion. The ego may abstract the initial sense made of the
With formal education comes the targeted develop- external event along any of the four functional avenues.
ment of conscious complexes; these are akin to Abstraction through the thinking function leads to
schemas. They contain differentiated contents that are rational, logical concepts and is the most (Western)
relatively known and can be recalled at will, freely culturally developed function; abstraction through the
associated with and directed through attention by the feeling function gives an evaluative content of the
ego. Such learnt content involves the processes of event; abstraction through the sensation function
accommodation and assimilation as elaborated in yields an aesthetic content; and finally abstraction
developmental cognitive theories. Analytical through the intuitive function gives a symbolic con-
psychology’s unique contribution to formal learning tent. All physical events can be abstracted along any of
is the situating of accommodation and assimilation the four functions.
processes within the attitude and functional structure Of particular importance to formal learning is the
of the ego. abstraction leading to scientific concepts. Their learn-
As mentioned above, the ego is structured to engage ing process tends to move from the concrete to the
the world through extroverted and introverted attitudes. abstract. Initial attempts at new learning will foster
This structure has its informal historical antecedents in initial contents that are blurred across multiple func-
Antiquities’ notion of the four temperaments, or the tions. For example, many children hold in mind the
writings, for example, of Friedrich Schiller, Frederick sensual description of an object while they consider its
Nietzsche, and William James. When seeking to under- functional properties (an alloy of thinking and sensa-
stand an external event (idea or physical object) through tion). Ideally, a scientific concept should be fully
extraversion, the learner applies their existing under- abstracted along the thinking function and this means
standings of an object to “give themselves over” to the discarding the sensual elements, so the contents are no
whole object. They transfer their subjectivity to the longer concrete. There is a great advantage in fully
external object, giving it primary value and interest. abstracting a content for it allows the ego to maneuver
The introverted act is the reverse where the learner it with greater mobility and applicability than if it were
withdraws interest from the object, abstracting partial still concrete. The sensual information makes it more
elements of the object’s nature and relating these to cumbersome to hold in mind and more jarring to apply
conscious contents. It is now the conscious contents outside its physical qualities.
 Anchoring Framework A 243

A key implication for learning is the varied prefer- concept of combustion, but still within this concept is A
ence each learner has in attitude and for abstracting the archetypal idea of transmutation (Neumann 1970).
contents along functional lines. The Myers-Briggs Type We tend to only value the abstract, highly conceptual
Indicator has made this individualizing tendency contents, for they are the goal of higher learning. How-
a measurable personality indicator and brought great ever, this historic view to the learning of an individual
attention to Jung’s typology (Briggs Myers and Myers opens up new questions around the validity of
1995). A marked limitation to abstraction arises from undifferentiated contents. Indeed, in relation to their
the finding that at least one of the four functions will abstracted siblings, they may well be the fundamentals
lag in its facility in comparison to the others. This through which comprehensive learning is found not
inferior function will tire more easily than the others only historically but also for the individual.
and contents within this function will wish to remain
coalesced with other functional contents and require
Cross-References
greater effort to abstract. This fact, born out through
▶ Adaption and Learning
the copious studies of the Myers-Briggs Personality
▶ Associative Learning
Type Indicator, is not obviously explained, but is
▶ Jungian Learning Styles
thought to be connected to the relationship of ego to
▶ Personality and Learning
the unconscious (von Franz 1980). When the psyche as
▶ Personalized Learning
a whole, both conscious and unconscious, is consid-
▶ Psychodynamics of Learning
ered, it becomes evident that the inferior function plays
▶ Schema
a special role for the unconscious and therefore, its
▶ Theories of Unconscious Learning
functionality in consciousness is weakened.

Important Scientific Research and References

Open Questions Briggs, I. M., & Myers, P. B. (1995). Gifts differing: Understanding
There are now a great many personality typologies that personality type. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publications.
Jung, C. G. (1969). Complex Theory, The Collected Works of C. G.
have been articulated by researchers. A question arises
Jung (Vol. 8). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
as to whether a typology is a mere orientating device, Jung, C. G. (1977). Psychological Types, The Collected Works of C. G.
which captures a reasonable portion of human Jung (Vol. 6). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
functioning, but has no other claim to validity for the Neumann, E. (1970). The origins and history of consciousness.
personality constructs it employs. Statistical validation Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
has weeded out some of the more ambiguous typolo- Samuels, A., Shorter, B., & Plaut, F. (1986). A critical dictionary of
jungian analysis. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
gies but cannot provide a definite answer to this
Von Franz, M. L. (1980). Lectures on Jung’s typology. Dallas, TX:
question. Jung became convinced that the structural Spring.
description within which his typology rests did indeed
have objective validity. This claim has not been greatly
explored and remains an open question.
Jung and others, notably the Nobel physicist
Wolfgang Pauli, argue that if one tracks back in history
to the origin point of a particular scientific concept,
Anchored Instruction
they would find the earliest conception involved an ▶ Situated Cognition
archetypal idea. For example, the theory of combustion
sits abstractly above direct experience of a burning
flame. One can imagine the beginnings of ideation
some thousands of years in the distant past, where
images of a flame sparked the emergence of the arche- Anchoring Framework
typal idea of “transmutation” (the changing of form).
With many intermediary steps, we now have the ▶ Advance Organizer
244 A Anchoring-and-Adjustment Effects in Causal Learning

Definition
Anchoring-and-Adjustment Cultural changes in animal societies are said to occur
Effects in Causal Learning when animals learn new habits of living and pass them
along to the next generation. In such a situation, the
▶ Judgment Frequency Effects in Causal Learning
spread of a certain innovation results in stable conser-
vation of a new custom that is further maintained and
transmitted in a train of generations through social
learning.
Andragogy Culture itself is a difficult phenomenon to define.
Some behavioral scientists have proposed that the
▶ Adult Learning Theory words “culture” and “tradition” should be considered
synonyms (see Galef 1992 for a review), whereas others
treat tradition as neither necessary nor sufficient
condition for culture (McGrew 2004). How to treat
“animal culture” much depends on its definition.
Angelic Doctor Many definitions in the literature attribute cultural
traits only to humans. At the other end of the scale is
▶ Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274)
considering culture as a “meme pool” (sensu: Dawkins
1976) in populations which can include all cases of the
regular use of public information in populations basing
on relatively simple forms of social learning (Laland
and Brown 2002). Given this situation, Lycett (2011)
Animal Behavior and Human has suggested that animal culture may usefully be
Learning characterized as an emergent property of the “descent
▶ Learning from Animals with modification” (sensu: Darwin 1859) process
mediated by the combination of variation, social learn-
ing, and sorting.
Many animal behaviorists agree that cultural behav-
ior in animals includes a package of behaviors rather
Animal Cognition than single traditions such as “bottle opening” by Brit-
ish birds (see Lefebvre 1995, for a review). Defining
▶ Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learn- animal culture as a set of socially transmitted behav-
ing Classes ioral patterns, the working description given by
Nishida (1987) is useful: “Cultural behaviour is defined
as behaviour that is: (a) transmitted socially rather than
genetically; (b) shared by many members of the group;
(c) persistent over generations and (d) not simply the
Animal Culture result of adaptation to different local conditions.”

ZHANNA REZNIKOVA Theoretical Background

Laboratory of Behavioural Ecology of Animal The notion of animal culture dates back to Charles
Communities, Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Darwin who was the first to suggest what became
Animals, Siberian Branch RAS and Novosibirsk State known as social learning and imitation in animals.
University, Novosibirsk, Russia The association of animal behavioral actions with the
actual word “culture” was firstly brought forward with
the discovery of socially transmitted food habits
Synonyms (“potato washing”) in macaques made by Japanese
Animal traditions; Socially transmitted “memes” primatologists in the 1940s (see: Nishida 1987).
 Animal Culture A 245

The possibility of culture in chimpanzees, the most sponges off the sea floor and wear them over their A
“cultural” after our own species, surfaced early in Jane snouts as a kind of gloves to protect their sensitive
Goodall’s (1964, 1986) studies, stimulated by young- rostrums when they probe for prey in the substrates
sters’ intense observations of skilled adult tool use. (Krützen et al. 2005). The DNA analysis showed that
Studies at other sites later began to map local behav- the spongers were closely related, probably descending
ioral variations including as many as 39 behavioral of a recent “Sponging Eve.” However, the pattern of
patterns across Africa. Some of them concern tool sponging among the dolphins could not be explained
use, such as ant-dipping, termite-fishing, nut-cracking, by a “gene for sponging.” The researchers conclude that
honey-dipping, drinking water with leaves, and so on. this behavioral pattern is culturally transmitted,
Others concern characteristic behavioral habits such as presumably by mothers teaching their skills to their
rain dances, handclasp grooming, details of courtship calves. Tool use is the most amazing but not the only
rituals, and so on. The researchers found no evidence population-specific behavioral trait that enables
that habits vary more between, than within, the three cetacean biologists to claim that marine mammals pos-
existing subspecies of chimpanzees. So genetic cannot sess culture or at least traditions. Mann and Sargeant
account for the observed variability (Whiten et al. (2003) have listed many population-specific patterns
1999; Whiten 2007; McGrew 2010). concerning foraging strategies, styles of diving, patterns
Recent studies of animal traditions have taken the of social interactions, and many of them have been
chimpanzee research as a template, and the following clearly demonstrated to be transmitted by means of
steps to identify cultural traditions have been elabo- social learning.
rated: (1) show that behavioral differences between Such studies are becoming taxonomically more
populations are not consistent with genetic explana- diverse, extending to social and foraging patterns
tions; (2) check that the behavioral differences cannot among capuchin monkeys (Perry and Manson 2008),
be explained by ecological factors such as availability by Japanese macaques’ stone-play habits (Leca et al. 2007),
suitable raw materials for making tools; (3) study the and variations in bower-birds’ decoration preferences
transmission processes used by animals in controlled (Madden 2008). The new study may reinforce bridge-
experiments: Can they learn by watching others? If so, building between the work of those focused on human
what kind of things do they learn? and nonhuman forms of culture and further the excit-
ing prospect of a more integrated “science of culture”
Important Scientific Research and (Whiten 2007).
Open Questions However, there is much work to be done to under-
Ethologists have investigated the problem of animal stand which factors limit and which favor the acquisi-
culture for decades but only in the last years has a clear tion of new behavioral traditions in animal
picture of cultural diversity in several species begun communities. The main methodological difficulty on
to emerge (see Reznikova 2007, for a review). the way of studying animal culture is to recognize
Chimpanzees display the highest level of manufactur- innovations in the field. Even when the origin of
ing ability but they are not the only nonhuman species a certain innovation had been observed, it is difficult
which possess elements of “material culture.” Thirty to predict a living trajectory of this innovation. Of
years of field observations of the Southeast Asian many innovative behaviors observed, only a few will
orangutans have enabled an international group of be passed on to other individuals, and seldom will they
researchers to reveal 24 examples of behaviors that spread through the whole group. For example, Goodall
have been defined as cultural variants, and among (1986) observed two instances of the use of stones by
them using sticks to dig seeds out of fruit and to poke adolescent chimpanzees to kill dangerous insects. She
into tree holes to obtain insects, using leaves as napkins supposed that this usage of stones would become
or as gloves, and so on (van Schaik et al. 2003). customary in that reference group. But this had not
Marine mammals can also be added to the cata- happened since, and the innovation faded away. All
logue of “cultural” animals. In Shark Bay, Australia, these incite researchers to search for reasons why
bottlenose dolphins apparently use marine sponges as some innovations are supported in animal communi-
foraging tools. Dolphins have devised a way to break ties while others are not.
246 A Animal Culture

Given the suggestion about the genetic predisposi- Galef, B. G., Jr. (1992). The question of animal culture. Human
tion of animals to learn certain behaviors much easier Nature, 3, 157–178.
Goodall, J. (1964). Tool-using and aimed throwing in a community of
than others, Reznikova and Panteleeva (2008) consid-
free living chimpanzees. Nature, 201, 1264–1266.
ered a previously unknown way of propagation of Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe, patterns of behavior.
behavioral traditions in animal communities using Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University.
hunting in ants as an example. The authors suggest Krützen, M., Mann, J., Heithaus, M., Connor, R., Bejder, L., &
that distributed social learning plays an important role Sherwin, B. (2005). Cultural transmission of tool use in
bottlenose dolphins. Proceedings of the National Academy of
in spreading new traditions in animal communities:
Sciences, 105, 8939–8943.
initial performances by a few carriers of an “at once Laland, K., & Brown, G. (2002). Sense and nonsense. Oxford: Oxford
and entirely” available behavioral pattern propagate University Press.
this pattern among specimens which have only Leca, J. B., Gunst, N., & Huffman, M. A. (2007). Japanese
dormant “sketches” of it, and thus are genetically macaque cultures: Inter- and intra-troop behavioural variabil-
predisposed to learn the whole pattern. Spread of ity of stone handling patterns across 10 troops. Behaviour, 144,
251–281.
these behaviors in populations is based on relatively
Lefebvre, L. (1995). The opening of milk bottles by birds: Evidence
simple forms of social learning such as social facilita- for accelerating learning rates, but against the wave-of-
tion which underlies species’ predisposition to learn advance model of cultural transmission. Behavioural Process,
certain sequences of behavioral acts. To be triggered, 34, 43–54.
carriers of dormant “sketches” of a relevant behavioral Lycett, S. J. (2011). “Most beautiful and most wonderful”: Those
endless stone tool forms. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology.
pattern should encounter performances of this pattern
doi:10.1556/JEP.9.2011.23.1 Key: citeulike:8984929.
with sufficient frequency. This strategy can be called Madden, J. R. (2008). Do bowerbirds exhibit cultures? Animal
“triggering of dormant behavioral patterns.” In princi- Cognition, 11, 1–12.
ple, it could be useful for populations to have dormant Mann, J., & Sargeant, B. (2003). Like mother, like calf: The ontogeny
“sketches” of complex behavioral patterns being of foraging traditions in wild Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphins
implemented in several carriers and then spread by (Tursiops sp.). In D. M. Fragaszy & S. Perry (Eds.), The biology of
traditions: Models and evidence (pp. 236–266). Cambridge:
means of simple forms of social learning under
Cambridge University Press.
suitable circumstances. McGrew, W. C. (2004). The cultured chimpanzee. Reflections on
In general, “culturing” and social learning are based cultural primatology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
on differences existing between members of animal McGrew, W. C. (2010). Chimpanzee technology. Science, 328(5978),
communities, that is, on behavioral specialization in 579–580.
Nishida, T. (1987). Local traditions and cultural transmission. In S. S.
populations, and in some situations, on cognitive spe-
Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T.
cialization of individuals (see the entry “▶ Altruistic Strusaker (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 462–74). Chicago:
Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in Animal University of Chicago Press.
Communities” in this volume). This returns us to the Perry, S., & Manson, J. H. (2008). Manipulative monkeys: The Capu-
Darwin’s characterization of evolution which is based chins of Lomas Barbudal. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
on the variation between individuals. Press.
Reznikova, Zh. (2007). Animal intelligence: From individual to social
cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cross-References Reznikova, Zh, & Panteleeva, S. (2008). An ant’s eye view of culture:
▶ Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in propagation of new traditions through triggering dormant
Animal Communities behavioural patterns. Acta Ethologica, 11(2), 73–80.
▶ Cognitive Aspects of Deception van Schaik, C. P., Ancrenaz, M., Borgen, G., Galdikas, B., Knott, C. D.,
Singleton, I., Suzuki, A., Utami, S. S., & Merrill, M. Y. (2003).
▶ Intelligent Communication in Animals
Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture.
▶ Social Learning in Animals Science, 299, 102–105.
Whiten, A. (2007). Pan African culture: Memes and genes in wild
References chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. Facsimile reprint with an USA, 104(45), 17559–17560.
introduction by Ernst Mayr, (1964). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V.,
University Press. Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., & Boesch, C.
Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1999). Culture in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 682–685.
 Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learning Classes A 247

psychology, L. Morgan (1896), to construct the idea A

Animal Intelligence: Schemata of animal intelligence based on quantitative studies
for Ordering Learning Classes of animals’ reactions to different stimuli. Morgan’s
lecture on habit and instinct in animals prompted
ZHANNA REZNIKOVA E.L. Thorndike (1911) to elaborate a novel experimental
Laboratory of Behavioural Ecology of Animal approach based on the study of animals escaping from
Communities, Institute of Systematics and Ecology of puzzle boxes. At the beginning of the twentieth century,
Animals, Siberian Branch RAS and Novosibirsk State two scientific schools that approached learning basing
University, Novosibirsk, Russia on insight (Gestaltism) and on conditioning (behavior-
ism, with its Pavlovian and Skinnerian branches) had
started almost simultaneously on their efforts to
Synonyms describe learning quantitatively and objectively. After
Animal cognition; Animal rationality; Animal reason- half a century of battles, W. Köhler (1959) invited stu-
ing; Animal thinking dents of animal intelligence to “forget about schools”
and proceed in another direction. The coherent
Definition development of ethology and experimental comparative
Animal learning and intelligence define how non- psychology has resulted in cognitive ethology, that is, the
human beings solve their living problems based on comparative, evolutionary, and ecological study of
their individual and social experience. Learning per- animal minds, including rationality, information
forms adaptive tuning to a changeable environment, processing, and consciousness. Revolutionary experi-
and intelligence helps animals to use their learned mental paradigms have been developed for studying
experiences in new situations. Individual adaptive animal “linguistic” capacities, numerical competence,
behavior involves different kinds of learning together abilities for rule extraction, sophisticated tool use, com-
with innate behavioral patterns. Classification of plex forms of communication, social learning, and social
learning classes involves basic forms of learning. The navigation (for a detailed review see: Reznikova 2007).
modern schema for ordering learning classes makes it
easier to work with different forms of learning in ani- Important Scientific Research and
mals in comparison with humans and artificial agents. Open Questions
Animal intelligence has been experimentally studied for
Theoretical Background not much longer than a century and controversial ideas
The rise of scientific study of animal intelligence may be still exist about how animals learn and to what limits
portrayed as progressive changes in experimental they understand relations between things and their
methods. The development of objective methods of anal- properties, as well as relations between members of
ysis of animal intelligence is attributed to researches their social groups. Many elegant experimental schemes
studying animal mind in the nineteenth century, based have been elaborated for investigating how complex are
on Darwin’s evolutionary ideas. In 1870, D. Spalding the problems that animals are able to solve. However,
(1873) experimentally investigated innate and learned there is no common metric for measuring animal intel-
behaviors in birds and mammals, and J. Lubbock ligence. There is a growing body of evidence that mem-
(1882) was one of the first to introduce apparatus and bers of different species can solve very complex problems
quantification into the study of animal intelligence. but their cognitive abilities lie within a narrow domain
Apart from being a powerful stimulus to the develop- of “species genius.” For example, ants appeared to be
ment of experimental investigations, Darwin’s ideas of more competent (Reznikova and Ryabko 2011) than
succession in animal and human thinking gave new chimpanzees (Beran 2009) in numerosities, and New
arguments for anthropomorphic approach to animal Caledonian crows (Kacelnik et al. 2004) are even more
intelligence, and the most known example is the advanced than chimpanzees (McGrew 2004) in tool
G. Romanes’ book “Animal Intelligence” (1881). manufacture. There is much work to be done to extend
The predominance of anecdotal evidence of animal our understanding of whether at least some species
intelligence led one of the pioneers of comparative share advanced characteristics of intelligence with
248 A Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learning Classes

human beings, or whether all animals think about the 9. Social learning
world in a way radically different from our own. (a) Social facilitation
To complete the multifaceted panorama of animal (b) Emulation
intelligence, the working schema of learning classes is (c) Imitation
needed that involves recent discoveries in the field. (d) Teaching
Since W.H. Thorpe (1963) proposed the labeling
It should be noted that whereas latent learning,
system of learning classes, there were several updates fol-
learning set formation, rule extraction, and social
lowing a course of development of cognitive ethology. R.K.
learning can be attributed to cognitive abilities, catalog
Thomas (1996) synthesized a list of eight fundamental
learning, guided learning (Gould and Marler 1987),
types of learning from which any and all examples of
and imprinting (Lorenz 1935) are based on innate
learning are derived:
predisposition to build up one set of associations
Level 1 – Habituation or Sensitization. more readily than another. Among these more or less
Level 2 – Signal Learning (Classical or Pavlovian “pre-programmed” forms of learning, “catalog learn-
Conditioning). ing” has been described only recently and means ani-
Level 3 – Stimulus–response Learning (Instrumental or mals’ ability to select quickly and to manipulate readily
Operant Conditioning). with innate behavioral patterns. Animals look like
Level 4 – Chaining (Learning Sequences of Stimulus– “cataloging” their repertoire of innate patterns in
response Learning Units). order to optimize their response to a certain repetitive
Level 5 – Multiple Discrimination Learning: Concur- event (Reznikova 2007). This is a relatively simple,
rent Discrimination Learning (CDL) or Learning universal, and quite “natural” form of learning that
Set Formation (LS). possibly underlies cognition.
Level 6 – Absolute and Relative Class Concept The schema for ordering learning classes aims at
Learning. completing the picture of interactions between differ-
Level 7 – Using Class Concepts in Conjunctive, Dis- ent forms of learning in human and nonhuman men-
junctive, or Conditional Relationships. tality, and can be applied in cognitive ethology,
Level 8 – Using Class Concepts in Biconditional comparative psychology, and robotics.
Relationships.
Cross-References
A new variant of the labeling system of learning ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
classes that integrates data from cognitive, ethological, ▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals
and ecological studies was suggested in (Reznikova ▶ Categorical Learning
2007): ▶ Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals
1. Habituation ▶ Contingency in Learning
2. Associative learning ▶ Evolution of Learning
(a) Classical conditioning (Stimulus–Reaction) ▶ Habituation
(b) Operant conditioning (Stimulus–Reaction– ▶ Individual Learning
Stimulus) ▶ Learning Set Formation and Conceptualization
3. Catalog learning (Stimulus–Pattern) ▶ Operant Behavior
4. Guided learning ▶ Reinforcement Learning in Animals
5. Imprinting ▶ Social Learning in Animals
6. Latent learning and exploration ▶ Theory of Mind in Animals
7. Learning set formation ▶ Tool Use and Problem Solving in Animals
8. Rule extraction
(a) Classification and categorization References
Beran, M. J. (2009). Chimpanzees as natural accountants. Human
(b) Concept formation at different levels of
Evolution, 24, 183–196.
abstraction Gould, J. L., & Marler, P. (1987). Learning by instinct. Scientific
(c) Causal reasoning American, 256, 74–85.
 Animal Perceptual Learning A 249

Kacelnik, A., Chappell, J., Weir, A. A. S., & Kenward, B. (2004). Tool Definition A
use and manufacture in birds. In M. Bekoff (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Perceptual learning refers to the set of processes by
animal behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 1067–1069). Westport: Greenwood
which experience with similar stimuli increases the
Publishing Group.
Köhler, W. (1959). Gestalt psychology today. American Psychologist, ease with which they can be discriminated. In
14, 727–734. nonhuman animal this is revealed by enhanced acqui-
Lorenz, K. (1935). Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels. Der sition in a task in which the critical stimuli are associ-
Artgenosse als auslösendes Moment sozialer Verhaltensweise. ated with different outcomes (and thus come to control
Journal of Ornithology, 83, 137–213.
different responses); also by a reduction in the extent to
Lubbock, J. (1882). Ants, bees, and wasps. A record of observations on
the habits of the social Hymenoptera. London: Kegan Paul, Trench which a response trained to one of the stimuli will
& Co. generalize to the other. It reflects the fact that experi-
McGrew, W. C. (2004). The cultured chimpanzee. Reflections on cul- ence with the stimuli enhances the perceptual effective-
tural primatology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ness of features that differentiate them and/or reduces
Morgan, C. L. (1896). Habit and instinct. London: Edward Arnold. the effectiveness of features they hold in common. It
Reznikova, Zh. (2007). Animal intelligence: From individual to social
can be produced not only by explicit training but also
cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reznikova, Zh, & Ryabko, B. (2011). Numerical competence in ani- by mere exposure to the stimuli.
mals with an insight from ants. Behaviour, 148(4), 405–434.
Romanes, G. J. (1881). Animal intelligence. London: Kegan Paul. Theoretical Background
Shettleworth, S. J. (1998). Cognition, evolution and behavior. New The ability of nonhuman animals to perform subtle
York: Oxford University Press.
discriminations is legendary; and it is confirmed by
Spalding, D. A. (1873). Instinct, with original observations on young
animals. Macmillan’s Magazine, 27, 282–293. experimental study. For example, appropriately trained
Thomas, R. K. (1996). Investigating cognitive abilities in animals: dogs can detect the presence of human odor on
Unrealized potential. Cognitive Brain Research, 3, 157–166. a microscope slide touched by a human finger 3
Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. weeks previously; they can determine the direction of
New York: Macmillan. a 1-h-old odor trail left by a human given access to only
Thorpe, W. H. (1963). Learning and instinct in animals (2nd ed.).
five footsteps; they can detect the difference between
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
cancer patients and healthy controls on scent alone,
given access exhaled breath samples. These examples
rival (perhaps surpass) the achievements of human
experts (e.g., wine tasters, tea blenders), achievements
that have been taken to be prime instances of percep-
Animal Numerical Competence
tual learning.
▶ Numerical Skill in Animals Laboratory studies undertaken to reveal the nature
of the mechanisms involved have been more mundane.
In one procedure, widely used with rats, discrimination
is required between two flavors, A and B. After training
in which A is associated with experimentally induced
Animal Perceptual Learning nausea, the degree to which the aversion that is
established to A will generalize to B is tested. Failure
GEOFFREY HALL to generalize indicates that the rats can discriminate
Department of Psychology, University of York, A from B. In fact such generalization commonly occurs
York, UK (especially as it is customary to add a third flavor to
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, both, making the stimuli AX and BX and thus making
Australia them more similar). Generalization is reduced, how-
ever, (i.e., discrimination is enhanced) if the rats are
given prior exposure to the flavors. It is concluded that
Synonyms such preexposure allows perceptual learning to occur.
Learning through perception and animals; Perceptual A common theoretical analysis applies to all the
learning of animals various examples of the phenomenon. Any two stimuli
250 A Animal Perceptual Learning

can be conceived of as being composed of sets of fea- of the stimuli. This notion is central to Mackintosh’s
tures, some of which are unique to each individual (1975) theory of animal discrimination learning, with
stimulus, others of which are held in common. Similar its proposal that the ability of a stimulus feature to
stimuli will have a high proportion of common fea- command attention is enhanced by training in which
tures. Discrimination is evidenced when an animal that feature has accurately predicted its consequences.
makes different responses to the different stimuli. In Evidence for this form of attentional learning has been
order for this to be achieved, behavior must come sought in transfer tests – after initial discrimination
under the control of the unique rather than the training with one set of stimuli the animal is shifted
common features. Thus, to pursue the example just to a new task in which the same stimuli are used but
outlined, generalization will occur between AX and which involves different response requirements, so that
BX to the extent that training with AX establishes an the associations acquired in initial training will be
aversion to the common feature X; on the other hand, irrelevant. Positive transfer might thus be taken to
discrimination will be enhanced if the rat learns prin- indicate that the initial training had produced
cipally about the unique feature A during conditioning a change in the properties of the stimuli. Such transfer
and/or its behavior is chiefly controlled by the unique was demonstrated early on in the study of animal
feature B on the test. Procedures (like preexposure to discrimination learning. It should be acknowledged,
the stimuli) that enhance discrimination may be however, that alternative accounts have been offered
assumed to do so because they promote control by and that the proper interpretation of such transfer
the unique features. Experiments with animal subjects tests continues to be debated (see Hall 1991).
have been conducted to elucidate the processes by Perceptual learning does not require explicit train-
which this might occur. ing; mere exposure to the stimuli has been found to
facilitate subsequent discrimination between them.
Important Scientific Research and An early, and influential, example was provided by
Open Questions Gibson and Walk (1956), who showed that the ability
Much work has focused on the role of explicit discrim- of rats to discriminate shapes (triangle from circle)
ination training. In such training the animal experi- was enhanced when the rats had been raised with
ences presentations of the stimuli associated with these shapes displayed in the home cage. The instance
different outcomes (e.g., response to AX is followed mentioned above, reduced generalization in flavor-
by food and response to BX is not). When differential aversion conditioning after preexposure to the flavors,
responding is established (e.g., the animal chooses to constitutes a modern example of the same phenome-
approach AX rather than BX) we conclude that the non. This simple case has been investigated in detail in
unique features have gained control over behavior. the hope of establishing learning principles that might
Standard theories of associative learning are designed be applied to explain perceptual learning more
to explain this result; according to such theories, the generally.
predictive cues, A and B, gain associative strength at the The best known effect of mere exposure to
expense of nonpredictive (X) cues, which become a stimulus is habituation – a form of learning that
“neutralized.” This learning process may be enough in shows in a reduction of the ability of the stimulus to
itself to supply an explanation for the abilities of evoke its usual response. A habituated stimulus is effec-
experts (humans and canines), as these abilities are tively less salient than a novel one. This simple learning
typically established by means of (extensive) explicit process can supply a partial explanation for the per-
discrimination training. To that extent, these skills ceptual learning effect. Preexposure to the stimuli will
would not strictly involve perceptual learning allow habituation to occur to all their various features,
according to the definition offered above, as the but especially to the features they hold in common.
proposed mechanism would not necessarily involve Animals exposed to AX and BX experience X on every
changes in the perceptual effectiveness of the stimuli. trial and thus this feature will experience twice as much
It remains possible, however, that in addition to the habituation training as the unique features, A and B.
associations it establishes, discrimination training The effective salience of A and B will thus be high
might produce a change in the perceptual effectiveness relative to that of X, and behavior will be more likely
 Animal Reasoning A 251

to be controlled by these features, resulting in an animals, discrimination will be facilitated by processes A

enhanced ability to discriminate between AX and BX. that enhance the perceptual effectiveness of unique
Evidence that this process cannot be the sole source features of the stimuli to be discriminated (and/or
of perceptual learning after mere exposure comes from reduce the effectiveness of features the stimuli hold in
experiments investigating the effects of different sched- common). Evidence from experiments on animals can
ules of stimulus presentation. Symonds and Hall help elucidate the learning mechanisms involved in
(1995) gave some rats alternating presentations of two perceptual learning generally.
compound flavors (AX/BX/AX/BX. . . and so on);
other rats received equivalent exposure except that the Cross-References
flavors were presented on separate blocks of trials ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
(AX/AX. . .BX/BX. . .). In spite of the fact that in both ▶ Association Learning
conditions the common element X was presented on ▶ Discrimination Learning Model
every trial, only the first schedule produced a sizeable ▶ Expertise
perceptual learning effect. This result, the superiority of ▶ Habituation
the alternating over the blocked preexposure schedule, ▶ Perceptual Learning
has been confirmed many times, and with a variety of ▶ Perceptual Similarity
species and training procedures. It has been taken to
support the proposal that perceptual learning occurs
best in circumstances that allow the possibility of com-
References
Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1956). The effect of prolonged exposure
parison between the stimuli (the assumption being that
to visually presented patterns on learning to discriminate them.
comparison will be facilitated by a procedure in which Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 49, 239–242.
the critical stimuli are presented in alternation). Hall, G. (1991). Perceptual and associative learning. Oxford:
It remains to specify the mechanisms by which the Clarendon.
comparison process might work. One possibility is that Hall, G. (2003). Learned changes in the sensitivity of stimulus repre-
sentations: Associative and nonassociative mechanisms. The
when BX, for example, is experienced immediately
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56B, 43–55.
after AX, habituation of the common (X) features,
Mackintosh, N. J. (1975). A theory of attention: Variations in the
allows the unique feature (B, in this case) to stand associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychological Review,
out, so that this feature receives particularly efficient 82, 276–298.
processing and is accurately encoded in memory. This McLaren, I. P. L., & Mackintosh, N. J. (2000). An elemental model of
mechanism seems plausible for procedures in which associative learning: I. Latent inhibition and perceptual learning.
Animal Learning & Behavior, 28, 211–246.
the stimuli are presented in quick succession, but the
Symonds, M., & Hall, G. (1995). Perceptual learning in flavor aver-
alternating schedule is effective in producing percep- sion learning: Roles of stimulus comparison and latent inhibition
tual learning in rats even when stimulus presentations of common elements. Learning and Motivation, 26, 203–219.
occur several hours apart. For this case it has been
argued that associations formed among the constituent
elements of the stimuli play an important role in
producing the perceptual learning effect (see McLaren
and Mackintosh 2000; Hall 2003) but there is, as yet, no Animal Rationality
consensus as to what this role might be.
The phenomena of animal perceptual learning are ▶ Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learn-
important for two reasons. First, standard theories of ing Classes
learning, based largely on studies of animal condition-
ing, have treated “the stimulus” as something defined
solely by its physical properties. The fact that the way in
which a stimulus is perceived can be modified by expe- Animal Reasoning
rience means these theories need to be supplemented
by an account of the learning processes responsible for ▶ Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learn-
such modification. Second, in human, as in nonhuman ing Classes
252 A Animal Thinking

Definition
Animal Thinking Adopted in the 1980s by the multimedia community,
▶ Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learn- animation technically refers to a series of static frames
ing Classes displayed at high rate in order to give the illusion
of continuous motion. From a psychological point of
view, the distinguishing feature of animation over static
graphic is to depict change over time in a realistic and
explicit manner. With the advances of personal
computer capacities and programming language, ani-
Animal Traditions mation has become a natural component of computer-
▶ Animal Culture based learning material, together with text, sound, and
traditional static graphics. Animation can be used to
(1) attract attention, (2) convey information related to
the state of a process (e.g., loading file bar), (3) demon-
strate the execution of a procedure (e.g., software tuto-
Animal–Human rial), and (4) depict dynamic phenomena involving
changes over time, such as weather forecast, circulatory
Communication system, or four-stroke engine. Some other more
▶ Referential Vocal Learning by Grey Parrots domain-specific uses can be found, like in algebra or
physics conveying relationships between variables in
abstract graphics. In this chapter, we will be interested
in the most extensive use of animation in multimedia
instruction: the depiction of natural or artificial
Animals systems that involve change over time.

▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals Theoretical Background

Though animation has been extensively used in multi-
media instruction, there is still little knowledge on what
makes an animation effective for learning. The sponta-
neous assumption is that, due to its dynamic nature,
Animated Pedagogical Agents animation facilitates understanding of dynamic
phenomena involving changes over time. Motion and
▶ Pedagogical Agents trajectories are directly perceived in animation, while
they have to be inferred from static graphics. However,
the research did not provide clear evidence that anima-
tion benefits learning compared to a series of static
graphics (Lowe and Schnotz 2008). What appeared
Animation and Learning clearly is that animation does not systematically lead
to better understanding. Recently, the question has
MIREILLE BÉTRANCOURT, SANDRA BERNEY shifted from knowing whether animation facilitates
TECFA - FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva 4, learning to knowing why, which requires identifying
GE, Switzerland the perceptual and cognitive processes underlying the
observed learning effects.
From a psychological point of view, the compre-
Synonyms hension of dynamic phenomena, whether it has
Dynamic visualization; Multimedia information; a pragmatic finality (e.g., reproducing a procedure) or
Noninteractive simulation an epistemic one (knowing how a four-stroke engine
 Animation and Learning A 253

works), requires constructing a mental model of the of information in animation does not allow easy A
phenomenon. Mental models of dynamic phenomena reinspection of previous steps, contrary to a series of
not only entail the elements and their spatial configu- static graphics. Information regarding relative location
ration, but they also contain functional and temporal of components on previous steps should be kept in
information (Narayanan and Hegarty 2002). Further- memory. As a consequence, animation imposes
more, complete mental models not only enable recog- a heavy demand on working memory load that, ulti-
nition of the different states in which the dynamic mately, may impair learning.
system evolves, but also anticipation of future states In order to circumvent the previous bottlenecks,
and detection of malfunctioning. several guidelines regarding the design of animation
A reasonable question now is: Why would anima- have been enunciated (Tversky et al. 2002). First,
tion be more effective than a series of static graphics in animation should be designed in order to facilitate
promoting understanding of dynamic phenomena? the identification of conceptually relevant information,
The more intuitive answer is that animation depicts the one that is required to understand the functional
explicitly the relations between steps, and particularly relations between events and components. In other
the “microsteps,” which have to be inferred by visual word, animation should convey the information that
and conceptual reasoning from static graphics. Making is relevant to conceptual understanding, rather than
inference is not necessarily detrimental for learning on aiming to be fully realistic. In the previous example,
the contrary, but it has three major drawbacks: First, the precedence of the valve opening over the air enter-
learners may draw the wrong conclusion, for example, ing should be made explicit, or conversely. A second
mistaking a gear rotation direction in a pulley system. recommendation is to decrease perceptual load by
Second, this inference reasoning is cognitively demand- using very simple, not to say austere, design, and
ing and may distract learners from higher-level under- avoid fancy graphical fantasy as 3D perspectives or
standing, as demonstrated by the cognitive load theory. light effects, unless it is necessary to disambiguate
And finally, learners may just be unable to infer the dynamic information. As third guideline to overcome
dynamic relations from static graphics. To conclude, the attraction of perceptually salient information over
for learners with little domain knowledge, animation is conceptually relevant one, it is advisable to integrate
beneficial if it supports cognitive processes that learners some signaling devices (like blinking arrows, high-
could not perform from static graphics (enabling func- lights, zooming in) to emphasize dynamic information.
tion) or if it facilitates the construction of the mental Finally, in order to decrease memory load due to the
model by the visualization of accurate dynamic continuous flow of information, learners can be
information. provided with control over the pace of the animation.
Then why has animation not always proved benefi- A simple “continue” button, with an animation
cial? Though animation explicitly depicts the minute pausing automatically after each step, was shown to
changes over time, it does not necessarily lead to an effectively improve memorization and understanding.
accurate perception of dynamic information. For Providing full control over the pace and direction of the
example, novice students in meteorology were found animation could be a good way to allow easy
to pay quasi-exclusive attention to perceptually salient reinspection of previous steps, though it can also
dynamic information and fail to identify information bring confusion to novice learners (Bétrancourt 2005).
that was conceptually relevant but perceptually not Another solution is to provide key static frames of
salient. Moreover, even when the relevant dynamic relevant steps of the dynamic system, which was
information is accurately extracted, it does not neces- found to be effective for learners studying individually.
sarily ensure the comprehension of the underlying From an instructional point of view, it is important
functional model. In mechanics, several movements that novice users are able to accurately identify the
may occur at the same time, which does not bring any components and basic spatial configuration of the sys-
information regarding the causal chain of events (does tem before being presented with an animation of its
air enter because the valve opens, or does the valve dynamic functioning (Narayanan and Hegarty 2002).
open because air enters?). Finally, the continuous flow Furthermore, one of the instructional risks of
254 A Anthropological Aspects of Learning

animation is a passive attitude toward the animation instructional method is effective in every situation.
and illusion of understanding. That is the reason ani- Among the relevant factors, the research has identified
mation is preferably not shown as a simple demonstra- the type of learning objectives (procedural, factual, or
tion performed by the instructor, but rather conceptual knowledge), characteristics of learners, par-
manipulated by learners (Bétrancourt 2005). For ticularly previous domain knowledge and visuospatial
example, the animation may be used to provoke abilities, and the type of information depicted, assum-
a cognitive conflict between usual naı̈ve conceptions ing that some information is more congruent with the
and scientific models, like trajectory of falling objects dynamic nature of animation than others.
from moving platforms or speed of falling objects not Finally, as animation is usually displayed on per-
depending on their weight. Another active use is to sonal computers, concrete delivery features have to be
have learners explore the animation and answer specific taken into consideration. As stated before, the control
questions, which orient attention toward relevant fea- over the pace and direction if the animation has been
tures and guide exploration of the animated found to dramatically affect comprehension, but not
instruction. always in the same direction, depending on the factors
listed above. A program subtly coordinating lab
research and field studies is needed to identify how
Important Scientific Research and instructional, interindividual and delivery factors
Open Questions interact to affect perceptual and conceptual processing
As the research progresses, the scientific issue shifts of dynamic visualizations, in order to guide the design
from demonstrating that animation is more effective of effective instructional animation.
than static graphics to the identification of the under-
lying mechanisms that explain the occurrence of
a beneficial effect. From a fundamental cognitive per-
Cross-References
▶ Cognitive Load Theory
spective, research tries to better identify the perceptual
▶ Mental Models
and conceptual processes underlying the comprehen-
▶ Multimedia Learning
sion of dynamic visualization. From a perceptual point
of view, what animation changes fundamentally is the
type of information that is made salient and the format References
in which it is conveyed, i.e., through change over time Bétrancourt, M. (2005). The animation and interactivity principles in
instead of graphical device or accompanying text. Tak- multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge hand-
ing weather maps as an example, the movement and book of multimedia learning (pp. 287–296). New York: Cam-
bridge University Press.
transformation of warm fronts over time is visualized
Lowe, R., & Schnotz, W. (Eds.). (2008). Learning with animation:
in the animation in a global and continuous way, rather Research implications for design. New York: Cambridge University
than compartmented in successive static graphics. Press.
From a conceptual point of view, contrary to static Narayanan, H. N., & Hegarty, M. (2002). Multimedia design for
graphics, animation can depict change over time communication of dynamic information. International Journal
directly, in a way that is analogical to the phenomenon of Human Computer Studies, 57, 279–315.
Tversky, B., Bauer-Morisson, J. B., & Bétrancourt, M. (2002). Ani-
represented. Consequently, transformations or transi- mation: Can it facilitate? International Journal of Human Com-
tions can be perceived instead of mentally puter Studies, 57, 247–262.
reconstructed. Current research tries now to identify
the effect of animation on online perceptual processes,
meaning extracting relevant information, and not only
comprehension as measured in a posteriori tests. In this
regard, eyetracking research has recently provided Anthropological Aspects of
a new insight in understanding how animation affects Learning
perceptual processes.
A second recent trend is to try to avoid overgener- ▶ Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of
alization and to refine findings to specific issues. No Learning
 Anthropology of Learning and Cognition A 255

a road to develop a holistic concept of culture which A

Anthropology of Learning and can encompass complexity and change as well as
Cognition homogeneity and self-evidence.
In this entry, I shall first present selected examples
CATHRINE HASSE from the vast and dispersed anthropological engage-
Department of Learning, The Danish School of ments and theories dealing with learning, cognition,
Education, University of Aarhus, Copenhagen, and the relationship between them as they appear in the
NV, Denmark interdisciplinary field of cultural psychology. I have
organized the anthropology of learning and cognition
in four selected subfields with a range of specific
Synonyms theoretical approaches ramifying and crossing each
Cognitive anthropology; Cultural anticipatory other as well as other affiliated subfields within the
behavior; Cultural models; Cultural schema–based field of cultural psychology.
expectations The four subfields are: (1) systemic learning theory
with a focus on learning and information; (2) cultural
Definition epidemiology theory attempting an evolutionary
The anthropology of learning and cognition belongs to approach to culture inspired by natural sciences;
the anthropological subfield of psychological anthro- (3) situated learning theory with an inherent critique
pology which deals with the cultural psychological of cognitive theory; and (4) cognitive anthropology
aspects of human meaning making processes in rela- and cultural models, which explicitly explores the rela-
tion to learning, perception, motivation, emotion, and tion between mental models, learning, and agency in
cognition. Where mainstream psychology deals with peoples’ everyday lives. As the first three subfields are
the psychic processes of “generalized Man” the anthro- treated elsewhere in this encyclopedia and as we are
pology of learning and cognition asks questions about given the clearest vision of the relation between learn-
how culture and psyche make each other and, through ing, cognition, and culture in the theory of cultural
research in cultural aspects of learning and cognition, models, I shall proceed with a closer introduction to
tries to probe deeper into the problems on how culture the subfield of cognitive anthropology and the specific
and learning influence behavior and mental processes. theory of cultural models developed in this field.
I conclude by discussing the critique against cognitive
Theoretical Background anthropology as well as the critique raised by cognitive
The field of psychological anthropology is so closely anthropologists against mainstream anthropology.
affiliated with the field of cultural psychology (see e.g.,
Cole 1996; Jahoda 1992) that many psychological From the Torres Strait–Expedition to
anthropologist would agree with Richard A. Shweder, Cultural Psychology
when he claims that he is simultaneously a cultural Psychological anthropology of learning and cognition
anthropologist and a cultural psychologist (2003, p. 3). has, since the British A.C. Haddon-expedition to
As culture can no longer be considered “islands” Torres Strait, New Guinea in 1898, connected itself
of essential difference (Appadurai 1996), anthropology with the growing interdisciplinary field of cultural psy-
has to look for ways of explaining cultural diversity in chology linking anthropologists with psychologists,
non-essentialist and non-relativistic ways. Contrary to philosophers, and linguists in discussions of the rela-
theories of generalized Man in psychology, which tion between learning, cognition, and culture (see e.g.
often compartmentalize research in “learning” and Cole 1996; Jahoda 1992).
“cognition,” the anthropological approach makes it Many consider Haddon’s psychologist companion
possible to scrutinize the relationship between learning and collaborator, W.H.R. Rivers, the first psychologist
and cognition as it evolves in particular cultural set- to conduct cross-cultural psychological experiments.
tings through engagement in specific activities forming He, among others experiments, tested how natives
particular organizations of cultural cognition. The con- from Torres Strait differed in their visual acuity from
cept of learning and its relation to cognition becomes islanders of Helgoland of the German coast (Cole 1996,
256 A Anthropology of Learning and Cognition

p. 42). This type of cross-cultural studies of psycholog- to the ecology of mind – albeit in a very general and
ical difference and likeness across ethnic groups and the systemic manner. Most notably the theory is unfolded
general historical development of human kind lies in the essays on “Double Bind” and “The Logical
behind much research in psychological anthropology Categories of Learning and Communication” (Bateson
following the general psychological approaches in its 1972/1989, pp. 271 ff). In these essays Bateson operates
endeavor to unfold the universal aspects of the human with the assumption that what in a certain sense can be
psyche, in spite of cultural influence, through studies of considered the “same” situation can be learned to be
the evolvement of human cognition and learning with reflected at different levels because we can learn how
cultural aspects of cognitive domains and the evolution information is contextually framed. Systems can learn
of the human mind as major topics. to select information by understanding the wider
Other, especially American, anthropologists like context in which it is presented. If learning of this
Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, and Edward Sapir contextual framing is not taking place, frustration
have opened the field of cultural psychology to the emerges. Frustration grows when we discover that,
diversity of personality, emotions, and language in contrary to what we initially thought, we do not
relation to thought. The concepts of “learning” and know the context in which we act (Bateson 1972/
“cognition” have frequently been used in these studies, 1989, pp. 276–277). The implications of Bateson’s
and in those of their followers, as explanatory devices theories of learning and cognition have inspired many
for how culture comes into being. Yet in spite of the in the general field of cultural psychology not least the
concept’s salient presence in anthropological texts, the activity theory of Yrjö Engeström (1987) (see entries
focus of research has not contributed to theoretical ▶ Bateson, ▶ Activity Theories of Learning).
developments of theories, which explicitly connects
the three concepts of learning, culture, and cognition Cultural Epidemiology Theory
in one coherent framework. In what I have chosen to define as the field of cultural
One notable exception to this (and connected to epidemiology (mainly inspired by Dan Sperber’s book
the American group of culture and personality anthro- Explaining Culture 1996), cognition, and to a lesser
pologists by his marriage to Margaret Mead) is the extent learning, are evoked to explain how human
British anthropologist Gregory Bateson, who has cultures and human beings as cultural beings evolve
made a substantial contribution to an anthropology through a variety of general approaches (e.g.,
of learning and cognition. Tomasello 1999; Atran 1998; Sperber 1996; Boyer
1994; Hirschfeld and Gelman 1994; Bloch 2005). The
Systemic Learning discussions of learning and cognition in this subfield
Inspired by the cybernetic discussion in the 1950s and places themselves in the space between evolutionary
through participation in the famous Macy Conferences and cultural psychology and one of the main concerns
on Cybernetics Gregory, Bateson together with Marga- is, like in Bateson’s discussions, connected to how
ret Mead developed a new understanding of the impor- human ideas interact and evolve. There is, especially
tance of information in relation to learning and in Dan Sperber’s work, a particular focus on the prop-
cognition. In the seminal collection of articles and agation of beliefs, representations, and humans’ cogni-
essays Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972), Bateson tive and conceptual modules of organized knowledge as
contributes an explicit attempt to combine learning well as cultural domains of modules. Discussion part-
and cognition in a single framework drawing on ners are often the Darwinian propagators Daniel
insights from a range of disciplines (biology, informat- Dennett and the “inventor” of the biological counter-
ics, and psychiatry being among them), which were part to the “gene,” the “meme,” Richard Dawkins.
combined with his anthropological insights. He Though constructive cognitive processes are evoked in
connects aggregates of ideas in what he calls “mind” much of this work and learning is mentioned in rela-
and asks the question how these ideas interact and – tion to cognitive processes there are no attempts to
inspired by the biology of ecologies – asks if there are make a new grand theory of learning in connection
some sort of natural selection taking place. In some with the epidemiology of beliefs, ideas, and represen-
essays he is developing a theory of learning in relation tation and interestingly enough Gregory Bateson’s
 Anthropology of Learning and Cognition A 257

work, which seem so closely connected to the discus- with studies of everyday practices – and further link A
sions in the subfield, is rarely mentioned (see these concepts with other relevant psychic processes
▶ Bateson). such as motivation and emotions – in a coherent
framework.
Situated Learning Theory Roy D’Andrade has presented an introduction to
In situated learning theory, most clearly formulated by the field in The Development of Cognitive Anthropology
the anthropologist Jean Lave in collaboration with (1995). Here he describes how the approach has its
her colleague Etienne Wenger (1991), we find an origin in cross-cultural analysis of human cognition,
explicit connection between learning and cognition in which originally also has inspired D’Andrades’ work
so far especially Lave builds her development of learn- with his colleague Kimball Romney and his supervisor
ing theory on a critique of mainstream cognitive the- Melford Spiro building on the well-known anthropo-
ory. In Cognition in Practice (1988), Lave criticizes the logical engagement in kinship-classification and
general compartmentalized approach to cognition in componential/feature analyses developed by Walt
psychology treating cognition as “extractable” cogni- Goodenough and Floyd Lounsbury (D’Andrade 1995,
tive structures, domains, and mental models – because p. 21; Spiro and D’Andrade 1958; D’Andrade et al.
these approaches exclude the cultural aspects of cogni- 1972).
tion which evolves as we learn in practice through The point of departure for D’Andrade himself has
everyday “doings.” Her showdown with cognitive sci- been the famous phrase by Goodenough that culture is
ence extends to a methodological discussion criticizing “whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to
the field’s general methodology of experimental labo- operate in a manner acceptable to its members” (op.
ratory studies, which excludes acknowledgement cit. D’Andrade 1995, p. xiii), a formulation which raises
of everyday practice (Lave 1997). The same line of a number of new questions. Humans learn cultural
thinking is found in many studies by her anthropolog- knowledge, but what is the knowledge Goodenough
ical colleagues and collaborators like, for example, Ed refers to? Taxonomies? List of propositions? To
Hutchins (1995) and Roy McDermott (1993). In the D’Andrade the answer can be found in models of the
framework developed as situated learning, the individ- mind as formulated in “cognitive anthropology” which
ual learner is learning participation rather than cogni- is the “study of the relation between human society and
tive abstract knowledge as acquired fixed mental human thought” (ibid., 1). The basic unit of analysis is
representations which can be transported to be used the schema which is inspired by linguists (e.g., Lakoff
later. This complete rejection of cognition in relation to 1987) and cognitive psychologists (e.g., Rumelhart
learning has been met with critique from many in the 1980) where schemata are seen as the building blocks
field of cultural psychology even though the main point of cognition. This approach built on feature analysis of
of the relevance of the practices of everyday life for kinship terminology and the like seeks a relation
learning has been accepted and the question of between learning a language and thought, but under-
the place of cognition in situated learning remains to lines that schemas are culturally shared mental
be resolved (see ▶ Situated Learning). constructs with directive force.
We have cultural schemas for almost anything we
Cognitive Anthropology and Schemas do. When shopping in the grocery store, we put apples
The subfield of cognitive anthropology, and especially in a bag and hand over money to the grocery store
the development of the theory of cultural models, is in clerk – this simple transaction can be analyzed as
many ways an answer to many of the problems a commercial transaction schema (D’Andrade 1995,
presented in the above subfields which either deal p. 152). It builds on internalized organizations of cul-
mainly with cultural cognition in an abstracted or tural knowledge, which makes it possible for us to act
systemic manner or move so close to practice-based and understand other people’s acts with minimal cues.
situated learning that concepts like culture and cogni- These cultural organizations of knowledge are behind
tion disappear from view altogether. our ability to understand commercial slogans, maxims,
In cognitive anthropology there is an explicit proverbs (e.g., White 1987), morality tales (Mathews
attempt to connect culture learning, and cognition 1992) as well as conduct acts, which are culturally
258 A Anthropology of Learning and Cognition

recognizable. We learn to take transactions, like how to recognition, which “creates a complex interpretation
buy apples, for granted as we learn and connections are from minimal inputs” rather than being a representa-
reinforced. Schemas build up through such processes of tional picture in the mind (D’Andrade 1995, p. 136).
learned connections, which over time make it possible The anthropological contribution to schema theory is
that we will be able to perform tasks such as buying the underlining of schemas as cultural – thus pointing
apples without any deeper reflections. This does not to the connections of culturally shared knowledge
mean we will buy apples – schemas only have potential which are self-evident for those sharing the same neural
for directing our acts, but does so in culturally rather networks of connections.
stabilizing ways. “A schema is an interpretation which is
frequent, well organized, memorable, which can be The Theory of Cultural Models
made from minimal cues, contains one or more Cultural models are composed of schemas, but are
prototypic instantiations, is resistant to change etc.” not necessarily schemas themselves. As an analytical
(D’Andrade 1992, p. 29). Schemas influence our goals tool they are more complex structures than schemas
and also our feelings about, for example, paying the (D’Andrade 1995, p. 152). An array of analysis of cul-
right price for the apples and organizing personal tural models has been presented especially in the three
memories around prototypical events, which we might anthologies Cultural Models in Language and Thought
contrast with our own experiences. We might remem- (Holland and Quinn 1987), Human Motives and
ber an episode where apples are given away for free Cultural Models (D´Andrade and Strauss 1992), and A
because it counters the internalized schema of commer- Cognitive Theory of Cultural Meaning (Strauss and
cial transaction. In this capacity they are “learned inter- Quinn 1997) which since the 1990s have set the stage
nalized patterns of thought-feeling that mediate both for new directions in general anthropology placing the
the interpretation of on-going experience and the relation between culture, learning, and cognition in the
reconstruction of memories” (Strauss 1992a, p. 3). middle of research and methodology. The theory of
We have all kinds of schema-like organizations of cultural models proposes as it is stated by Strauss and
cultural knowledge for simple acts in everyday life. Quinn, “a new theory of cultural meaning, one that
Once learned our mental schemas fill out information gives priority to the way people’s experiences are inter-
for us through default values. When we walk in the nalized. Drawing on ‘connectionist’ or ‘neural network’
street and see a man through a window putting money models as well as other psychological theories, in [cul-
beside a half empty plate of food our internalized tural models] cultural meanings are not fixed or limited
schema fill out the rest of the information we need to to static groups, but neither are they constantly revised
understand what is and has been going on as or contested” (1997, p. i).
a prototype sequence: it is likely that the man has In the theory of cognitive models, cognitive
ordered food from a waiter, eaten it, and now is paying schemas “learned in a specific cultural context are
for it and that he is seated in what we know to be linked to one another and to goals for action” (Strauss
a “restaurant.” A schema is not just a rule-based repre- 1992a, p. 3). The cultural models are complex (more
sentation but a processor, which can be weakened complex than schemas) organizations of shared
or reinforced through experience as an interconnected implicit cultural knowledge behind talk about, e.g.,
pattern of interpretive elements is activated. It has to be gender types (Holland and Skinner 1987), marriage
learned to trigger patterns of recognition. In fact, (Quinn 1987, 1992), the American Dream of “getting
D’Andrade underlines, simple schemas are connection- ahead” (Strauss 1992), and romance (Holland 1992b).
ist models which can be used to explain both cultural Whereas schemas are relatively simple to learn, cultural
regularity and change because they are formed in models are involving thoughts, motivation, and feel-
culturally diverse learning processes which might not ings, and will evolve in a continuous learning process,
be connected explicitly to language or rules (as also which make individuals differ in how they have inter-
noted by Block 1992). In this view culture is an ongoing nalized the models.
learning process rather than a “content” as material Building on a neo-Vygotskian framework (see
culture. When the connections in a schema are ▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning), which under-
reinforced they come to function as mental devices for lines a developmental approach (Holland 1992, p. 63),
 Anthropology of Learning and Cognition A 259

individuals do not share cultural understandings analyzed through “person-centred methods to study A
in any simple manner. It is in the very process of real rather than abstract cultural subjects, if we insist
learning that the cultural model’s organization of on a deeper understanding of the psychological pro-
knowledge come to gain salience for us. In an analysis cesses involved, and if we respect complexity at both
of an American cultural model of romance, Dorothy the psychological and social levels” (Strauss 2006,
Holland, for example, shows how the way young p. 322). Culture in this line of thinking may be seen as
students talk about romantic relationships rests on distributed (Hutchins 1995), and contested and nego-
a complex cultural model of romance organizing an tiated (Strauss and Quinn 1994) yet at the same time
array of taken-for-granted knowledge about the ideal remain relatively stable because of all the taken-for-
male/female relationship in a coherent pattern. granted knowledge in cultural models. The self-evident
Through analysis of students talk the researcher can recognitions are forming the background for our nego-
posit “a simplified world populated by a set of agents tiation (of relationships as well as the price for apples).
(e.g., attractive women, boyfriends, lovers, fiancés), This approach, taking not only local situated learning
who engage in a limited range of important acts or and public discourse into account but also “personal
state changes (e.g., flirting with, falling in love with, semantic networks,” does not only reject psychobiolog-
dumping, having sex with) as moved by a specific set of ical determinism, but sociocultural determinism as
forces (e.g., attractiveness, love)” (Holland 1992, p. 65). well (Strauss 1992a, p. 1). We cannot take shared cul-
The student’s internalization of this model differs in tural knowledge for granted in ethnic groups just
relation to how salient it becomes. Though most because we discursively can frame them as “Americans”
students can recognize the elements of the model and or “Japanese.”
also how they are related, they do not “become desire”
nor have “directional force” to the same extent for all Critique and Counter-critique
learners. But the more they learn about the model of In many ways the theory of cultural models can be seen
romance, and the more they learn to master its as an answer to what the anthropologist behind inter-
elements, its directional forces are reinforced. pretive anthropology Clifford Geertz once called “the
cognitivist fallacy,” (Geertz 1973, p. 12). The fallacy is
Important Scientific Research and Open the notion that culture consists of mental phenomena
Questions to be analyzed through formal methods rather than
The theory of cultural models in cognitive anthropol- understanding culture as an “imaginative universe”
ogy is opening up for new and less schematic and rule- within which “acts are signs” which are familiar to
based ways of understanding the role of cognition in some and unfamiliar to others (Geertz 1973, p. 13).
culture than the ones criticized by Lave, yet taking D’Andrade comments on this cognitivist fallacy and
practices of everyday life into account. Cultural diver- underlines that Geertz had initiated the discussion of
sity – which appears as differences in, for example, cultural models (in the article “Religion as a Cultural
organizations of knowledge around marriage – is not System” and the book The Interpretation of Culture
a compartmentalized entity or an object, but an ongo- from 1973). Contrary to the approach in cognitive
ing learning process forming recognition of self- anthropology Geertz limits “cultural models to percep-
evident simplified worlds, which directs people to act tible embodiments – external physical structures – and
in particular ways and thus reinforce the patterns of exclude internal, mental constructions. Geertz argued
recognition. The cultural models are not determining that anthropologists should not try to find out what is
people’s individual acts. As noted by Claudia Strauss in people’s heads, but rather should study public, out-
people may know a lot of culturally shared and distrib- there-in-the-world-for-all-to-see physical representa-
uted knowledge about societal ideals (such as “The tions” (D’Andrade 1995, p. 157). For Geertz “culture
American Dream”), for example, from mass media is public because meaning is” (Geertz 1973, p. 12). By
without being directly motivated by it (1992b). taking this stand, however, Geertz opens for
Contrary to the cultural epidemiology theory, a discussion of what is meant by “public” which has
peoples’ imaginaries (or cultural beliefs) are not been addressed in an array of books and articles which
completely shared cultural schemas, but should be present the theory of cultural models as a way to
260 A Anthropology of Learning and Cognition

overcome the cognitivist fallacy as well as explaining References

how culture comes to motivate and change people’s Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large. Minnesota: University of
emotions. Cognitive anthropologists also criticize the Minnesota Press.
general use of culture as an explanatory concept in Atran, S. (1998). Folk biology and the anthropology of science:
cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Behavioral and
anthropology rather than as the focus of study in itself.
Brain Sciences, 21, 547–609.
Cognition and culture are connected to the problem of Bateson, G. (1972/1989). Steps to an ecology of mind. New York:
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is not a simple process. Strauss, for example, sharply Bloch, M. (2005). Essays on cultural transmission. Oxford: Berg
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Boyer, P. (1994). The naturalness of religious ideas: A cognitive theory of
culture, where public symbols are unproblematically
religion. Berkeley: University of California Press.
copied into the individual psyche – a notion she argues Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline.
lies implicitly in Geertz’s work (Strauss 1992a). Naomi Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Quinn and Strauss also criticize Geertz for letting the D’Andrade, R., & Strauss, C. (Eds.). (1992). Human motives and
relation between culture and actor slip away in his cultural models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
famous distinction between “model of ” and “model D’Andrade, R. (1992). Schemas and motivation. In R. D’Andrade &
C. Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models
for.” It is evident that he prefers to discuss “models
(pp. 23–44). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
of,” and Quinn and Strauss claim this is because he D’Andrade, R. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology.
does not want to acknowledge the contributions by the Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
cognitive anthropologists (Strauss and Quinn 1997, D’Andrade, R. G., Quinn, N., Nerlove, S. B., & Romney, A. K.
pp. 13–20). (1972). Categories of disease in American-English and
Mexican-Spanish. In A. K. Romney, R. N. Shepard, & S. B.
The theory of cultural models has however also
Nerlove (Eds.), Multidimensional scaling II (pp. 9–54). New York:
been criticized for being overly mentalist and method- Seminar Press.
ologically to narrowly concentrated on peoples’ talk or Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding. An activity-theoretical
public discourse with too little interest in the impor- approach to developmental research. Painettu Gummerus Oy:n
tance of bodily movements and the materiality of arti- kirjapainossa, Jyvåskylåsså
facts in the internalization of schemas. The latter has, to Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic
Books.
some extent been opened up through the concept of Hirschfeld, L. A., & Gelman, S. A. (1994). Mapping the mind: Domain
“figured worlds” in which artifacts play an important specificity in cognition and culture. Cambridge: Cambridge
part for internalization and elicitation of cultural University Press.
knowledge (Holland et al. 1998). Holland, D. (1992). How cultural systems become desire: A case study
The subfield of anthropology of learning and cog- of American romance. In R. D’Andrade & C. Strauss (Eds.),
Human motives and cultural models (pp. 60–89). Cambridge:
nition dissolves the notion of generalized Man into
Cambridge University Press.
cultural meaning making processes involving the Holland, D., & Quinn, N. (Eds.). (1987). Cultural models in language
whole of the psychic system with both diversity and and thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
homogeneity as a result. Holland, D., & Skinner, D. (1987). Prestige and intimacy: The
cultural models behind Americans talk about gender types. In
D. HoIIand & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and
thought (pp. 78–111). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cross-References Holland, D., Lachicotte, W., Jr., Skinner, D., & Cain, C. (Eds.). (1998).
▶ Anthropology of Learning and Cognition Identity and agency in cultural worlds. Cambridge: Harvard
▶ Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of University Press.
Learning Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT
▶ Culture of Learning Press.
▶ Situated Action and Learning Jahoda, G. (1992). Crossroads between culture and mind: Continuities
and change in theories of human nature. Cambridge: Harvard
▶ Situated Cognition University Press.
▶ Situated Learning Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire and dangerous things – what categories
▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press. Anticipation and Learning A
Lave, J. (1997). What is special about experiments as contexts for
thinking? In Cole, M., Engeström, Y., & Vasquez, O. (Eds.), Mind,
NIGEL STEPP
culture, and activity (pp. 57–69). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
CESPA, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral
participation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mathews, H. (1992). The directive force of morality tales in a Mexican Synonyms
community. In R. D’Andrade & C. Strauss (Eds.), Human Prospectivity; Prospective adaptation
motives and cultural models (pp. 127–62). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
McDermott, R. P. (1993). The acquisition of a child by a learning Definition
disability. In S. Chaiklin & J. Lave (Eds.), Understanding practice. The English word anticipate derives from the Latin
Perspectives on activity and context (pp. 269–305). Cambridge: anticipare, literally “to take before,” with an original
Cambridge University Press. sense of “to cause to happen sooner.” By c. 1640, antic-
Quinn, N. (1987). Convergent evidence for a cultural model of
ipate acquired the sense “to be aware of (something)
American marriage. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural
models in language and thought (pp. 173–192). New York:
coming at a future time.” This latter sense comes with
Cambridge University Press. a caveat, however, as anticipate has an element of prep-
Quinn, N. (1992). The motivational force of self-understanding: aration that prevents its use as a strict synonym for
evidence from wives’ inner conflicts. In R. D’Andrade & expect or predict. To wit, a prediction might engender
C. Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models anticipation. With respect to learning, anticipation
(pp. 90–126). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
refers to the prospective nature of adaptation.
Rumelhart, D. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In
R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in
reading and comprehension (pp. 33–58). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Theoretical Background
Shore, B. (1996). Culture in mind: Cognition, culture, and the problem Since Pavlov, there has been an appreciation of the link
of meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. between anticipation and learning. Briefly, in typical
Shweder, R. (2003). Why do men barbecue? Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Pavlovian conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus
University Press.
Sperber, D. (1996). Explaining culture: A naturalistic approach.
(US) has some natural or a priori unconditioned
Oxford, UK: Blackwell. response (UR). Classic examples of US-UR pairs
Spiro, M. E., & D’Andrade, R. G. (1958). A cross-cultural study include food-related salivation and vasoconstriction
of some supernatural beliefs. American Anthropologist, 60(3), due to exposure to cold. Any stimulus that is regularly
456–466. contingent, either preceding or concurrent, with the US
Strauss, C. (1992a). Models and motives. In R. D’Andrade & C.
is a potential conditioned stimulus (CS), for example,
Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models (pp. 1–20).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. the ringing of a bell. The end result of Pavlovian con-
Strauss, C. (1992b). What makes Tony run? Schemas as motives ditioning is a conditioned response (CR), which either
reconsidered. In R. D’Andrade & C. Strauss (Eds.), Human mimics or compensates for the UR. In either case, the
motives and cultural models (pp. 191–224). Cambridge, UK: CR is anticipatory with respect to the US. Anticipation
Cambridge University Press.
is most clear when the CR and UR are of the same kind,
Strauss, C. (2006). The imaginary. Anthropological Theory, 6, 322–344.
Strauss, C., & Quinn, N. (1994). A cognitive/cultural anthropology.
for example, salivation, but compensatory responses,
In R. Borofsky (Ed.), Assessing cultural anthropology (pp. 284– such as those that play a role in drug tolerance, have an
300). New York: McGraw-Hill. anticipatory coping function discussed at length by the
Strauss, C., & Quinn, N. (1997). A cognitive theory of cultural mean- functional school of Pavlovian conditioning (Domjan
ing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2005).
Tomasello, M. (1999). The cultural origins of human cognition.
There are numerous aspects of learning theory,
Harvard: Harvard University Press.
White, G. (1987). Proverbs and cultural models. In D. Holland & however, of which Pavlovian conditioning is only
N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought one. More modern approaches include probabilistic
(pp. 151–172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. or statistical theories such as the Bayesian approach.
262 A Anticipation and Learning

Bayesian learning deals with conditional probabilities: tasks involving delayed feedback. In these experiments,
the probability of a hypothesis being true given some the implicit or inherent delay associated with learning
context. Bayesian inference combines the inherent like- tasks is made explicit by the application of additional
lihood of a hypothesis with the retrospective prior delay.
probability of the context, resulting in a posterior prob- Foulkes and Miall (2000) perform just such an
ability. Within Bayesian learning, this posterior experiment in which human subjects learn to synchro-
probability is concerned with future events, and is nize hand movements with a complicated trajectory
fundamentally prospective. presented visually. Delayed visual feedback requires
Problems in motor learning highlight a common, that hand movements also be anticipatory, in order to
but quite important, condition for anticipation. The make up for applied delay. Past studies have investi-
visuomotor system, regardless of one’s theory of motor gated manual tracking with delayed visual feedback
control, is fraught with transport delays due to (e.g., Vercher and Gauthier 1992); however, Foulkes
mechanical linkages and the finite conduction speeds and Miall (2000) repeat conditions several times in
of neural activations over sometimes very long dis- order to allow for learning to take place, which it
tances. At least in part, motor learning is concerned indeed does.
with compensation for, or otherwise neutralization of, Connecting back to a more classical notion,
these delays. For instance, learning of a motor skill Dworkin (1993) develops a model of Pavlovian condi-
involving visually guided control must contend with tioning in the context of physiological regulation and
loop delays of up to 300 ms (Miall and Wolpert 1996). so-called learned homeostatic responding. The model
That is, if a motor action is deemed “off the mark,” the itself is interesting here because of its clear linkages
registration of this state of affairs comes up to 300 ms between a classic theory of learning and clearly antici-
after the fact, and any corrective maneuvers begun at patory phenomena in physiology. In fact, the model
this time would be undoubtedly moot by the time they formally treats the conditioned response as a kind of
were executed. dynamical state that comes to anticipate a disturbance
All three of the preceding cases illustrate the close function.
ties between learning and anticipation. Fundamentally, As research continues to flow across the boundary
mere reaction takes some amount of time. Biological between anticipation and learning, some issues remain
processes set off by the presence of food, Bayesian uncertain, most notably the nature of the boundary
updates, and visually guided action are all inherently itself. Assuming that there should be a boundary at
reactive; each comes with some characteristic delay. all, it is not immediately clear how theories of antici-
After successful learning, the result of what was once pation and theories of learning should best interface.
a reaction happens earlier, often just in time. That is, While not likely that all issues of one could be reduced
salivation happens when the food is present, not after. to the other, it does appear there is a substantial middle
One might even say that the problem of learning is, in ground that might share the same theoretical founda-
effect, how to begin a reaction before its stimulus. This tions. As these areas progress, it will become increas-
is clearly a sense of anticipation as defined above. As ingly important to discern what this foundation looks
such, various theories of learning typically contain like, whether it resembles either anticipation or learn-
implicit theories of anticipation, be they associationist, ing, or something yet unforeseen.
probabilistic, or concerning internal forward models.
Cross-References
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Anticipatory Learning
Open Questions ▶ Bayesian Learning
It is clear that organisms from amoeba (Saigusa et al. ▶ Motor Learning
2008) to humans (Foulkes and Miall 2000) are capable ▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
of anticipation – and learning – on significant time-
scales. While many learning experiments maintain an References
implicit relation to anticipation, some research focuses Domjan, M. (2005). Pavlovian conditioning: A functional perspec-
on it explicitly; the most obvious of which are learning tive. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 179–206.
 Anticipatory Learning A 263

Dworkin, B. (1993). Learning and physiological regulation. Chicago: that are relevant for the learning system. Such predictions
University of Chicago Press.
A
may start on a very low sensorimotor level, such as
Foulkes, A., & Miall, R. (2000). Adaptation to visual feedback delays
learning how body movements feel in order to be able
in a human manual tracking task. Experimental Brain Research,
131, 101–110. to focus on other sensory information. On a higher level,
Miall, R., & Wolpert, D. (1996). Forward models for physiological action-dependent contingencies may be learned that are
motor control. Neural Networks, 9, 1265–1279. highly useful for decision making and planning processes,
Saigusa, T., Tero, A., Nakagaki, T., & Kuramoto, Y. (2008). Amoebae such as the capability to open a door. Similarly, contin-
anticipate periodic events. Physical Review Letters, 100, 018101.
gencies in the external environment may be learned that
Vercher, J., & Gauthier, G. (1992). Oculo-manual coordination con-
trol: ocular and manual tracking of visual targets with delayed do not depend on own actions, such as the reasoning that
visual feedback of the hand motion. Experimental Brain Research, dark clouds often lead to rain.
90, 599–609. On the other hand, anticipatory learning also refers
to the exploitation of predictions for the improvement
of further learning progress. Available predictions allow
the filtering of expected, uninformative information
Anticipatory Behavior and thus to focus on unexpected, novel information.
In addition, the anticipatory learning mechanism can
▶ Anticipatory Schemas bias the sensory processes and motor activities to guide
▶ Many Aspects of Anticipation and improve the learning process itself. In this case,
▶ Surprise and Anticipation in Learning anticipatory learning induces ▶ curious and epistemic
behavior in the search for new, informative, useful bits of
information. This form of behavior requires prior
knowledge about the future in order to trigger informa-
Anticipatory Learning tion-seeking actions that are expected to yield the highest
information gain and thus the fastest learning progress.
MARTIN V. BUTZ1, GIOVANNI PEZZULO2,3
1
Department of Cognitive Psychology III, University of Theoretical Background
Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany The roots of anticipatory learning of predictions lie in the
2
Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale “Antonio ideo-motor principle (IMP) of cognitive psychology,
Zampolli”, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy which was first postulated in the nineteenth century by
3
Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, William B. Carpenter, Thomas Laycock, Johann F.
National Research Council, Roma, Italy Herbart, Herman R. Lotze, Emil Harless, and William
James (Stock and Stock 2004). The IMP addresses the
problem of how an organism may be able to develop
Synonyms goal-oriented behavior. Since at the beginning of devel-
Curious learning; Ideo-motor principle of learning; opment the mind cannot know much about the func-
Learning of predictions; Sensorimotor learning tionality of its associated body, only reactive muscular
activity can supply initial bodily information. The IMP
Definition suggests that such reactive bodily movements quickly
Anticipatory learning is sometimes considered synon- lead to the learning of forward models about action-
ymous with the general mechanism of learning to gen- dependent sensory changes, that is, action–effect cor-
erate predictions or learning a predictive or ▶ forward relations – such as the realization of how the arm moves
model of an encountered environment or problem. while it is outstretched. Moreover, a learned forward
However, the term ▶ anticipation usually does not sim- model can be inverted, yielding an inverse model, which
ply refer to predictions, but rather to predictions that are can activate goal-oriented behavior – such as the
expected to be relevant to an organism and that are used activation of a stretch movement when stretching is
to effectively adapt decisions and behaviors of organisms. desired. Since advanced learning stages are only
Therefore, anticipatory learning is not merely about possible if the sensory consequences of own-body
learning to predict, but learning to predict those aspects movements are ignored by means of a forward model,
264 A Anticipatory Learning

the IMP may not only constitute an initial learning In general, two kinds of anticipatory learning can be
mechanism in higher organisms, but also one of the distinguished: (1) When learning payoff anticipations,
most fundamental ones. condition-action-payoff associations are learned. This
Despite its fundamental importance, the IMP has is the simplest and least flexible form of anticipatory
only recently regained consideration and appreciation. learning and may also be covered by behaviorist
The behaviorist movement in the early twentieth cen- learning theories. (2) Sensorial and state anticipatory
tury prevented its earlier general acceptance. Despite learning forms predictions of sensory changes, most
the dominance of behaviorism, Edward C. Tolman often in the form of condition-action-effect relations.
(1932) realized that rats are well able to learn cognitive While sensorial anticipations refer to immediate sensory
maps of their environment without the provision of any consequences, state anticipatory mechanisms produce
type of reinforcer: after an initial learning phase without more complex forms of expectations, such as event
reward, he introduced a reinforcer (such as food pellets) anticipations, that support decision making and
at a certain position in a maze and showed that rats execution.
would move very directly to the maze location once the The learned predictions can be used not only online
food was detected – even without having encountered for action control, but also offline to plan and simulate
the actual path–food correlation. He proposed the term (potential) actions (Grush 2004; Jeannerod 2006).
▶ latent learning for learning environmental properties Ideally, the same mechanisms (forward models) that
or behavioral contingencies without the availability of support online predictions can be reenacted to produce
any type of reinforcer. offline simulations of potential actions. Due to the
Both, latent learning and the IMP propose the accumulation of small prediction errors, abstraction
learning of forward models that can also be used for mechanisms are necessary to be able to generate further
inverse, goal-directed control. With respect to the IMP, reaching predictions with sufficient accuracy – albeit
inverse control may be due to the activation of a desired on a more coarse-grained level. Generally, the study of
bodily feeling and its consequent associated motor how to produce predictions at different time scales and
activations. In the case of latent learning, a location levels of abstraction is still in its infancy in machine
may be activated and a movement may be planned learning.
inversely toward that location. Thus, in both cases Although learning to predict action effects is prob-
some form of bidirectional situation-action-effect ably the most widely studied aspect of anticipatory
triples are learned in anticipation of their useful usage learning, there are other forms that are equally impor-
during self-motivated, goal-directed behavior. The tant. Organisms can learn the contingencies of the
theory of anticipatory behavioral control integrates the external environment, irrespective of their own actions.
IMP, latent learning, and other insights from psycho- However, recent studies in neuroscience have revealed
logical experiments into one psychological theory of that the motor system is involved in encoding sensory
learning and behavior (Hoffmann 2003). dynamics despite the absence of actual motor actions.
Forward–inverse structures have an equivalent in This insight suggests that the brain uses motor
control theory, where the notion of internal modeling encodings also for processing purely sensory informa-
has been proposed to study motor control in living tion. Thus, the motor system may be even more
organisms. Inverse models (or controllers) calculate strongly involved in anticipatory learning than previ-
the next motor command on the basis of action ously thought.
goals, actual and predicted stimuli. Forward models The social aspect is also highly important in anticipa-
(or predictors) calculate the expected next stimuli, tory learning and may actually constitute one of the
that is, the reafference, on the basis of an efference evolutionary pressures for increasingly better state antic-
copy of the motor commands produced by the control- ipatory capabilities in higher organisms. For effective
ler. Various architectures have been proposed that learn social interactions to take place, it is vital to anticipate
such combinations of forward and inverse models. the actions and intentions of others. Recent theories in
A combination of multiple forward–inverse neural neuroscience indicate that individual anticipatory
models may be the most direct implementation of capabilities are reused to recognize and to understand
this concept (Wolpert and Kawato 1998). the intentions behind actions performed by others.
 Anticipatory Learning A 265

Particularly the activity of mirror neurons correlates with of neural back connections from higher cortical areas A
current behavioral goals of oneself or of observed toward primary sensory processing areas.
others. Thus, anticipatory learning extends into the
realm of social learning, including learning to cooper- Important Scientific Research and
ate, to empathize, and to communicate. Open Questions
Besides the learning of predictive models for goal- There are numerous ▶ machine learning techniques
directed action control, anticipatory mechanisms can be for anticipatory learning including unsupervised,
used to improve the efficiency of learning itself. In this supervised, and ▶ reinforcement learning techniques.
form of anticipatory learning, the goal is to learn novel In ▶ reinforcement learning, a distinction can be made
predictions as well as to improve the accuracy of between model-free and model-based methods.
already available predictions where necessary. This Model-free methods, such as Q-learning and TD-l
leads to ▶ curious learning behavior, where the learner learning, do not learn explicit action–effect pairs, but
searches for the detection of novel experiences and they use payoff anticipations for the direct or indirect
causalities. Developmental psychology research associ- optimization of their behavioral policy. This procedure
ates these mechanisms with intrinsic motivations in has been recently associated with the role of dopamine
children that want to learn even without external as a predictive reward signal. Model-based methods
reward, such as food or approval from the parents. instead, such as Anticipatory Learning Classifier
For example, a child that plays with blocks may initially Systems, are state anticipatory learning methods that
mainly want to learn how the blocks behave during learn explicit situation-action-effect correlations.
interaction or a child that plays peek-a-boo may want Hierarchical reinforcement learning addresses the
to learn how the interacting partner reacts. Thus, antic- problem of learning and exploiting useful hierarchical
ipatory learning intrinsically motivates behavior representations for behavioral control.
toward situations in which the outcome is uncertain Although anticipatory learning constitutes one of the
but appears predictable to some extent, that is, in which most fundamental learning processes in higher animals
a high information gain can be expected. Note that this and humans, a rigorous study of its functionality and
is not equivalent to behavior toward mere novel situa- most appropriate learning mechanisms and representa-
tions, since these can be potentially dangerous and may tions involved still lacks sufficient research effort. At this
not lead to any information gain, because the situation time, various predictive machine learning algorithms are
may be too complex or noisy to comprehend. Epistemic available for time-series learning, dynamic policy learn-
behavior may be considered a higher form of curious ing, predictive model learning, etc., but nearly no algo-
behavior. It is not only involved in anticipatory learn- rithms are available that combine these techniques
ing but also in anticipatory behavior, such as the antic- effectively. Especially the development of anticipatory
ipatory search for a concealed item. learning mechanisms that automatically build useful
Anticipatory sensory processing allows for learning hierarchical anticipatory representations is still pending.
higher forms of predictive models. Generally, predic- Seeing the availability of various techniques, the largest
tive models may be built on various levels of abstrac- current challenge may be to understand each of their
tion. Starting from the IMP, first simple direct particular strengths and weaknesses and to consequently
sensorimotor correlations need to be learned. However, combine the techniques appropriately in order to address
once such correlations are available to the learner, they both the generation of flexible, versatile, anticipatory
can be used to filter the incoming sensory stimuli and adaptive cognitive systems as well as the understanding
thus allow higher anticipatory learning processes to of how the brain generates such cognitive systems during
focus on the most informative, novel aspects of the development (see Pezzulo et al. 2008, for further insights
incoming stimuli. While small differences in predict- on these issues).
able information may be used to adjust the available
predictive model, large and unexpected differences may Cross-References
be used to generate new predictive models on a higher ▶ Association Learning
level of abstraction. This top-down predictive filtering ▶ Bayesian Learning
of information may be the reason for the huge amount ▶ Curiosity and Exploration
266 A Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms

▶ Latent Learning model, or forward model) is an organized set of knowl-

▶ Machine Learning edge allowing inferring the events that are likely to
▶ Online Learning happen. For cognitive sciences in general, the term
▶ Reinforcement Learning anticipatory learning mechanism can be applied to
▶ Schema-Based Architectures of Machine Learning humans or animals to describe the way these natural
▶ Supervised Learning agents learn to anticipate the phenomena experienced
in the real world, and to adapt their behavior to it.
References
Grush, R. (2004). The emulation theory of representation: Motor con- Theoretical Background
trol, imagery, and perception. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, When immersed in a complex universe, an agent (nat-
27, 377–396. ural or artificial) needs to be able to compose its actions
Hoffmann, J. (2003). Anticipatory behavioral control. In M. V. Butz,
with the other forces and movements of the environ-
O. Sigaud, & P. Gérard (Eds.), Anticipatory behavior in adaptive
learning systems: Foundations, theories, and systems (pp. 44–65). ment. In most cases, the only way to do so is by
Berlin: Springer. understanding what is happening, and thus by antici-
Jeannerod, M. (2006). Motor cognition. Oxford: Oxford University pating what will (most likely) happen next. Therefore,
Press. a predictive model of the world can be very useful to an
Pezzulo, G., Butz, M. V., Castelfranchi, C., & Falcone, R. (Eds.).
agent as a tool to guide its behavior; the agent has
(2008). The challenge of anticipation: A unifying framework for
the analysis and design of artificial cognitive systems, LNAI 5225. a perception of the current state of the world, and it
Berlin: Springer. decides what actions to perform according to the
Stock, A., & Stock, C. (2004). A short history of ideo-motor action. expectations it has about the way the situation will
Psychological Research, 68, 176–188. probably change.
Tolman, E. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. London: Butz et al. (2003) have made a comprehensive
Century/Random House UK.
review of the different forms of anticipatory behavior
Wolpert, D. M., & Kawato, M. (1998). Multiple paired forward
and inverse models for motor control. Neural Networks, 11, present in artificial intelligence, including simple
1317–1329. implicit anticipatory systems (in which the anticipa-
tory behavior is programmed into the agent as useful
predefined action rules), payoff anticipatory systems
(in which the agent estimates the future rewards), and
model-based anticipatory systems (in which the agent
Anticipatory Learning effectively anticipates the world transformations using
Mechanisms a predictive environmental model). Very often, these
artificial anticipatory systems are inspired by real
FILIPO STUDZINSKI PEROTTO adaptive mechanisms found in nature.
Constructivist Artificial Intelligence Research Group, Nevertheless, even if most of researchers in artificial
Toulouse, France intelligence agree that anticipation is a fundamental
characteristic of intelligent behavior, there is no con-
sensus on what kind of model a “strong” intelligent
Synonyms agent should possess, much less on how it can learn it in
Adaptive systems; Constructivist agents; Predictive a feasible way. Moreover, for a wide range of complex or
model learning algorithms realistic problems, it is very hard to provide the agent
with a complete model of the world in advance; the
Definition agent has no alternative but to incrementally learn how
In the artificial intelligence domain, anticipatory learn- the universe evolves, from its own experiences, in order
ing mechanisms refer to methods, algorithms, pro- to adapt its behavior to it. This is the advantage of being
cesses, machines, or any particular system that enables endowed with an anticipatory learning mechanism.
an autonomous agent to create an anticipatory model The necessity of such a mechanism is more evident
of the world in which it is situated. An anticipatory when the agent is fully situated and completely auton-
model of the world (also called predictive environmental omous; that means, when the agent is by itself,
 Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms A 267

interacting with an unknown, dynamic, and complex problems (like robotics) no general learning mecha- A
world, through limited sensors and effectors, which nism has prevailed. Until now, the intelligent artifacts
give it only a local point of view of the state of the developed in universities and research laboratories are
universe and only partial control over it. In other far less wondrous than those imagined by science fic-
words, the agent is not omniscient (it is not aware of tion. On the other side, neuroscientists, psychologists,
the complete state of the universe), and is not omnip- and philosophers have been working hard to try to
otent (it is just one among other possible sources of explain how intelligence works, in particular how ani-
perturbation affecting the environment). In this case, it mals and humans learn, and how things are modeled
is very hard to predefine static solutions (like automatic and represented in their brains and minds. Even if some
behaviors) designed to deal with all possible situations important findings have been done, we are still far from
the agent can face throughout its existence. being able to explain in detail the main part of intelli-
An autonomous and situated agent is necessarily gent processes, and, in the current state of the art, we
self-motivated; it is a creature that has goals. Some- are not able to present a complete and definitive model
times these goals are implemented as explicitly defined neither of the intelligence in general, nor of the faculty
states to be reached or specific tasks to be accom- of learning in particular. Within the artificial intelli-
plished; but in general, the agent is just motivated by gence community, it is possible to highlight at least
sporadic reward signals, or intrinsically evaluative four lines of research more or less explicitly related to
sensations that it wants to experience or avoid (like the conception of anticipatory learning mechanisms:
pleasure and pain). In any case, predefined reactive constructivist AI, automata learning, model-based
behaviors can properly work only in a restricted set of reinforcement learning, and anticipatory classifiers
problems where the important variables are fairly systems.
known and controllable. The remaining problems can Drescher’s book (1991) can be considered the first
only be successfully faced by cognitive agents, who will impacting work published on the subject of construc-
be compelled to discover the regularities that govern tivist models. He presented the schema mechanism, an
the universe, understand the causes and the conse- algorithm conceived to reproduce in machine some
quences of the phenomena, identify the forces that aspects of the human cognitive development as
influence the observed changes, and especially master described by ▶ Piaget’s learning theory, representing
the impact of its own actions over the ongoing events. anticipatory knowledge as (computational) ▶ schemas,
So, in the machine learning community, it is common in the form [context] + [action] ! [result], similarly to
to consider two subproblems: on the one hand, the the classical Fikes and Nilsson’s STRIPS system. The
construction of a predictive model of the world (i.e., schema mechanism inaugurated an interesting line of
structured knowledge that allows the agent to antici- research called constructivist artificial intelligence. After
pate the environment dynamics); on the other hand, Drescher, some other authors tried to follow the same
the definition of a policy of actions (i.e., a behavioral way proposing a variety of constructivist learning
strategy that guides the agent in its plans and decisions mechanisms, often focused on abstract concept creation
according to its objectives). Generally, for a situated (i.e., how the agent can develop its own representa-
agent, there is no separate training phase; the learning tional vocabulary beyond its basic sensorimotor
mechanism needs to create both the model of the world signals). Guerin (2011) present a good review about
and the policy of actions online (while the agent is these algorithms, including Chaput’s CLA, Holmes and
already performing its activities). Isbell’s PST, and Perotto, Buisson, and Alvares’s CALM.
The automata learning research community also
Important Scientific Research and played an important role in the development of
Open Questions model-based anticipatory learning algorithms. The
Over the last 20 years, several anticipatory learning problem of finding the structure of an automaton (a
mechanisms have been proposed in the artificial intel- finite-state machine) from examples is similar to that in
ligence scientific literature. Even if some of them are which an agent has to learn a model of the environment
impressive in theoretical terms, having achieved recog- from the observation. Another essential reference is the
nition from the academic community, for real-world reinforcement learning research community (in AI),
268 A Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms

concerned with the decision-making problem. Rein- the subset H represents the hidden or non-observable
forcement learning algorithms are generally designed properties. The set C = {C1, C2, . . . Cm} represents the
to estimate the utility of state-actions pairs, and to controllable variables, which compose the agent
establish a policy of actions to maximize the rewards actions; R = {R1, R2, . . . Rk} is the set of (factored)
received by the agent over time. This problem is pop- reward functions, in the form Ri : Pi ! ; and
ularly modeled as a Markovian decision process. The T = {T1, T2, . . . Tn} is the set of transformation
classical MDP model is represented as a state machine; functions, in the form Ti : X C ! Xi, defining the
at each time step, the machine is in some state s, and the system dynamics (which can be nondeterministic).
agent may choose some action a to carry out; at the When the agent is immersed in a system
next time step, according to some (nondeterministic) represented as a FPOMDP, the complete task for its
transition function, the process changes into a new anticipatory learning mechanism is both to model the
state s‘, giving the agent a corresponding reward r. transformation function and to define a sufficiently
This formalism has been extended to deal with partial good policy of actions. The transformation function
observability; in this case, the agent does not know s, can be described in the form of a dynamic Bayesian
only perceiving an observation o, which works as an network, i.e., an acyclic, oriented, two-layers graph,
indirect and incomplete indication to the underlying where the first layer nodes represent the environment
state of the process. Several algorithms have been pro- situation in time t, and the second layer nodes represent
posed to solve MDPs and POMDPs (i.e., to find the the next situation, in time t + 1. A stationary policy p :
optimal or near-optimal policy, to maximize the aver- X ! C defines the action to be taken in each given
age or cumulative discounted reward over time), and situation in order to optimize the rewards received by
a good overview about them can be found in the the agent over a potentially infinite time horizon.
Feinberg and Shwartz’s book (2002). Certain algorithms create stochastic policies, and in
Another important line of research related to antic- this case the action to take is defined by a probability.
ipatory learning mechanisms was generated within the Degris and Sigaud (2010) present a good overview
evolutionary computation (or genetic algorithms) of the use of this representation in artificial intelligence,
community, from where the Anticipatory Behavior in referring several related algorithms designed to learn
Adaptive Learning Systems conference series emerged. and solve FMDPs and FPOMDPs, including both the
Sigaud et al. (2009) present the anticipatory learning algorithms designed to calculate the policy given the
classifier systems framework, including representative model (like Boutilier’s SVI and SPI, Hoey, St-Aubin,
algorithms like Stolzmann’s ACS, Butz’s ACS2 and Hu, and Boutilier’s SPUDD and APRICODD, Guestrin,
XACS, and Gerard’s YACS and MACS, comparing Koller, and Parr’s FALP and FAPI, Poupart’s VDCBPI,
it with other related models. In recent years, Sim and Kim’s SHSVI, and Shani, Brafman, and
a convergent movement of all these research branches Shimony’s FSVI) and the algorithms designed to dis-
toward the use of factored MDPs have been noticed; in cover the structure of the system (like Degris and
a factored MDP the state space is decomposed into a set Sigaud’s SDYNA, SPITI, and UNATLP, Strehl, Diuk,
of variables or properties, which permits to avoid an and Littmann’s SFL, and Jonsson and Barto’s VISA).
exhaustive enumeration of states. Despite the growing interest in anticipatory learn-
Thus, an MDP can be extended to become at the ing mechanism within the artificial intelligence com-
same time factored and partially observable, and it is so munity, some questions have not yet been convincingly
called FPOMDP. In order to be factored, the original answered. How can an agent enrich its perception with
set of states S is decomposed and replaced by the set high-level, conceptual, or abstract understanding? How
X = {X1, X2, . . . Xn} of properties or variables; each can it consistently solve the exploration–exploitation
property Xi is associated to a specified domain, which dilemma (find the good compromise between explor-
defines the values the property can assume. Further- ing new possibilities in order to learn new things, and
more, in order to be partially observable, the set X is taking profit of the knowledge already learned)? How
divided into two subsets, X = P \ H, where the subset can the agent correctly identify the relevant properties
P represents the observable properties (those that can of the situations and discover the causal relations of the
be accessed through the agent sensory perception), and world? How can it efficiently deal with continuous,
 Anticipatory Schemas A 269

nondeterministic, nonstationary, noisy, large, and Definition A

complex universes (like most of real-world problems)? Anticipatory schemas direct how adaptive learners (such
These important questions still remain open. as humans and animals) explore their environments.
What happens to them is rarely completely unexpected.
Cross-References Actually, one important distinction among schema-
▶ Adaptation and Anticipation: Learning from based architectures is their reactive or anticipatory
Experience nature. Reactive schema-based architectures of cogni-
▶ Adaptive Learning Systems tion assume quick and automatic responses to dynamic
▶ Anticipatory Learning/Anticipation and Learning environments whereas anticipatory schema-based
▶ Anticipatory Schema(s) architectures include anticipatory mechanisms, which
▶ Belief-Based Learning Models generate and exploit expectations about the next stimuli
▶ Computational Models of Human Learning to be processed. These anticipatory aspects are inspired
▶ Developmental Robotics by psychological theories of action control, indicating
▶ Incremental Learning (Definition) that anticipated effects of (possible) actions play
▶ Learning Algorithms/Machine Learning a fundamental role in regulating the agent’s behavior.
▶ Mental Models of Dynamic Systems
▶ Piaget´s Learning Theory Theoretical Background
Research on anticipatory schemas (and behavior,
References respectively) in adaptive learning systems gains increas-
Butz, M. V., Sigaud, O., & Gérard, P. (2003). Internal models and ingly more recognition and appreciation in various
anticipations in adaptive learning systems. In M. V. Butz, O. research disciplines, such as cognitive psychology, neu-
Sigaud, & P. Gerard (Eds.), Anticipatory behavior in adaptive
roscience, linguistics, artificial intelligence, machine
learning systems: Foundations, theories, and systems (Vol. LNAI
2684, pp. 86–109). Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer. learning, robotics, and others. However, the idea of
Degris, T., & Sigaud, O. (2010). Factored markov decision processes. anticipatory schemas can be traced back to the seminal
In O. Buffet & O. Sigaud (Eds.), Markov decision processes in work on productive thinking from Otto Selz in 1913. It
artificial intelligence. Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy: Loria. is strongly associated with complex completion due to
Drescher, G. (1991). Made up minds: A constructivist approach to
an activated schema. This can be illustrated with the
artificial intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Feinberg, E. A., & Shwartz, A. (2002). Handbook of markov decision example of a word schema.
processes: Methods and applications. Norwell: Kluwer. Mel . . . . . . . Which word is sought?
Guerin, F. (2011). Learning like baby: A survey of AI approaches.
Knowledge engineering review, 26, Cambridge. (to appear).
Sigaud, O., Butz, M. V., Kozlova, O., & Meyer, C. (2009). Anticipatory
learning classifier systems and factored reinforcement learning. Word schema
In G. Pezzulo, M. V. Butz, O. Sigaud, & G. Baldassarre (Eds.),
Anticipatory behavior in adaptive learning systems: From psycho- “The consciousness of the particular word to be
logical theories to artificial cognitive systems (Vol. LNAI 5499,
found transcends from the consciousness of not spec-
pp. 321–333). Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer.
ified word to the consciousness of a word which begins
with ‘Mel —’. We should conceive the development of
this consciousness in a way that an empty schema
of a concrete word will be filled through the insertion
Anticipatory Schemas of a spoken series of phonemes at its beginning, i.e.
a combinatory process” (Selz 1913, p. 113 f.).
NORBERT M. SEEL
The development of anticipatory schemas facili-
Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
tates the completion of a complex, i.e., and is based
Freiburg, Germany
on three regularities:
● A given totality, which functions as a part of
Synonyms a complex, tends to initiate the reproduction of
Anticipatory behaviour; Schema-based expectations the entire complex.
270 A Anticipatory Schemas

● An anticipatory schema has the tendency to initiate experiences in order to perform better in future. How-
the reproduction of the entire complex. ever, research into the brain mechanisms of anticipa-
● There is a determination aiming at the completion tory learning are at the beginning. Nevertheless,
of a schematically anticipated complex (Selz 1913, neuroscience addresses neural mechanisms found in
p. 128). the mammalian cerebellum, basal ganglia, and the hip-
pocampus that give rise to such adaptive anticipatory
An anticipatory schema is a structured pattern of
behavior (Butz and Hoffmann 2002; Fleischer 2007).
knowledge, which serves two purposes: First, it
Another emerging field of research on anticipatory
prepares the adaptive learning system (a human or
learning is machine learning and robotics. Here, espe-
animal) to accept information that will modify the
cially schema-based architectures have been developed
schema. For example, if a person intends to exit an
as a methodology for designing ▶ autonomous agent
unfamiliar room that has four doors, then the person
architectures that can be used for both anticipatory
can invoke a general “room schema.” This “global”
behavior experiments and simulations. Theoretically,
schema probably has information about common
these architectures are based on the integration of
characteristics of rooms like the presence of walls,
anticipatory learning mechanisms. However, the func-
a floor, a ceiling, and an exit. These characteristics are
tions of anticipatory schemas are not sufficiently inte-
what the person anticipates with regard to a room. By
grated in these approaches although forms of implicit
activating this anticipatory schema, the person is now
and explicit anticipatory learning mechanisms consti-
ready to accept certain kinds of information, like the
tute the fundamental basis of procedural learning
locations of the doors. Once picked up, this informa-
algorithms.
tion modifies the activated schema, thus adapting it to
Within the realm of machine learning, a special
the particular room and to process other information
field of interest is building robots with anticipatory
(e.g., what is behind each door). The second purpose of
behavior based on analogies with past episodes. Antic-
an anticipatory schema is to direct actions. For exam-
ipatory schemas are used to make predictions about the
ple, if one knows that a door is blocked by a brick wall,
environment and to control selective attention and
then, because one anticipates the wall, there is no need
perception. In the related literature, ▶ integrated archi-
to spend time exploring the possibility of traversing
tectures are presented, which perceive the environ-
that route. This component of the cycle, therefore,
ment, reasons about it, makes predictions, and acts
posits that complex mechanisms in the mind are
physically in this environment.
involved in perception, making it compatible with
theories of perception, which propose that perception
results from perceptual set and hypothesis testing. Cross-References
▶ Action Schema(s)
▶ Adaptability and Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Adaptation and Anticipation: Learning from
Open Questions Experience
For a long time, anticipatory schemas were a special ▶ Anticipatory Learning
topic of psychology but since some years, also com- ▶ Schema(s)
puter scientists, psychologists, philosophers, neurosci- ▶ Schema-Based Architectures of Machine Learning
entists, and biologists are increasingly interested in
anticipatory behavior of adaptive learning systems References
(cf. Butz et al. 2007). Butz, M. V., & Hoffmann, J. (2002). Anticipations control behavior:
So, for example, research in the field of animal Animal behavior in an anticipatory learning classifier system.
learning and neuroscience provides some evidence on Adaptive Behavior, 10(2), 75–96.
anticipatory brain mechanisms, which enable animals Butz, M. V., Sigaud, O., Pezzulo, G., & Baldassarre, G. (Eds.). (2007).
Anticipatory behavior in adaptive learning systems: From brains
(e.g., rats) for anticipatory behavior. From observa-
to individual and social behavior, LNAI 4520 (State-of-the-Art
tional studies, we know that animals are able to antic- Survey). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
ipate future stimuli and events, to make choices that Fleischer, J. G. (2007). Neural correlates of anticipation in cerebellum,
will maximize future rewards, and to memorize past basal ganglia, and hippocampus. In M. V. Butz, O. Sigaud,
 Anxiety Disorders in People with Learning Disabilities A 271

G. Pezzulo, & G. Baldassarre (Eds.), Anticipatory behavior in ● Panic disorder: Recurrent unexpected surges of A
adaptive learning systems. From brains to individual and social severe anxiety (“panic attacks”), with varying
behavior (pp. 19–34). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
degrees of anticipatory anxiety between attacks
Selz, O. (1913). Über die Gesetze des geordneten Denkverlaufs. Eine
experimentelle Untersuchung. Erster Teil. Stuttgart: W. Spemann. ● Social phobia: A marked, persistent and unreason-
able fear of being observed or evaluated negatively
by other people, in social or performance situations,
associated with physical and psychological anxiety
symptoms
Anti-intellectual ● Specific, simple, or isolated phobia: Excessive or
▶ Narcissistic Learning unreasonable fear of (and restricted to) single peo-
ple, animals, objects, or situations (e.g., flying, den-
tists, seeing blood, etc.) which are either avoided or
are endured with significant personal distress (avoid-
Anxiety Disorders in People ance must be prominent for ICD-10 diagnosis)
● Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A history of
with Learning Disabilities exposure to trauma (actual or threatened death,
serious injury, or threats to the physical integrity
SHERVA ELIZABETH COORAY1,2, ALINA BAKALA1,
of the self or others) with a response of intense
KIRAN PURANDARE1, ANUSHA WIJERATNE1
1 fear, helplessness, or horror: and the subsequent
The Kingswood Centre, Central and North West
development of reexperiencing symptoms
London NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
2 (intrusive recollections, flashbacks, or dreams),
Department of Medicine, Imperial College,
avoidance symptoms (e.g., efforts to avoid activities
London, UK
or thoughts associated with the trauma),and
hyper-arousal symptoms (including disturbed
sleep, hypervigilance, and an exaggerated startle
Synonyms response)
Anxiety: nervousness, disquiet, fretfulness; Learning
● Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD): Recurrent
disability (UK): intellectual disability mental
obsessional ruminations, images, or impulses,
retardation
and/or recurrent physical or mental rituals, which
are distressing, time-consuming, and cause inter-
Definition ference with social and occupational function.
Anxiety is a normal response to stress or danger and
Common obsessions relate to contamination, com-
can improve performance in a range of situations. It is
mon rituals include washing, checking, cleaning
considered to be a mental health problem only when it
● Others categorized under anxiety disorders include
is long-lasting, severe, causing significant distress, and
adjustment disorders with anxious features, anxiety
is interfering with everyday activities. Anxiety Disorder
disorders due to general medical conditions,
could hence be perceived as the pathological exponent
substance-induced anxiety disorders
of normal fear manifest by disturbances of mood, as
● Anxiety disorder not otherwise specified (DSM-IV-
well as of thinking, behavior, and physiological
TR) (residual category)
elements.
Anxiety disorder (AD) is a generic term constituting Intellectual Disability (ID) is a generalized disorder
a group of illnesses involving manifestations of extreme characterized by significantly impaired cognitive func-
or pathological fear and increased arousal. These tioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors
include: with onset before the age of 18 (ref DSM/ICD). The
causes of ID include
● Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Excessive and
inappropriate worrying that is persistent (lasting ● Prenatal factors (e.g., chromosomal/gene disorders,
some months (ICD-10), 6 months or longer (DSM- e.g., Down’s syndrome; adverse environmental
IV) and not restricted to particular circumstances) influence, e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome)
272 A Anxiety Disorders in People with Learning Disabilities

● Perinatal factors (e.g., birth trauma) cognitive and linguistic skills (Cooray et al. 2007).
● Postnatal (e.g., head injury, infection) Owing to heterogeneity of abilities and communica-
tion skills across the whole spectrum of ID, it is also
Theoretical Background difficult to use single standardized criteria for diagnos-
AD ranks among one of the commonest categories of ing ADs in PWID (Cooray and Bakala 2005). Never-
mental health disorders. Chronologically, AD can be theless, ADs are well recognized in people with ID
episodic, continuous, or stress related. (Bailey and Andrews 2003), but may be underreported
There is evidence that ADs are under-detected and (Reiss et al. 1982) and under-diagnosed (Veerhoven
undertreated in the general population and more so in and Tuinier 1997).
people with intellectual disability (PWID). As Two recent publications have aimed to improve
a consequence of failure to diagnose the anxiety com- diagnostic reliability of mental disorders including
ponent of their problem, these patients may not receive AD in PWID. The DC-LD (Diagnostic Criteria-
the correct treatment and may undergo unnecessary Learning Disability) is a consensus-based classificatory
and costly investigations, in particular for their physical system reflecting expert opinion developed by the
symptoms (Hales 1997). All types of ADs have been Royal College of Psychiatrists (Cooper et al. 2001).
recognized in PWID. This provides operational diagnostic criteria for mental
disorders for use in adults with moderate, severe/
Prevalence in PWID profound IDs and can complement the ICD-10 or
Prevalence studies in PWID are unreliable because of DSM-IV. The Diagnostic Manual-Intellectual Disabil-
methodological problems. The available evidence indi- ity (DM-ID) proposes supplementary guidelines to
cates that ADs are at least as common as in the general The DSM-IV-TR, incorporating behavioral equivalents
population (Deb et al. 2001a) where the estimated within the context of cognitive, developmental and
prevalence is 18% (Kessler et al. 1994). Longitudinal adaptive functioning. Emphasis is placed on utilizing
studies in the general population demonstrate a higher objective manifestations of anxiety rather than subjec-
prevalence of symptoms of anxiety in adults with mild tive elements in those who have limitations in cognitive
intellectual disabilities when compared with the and linguistic abilities (Fletcher et al. 2007).
general population (Richards et al. 2001). Bailey and
Andrews (2003) concluded that many studies fail to Impact of ID on the Presentation of
make a definite diagnosis, reporting only the preva- the Clinical Features of Anxiety
lence of anxiety symptoms, which range from 6% Disorders
(Ballinger et al. 1991) to 31% (Reiss 1990). The clinical features of anxiety have cognitive, physio-
Coexisting depressive symptoms (comorbidity) are logical, psychological and behavioral components. The
common, particularly in patients with severe anxiety. psychological/cognitive elements may present as fearful
Many, including PWID simultaneously fulfill diagnos- anticipation, irritability, concentration, memory prob-
tic criteria for anxiety and depressive disorders. Masi lems, repetitive worrying thoughts, fear and in extreme
et al. (2000) carried out a study in adolescents with ID instances fully fledged panic. Physiological manifesta-
which suggested high rates of comorbidity. ADs were tions include dry mouth, difficulty in swallowing,
identified as more prevalent in individuals with self- flushing, sweating, pallor, palpitations, tremor, hyper-
injurious behavior than in those without such behavior ventilation, chest pain/tightness, headache, backache,
(Moss et al. 2000). fatigue, muscle tension, diarrhea, increased urinary
frequency, paresthesia, heightened startle response
Diagnosis and Classification and insomnia. Avoidance of the specific situation
Diagnosis of AD in PWID utilizing the current classi- precipitating symptoms is a common behavioral
ficatory systems (ICD-10/DSM IV-TR) can be prob- manifestation of AD.
lematic (Stavrakaki 2002). This is because diagnostic In those with more severe ID only behavioral symp-
criteria in both are validated only on individuals with toms can be assessed reliably. This often makes it diffi-
average intellectual functioning and firmly entrenched cult for all the criteria of an AD to be met (Matson et al.
in language-based phenomenology that rely heavily on 1997). When diagnosing AD in PWID, Khreim and
 Anxiety Disorders in People with Learning Disabilities A 273

Mikkelson (1997) highlight the need to place relatively bibliotherapy (selection of developmentally appropri- A
greater emphasis on phenomena such as agitation, ate reading material for a client that has relevance to
screaming, crying, withdrawal, regressive/clingy behav- their life situation; it can be complemented with dis-
ior or freezing, all of which could be interpreted as cussion or play activity). De-sensitization and exposure
manifestations of fear. Smiley (2005) noted that many therapy are extremely effective in OCD and social pho-
ADs are misdiagnosed as problem behaviors in those bia. One fundamental principle underpinning this
with severe and profound ID. intervention is that prolonged exposure to a feared
Assessment for AD involves evaluation of stimulus reliably decreases cognitive and physiological
symptoms, utilizing behavioral equivalents of anxiety symptoms of anxiety (Marks 1969; Barlow 1988), lead-
within the context of the ICD-10/DSM-IV criteria, the ing to greater confidence and willingness to encounter
duration of these symptoms, the extent of persons’ other feared stimuli.
functional impairment and distress and coping Behavioral therapy and cognitive behavior therapy
resources. Assessment also needs to include evaluation (CBT) alone or in combination have demonstrated
of the symptoms of other comorbid conditions such as robust evidence of efficacy in the treatment of AD
depressive disorders, dysthymic disorder, given both (Michels 1997). In people with mild ID and AD,
the overlap of symptoms (for differential diagnosis) evidence from case studies supports the effectiveness
and the comorbidity between AD and these other of CBT (Lindsay 1999). Overall, involving patients in
disorders. an effective partnership with health-care professionals
and using comprehensible and clear communication
Risk Factors both improve outcomes (National Institute for Clinical
PWID are more vulnerable to ADs because of adversity, Excellence, CG 22 2004).
inadequate social supports and poor coping skills
which contribute to stressful life events. There are cer- Pharmacotherapy
tain genetic causes of ID which are specifically associ- A variety of medicines with differing pharmacological
ated with anxiety including fragile-X syndrome (social properties can be effective in the treatment of ADs.
anxiety disorder), Rubinstein–Taybi and Prader–Willi Increasing awareness of numerous neurochemical
syndromes with (OCD; Levitas and Reid 1998) and alterations in ADs is likely to lead to the future
Williams syndrome (GAD, specific phobias; Dykens development of new classes of drugs. The choice of
2003; Einfeld et al. 2001). Hyman et al. (2002) noted treatment ultimately should be a consequence of the
significantly high prevalence of compulsive behavior in assessment process and shared decision-making, with
those with Cornelia de Lange syndrome. emphasis on safety, tolerability and the patient’s pref-
erences within the context of best available evidence.
Management and Treatment Significant coexisting depressive symptoms should
Treatment of AD in PWID broadly parallels strategies guide treatment choice toward prescription of antide-
used in the general population. Anxiety symptoms pressant drugs.
exist on a continuum and many with milder degrees Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
and of short duration may be self limiting; ADs are such as Citalopram and Sertraline are effective across
responsive to a wide variety of psychotherapies. More the range of ADs and suitable for first-line treatment.
severe and persistent symptoms also may require phar- Serotonin and noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors
macotherapy. Some studies suggest that optimum (SNRIs), e.g., Venlafaxine and Duloxetine are effective
results are achieved by combining psychological and in GAD. Venlafaxine requires regular monitoring
pharmacological interventions (Fineberg and Drum- and specialist supervision due to concerns regarding
mond 1995; Kandel 1999). The aim of treatment is potential safety in overdose.
to relieve symptoms, restore function, and prevent Tricyclics may be used as second-line intervention
relapse. for all of these conditions with the exception of social
Psychological therapies include reassurance; phobia. Other treatments with a weaker evidence base
counseling; anxiety management, such as relaxation or which are less well tolerated include buspirone
training; anger management; and self-help such as (OCD, GAD, short-term use; British National
274 A Anxiety Disorders in People with Learning Disabilities

Formulary 2009) and antipsychotics (Quetiapine or References

Risperidone as antidepressant augmentation for Bailey, N. M., & Andrews, T. M. (2003). Diagnostic criteria for
OCD). psychiatric disorders for use with adults with learning disabil-
Benzodiazepines are effective in many ADs but used ities/mental retardation (DC–LD) and the diagnosis of anxiety
disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47(Suppl. 1),
only short term (2–4 weeks) because they are commonly
50–61.
associated with the development of dependence and Cooper, S.-A., et al. (2001). The DC-LD diagnostic criteria for psychi-
tolerance (physiological or behavioral symptoms after atric disorders for use with adults with learning disabilities/mental
discontinuation of use; Royal College of Psychiatrists: retardation. Royal College of Psychiatrists Occasional paper: 48,
2005). London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.
Cooray, S. E., & Bakala, A. (2005). Anxiety disorders in people with
In children, adolescents and the elderly, pharmaco-
learning disabilities. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11,
logical treatment should be reserved for those who are 355–361.
unresponsive to psychological interventions with close Cooray, S. E., Cooper, S.-A., Gabriel, S., et al. (2007). Anxiety disor-
monitoring for adverse side effects. ders. In R. Fletcher, E. Loschen, C. Stavrakaki, et al. (Eds.),
NADD diagnostic manual (DSM–IV–ID). Kingston: NADD.
Deb, S., Thomas, M., Bright, C. (2001a). Mental disorder in adults
Maintenance of Medication with intellectual disability 1. Prevalence of functional psychiatric
In GAD where drug treatment is helpful, current guide- illness among a community based population aged 16–64. Jour-
lines suggest continuation over the next 6–12 months, nal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45, 495–505.
subject to satisfactory tolerance and efficacy with an Dykens, E. M. (2003). Anxiety, fears, and phobias in persons
with Williams syndrome. Developmental Neuropsychology, 23,
individualized approach depending on the needs and
291–316.
preferences of the patient (Davidson et al. 2010; Einfeld, S. L., Tonge, B. J., & Rees, V. W. (2001). Longitudinal course
National Institute for Clinical Excellence, CG 22 2004). of behavioural and emotional problems in Williams syndrome.
American Journal of Mental Retardation, 106, 73–81.
Fineberg, N., & Drummond, L. M. (1995). Anxiety disorders: drug
Important Scientific Research and treatment or behavioural cognitive psychotherapy. CNS Drugs, 3,
Open Questions 448–466.
Overall in PWID there is dearth of information that Fletcher, R., Loschen, E., Stavrakaki, C., & First, M. (Eds.). (2007).
guides robust evidence-based practice with regards to Diagnostic manual – Intellectual disability (DM-ID): A textbook of
all aspects of mental health including ADs. Ethical diagnosis of mental disorders in persons with intellectual disability.
Kingston: NADD Press.
concerns over capacity and consent have resulted in
Hale, A. (1997). ABC of mental health: anxiety. British Medical
the exclusion of this disadvantaged and underserved Journal, 314, 1886–1889.
sector of the population in “gold standard” research Hyman, P., Oliver, C., & Hall, S. (2002). Self-injurious behavior, self-
studies such as randomized controlled trials. Mental restraint, and compulsive behaviors in Cornelia de Lange syn-
health care for PWID has been mostly extrapolated drome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107, 146–154.
from adult psychiatry or mental health services. This Kandel, E. R. (1999). Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: A new
intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited. American Journal
may not always be beneficial for PWID since they may
of Psychiatry, 156, 505–524.
have special needs. There is consequently an urgent Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M.,
need to overcome such hurdles with strategies such as Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H-U., & Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime
better education and public awareness aimed at facili- and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in
tating equity of access to high-quality-research-based the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity
Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.
health care.
Khreim, I., & Mikkelson, E. (1997). Anxiety disorders in adults with
mental retardation. Psychiatric Annals, 27, 271–281.
Cross-References Levitas, A. S., & Reid, C. S. (1998). Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome and
psychiatric disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,
▶ Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional
42, 284–292.
and Behavioral Disabilities Lindsay, W. (1999). Cognitive therapy. Psychologist, 12, 238–241.
▶ Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Masi, G., Favilla, L., & Mucci, M. (2000). Generalised anxiety disorder
▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied in adolescents and young adults with mild mental retardation.
Behavior Analysis and Learning Psychiatry, 63, 54–64.
 Apathy in Learning A 275

Matson, J. L., Smiroldo, B. B., Hamilton, M., et al. (1997). Do anxiety

disorders exist in persons with severe and profound retardation? Apathy in Learning A
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 18, 39–44.
Michels, R. (1997). Psychotherapeutic approaches to treatment of
JEFF C. MARSHALL
anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry,
58 (suppl. 13), 30–32.
Moore School of Education, Clemson University,
Moss, S., Emerson, E., Kiernan, C., et al. (2000). Psychiatric symp- Clemson, SC, USA
toms in adults with learning disability and challenging behav-
iour. British Journal of Psychiatry, 17, 452–456.
National Institute for Clinical Excellence. (2004). Anxiety: Manage- Synonyms
ment of anxiety (panic disorder, with or without agoraphobia, and
Apathetic students; Disengaged learners; Unmotivated
generalised anxiety disorder) in adults in primary, secondary and
community care. Clinical Guideline 22 (CG022). London: learners
National Institute for Clinical Excellence.
Reiss, S. (1990). Prevalence of dual diagnosis in community-based Definition
day programs in the Chicago metropolitan area. American Jour- Apathy in learning is an expression of indifference,
nal of Mental Retardation, 94, 578–585.
lethargy, and/or disengagement in the classroom envi-
Smiley, E. (2005). Epidemiology of mental health problems in adults
with learning disability: an update. Advances in Psychiatric Treat-
ronment. The original Greek word for apathy (apathē´s)
ment, 11(3), 214–222. can be translated to mean unfeeling. Things such as
Stavrakaki, C. (2002). The DSM–IV and how it applies to persons personality type of the student and teacher, educational
with developmental disabilities. In D. Griffiths, C. Stavrakaki, & structure facilitated by the teacher, perceived value by
J. Summers (Eds.), Dual diagnosis: An introduction to the mental the student, or external stimuli outside the classroom
health needs of persons with developmental disabilities (pp. 115–
may be responsible for encouraging the onset or
149). Ontario: Habilitative Mental Health Resource Network.
Veerhoven, W. M. A., & Tuinier, S. (1997). Neuropsychiatric consul- increasing severity of the expressed apathy. Although
tation in mentally retarded patients. European Psychiatry, 12, schools and teachers do not have direct control over
242–248. aspects such as external stimuli that can encourage
apathy, they do have control over the curriculum and
resulting instruction that also directly affects apathy in
the classroom.

Anxiety: Nervousness, Disquiet, Theoretical Background

Fretfulness Although apathy is often associated with a lack of
feeling, in the educational setting, apathy more com-
▶ Anxiety Disorders in People with Learning monly involves a lack of interest or concern. The root
Disabilities manifestation of apathy in learning varies widely, but
an engaging and stimulating learning environment is
one of the best solutions for this epidemic that plagues
classrooms at most every school. Apathy in learning has
been juxtaposed to the concept of flow – a state of near
Apathetic Students euphoria where one becomes totally engrossed in the
event, task, or project (Csikszentmihalyi 1997). As an
▶ Apathy in Learning antonym to flow, apathy seems most prevalent when
students are situated in learning environments where
both the level of challenge posed to the student and the
skill level of the student are low. Any low-rigor, low-
expectation class encourages apathy to flourish. Apathy
Apathy can begin with or be accelerated by many external
issues that often are beyond the control of the teacher,
▶ Boredom in Learning such as peer pressure, family issues, poverty, and prior
276 A Ape Language

experiences. However, effective instruction, although “Game of School.” In many educational systems,
not able to eradicate poverty or negative peer pressure, schooling becomes an environment that is built on
can begin to create an engaging environment that is structure, rules, and compliance. Such an environment
conducive and supportive of motivated learning. When fosters apathy if not properly addressed. Meaningful
well implemented, strategies that are highly engaging learning, on the other hand, is engaging, thought-
and challenging to students, such as inquiry-based provoking, and relevant to the learner. The goal of
instruction, have been shown to lower apathy in edu- facilitating meaningful learning in classrooms is cer-
cational settings. It takes time to transform instruction tainly not new – even if it is often not put into practice.
and to more engaging forms of learning such as John Dewey (1938) proposed that effective education is
inquiry. Radical switches to new types of instruction built upon two major tenets: continuity and interac-
can also encourage apathy, although this may be more tion. Though the words may differ, the message is the
temporary and can be corrected with the proper same – educators need to provide powerful interactions
scaffolding of instruction that addresses the concerns between the students and the curriculum, which is
of the students. continuous with their prior experiences. These tenets
provided the foundation for the social constructivist
Important Scientific Research and movement that is active today. When implemented
Open Questions effectively, instructional practices such as inquiry-
Apathy evidenced in the classroom is relatively easy to based learning that integrate social constructivist
identify, but the most important, yet most challenging, theory can engage students in a manner that negates
step comes in proposing and then implementing solu- apathetic tendencies.
tions to solve the problem. Several books (Bransford
et al. 2000; Marshall 2008) address how to understand Cross-References
and then more effectively interact with students that ▶ Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning
demonstrate apathy in the classroom, and several ▶ Alignment of Learning, Teaching, and Assessment
themes consistently appear in this literature. First, ▶ Constructivism
effective learning is not something done to students ▶ Interests and Learning
but rather done with students. Social constructivists ▶ Motivation Enhancement
have long supported the view that students learn to ▶ Motivation, Volition, and Performance
make sense of new concepts and the world around ▶ School Motivation
them via interaction with the culture in which they
live and learn (Vygotsky 1978). Thus, learning occurs References
when students are able to link their prior understand- Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people
ings with new ideas in a specific social context. Next, to learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (expanded ed.).
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
properly address the needs of the learner, learning must
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow. New York: Basic Books.
tie to prior knowledge with new experiences. Even
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.
when misconceptions exist in the prior knowledge, Fried, R. L. (2001). The passionate teacher: A practical guide. Boston:
their current understanding needs to be confronted Beacon.
and engaged before new or more correct ideas can be Marshall, J. C. (2008). Overcoming student apathy: Motivating
developed. Finally, learning environments that are low students for academic success. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc.
apathy, high engagement are often cocreated with the
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
students and provide a learning climate that encour- psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
ages ideas, questions, and sharing while discouraging
put-downs and complacency.
Students typically begin their initial years of school
excited to learn – devoid of apathy. Then, somewhere
around age 10–12 a dramatic shift often begins to occur Ape Language
as students learn to separate schooling and learning.
Robert Fried (2001) has called this distinction the ▶ Linguistic and Cognitive Capacities of Apes
 Application of Family Therapy on Complex Social Issues A 277

first-order changes do not alter the basic organization A

Appearance Effect of the system; whereas, second-order changes trans-
▶ Revelation Effect form both the existing structure and functioning of
the system. Systems theorists and practitioners are
interested in both change (morphogenesis) and stabil-
ity (morphostasis) in the system.
Appetitive-Aversive Motivation
Theoretical Background
▶ Approach and Avoidance Motivation Family therapy was strongly shaped by the work of
significant personalities like Gregory Bateson, Nathan
Ackerman, Jay Haley, Murray Bowen, Carl Whitaker,
Salvador Minuchin, and Virginia Satir. The work of
Application Gregory Bateson and his team on schizophrenia and
▶ Ego State Theory: Utilization of Dreams the family was one of the early influences on the emer-
▶ Retention and Learning gence of family therapy in the 1950s. Salvador
Minuchin’s work with the families in the slum is nota-
ble in taking into account the families’ social environ-
ment as being critical in helping families change.
Application of Family Therapy Historically, family therapy has sought to understand
on Complex Social Issues and alleviate family distress by looking at individuals
within the context of families, and families within their
SOH-LEONG LIM1, ANDREW BYRNE2 larger sociocultural contexts.
1
Marriage and Family Therapy Program, Department With globalization, the sociocultural political con-
of Counseling and School Psychology, San Diego text in which individuals and families are embedded
State University, San Diego, CA, USA has become increasingly complex. Race, gender, socio-
2
Family Health Centers of San Diego, San Diego, economic status, sexuality, class, spirituality, political
CA, USA ideologies, age, and other dimensions of diversity inter-
sect in ways that bring about an array of complex social
issues that have local and global implications for indi-
Synonyms viduals, families, and communities. Hence, training the
Couple and family therapy; Family systems therapy; next generation of family therapists necessitates atten-
Marital and family systems model; Relational therapy; tion to the development of skills in applying family
Systemic therapy; Systems psychology; Systems theory therapy concepts to complex situations and in diverse
contexts. Today, some contemporary approaches to
Definition family therapy pay increasing attention to issues of social
Family therapy, a systemic therapy, views individual justice and emphasize sensitivity to cultural context (e.g.,
and family problems within a relational and interac- Cultural Context Model), gender (Feminist Family Ther-
tional framework. As a professional mental health dis- apy), and subjective realities (postmodern approaches
cipline, it is heavily influenced by systems theory, such as Narrative Therapy). At the same time, evi-
encompassing both general systems theory (Bertalanffy dence-based models represent the new generation of
1968) and cybernetics, the science of information family therapy prevention and intervention programs
processing and feedback mechanisms. Systems theory for specialized problems with attention to treatment
focuses on the interconnectedness of elements or com- context and a culturally diverse client population (e.g.,
ponent parts within a given system; change in one part Functional Family Therapy and Multisystemic Therapy
of the system affects all other parts of the system. From for adolescent behavior problems).
this perspective, family therapy practitioners recognize Some major social issues facing us today include
two different orders of change within the system. These homelessness, incarceration, school failure, Internet
are first-order and second-order changes. By definition, safety, poverty, health care, terrorism, human
278 A Application of Family Therapy on Complex Social Issues

trafficking across international borders, forced migra- Recent instructional strategies in family therapy
tions, to name a few. The pedagogical question family training have incorporated the ▶ use of technology in
therapy programs are now asking is how to relate ways that are beneficial for students. Besides using
theory to practice and how to bridge the classroom to technology to enhance supervision and the delivery of
the field so that learning is not in isolation of real-world courses, innovative approaches such as the WebQuest
problems. This question asks for the kinds of instruc- (Dodge 1995) can be effective in helping students inte-
tive strategies that lead to learning that is meaningful, grate theory to practical realities. WebQuest design
not one that is mechanistic or decontextualized. involves ▶ constructivist learning and is supported
Among family therapists who view social change and by four constructs: critical thinking, knowledge appli-
social justice as central to their work, the question cation, social skills, and scaffold learning. In the
concerns the kinds of teaching approaches that help WebQuest, scaffolding includes resource links and
students to develop the kind of critical consciousness guidance on social and cognitive skills; these are
(Freire 1973) that questions and challenges dominant provided to facilitate the students’ development. As
discourses on social issues in ways that can be transfor- a web-based ▶ inquiry learning, the WebQuest is effec-
mative. Recent approaches to family therapy such as tive in tapping into the synthesis and application
the Cultural Context Model (Hernandez et al. 2005) aspects of learning. Furthermore, because WebQuests
pay attention to the key processes of critical conscious- are group projects, learning is collaborative.
ness, accountability, and empowerment in effecting The WebQuest on Child Trafficking/Prostitution:
change in individuals, families, and communities. Applications from Family Therapy Perspectives (http://
Anchored within a postcolonial perspective, it addresses questgarden.com/00/25/1/050525170739/) (Lim and
complex social issues through deconstructing and Hernandez 2007), for example, challenges students to
transforming dominant discourses and practices that design culturally appropriate and multisystemic inter-
are oppressive. It also attends to issues of power, privi- ventions to address the complex issue of child traffick-
lege, and oppression and seeks to effect second-order ing/prostitution across international borders. Students
change in the sociocultural context of the family system. work in teams to explore the extent of the problem,
Current practices of teaching view learning as identify the various systemic levels involved in the
a collaborative and social process, not one in which perpetuation of the problem, select aspects of the
knowledge is simply transmitted from teacher to stu- various family therapy models that are applicable in
dents. ▶ Meaningful learning occurs when students are addressing the issue, design systemic intervention tools
engaged in authentic and ▶ transformative learning for working with families who have experienced the
processes and when they interact with information in impact of child trafficking, and present their final rec-
ways that foster ▶ active enquiry (Jonassen 2005). The ommendations for systemic interventions. Students
teacher’s role is conceptualized as a designer of learning assume different roles within their teams and through
spaces; spaces where students actively construct knowl- a consensus process, design their intervention program
edge through dialog, reflection, and hands-on activi- using a particular family therapy model or a combina-
ties. As applied to family therapy, the teacher creates tion of family therapy approaches. Space is provided
opportunities for the students to engage in ▶ higher- for students to think creatively and to integrate knowl-
order learning where they apply their knowledge of edge across disciplines (e.g., in addressing societal
systemic ideas and understanding of theory to real- ideologies on ethnicity, gender, children, economic
life issues affecting individuals and families. These issues, and migration; incorporating an understanding
include, but are not limited to, ▶ experiential forms of trauma and its impact on youth) while applying
of learning such as on-site clinical training with super- various family therapy models in working with the
vision, immersion experiences in cross-cultural set- youth, their relatives, and their community.
tings, and an increase in opportunities for students to The WebQuest, as used in family therapy training
be engaged in the community, including participatory for developing skills in application of systemic under-
action research projects. These opportunities are standings to complex social issues, illustrates an inno-
designed to help the students gain the competencies vative way of using instructional technology in the
required in family therapy practice. classroom. Trainers can facilitate student learning in
 Application of Learning A 279

many more innovative and collaborative ways that therapy to complex social issues needs to be cognizant A
generate new experiences and the construction of cre- of these dialectical tensions so that there is both conti-
ative ways of generating solutions to complex social nuity and change.
issues. This necessarily includes an increase in cultur- Research on the application of family theory to
ally centered models that work well for ethnically complex social issues is somewhat limited as family
diverse populations. It also means an increase in family therapy is a relatively new and evolving field. Empirical
therapy competencies that students can translate to any evidence of the effectiveness of particular approaches
challenging and complex social situation. or therapeutic modalities that alleviate distress in par-
ticular client populations continue to be a need. At the
Important Scientific Research and same time, there is a lot of room for new and creative
Open Questions approaches in the teaching and application of family
With its emergence in the 1950s, the field of family therapy, especially those that incorporate technology in
therapy is relatively new and open to innovative ideas. response to an increasingly digitalized and globalized
Because there are many different systemic theories in world.
family therapy, students can choose a particular theory
or adopt a theoretical stance that integrates different Cross-References
elements of various theories in their clinical practice. As ▶ Collaborative Learning
such, there is room for a lot of creativity in the appli- ▶ Constructivist Learning
cation of family therapy in different contexts and at ▶ Critical Thinking and Learning
different systemic levels. Within the postmodern tradi- ▶ Cultural Learning
tion in family therapy, the idea that reality is socially ▶ Experiential Learning
constructed opens doors to scholars and practitioners ▶ Group Learning
alike to question how dominant discourses have shaped ▶ Inquiry Learning
the lives of individuals, families, and communities and ▶ Socio-Constructivist Models of Learning
how these constructions constrict and become prob- ▶ Technology-Based Learning
lematic for people at various systemic levels. Decon- ▶ Transformational Learning
struction of the dominant discourses that are perceived
as oppressive can lead to both first-order and second-
order changes; the latter involves structural changes References
Dodge, B. (1995). WebQuests: a technique for internet-based learn-
that transform or reorder society.
ing. Distance Educator, 1, 10–13.
Tension exists in family therapy training between Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York:
trainers and training programs that focus on modern Continuum.
(classical) theories and those that favor postmodern Hernandez, P., Almeida, R., & Dolan-Delvechhio, K. (2005). Critical
(constructivist) theories. Each privileges its own epis- consciousness, accountability, and empowerment: Key processes
temology with its own idea of what constitutes reality; for helping families heal. Family Process, 44, 105–119.
Jonassen, D. H. (2005). Problem solving: The enterprise. In J. M.
each has its own conception of symptomatic behavior
Spector, C. Ohrazda, D. Wiley, & A. Van Schaak (Eds.), Innova-
as well as how change can be effected; and each has tions in instructional technology: Essays in honor of M. David
varying perspectives on the role of the family therapist Merrill (pp. 91–110). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
as a social justice advocate influencing social change. Lim, S., & Hernandez, P. (2007). Application of family therapy theory
Authentic learning necessitates the teacher creating to complex social issues: using the WebQuest in family therapy
training. Journal of Family Therapy, 29, 355–358.
space for the learners to choose or formulate
von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory. New York: George
a theoretical stance that best fits their worldview or Braziller.
belief system, not one that is imposed. The issue of
ethical teaching and learning, one that respects episte-
mological stances of different learners, becomes an
important consideration in family therapy training. Application of Learning
Further, within systems theory, the idea of both stabil-
ity and change is important. Application of family ▶ Transfer of Learning
280 A Applied Quantum Probability Theory

oral communication. The focus and meaning of com-

Applied Quantum Probability munication apprehension has since evolved to repre-
Theory sent an anxiety experienced by an individual in relation
to anticipated or actual communication with another
▶ Quantum Information Processing Theory
person or persons (McCroskey 1977). Apprehensive
individuals usually adopt avoidance and withdrawal
behaviors and are less likely to engage in
communication.
Appraisal Communication apprehension theory posits that
communication apprehension is a personality trait
▶ Assessment in Learning which remains relatively constant across different com-
munication situations. Individual traits such as intro-
version, anomie, low self-esteem, neuroticism, cultural
divergence, and underdeveloped communication skills
are often viewed as antecedents to communication
Apprehending
apprehension (MacIntyre 1994). However, situational
▶ Reading and Learning attributes such as formality, status imbalance, conspic-
uousness, and unfamiliarity can also give rise to anxiety
about communication (McCroskey 1984). There are
four fundamental kinds of communication apprehen-
sion. Communication apprehension can relate to an
Apprehension and anxiety that is (1) context-based in that it is associated
Communication with a particular type of communication; (2) audience-
based where anxiety is related to communication with
JOHN CAMPBELL a particular individual or group of individuals;
University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia (3) situational in that it is associated with a particular
combination of context and audience; and (4) an attri-
bute of the individual or a personal trait that persists
Synonyms in different situations and for different audiences
Communication anxiety; Communication aversion (Richmond and McCroskey 1998).
Communication apprehension has the potential
Definition to inhibit the development of an individual’s commu-
Communication apprehension is an emotional state nication competence, and educators have reported
expressed as an anxiety experienced by an individual negative expectations about the scholarly ability of
in relation to anticipated or actual communication apprehensive communicators (McCroskey and Rich-
with another person or persons (McCroskey 1977). mond 1987). In organizational settings, apprehensive
The impact varies from person to person but, for communicators are less likely to be hired or promoted
many of those affected, communication apprehension and will tend to self-select employment with low
tends to be associated with certain circumstances or communication requirements despite a potential for
contexts such as interpersonal communication, public less job status and lower income (Richmond and
speaking, and participating in meetings and group Roach 1992).
presentations. The Personal Report of Communication Apprehen-
sion (PRCA) is the most commonly used operationa-
Theoretical Background lization of communication apprehension in the
Communication apprehension is linked to communi- literature (McCroskey 1982). The PRCA instrument
cation avoidance and has been the focus of research for is composed of 24 statements addressing feelings
more than 40 years. The phenomenon was originally about communicating with others in four areas:
defined by McCroskey (1970) as an anxiety related to (1) group discussion, (2) meetings, (3) interpersonal
 Apprehension and Communication A 281

communication, and (4) public speaking (McCroskey enact one another and their impact on communication A
1982). Empirical studies have consistently shown that apprehension. Consequently, there are several research
public speaking creates the most anxiety for individuals questions requiring investigation which include: How
with up to three out four adults reporting some communication technologies impact communication
apprehension. apprehension for individuals from diverse social and
ethnic backgrounds, and the impact of communication
Important Scientific Research and apprehension on participation in online social net-
Open Questions working applications in both private-life and work-
The research domain of communication apprehension life contexts.
has changed greatly during the past 40 years. While earlier The emergence of artificial intelligence techniques,
research emphasized the oral communication domain, methods, and applications, along with the develop-
communication apprehension research has been substan- ment of virtual world environments for social and
tially broadened by later researchers to include apprehen- organizational purposes, has given rise to new oppor-
sion about writing, performance, public speaking, as well tunities for understanding communication apprehen-
as emergent factors such as technology apprehension and sion. Although far removed from the initial focus of
the mediating role communication technology plays in oral communication, researchers have begun to exam-
modern communication practices. A popular view is that ine human communication apprehension phenomena
communication technologies accentuate communication from new perspectives including human-to-machine
apprehension. Although further research is required to (Nomura et al. 2008), and human-to-avatar commu-
test this link, there is evidence that apprehension to nication (Cox et al. 2009). The convergence of artificial
computer, communication, and computer-mediated intelligence with virtual world environments is already
communication is interrelated (Scott and Timmerman impacting on interpersonal communication and social
2005). There is also evidence that richness and social interaction (Boellstorff 2008). Further research is
presence afforded by communication technologies are required to better understand these developments
important considerations for communication appre- and their likely impacts on communication and
hension particularly in organizational communication communication apprehension. Research questions of
environments where user aversion and anxiety have the interest include: Design of human-to-avatar and other
potential to impact perceptions of task, processes, and forms of human-to-machine virtual interfaces; and
performance (Campbell 2006) and strategies of iden- developing a better understanding of the impact of
tity used by some individuals to cope with conflict intelligent agents and virtual interfaces on communi-
situations (Campbell et al. 2009). Potential research cation apprehension in social, cultural, and interper-
questions relating to this area of enquiry include: sonal contexts.
How different communication technologies mitigate
or increase communication apprehension, how com-
Cross-References
munication apprehension and conflict affect team
▶ Anxiety, Stress and Learning
performance in virtual working environments, and
▶ Communication and Knowledge Production
what measures can be adopted by organizations to
▶ Communication and Learning
minimize the impact of communication apprehension. ▶ Communication Theory
The relationships between communication appre-
▶ Fear of Failure
hension, ethnicity, and other cultural variables have ▶ Technology-Based Learning
gained great attention in recent years (for example,
see Wrench et al. 2006). There is scope for improving
understanding of communication apprehension from References
a cultural perspective and in relation to other social and Boellstorff, T. (2008). Coming of age in second life: An anthropologist
explores the virtually human. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
cultural attributes. The link between communication
Press.
apprehension and communication avoidance has long Campbell, J. (2006). Media richness, communication apprehension
been established. However, further research is required and participation in group videoconferencing. Journal of Infor-
to investigate how individual and social traits mutually mation, Information Technology, and Organizations, 1, 87–96.
282 A Apprenticeship

Campbell, J., Fletcher, G., & Greenhill, A. (2009). Conflict and iden-
tity shape shifting in an online financial community. Information Apprenticeship Learning in
Systems Journal, 19, 461–478.
Cox, R., Crowther, P., & Campbell, J. (2009). Turing, androids, and
Machines
a travel holiday: A futuristic view of synthetic worlds. In C. A. P.
Smith, K. W. Kisiel, & J. G. Morrison (Eds.), Working through UMAR SYED
synthetic worlds (pp. 329–345). Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publish- Department of Computer and Information Science,
ing Group. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to commu-
nicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11,
135–142. Synonyms
McCroskey, J. C. (1970). Measures of communication-bound anxiety. Imitation learning; Learning from demonstration
Speech Monographs, 37, 269–277.
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension:
A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communica-
Definition
tion Research, 4, 78–96.
Apprenticeship learning is a branch of machine learning,
McCroskey, J. C. (1982). An introduction to rhetorical communication which is the study of computer algorithms that
(4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. improve with experience. In apprenticeship learning,
McCroskey, J. C. (1984). The communication apprehension perspec- a learning agent called the apprentice is able to observe
tive. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Avoiding communi- another agent, called the mentor, behaving in an
cation: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension
environment. The goal of the apprentice is to learn
(pp. 13–38). London: Sage.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1987). Willingness to commu- a policy – i.e., a concrete prescription of how to behave
nicate. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Personality and in the environment – that is at least as good as the
interpersonal communication (pp. 129–156). London: Sage. mentor’s policy. Each state of the environment is
Nomura, T., Kanda, T., Suzki, T., & Kato, K. (2008). Prediction of associated with an unknown reward, and the goodness
human behaviour in human-robot interaction using psycholog-
of a policy is measured by the amount of reward that the
ical scales for anxiety and negative attitudes toward robots. IEEE
Transactions on Robotics, 24, 442–451.
policy collects. Apprenticeship learning algorithms can be
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). Communication appre- applied to problems such as learning to drive a car, oper-
hension, avoidance and effectiveness (5th ed.). Needham Heights, ate a robotic arm, or play a game. Apprenticeship learning
MA: Allyn & Bacon. is closely related to reinforcement learning, with a few key
Richmond, V. P., & Roach, K. D. (1992). Power in the classroom: differences: In reinforcement learning, the reward func-
Seminal studies. In V. P. Richmond & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.),
tion is assumed to be known, no observations from
Power in the classroom: Communication, control, and concern
(pp. 47–65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. a mentor are available, and the goal is to learn an optimal
Scott, C. R., & Timmerman, C. E. (2005). Relating computer, policy (i.e., the policy that collects the most reward), not
communication, and computer-mediated communication just one that is at least as good as the mentor’s policy.
apprehensions to new communication technology use in the
workplace. Communication Research, 32, 683–725. Theoretical Background
Wrench, J. S., Corrigan, M. W., McCroskey, J. C., & Punyanunt- Learning behavior from a mentor has a long history in
Carter, N. M. (2006). Fundamentalism and intercultural
machine learning. This approach to learning is sometimes
communication: The relationships among ethnocentrism,
intercultural communication apprehension, religious funda- called imitation learning or learning from demonstra-
mentalism, homonegativity, and tolerance for religious disagree- tion. Some of the earliest and most influential work was
ments. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 35, by Pomerleau (1989), who trained a neural network to
23–44. drive a car. However, the idea of mimicking mentor
behavior via a reward function was relatively
unexplored prior to the introduction of the appren-
ticeship learning framework by Abbeel and Ng (2004).
Apprenticeship learning was designed to address a
Apprenticeship serious drawback of reinforcement learning: its assump-
tion that rewards can always be directly and unambigu-
▶ Coaching and Mentoring ously observed. In other words, the feedback to
▶ Learning in Practice (Heidegger and Schön) reinforcement learning algorithm is assumed to be
 Apprenticeship Learning in Machines A 283

a part of the environment in which the learning agent is that assumes that the sign of the correlation between A
operating, and is included in the agent’s experience of the true rewards and each feature is known. This prior
that environment. However, in practice, rewards are knowledge about the relationship between the features
usually manually specified by the practitioner applying and the rewards allows their algorithm to learn policies
the learning algorithm. Unfortunately, the behavior that are, in some cases, substantially better than the
learned by most reinforcement learning algorithms can mentor’s.
be quite sensitive to the specific numerical values of the Although recovering the reward function itself is not
rewards. As a result, in practice, specifying a reward an explicit goal of apprenticeship learning, in some
function that elicits the desired behavior from the learn- cases it is an effective method for learning a good
ing agent can be a subtle and frustrating design problem. apprentice policy, particularly when one makes the
Abbeel and Ng (2004) made the following observa- additional assumption that the mentor policy is opti-
tion: even when rewards are difficult to describe exactly, mal. For example, the goal of Neu and Szepesvari (2007)
it is usually easy to specify what the rewards must was to learn a reward function for which an approxi-
depend on. For example, when a person drives a car, mately optimal policy with respect to that reward func-
the rewards that she is maximizing depend on just a few tion approximately mimics the mentor. They formulated
key factors: the speed of the car, the position of other their problem as nondifferentiable optimization and
cars, the underlying terrain, etc. What is unclear, solved the optimization via a subgradient method.
however, is how the rewards encode the trade-offs Similarly, the maximum margin planning algo-
among these various factors. For example, exactly how rithm of Ratliff et al. (2006) learns a reward function
much more should the driver prefer traveling fast over so that, with respect to this reward function, the dem-
avoiding other cars? With this observation in mind, onstrated policy is nearly better than all other policies.
Abbeel and Ng (2004) proposed an algorithm that The magnitude of this advantage over each comparison
learns from a mentor by assuming that the true rewards policy, also known as the margin, scales with the loss of
are unknown linear combination of a set of known the policy, which is usually defined as a measure of how
features. Their algorithm provably converges, after different it is from the demonstrated policy.
a small amount of computation, to a policy that is Most apprenticeship learning algorithms assume
nearly as good as the mentor’s policy, as measured by that it is easy for a mentor to provide complete trajec-
the unknown reward function. tories demonstrating the desired behavior. However,
The apprenticeship learning framework is closely Kolter et al. (2008) studied a setting where it is only
related to inverse optimal control and inverse reinforce- feasible for a mentor to provide partial trajectories. In
ment learning. In both of these settings, the objective is particular, they studied a quadruped locomotion task,
to learn a reward function for which an observed policy in which a mentor is only able to provide advice at two
is optimal. Traditionally, inverse optimal control is hierarchical levels (an overall plan for moving through
applied in environments with linear dynamics, while an obstacle course, and how to navigate around indi-
inverse reinforcement learning is concerned with vidual obstacles). These partial trajectories are used to
environments that are modeled as Markov Decision learn policies at each hierarchical level, which are then
Processes with discrete state spaces. Note that recover- combined into a single policy.
ing the reward function is the explicit goal here, unlike
apprenticeship learning, where the true reward Cross-References
function need not be learned. Also, the terms “inverse ▶ Imitation Learning from Demonstration
reinforcement learning” and “apprenticeship learning” ▶ Learning Algorithms
are often used interchangeably in the literature, ▶ Reinforcement Learning
although they are distinct problems. ▶ Robot Learning from Demonstration

Important Scientific Research and References

Open Questions Abbeel, P. & Ng, A. (2004). Apprenticeship learning via inverse
Syed and Schapire (2008) extended the approach of reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the twenty-first interna-
Abbeel and Ng (2004) and described an algorithm tional conference on machine learning (pp. 1–8).
284 A Apprenticeship-Based Learning in Production Schools

Kolter, J. Z., Abbeel, P., & Ng, A. (2008). Hierarchical apprenticeship on the processes of production. In 1981, production
learning with application to quadruped locomotion. In Advances schools began to be considered an integral part of the
in neural information processing systems 22 (pp. 769–776).
educational system in Denmark. The total number of
Neu, G. & Szepesvari, C. (2007). Apprenticeship learning using
inverse reinforcement learning and gradient methods. In Pro- production schools nationwide was highest in 1999,
ceedings of the twenty-third conference on uncertainty in artificial when there were 109 schools. In 2006, there were 99
intelligence. production schools scattered across the country.
Pomerleau, D. A. (1989). ALVINN: An autonomous land vehicle in Nationally, 14,224 students attended production schools
a neural network 1. In Advances in Neural Information Processing
in 2004, of which 60% were male. The length of each
Systems (pp. 305–313). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Ratliff, N. D., Bagnell, J. A., and Zinkevich, M. A. (2006). Maximum
student’s stay at production school varied; 30% of stu-
margin planning. In Proceedings of the twenty-third international dents stayed at least 6 months, while 34% stayed more
conference on machine learning (pp. 729–736). than 2 months. The average length of a student’s stay was
Syed, U., & Schapire, R. E. (2008). A game-theoretic approach to 20.3 weeks, or 5 months (Kirkegaard and Nielsen 2008).
apprenticeship learning. In Advances in Neural Information Production school is characterized by a different
Processing Systems (Vol. 22, pp. 1449–1456). Cambridge: MIT
organizational structure and set of teaching practices
Press.
than those in the traditional educational system. In
production school, teaching takes place primarily in
various workshops. The artifacts produced in the work-
shops are sold and any profit goes to the production
Apprenticeship-Based Learning school. There are no genuine exams at production
in Production Schools schools, and attending a production school does not
qualify students for further education. However, there
KLAUS NIELSEN are a number of characteristics common to production
Department of Psychology, Aarhus University, schooling and vocational training as they are organized
Aarhus C, Denmark in Denmark. Both combine hands-on learning and
classroom-based education. Vocational education and
training in Denmark is organized as a dual system,
Synonyms where students alternate between learning in the work-
Learning in apprenticeship; Learning in the vocational place and staying at a vocational school. Production
and educational system schools in Denmark are organized in such a way that
classroom-based education and hands-on training are
Definition located in the same institution.
Learning processes in production schools can be There are several important elements of production
defined as an institutionalized arrangement where schools. Firstly, practical work is the pivotal learning
aspects of apprenticeship learning are used in a school process. All tutoring and other formal educational
context. activities are centered on the educational work done
in the workshops. In this context, the focus is on work
Theoretical Background as a socializing and identity-building process rather
Production school is a Danish phenomenon developed than work as a profitable endeavor. Secondly, the
to educate students that are tired of participating in teachers at production schools are not primarily school
conventional schooling. Even though production teachers, but artisans anchored in professional crafting
schools are a local phenomenon, they contain original cultures who seek to provide students with a craft
ideas for learning research since they have an ambition identity. Thirdly, relationships between teachers and
to integrate central aspects of apprenticeship learning students are characterized by a greater degree of inti-
into formal educational institutions. In the light of high macy than those in the formal educational system.
youth unemployment in the 1970s, the original intent of Finally, production schools can be characterized as
production schools was to create an alternative to the offering a participatory learning culture where stu-
traditional school system that allowed for hands-on dents’ personal development is a central part of educa-
training in small workshops in schools that were based tion (Clemmensen et al. 2000).
 Apprenticeship-Based Learning in Production Schools A 285

There are many reasons why a growing number of Important Scientific Research and A
students choose to attend production schools. The Open Questions
rising intellectualization of elementary schools poses Few studies have researched learning processes at pro-
a problem for pupils that have low academic abilities or duction schools. In an older study, Jacobsen and Ljung
limited interest in scholarly pursuits (Lausch and (1984) showed how the practical organization of the
Størner 2002). The intellectualization of the educational workshops at production schools allowed a large group
system in Denmark has raised the dropout rate, espe- of young people with social problems to reenter the
cially in the vocational system, and a large proportion of educational system. In a study of learning at produc-
students who drop out of the vocational system begin at tion schools, Clemmensen et al. (2000) found that
production schools. In many respects, production students with significant social problems seemed to
schools serve as a last bastion for young people who learn from being part of the production school, espe-
could easily drop out of the education system completely cially the practical workshops. Kirkegaard and Nielsen
and fail to earn a secondary education. In the vocational (2008) published a study of what and how students
system, education takes place in two separate training learned at three production schools in Denmark. The
environments (school and workplace) where there are results revealed that production schools were organized
independent and often mutually contradictory norms, into small teams that were firmly anchored to specific
cultures, communication, and professional progression. workshops, a structure that seemed to ensure security
This split between the different kinds of environments is and consistency, and support the students’ learning
difficult to handle for a large group of students processes. Even more important, the study showed
(Wilbrandt 2002). Finally, a segment of youth culture that anchoring the students to small workshops gave
is generally critical to attending schools and strongly them the opportunity to develop personal relationships
identifies with work-based training (Wilbrandt 2002). with the teachers. These relationships seemed to be an
In many respects, the central educational idea in important precondition for learning to take place. It
production schools is apprenticeship-based learning. allowed the teachers to understand students’ behavior
In apprenticeship, the notion of learning through par- and prepare them to better address the students’ prob-
ticipation in practice is central and understood as lems in the workshops. It was remarkable that teacher–
a process in which apprentices’ participation changes pupil relationships were functioning relatively
from simply taking part to becoming a responsible smoothly at production students, compared to the
participant in a community of practice. If we look at situation in the elementary school system where most
the learning that takes place in practical situations, it is of the production school students had significant con-
rarely the result of direct teaching. In apprenticeship, flicts and problems with teachers. Furthermore, the
learning is incorporated into daily activities; one hardly study showed that processes of collaborative learning
notices that learning takes place. Carrying out an were central to student success. When working together
assignment appears as a daily routine without being in the workshops, students learned a lot from each
seen as learning. Imitation of other participants in other. Another important aspect of production schools
a community of practice, and also identification with disclosed by the study was that students received
more experienced agents of the subject, takes place immediate and concrete feedback on their work. More-
unintentionally. Learning through bodily action and over, it was especially important that students’ effort
the use of tools is incorporated in the daily contact was recognized and appreciated by the teachers and
with the surroundings, and learning may take place other students in the workshop. The obligation to
without a deliberate plan. In apprenticeship, shared produce and sell products to external customers
responsibility for production also involves a responsi- offered a range of different learning opportunities for
bility for others’ learning. Praise, recognition, or students. Students learned through the feedback they
positive feedback makes apprentices grow through received from the people who bought their products.
their own self-knowledge, whereas criticism, triviality,
or negative feedback is experienced as hurtful (Nielsen Cross-References
and Kvale 2006). In the production schools, these ▶ 21st-Century Skills/Competencies
principles of learning are pivotal. ▶ Adaptive Instruction System(s) and Learning
286 A Approach and Avoidance Motivation

▶ Adaptive Learning Through Variation and Selection indicates a propensity to move toward (or maintain
▶ Adolescent Learners’ Characteristics contact with) a desired stimulus. Avoidance indicates
▶ Authenticity in Learning Activities and Settings a propensity to move away from (or maintain distance
▶ Compulsory Education and Learning from) an undesired stimulus. Motivation is defined as
▶ Learning in Practice and by Experience the energization and direction of behavior. The valence
▶ Learning, Social Practice, and Gender of stimuli is at the core of the distinction between
approach and avoidance, with positively valenced
References stimuli typically leading to approach and negatively
Clemmensen, N., Geysner, M. G., & Sørensen, M. S. (2000). valenced stimuli typically leading to avoidance. Stimuli
Produktionsskoler i Danmark – deltagere og skoleprofiler. can be external or internal, implicit or explicit,
Undervisningsministeriet. (Production schools in Denmark. Par- conscious or non-conscious.
ticipants and school profiles. The Danish Ministry of Education).
Jacobsen, N., & Ljung, V. (1984). Hvidbog om produktionsskolerne. De
kombinerede undervisnings- og produktionsprogrammer. Theoretical Background
Undervisningsministeriet (The combined teaching and production The distinction between approach and avoidance has
programmes. The Danish Ministry of Education). roots extending back to the time of the ancient Greek
Kirkegaard, T., & Nielsen, K. (2008) Kreativitet, produktion og philosophers. Philosophers such as Democritus and
identitet. Undervisningsministeriet. Afdelingen for
Aristippus used the concept of hedonism to describe
erhvervsfaglige uddannelser. (Creativity, production and identity.
The Danish Ministry of Education). how people should live. The idea that humans
Lausch, B., & Størner, T. (2002). Samarbejdet mellem elev og skole – approach pleasure and withdraw from pain was further
udsatte elever i erhvervsuddannelserne. Undervisningsministeriet. articulated by the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham
(The cooperation between pupil and school. Pupils at risk in the (1748–1832) in which he argued that not only do
VET system. The Danish Ministry of Education). pleasure and pain act as indicators of how life should
Nielsen, K., & Kvale, S. (2006). The workplace - a landscape of
be lived, they are also responsible for actual behavior.
learning. In E. Antonacopoulou, P. Jarvis, V. Andersen, B. Elkjaer,
& S. Høyrup (Eds.), Learning, working and living (pp. 119–135). The distinction between approach and avoidance was
Basingstoke: Macmillan. also present in the theorizing of the first scientific
Wilbrandt, J. (2002). Vekseluddannelse i håndværksuddannelser. psychologists: Wundt (1887) and James (1890) posited
Lærlinges oplæring, faglighed og identitet mellem skole og that pleasure and pain were often the impetus for
virksomhed. Undervisningsministeriet. (The dual system in the
action. The first systematic utilization of the terms
craft educations. The Danish Ministry of Education).
approach-avoidance to explain behavior was made by
Lewin in his work on Field Theory. After years of
refinement and further specification, researchers have
Approach and Avoidance concluded that approach and avoidance motivation are
fundamental to all forms of life.
Motivation Indeed, it has been argued that approach and avoid-
ance responses are hardwired into all species. The ten-
ROGER FELTMAN, ANDREW J. ELLIOT
dency to avoid aversive stimuli is likely an adaptive
Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in
mechanism, which ensures survival in the face of dan-
Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester,
ger or pain. In contrast, the drive to approach positive
NY, USA
stimuli likely leads to thriving and increases psycholog-
ical, social, and physical resources (Fredrickson 2001).
Biologists have found that even the most rudimentary
Synonyms protozoa responds with approach (to a weak light) and
Appetitive-aversive motivation; Approach-withdrawal avoidance (to a strong light) behaviors (Schneirla
motivation 1959). Similar findings have been reported for humans
as well. It appears that people immediately and non-
Definition consciously evaluate nearly all encountered stimuli on
Approach and avoidance motivation is composed of a good or bad dimension. Rather than being mediated
three conceptually distinct components. Approach by higher-order cognitive processing, recent research
 Approach and Avoidance Motivation A 287

suggests that these automatic evaluations have distinct The model integrates two theoretical traditions that A
neural pathways in the brain (e.g., Crites and Cacioppo were separate for much of psychology’s history:
1996). One consequence of this independent neural Approach–avoidance motivation was combined with
processing is that responses to positive and negative mastery and performance goals (which have also been
stimuli, automatically and instantaneously, evoke referred to as task and ego goals or learning and
approach and avoidance predispositions, respectively. performance goals, respectively). Goals, as defined by
It is important to note that while approach and the hierarchical model, are mid-level representations of
avoidance motivation might be fundamental to all higher-order competence motivations, that act to
forms of life, its complexity varies considerably direct motivational energies. Mastery goals are focused
among species. The most rigid and predictable on the attainment of task mastery or the development
responses can be observed in the simplest life forms of competence for intrapersonal reasons. Performance
such as protozoa, with increasing variability in goals are focused on normative, interpersonal
responses to stimuli corresponding with increases in competence.
biological complexity. Though automatic evaluation of The 2 2 model proposed a bifurcation of both
stimuli on a good–bad continuum predisposes individ- mastery and performance goals by the approach–
uals to approach or avoid, people have the capacity to avoidance distinction. The resultant four goals are
override these initial responses. For instance, people known as mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance,
sometimes approach aversive stimuli in the service of performance-approach, and performance-avoidance.
obtaining a desirable outcome (e.g., taking a difficult After several years of empirical scrutiny and many
class to graduate from college) or avoid a positive stim- tests of the validity of this model, it appears able to
ulus because obtaining it would ultimately lead to an reliably explain and predict achievement behavior. Yet,
undesirable outcome (e.g., not eating chocolate cake an interesting question about mastery goals remains to
when on a diet). Research has shown that in more be answered. Specifically, as noted above, mastery goals
complex organisms, a hierarchy of approach and avoid- are formed with the desire to attain task mastery or
ance motivation often guides behavior (Elliot and intrapersonal competence. Research is needed to deter-
Church 1997). In addition to the interspecies variation mine whether these differing motivational foci are
described above, intraspecies variation in approach and responsible for unique outcomes. If so, division of
avoidance motivation has been shown in a wide array mastery goals might be warranted, though caution is
of taxa, such as cats, dogs, fish, and of course, humans. recommended, as additional complexity risks reducing
Due to the fundamental nature of approach and the model’s parsimony.
avoidance motivation, this distinction may be concep- Future research should also address the reasons
tualized as an organizing framework for the study people give for adopting achievement goals. The 2 2
of motivation. This is not to say that the approach– model proposes that competence motives are focused
avoidance distinction can explain motivation in its on either fear of failure or the need for achievement.
entirety. Rather, this distinction is proposed to serve Fear of failure orients people toward the avoidance
an integrative function that theories of motivation can of failure while the need for achievement orients
profitably utilize to expand our understanding of people toward the possibility of success. Avoidance
behavior. goals are often preceded by fear of failure motives,
while approach goals commonly stem from need for
Important Scientific Research and achievement motives. Interestingly, researchers have
Open Questions yet to examine how adoption of these competence-
The approach–avoidance distinction has been applied related motives uniquely influences subsequent per-
in a variety of psychological domains. Research on formance. Performance-approach goals, which can be
topics such as emotion, competence, self-esteem, and motivated by either the need for achievement or fear of
relationships have all utilized and benefited from this failure, are of particular interest in this regard. It seems
motivational model. Elliot and McGregor (2001) pro- likely that the outcome of adopting a performance-
posed a 2 2 hierarchical model of achievement moti- approach goal (e.g., academic performance; psycho-
vation that has proved to be particularly generative. logical and physiological functioning) depends to
288 A Approaches to Learning

a large extent on which type of motivation energizes Definition

and underlies behavior. “Approaches to learning” describe the contrasting ways
in which students carry out learning tasks. The main
Cross-References distinction is between a surface approach and a deep
▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning approach to learning, while “approach to studying”
▶ Fear of Failure in Learning includes the further dimension of strategic approach,
▶ Field Theory of Learning involving organized and directed effort. Although
▶ Mastery Learning having individual differences with some stability over
time and context, they are also affected by the kinds
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Crites, S., & Cacioppo, J. (1996). Electrocortical differentiation of encountered by the individual, and so vary across
evaluative and nonevaluative categorizations. Psychological different conditions of learning.
Science, 7, 318–321.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of
approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of
Theoretical Background
Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–232. Marton and Säljö (1984) in Gothenburg introduced the
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 2 achievement goal term approaches to learning. They carried out natural-
framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, istic experiments at the university level in which stu-
501–519. dents read an academic article individually and were
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive
then interviewed to discover what they had understood
psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.
The American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
about the article and how they had gone about reading
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. 2). New York: it. The main difference between this work and previous
Henry Holt. psychological studies was in the description of the
Schneirla, T. (1959). An evolutionary and developmental theory outcome of learning in terms of qualitative differences
of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawl. In in understanding, rather than using quantitative mea-
M. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 1–42).
sures of accurate recall. That difference proved crucial.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Wundt, W. (1887). Grundzüge der physiologischen psychologie Qualitative differences were found both in the
(3rd ed.). Leipzig: Engelmann. understanding reached and in the ways in which the
task had been tackled. The main differences in the latter
depended on the intention of the student – whether the
students wanted to understand the meaning for
themselves or were simply trying to recall the informa-
Approaches to Learning tion for the interviewer. The contrasting intentions led
▶ Cognitive Learning Strategies for Digital Media to very different learning processes and so to equiva-
lently different outcomes. Students seeking meaning
were consciously interacting with the text to follow
the author’s argument and examining the evidence
and logic being used – a deep approach. Those students
Approaches to Learning and concentrating on recall were scanning the text to decide
Studying which information was likely to be tested and then
committing that to memory – a surface approach. Dif-
NOEL J. ENTWISTLE ferences could also be seen in whether the students were
University of Edinburgh, making sense of the whole article or just unrelated bits
Ormiston, East Lothian, Scotland of knowledge from it, and to what extent they were
integrating the parts by using appropriate organizing
principles.
Synonyms In another experiment, students were asked to read
Learning processes; Learning strategies; Study articles that differed in terms of their relevance and
strategies conducted in situations that were either relaxed or
 Approaches to Learning and Studying A 289

anxiety provoking. Initially, no significant differences corroborate and elaborate the distinction between deep A
were detected between these conditions, but students and surface approaches, then to examine the processes
were also asked how they had felt about those condi- through which understanding was reached, and finally
tions. Those students who found the article relevant to explore the effects of different kinds of teaching on
and felt no anxiety about the situation were more likely approaches and outcomes of learning at university level.
to adopt a deep approach and to understand the mean-
ing of the article more clearly. This finding introduced Important Scientific Research and
an important additional element, namely the percep- Open Questions
tions that students had of the learning task and the One line of research has involved the development of
conditions under which they were learning, which inventories to operationalize the approaches identified
also influenced the approach adopted. from interviews (Biggs 2003; Olkinuora and Lonka
In London, Gordon Pask (1988) also carried out 2004). Several instruments have been produced, with
naturalistic experiments, and these drew attention to multivariate analyses of the items generally producing
the existence of contrasting preferences among univer- three main factors – deep, surface, and strategic or
sity students in how to go about learning. These achieving. The items are rated by students on Likert
preferences led to differing learning strategies, which, scales and scored from scales based on the factor struc-
if used consistently, could be described as distinct ture. Deep has been separated into the intention or
▶ learning styles. Pask saw this distinction in terms of motive to understand, and processes – relating ideas
holists, who wanted to see the whole picture right from and using evidence – based on Pask’s learning strategies.
the start of a task and serialists who preferred to build Surface has been defined by a habitual reliance on nar-
up their understanding step by step by focusing on row forms of learning, such as rote memorization or
details. Although understanding could be reached mimicking the teachers’ understanding, and a lack of
using either style, being too fixed in one style could confidence about understanding. The strategic approach
become a pathology, interfering with a successful out- depends on the intention to work hard, and involves
come. Being versatile – combining the two processes in organized studying, systematic time management, and
relation to the demands of the task – led more quickly concentration. The instrumental approach is defined
to fuller understanding. This combination was subse- mainly by low levels on the strategic scale, but also by
quently seen, in general terms, as the main learning a narrow concentration on meeting assessment criteria
processes involved in a deep approach. and being content just to satisfy course requirements.
In subsequent work, Noel Entwistle and his The inventories were used across subject areas on
colleagues in Lancaster, UK used both inventories and the assumption that the processes involved in the three
interviews to investigate how students carried out their main approaches would be largely similar. While this
everyday studying (described in Entwistle 2009).They holds true for the strategic and surface approaches, the
confirmed the existence of deep and surface approaches deep approach proves to be partly discipline depen-
to learning, but found an additional difference in how dent. Although the intention to understand is
students tackled their academic work – approaches to a defining feature of the deep approach across all
studying. These were described in terms of the amount subject areas, the specific learning processes that lead
of effort being put into a task and the extent to which to understanding, and the nature of that understanding
well-organized study methods were also being used, in contrasting disciplines, are importantly different.
with a distinction between a strategic approach Ideally, therefore, scales describing a deep approach
directing effort toward high achievement and an instru- should include disciplinarily specific items.
mental approach that involved just “getting by.” There have been disagreements about how consis-
The combination of these four categories provides tent an approach to learning is likely to be. Marton and
an indication of how well students are likely to under- other researchers using student interviews have stressed
stand academic material (deep, strategic) and to obtain the dependence on content and context, implying
high grades (strategic, but either deep or surface inevitable variability. While agreeing with the idea that
depending on the assessment criteria). The publication content and context are important, other researchers
of these findings led to extensive related research, first to have argued that the extent of consistency and
290 A Approaches to Learning and Studying

variability depends on the individual as well as the students are rewarded. The relationship between per-
circumstances. Where students are encountering largely ceptions and approaches is, however, complicated, as
similar topic areas and types of teaching, more consis- the causality is bi-directional. If students are habitually
tency is found, as students become habituated to the using a deep approach in their studying, teaching that
approach that they find most effective. Where there is encourages it will be perceived favorably (approach
more variety in subject matter and teaching, variability causing perceptions). But that form of teaching will
becomes more noticeable. However, students also differ also encourage many of the students in the class to
individually in the extent to which their approaches are move toward deep approaches, thus reversing the
consistent irrespective of circumstances, in part due to direction of causality (teaching, and perceptions of it,
differing academic goals and partly due to continuing causing approaches).
dispositions to learn in different ways. Some students The relationship between perception of teaching
are concentrating mainly on passing examinations: this and approach to learning will also be seen differently
may lead them to seek understanding for themselves, when looking at an individual or a whole class of
but as an end point. Other students, with a ▶ disposi- students, being more closely related in an individual
tion to understand for themselves in most circum- than in a class as a whole. The weaker relationship at
stances, are alert to ways of developing their class level is, nevertheless, important as it can be used to
understanding further, and using it (Entwistle 2009). monitor the balance between deep and surface
Another line of research has been looking at the approaches in relation to the specific methods of teach-
qualitative differences in outcomes of learning related ing and assessment being used.
to the two approaches. Marton investigated the differ- Interviews with faculty members show that there are
ing conceptions of academic concepts held by students variations in approaches to teaching which parallel the
through a research approach called phenomenography. approaches to learning of students, with some faculty
This established a particular form of interviewing in members viewing their teaching just from the perspec-
which students were encouraged to explain and reflect tive of the discipline, without seeing the need to translate
on their understanding, and also a method of qualita- their understanding of it into a form readily accessible to
tive analysis that allowed distinct categories of concep- a novice. Others see the importance of helping students
tions to be identified. Qualitative differences have also to develop deep approaches and conceptual understand-
been found in the forms of understanding that students ing, and so aim to teach in ways likely to bring that
revising for final examinations were seeking. Some about. One crucial outcome of research into student
students actively using deep approaches were found learning has been the recognition that, in teaching, it is
to build knowledge objects to represent their own under- important not just to teach the content in a clear and
standing of topics. These were described as tightly well-structured way, but also to show students how to
integrated forms of understanding that could be seen develop an academic understanding of the discipline
in the mind, with a structure and logic that guided the and the nature of its discourse.
writing of essays. And recent work, using dialogic map- There is a host of open questions remaining. Some
ping techniques, has suggested ways in which students relate to attempts to understand how an individual
can be guided toward a more conscious monitoring of student learns a specific topic in a particular discipline.
the connections between ideas and the structures of Current research into this question is going well beyond
their emerging understandings. the notion of approaches to learning as it seeks to
There are generally significant relationships understand, in detail, how an individual student inter-
between approaches to learning and perceptions of prets the tasks set and how previous experiences and
teaching and assessment, with those pedagogical continuing aspirations affect subsequent learning and
methods that are seen to encourage ideas and under- understanding. It is also using detailed case studies to
standing being related to deep approaches, and those see how all these aspects relate to students’ self-concept
that emphasize the learning of facts and details being as learners and to their emerging identity as future
associated with memorization and surface approaches. professionals within their field of study.
It is found that the influence of assessment is particu- Other questions focus on how best to arrange
larly strong, as grades are the currency through which a whole ▶ teaching–learning environment within a
 Approximate Learning of Dynamic Models/Systems A 291

university course so as consistently to encourage deep A

approaches to learning in as many students as possible Approach-Withdrawal
(Baeten et al. 2010). And that depends on being able to Motivation
understand the nature of academic understanding
▶ Approach and Avoidance Motivation
within the course and to describe, and appropriately
support, the specific learning processes involved in
a deep approach to learning in that subject area.

Cross-References Appropriability
▶ Attitudes and Learning Styles
▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies ▶ Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning
▶ Learning About Learning
▶ Learning and Understanding
▶ Learning Strategies
▶ Learning Style(s)
Appropriation
▶ Perceptions of the Learning Context and Learning
Outcomes ▶ Internalization
▶ Phenomenography
▶ Self-regulated Learning

References
Baeten, M., Kyndt, E., Struyven, K., & Dochy, F. (2010). Using stu-
Approximate Dynamic
dent-centered learning environments to stimulate deep Programming
approaches to learning: Factors encouraging or discouraging
their effectiveness. Educational Research Review, 5, 243–260. ▶ Reinforcement Learning in Animals
Biggs, J. B. (2003). What do inventories of students’ learning pro-
cesses really measure? A theoretical review and clarification. The
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 1–17.
Entwistle, N. J. (2009). Teaching for understanding at university: Deep
approaches and distinctive ways of thinking. Basingstoke, Hamp-
shire: Palgrave Macmillan. Approximate Learning
Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1984, 2nd ed., 1997). Approaches to learning.
In F. Marton, D. J. Hounsell & Entwistle, N. J. (Eds.), The
▶ Approximate Learning of Dynamic Models/Systems
experience of learning (2nd ed., pp. 39–58). Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic Press. (web ed. at http://www.tla.ed.ac.uk/resources/
EoL.html).
Olkinuora, E., & Lonka, K. (Eds.).(2004). Measuring studying and
learning in higher education: Conceptual and methodological
issues. Educational Psychology Review, 16 (4) (whole issue).
Approximate Learning of
Pask, G. (1988). Learning strategies, teaching strategies and concep- Dynamic Models/Systems
tual or learning style. In R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning strategies
and learning styles (pp. 83–100). New York: Plenum Press. BHASKAR DASGUPTA1, DERONG LIU2
1
Department of Computer Science, University of
Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
2
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering,
Approaches, Inquiries, and University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
Paradigms in Music Education
Research
Synonyms
▶ Research Methods in Music Instruction and Approximate learning; Asymptotic performance;
Learning Dynamical system
292 A Approximate Learning of Dynamic Models/Systems

Definition logarithm. We will use Y to denote the vector of

Dynamical systems model the evolution of a system unknown parameters.
with unknown parameters. The goal of a learning In a typical learning scenario, we have an unknown
procedure is to estimate the parameters of the system, function g(x1, x2, . . ., xn) that we would like our system
possibly from a set of known examples, such that the to compute. We “train” our system by providing a set of
system behavior on future inputs is accurately inputs, drawn from a probability distribution, with
predicted. Such a learning procedure typically uses their corresponding value of the g function, to the
methodologies from techniques in statistics and com- system, say one at a time, for a finite time period t0.
puter science and can be computationally intractable The goal is to efficiently compute the parameters in Y
for some systems. such that the generalization error, namely the expected
error in the output of the system to the true output that
Theoretical Background we desire for the next input drawn from the same
A dynamical system models the state-space evolution distribution, is minimized (or, within a desired
of a system. In the discussion below, we refer to free bound).
parameter that models the change in dynamics by For further details on dynamical systems see standard
“time.” Many versions of such systems are possible, textbooks such as Sontag (1998) and for further details
depending on whether the state variables are continu- on basic learning theory see Kearns and Vazirani
ous or discrete (quantitative), the time variables are (1994). For some interesting applications of dynamical
continuous (e.g., partial differential equation, delay systems to systems biology see the excellent survey
equations) or discrete (e.g., difference equations, quan- paper Sontag (2005).
tized descriptions of continuous variables) and
whether the model is deterministic or probabilistic in Important Scientific Research and
nature. In addition, such a model can also be hybrid in Open Questions
nature in the sense that it may combine continuous and Dynamical systems exhibit a fascinating interplay
discrete timescales and/or continuous and discrete between several areas such as biology, control theory,
time variables. For example, the dynamics of discrete mathematics, and computer science, and have
a discrete-time continuous-state system with a single a wide range of applications in modeling and simula-
output can be written down as tion in many diverse areas such as modeling biological
xi ðt þ 1Þ ¼ fi ðx1 ðtÞ; x2 ðtÞ;    ; xn ðtÞ; z1 ðtÞ; z2 ðtÞ;    ; zm ðtÞÞ; processes, in quantum computing, in self-assembly
i ¼ 1; 2;    ; n problems in nanotechnology applications and social
yðt þ 1Þ ¼ hðx1 ðt þ 1Þ; x2 ðt þ 1Þ;    ; xn ðt þ 1ÞÞ networks. Broad scientific investigations in modeling
of dynamical systems include difference in convergence
where x1, x2, . . ., xn are the state variables, z1, z2, . . ., zm
to steady states, effect of feedback loops on stability
are the m variables representing inputs to the system,
and dynamics, robustness in presence of noise,
y is the output variable that provides information
etc. Furthermore, there are interesting special sub-
about measurable performance of the system, t is the
classes of dynamical systems, such as piecewise-linear
time variable governing the dynamics and fi’s and h are
systems and monotone systems, that have been of
real-valued functions with unknown parameters (also
considerable interest in recent times especially due to
called weights) characterizing the nature of the dynam-
their applications in systems biology but are still far
ics. For example, the function fi’s could be the so-called
from being completely understood.
sigmoidal function:
There are several directions of research associated
fi ðx1 ðtÞ; x2 ðtÞ;    ; xn ðtÞ; z1 ðtÞ; z2 ðtÞ;    ; zm ðtÞÞ with the training and computational capabilities of
0   11
P n Pm dynamical systems; below we outline several directions.
 yi xi ðtÞþ y0 j zj ðtÞ
B C One direction of research deals with the computa-
¼ @1 þ e i¼1 j¼1
A ;
tional capabilities of such dynamical systems, typically
in specific settings such as artificial neural network
where y1, y2, . . .,yn and y0 1,y0 2, . . .,y0 m are the unknown models, assuming that the number of state variables is
real-valued parameters and e is the base of natural unlimited. This type of research can be traced back to
 Approximative Learning Vs. Inductive Learning A 293

its origin to the old work of the famous mathematician ▶ Hierarchical-Network Model for Memory and A
Kolmogorov (1957) who essentially provided the Learning
first (nonconstructive) result on the representation ▶ Learning in Artificial Neural Networks
capabilities of simple types of dynamical systems ▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning
obtained by superposition of a set of basis functions. ▶ PAC Learning
This type of research ignores the training question ▶ Probability Theory in Machine Learning
itself, asking instead if it is at all possible to exactly or ▶ Supervised Learning
approximately compute arbitrary or interesting classes
of functions. Many of the results and proofs in this References
direction are existential only and serve to provide Barron, A. R. (1991). Approximation and estimation bounds for
the limiting computational capabilities of dynamical artificial neural networks. In Proceedings of the 4th Annual Work-
systems. shop on Computational Learning Theory (pp. 243–249). San
Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Another direction of research in learnability of
Kearns, M. J., & Vazirani, U. V. (1994). An introduction to computa-
dynamical systems takes an approximation theoretic tional learning theory. Cambridge: MIT Press.
point of view. This direction overlooks the parameter Kolmogorov, A. N. (1957). On the representation of continuous
estimation phase in learning and instead is concerned functions of several variables by superposition of continuous
with bounding the overall error if the best possible functions of one variable and addition. Doklady Akademii.
Nauk SSSR, 114, 953–956.
parameters with a given system architecture were to
Sontag, E. D. (1998). Mathematical control theory: Deterministic finite
be eventually found. An example of such results is dimensional systems (2nd ed.). New York: Springer.
Barron (1991). Sontag, E. D. (2005). Molecular systems biology and control. Euro-
The third direction research deals with is related pean Journal of Control, 11(4-5), 396–435.
more closely to the training phase of learning problems Vapnik, V. N. (1982). Estimation of dependencies based on empirical
via the so-called sample complexity questions that data. Berlin: Springer.

attempts to quantify the amount of information (num-

ber of examples) needed in order to characterize a given
unknown input-output mapping. An important tech-
nical development in this area culminated in deriving Approximate Number System
information-theoretic bounds for sample complexities
▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals
via VC-dimensions (Vapnik 1982) and their suitable
extensions to real-valued computations.
A fourth research perspective in approaching theo-
retical questions regarding learning lies in investigat-
ing, for a given architecture of the dynamical system, if Approximative
there exists a fundamental barrier to training, namely
▶ Approximative Learning Vs. Inductive Learning
a barrier that is insurmountable no matter which par-
ticular parameter estimation algorithm one uses. This
line of research was motivated by a frequent observa-
tion that many parameter estimation algorithms often
runs very slowly for high-dimensional data and is fre- Approximative Learning
quently referred to as the “curse of dimensionality.” Of Vs. Inductive Learning
course, if we are allowed to adapt the architecture of the
dynamical system to the data such as in incremental HENNING FERNAU
learning techniques, then we would not be subject to Abteilung Informatik und Wirtschaftsinformatik,
such a barrier. Universität Trier, Trier, Germany

Cross-References
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning Synonyms
▶ Formal Learning Theory Approximative; Learning
294 A Approximative Learning Vs. Inductive Learning

Definition distribution. Also, different quality aspects measuring

As explained below, there is no unique definition of this the hypotheses will require different learning
term available. Vaguely speaking, any learner that is not algorithms. Because of the sketched technical details,
aiming at the definite, exact identification of a concept, the literature should be studied with a careful con-
but is rather content with obtaining (learning) sideration of the employed definitions. A lot of
a concept that comes close to the target may be termed these mathematical details are exhibited in (Menzel
approximative. et al. 2003), based on the exposition provided by
Vidyasagar, 1997.
Theoretical Background Last but not least, everything said above may
In the (mathematical) theory of learning, the term depend on the objects or concepts that should be
approximative learning is used in different meanings. learned. The arguably most prominent example is
To ease understanding the concepts, briefly recall what ▶ language learning first formulated with the hope of
inductive learning means: upon receiving (positive or modeling ▶ language acquisition, see (Gold 1967).
negative) evidence, the learner (often also called infer- Language learning is mostly formalized as ▶ Grammar
ence machine) formulates hypotheses that should, over Learning (also known as ▶ Grammar Induction or as
time, (always) yield a correct one. This notion goes at ▶ Grammatical Inference), although the entities that
least back to Gold, 1967. This concept leads to several should be learned (languages) could be formally
natural questions: described in many ways: grammars, automata, (regu-
lar) expressions, and so forth. Coming back to the first
1. What is a “correct hypothesis?” This can be
item of our list above, when we talk about grammar
answered on a purely syntactic level (leading, e.g.,
learning, the hypotheses would be grammars of some
to the notion of EX[planatory]-learning) or on
form (e.g., right-linear grammars representing the
a more semantic level (behaviorally correct [BC-]
lowest level of the Chomsky hierarchy of languages),
learning). We provide an example referring to
so convergence of the learning process would be
language learning below.
naturally expressed by some notion of closeness
2. Should we weaken the assumption that an exactly
within the space of grammars (usually formalized
correct hypothesis is required in the end of the
by the discrete metric). This idea would allow to for-
process? This leads to (possibly domain-specific)
mally express the notion of explanatory learning.
notions of approximative learning.
The semantics behind is the languages that can be
3. Should we weaken the prerequisite that the learner
described by the chosen grammar formalism. Conver-
must always find a good solution? From a practical
gence, in this sense, would correspond to behaviorally
perspective, it might be enough that the learning
correct learning.
goal is achieved with high probability.
Kobayashi and Yokomori (1995) introduced the
The best studied framework that addresses the notion of ▶ upper-best approximation in the context
second and third item is the setting of ▶ Probably of language learning, which interestingly also applies if
Approximatively Correct Learning, or ▶ PAC Learning the target concept cannot be expressed within the
for short, as introduced by Valiant (1984). From envisaged hypothesis class. The idea is to learn
a bird’s eye perspective, this learning scenario expects a superset Y of the target language X, such that there
learners to almost always (in a probability sense, so is no possible hypothesis grammar that describes some
with a probability of [close to] one) converge to superset Z of X, which is also a subset of Y. This notion
a hypothesis that comes very close to the target; this can be seen as a purely set-theoretic formalization of
closeness is meant in a topological sense, relying on approximate learning and fits very well within the
some quality measure for the hypotheses or properties framework of inductive inference. For example,
thereof. Obviously, many details are still to be filled out, although (Gold 1967) showed that the regular lan-
possibly depending on the concrete application guages cannot be EX-learned from positive examples
scenario. For example, we might require a learner that only, they can be upper-best approximated by
works for any probability distribution, or we might 0-reversible languages, as shown by Kobayashi and
optimize a learner toward an expected probability Yokomori, 1997.
 Aptitude-Treatment Interaction A 295

When types of concepts different from languages A

are to be learned, yet other notions of approximate Aptitudes and Human
learning should be defined. Performance
▶ Ability Determinants of Complex Skill Acquisition
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
Although PAC learning is surely the prominent repre-
sentative among the possible scenarios of approxima-
tive learning, it is not the only choice. It would be Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
valuable to have criteria at hand that suggest, in
a concrete application situation, which of the notions YU-CHU YEH
would be the appropriate one to pick, if any. Institute of Teacher Education, Research Center for
Mind, Brain and Learning, Center for Creativity and
Cross-References Innovation Studies, National Chengchi University,
▶ Formal Learning Theory Taipei, Wenshan, Taiwan
▶ Grammar Learning
▶ Language Acquisition and Development
▶ PAC Learning Synonyms
▶ Statistical Learning Theory and Induction Attribute-treatment interaction

References Definition
Gold, E. M. (1967). Language identification in the limit. Information Aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) research is
and Control, 10, 447–474. a research paradigm that attempts to examine how an
Kobayashi, S., & Yokomori, T. (1995). On approximately identifying outcome depends on the match between individuals’
concept classes in the limit. In K. P. Jantke, T. Shinohara, &
specific aptitude(s) and the treatment they receive.
Th. Zeugmann (Eds.), Algorithmic learning theory ALT’95,
LNAI 997 (pp. 298–312). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. When a treatment and an individual’s aptitude(s) are
Kobayashi, S., & Yokomori, T. (1997). Learning approximately regu- matched, the effect of the treatment is optimal. While
lar languages with reversible languages. Theoretical Computer an aptitude refers to any measurable personal charac-
Science, 174(1–2), 251–257. teristic that would have an impact on achieving goals in
Menzel, W., Stephan, F., et al. (2003). Inductive versus approximative
the designed treatment, a treatment refers to any
learning. In R. Kuehn (Ed.), Perspectives of adaptivity and learn-
ing (pp. 187–209). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
manipulable situational variable. An interaction occurs
Valiant, L. G. (1984). A theory of the learnable. Communications of when a treatment has an effect on one type of individ-
the ACM, 27, 1134–1142. ual and a different effect on another.
Vidyasagar, M. (1997). A theory of learning and generalization, with
applications to neural networks and control systems. London: Theoretical Background
Springer.

The Goal of ATI

According to ATI, individuals differ in their readiness
to profit from a particular treatment at a particular
Aptitude time, and individuals may adapt their situations to fit
their own characteristics. Therefore, ATI offers
A measure of an individual’s potential to learn a framework for interpreting aptitudes as personal
music. Tests have been developed by researchers such readiness to profit from particular treatment situa-
as Edwin Gordon to measure music aptitude. tions.The goal of ATI is to find the interactions between
alternative treatments and learners’ aptitudes and
Cross-References therefore to create an environment in which the treat-
▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities ments match the aptitude of the learner, in other
▶ Learner Characteristics and Online Learning words, to achieve optimal learning (Cronbach and
296 A Aptitude-Treatment Interaction

Snow 1977). Notably, ATI methodology is designed to studies. To date, most ATI studies have been conducted
evaluate the degree to which alternative treatments to determine whether the effects of different instruc-
have different effects on learners with different apti- tional methods are influenced by learners’ individual
tudes and thus to determine whether particular treat- aptitudes. In this line of research, many studies have
ments should be chosen or adapted to fit particular examined the concept of aptitude complexes. Aptitude
learners optimally (Snow 1991). Accordingly, ATI complexes have emerged from the recognition that
allows for the interactive creation and construction of different aptitude combinations sometimes interact
knowledge, which in turn would enhance educators’ with the same treatment contrasts. For example, empir-
ability to create more customized individual learning ical studies of college students and adults found that
environments. three aptitudes – self-concept, interest, and motiva-
tional trait – were correlated with domain knowledge
Development of ATI and ability measures (Ackerman 2003). Therefore,
The concept of ATI was first proposed by L. J. Cronbach aptitude complexes can be determined from extant
in 1957. Cronbach encouraged psychologists to observe assessment measures, and aptitude complexes play an
the experimental effects for participants of varied char- important role in determining the level of effort toward
acteristics and to conduct investigations to find aptitude- knowledge and skill acquisition.
treatment interactions (ATIs). However, R. E. Snow is In the area of multimedia instruction, ATI also
thought of as the pioneer who conceptualized and inves- plays a major role in delivering the basics for the devel-
tigated how combinations of aptitudes interacted to opment of “adaptive instructional systems.” Related
produce differential educational outcomes. Based on ATI studies suggest that web-based learning could be
his studies, Snow proposed “aptitude complexes,” significantly enhanced by adapting presentation and
which emphasize that aptitudes should not be treated instructional methods to styles in the wholist–analytic
as isolated variables and that the interactions of different dimension (Cook 2005). Moreover, a study employing
aptitudes can produce differential educational outcomes. an ATI approach and focused on motivation training
Two dissertations supervised by Snow in 1976 found that a combination of attention and relevance
provided important support for the concept of strategies improved motivation to learn, especially for
aptitude complexes. The first study used ninth-grade those students with low levels of pre-motivation
students as participants and found significant ATIs (Astleitner and Koller 2006).
between four teaching approaches and three aptitudes: To date, many ATI studies have been employed in
namely, ability, anxiety, and conformance. The second the field of special education for students who are
study included participants from high schools and either gifted or in need of assistance. Some of the
found that combinations of conative and personality origins of the popularly used individual education
factors interacted with the ability level and the treat- plans (IEPs) in special education are derived from
ments involving high or low structure. By the late ATI theory and practice. In addition, ATI research
1980s, the existence of different aptitude complexes and ATI methodologies have been used in teacher
had been supported by many studies. Though most of training for special education and in the delivery of
the evidence of this complex interaction between apti- individualized career planning workshops (Merz and
tudes and treatments was indirect, this orientation Szymanski 1997).
became the theoretical precursor to later studies on ATI studies were also found in general teacher
strategy training (Ackerman 2003). training research. For example, a study was conducted
to examine whether teacher traits would interact with
Application of ATI the designed treatments and therefore influence
An ATI research design allows for a complex analysis of preservice teachers’ improvement of teacher behaviors
interactions between personal aptitude and the effects during a computer-simulated training session. The
of experiential learning transformation. ATI has been findings suggest that important ATIs occur during
employed to enhance learning in many fields, such as computer-simulation training; more specifically,
general classroom instruction, instructional multime- positive personal traits – including critical-thinking
dia, special education, teacher training, and medical dispositions, judicial and legislative thinking styles,
 Aptitude-Treatment Interaction A 297

critical-thinking skills, and intrapersonal intelligence – To ensure the occurrence of ATI, alternative treat- A
influence how preservice teachers learn and adapt ments and the inclusion of two psychological variables
to information, feedback, and teaching practices are suggested. To be differentially effective for various
(Yeh 2007). types of participants, the alternative treatments should
Comparatively, only a few ATI studies have been demand different abilities for successful performance.
conducted in the medical field. During the medical Moreover, ATI is more likely to occur when two psy-
treatment period, the most important question is chological variables are included in the experimental
what treatment is best or better for whom, when, and design where one psychological variable correlates
why? ATI offers a research paradigm for understanding substantially with success in one treatment and the
exactly how outcome depends on the match or other correlates substantially with success in the other
mismatch between patients’ specific characteristics treatment (Cronbach and Snow 1969).
and the treatments they receive. Therefore, ATI
research offers invaluable insights into the multifaceted Important Scientific Research and
package of care typically delivered in complementary Open Questions
and alternative medicine/integrative medicine (Caspi ATI studies contribute to the construction of theories
and Bell 2004). for effective instruction, medical treatment, and adap-
tive learning. For ATI findings to be meaningful and
feasible, however, ATI research should be driven by
Research Design of ATI
plausible hypotheses based on data-based theories
The most commonly used methods for ATI research are
rather than simply being a hit-or-miss fishing explora-
standard experimental design, regression discontinuity
tion fueled by spurious statistical associations (Caspi
design, and change curves (or growth curves) design.
and Bell 2004). Moreover, personal characteristics
These methods allow the researcher to explicitly test the
abound in correlations, and aptitude complexes play
possibility that one or more aptitudes moderate or
an important role in knowledge construction and
mediate outcome/outcomes through an interaction
skill acquisition (Ackerman 2003). Therefore, when
with one or more treatments (Caspi and Bell 2004).
employing ATI, aptitude complexes should be consid-
1. Standard experimental design: This is the most ered and multiple aptitudes and higher order interac-
commonly used design in ATI research. In such tions should be analyzed. The tendency to oversimplify
a design, participants are randomly assigned to or to reduce complex relationships into simple paired
two or more groups that receive the same treat- relationships should be overcome in order to fully
ment, and the outcome is assessed with respect to benefit each individual learner. In addition, incorpo-
different levels of an aptitude or a set of aptitudes. rating e-learning and neuroscience into educational
2. Regression discontinuity design: This design is and psychological studies has become a new paradigm.
especially appropriate for ATI research when Determining how to integrate e-learning and neurosci-
randomization is not feasible. In this design, ence into ATI research to develop new theories and to
participants are assigned to conditions based on understand the underlying brain functions during
a cutoff score of a certain aptitude measure taken learning is worth trying. Such related findings will
prior to the treatment. The assignment variable shed light on the development of ATI research.
must be an ordinal, interval, or ratio variable.
3. Change curves (or growth curves) design: This Cross-References
design focuses on analyzing how participants ▶ Adaptation to Learning Styles
change in an outcome variable over time. The ▶ Adaptive Blended Learning Environments
main advantages of this approach are that ▶ Adaptive Learning Systems
(1) growth curves preserve the data at the individ- ▶ ARCS-Model of Motivation
ual level; and (2) growth-curve analysis does not ▶ Attitudes and Learning Styles
necessarily require suitable control conditions, ▶ Critical Thinking and Learning
which are crucial to demonstrating treatment ▶ E-learning
effects in comparative trial designs. ▶ Learning Style(s)
298 A AQ Learning

▶ Motivation to Learn Definition

▶ Multimedia Learning AQ learning is a form of supervised machine learning
▶ Neuropsychology of Learning of rules from examples and background knowledge
▶ Personality and Learning performed by the well-known AQ family of programs
▶ Personality Effects on Learning and other machine learning methods. AQ learning
▶ Self-Concept and Learning pioneered separate-and-conquer approach to rule
▶ Simulation-Based Learning learning in which examples are sequentially covered
until a complete class description is formed. Derived
References knowledge is represented in a highly expressive form of
Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Aptitude complexes and trait complexes. attributional rules.
Educational Psychologist, 38(2), 85–93.
Astleitner, H., & Koller, M. (2006). An aptitude-treatment-interac- Theoretical Background
tion-approach on motivation and student’s self-regulated
The core of AQ learning is a simple version of Aq
multimedia-based learning. Interactive Educational Multimedia,
13, 11–23. (algorithm quasi-optimal) covering algorithm, devel-
Caspi, O., & Bell, I. R. (2004). One size does not fit all: Aptitude oped by Ryszard S. Michalski in the late 1960s
x Treatment Interaction (ATI) as a conceptional framework for (Michalski 1969). The algorithm was initially devel-
complementary and alternative medicine outcome research. Part oped for the purpose of minimization of logic func-
1 – What is ATI research? Journal of Alternative and Complemen-
tions, and later adapted for rule learning and other
tary Medicine, 10, 580–586.
Cook, D. A. (2005). Learning and cognitive styles in web-based machine learning applications.
learning: Theory, evidence, and application. Academic Medicine,
80(3), 266–278. Simple Aq Algorithm
Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1969). Final report: Individual differ- Aq algorithm realizes a form of supervised learning.
ences in learning ability as a function of instructional variables. Given a set of positive events (examples) P, a set of
Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
negative events N, and a quality measure Q, the algo-
Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional
methods: A handbook for research on interactions. New York: rithm generates a cover C consisting of complexes, that
Irvington. is, conjunctions of attributional conditions, that cover
Merz, M. A., & Szymanski, E. M. (1997). Effects of a vocational all events from P and no events from N. It uses a beam
rehabilitation-based career workshop on commitment to career search to reduce to a computationally tractable number
choice. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 41, 88–95.
the potentially very large number of generated com-
Snow, R. E. (1991). Aptitude-treatment interaction as a framework
for research on individual differences in psychotherapy. Journal plexes. The algorithm starts by focusing on a single
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 205–216. positive event e, called a seed, which is then generalized
Yeh, Y. C. (2007). Aptitude-treatment interactions in preservice by creating all maximally general complexes that cover
teachers’ behavior change during computer-simulated teaching. the seed and do not cover any events from N. This
Computers and Education, 48(3), 495–507.
maximally general set of complexes is called a star
G(e, N). The best complex c is selected from G(e, N)
according to a user-defined quality measure Q, and
added to the cover C. All events covered by c are
removed from P. If the set of examples P is empty, the
AQ Learning cover C is returned; otherwise another seed is selected
from P and the operation is repeated until P is empty.
JANUSZ WOJTUSIAK This process is presented in Algorithm 1. For simplicity
Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory, College of of description, we can assume here that a complex is
Health and Human Services, George Mason University, equivalent to a rule.
Fairfax, VA, USA The generation of star G(e, N) uses extension-
against operator that generates a maximally general
set of rules that cover one example (positive) and do
Synonyms not cover another example (negative). The result of the
Algorithm quasi-optimal; Star-learning extension-against operation is called a partial star, PS.
 AQ Learning A 299

This operation is denoted by PS(e, n) = e –| n. The Quality Criteria A

intersection of all partial stars for the seed e and all Multiple quality criteria can be used in the selection of
negative examples from N forms the star G(e, N). complexes. AQ programs use the lexicographical evalu-
Because of the potentially very large number of possible ation functional (LEF), which is a multi-criteria evalu-
rules (complexes) in a star, a beam search is used to ation method. Given a set of elemental criteria and
keep track only of the most promising ones. Algorithm tolerances (Ci, ti), i = 1, 2, . . ., LEF sequentially evalu-
2 is a basic version of the algorithm used to generate ates a set of complexes through these criteria. All com-
stars. It takes as an input the seed e, the set of negative plexes that do not fall within the tolerance of the best
examples N, a beam search control parameter maxstar, complex for each criterion in the sequence are
and the quality measure Q, and returns a set of best removed. Among elemental criteria included in AQ
complexes in the star G(e, N). Note that there is no learning are positive coverage, negative coverage, sim-
need to generate all complexes in the star, because only plicity, cost of attributes, and several statistical mea-
the best complex is selected by Aq algorithm. sures whose goal is to maximize positive coverage and
minimize negative coverage of complexes.

Algorithm 1: Aq – simple version

Forms of Rules
Input: P, N, Q Programs from the AQ family learn attributional rules,
Output: C the main knowledge representation form in attribu-
1 C←Ø tional calculus, a logic of reasoning system that sup-
2 Repeat: ports inductive learning in forms natural to people
3 Select a seed e from P (Michalski 2004). Three important forms of such
4 Generate a star G(e, N) rules are (1)–(3).
5 Select the best complex c from G(e, N)
CONSEQUENT <¼¼ PREMISE ð1Þ
6 Include c in C
7 Remove from P examples covered by c CONSEQUENT <¼¼ PREMISE b EXCEPTION
8 Until P is empty ð2Þ
9 Return C
PRECONDITION d CONCEQUENT <¼¼ PREMISE
ð3Þ
where CONSEQUENT, PREMISE, EXCEPTION, and
PRECONDITION are complexes. When learning rules
Algorithm 2: Star generation are in the forms (1)–(3) for a given class, CONSE-
QUENT is always the same; thus, for simplicity only
Input: e, N, Q, maxstar
PREMISE, PRECONDITION, and EXCEPTION are
Output: PS
used. Attributional conditions are in the form
1 PS ← Ø
2 Repeat ½L rel R : A ð4Þ
3 Select a negative example n from N
where L is an attribute, an internal conjunction or
4 PS(e, n) ← e –| n
disjunction of attributes, a compound attribute,
5 If PS = Ø, PS ← PS(e, n)
a counting attribute, or a simple arithmetic function
6 Else PS ← PS \ PS(e, n)
of attributes; rel is one of =, :, >, <, , , or 6¼; R is an
7 Keep only maxstar best complexes in PS,
attribute value, an internal disjunction of attribute
according to Q
values, an attribute, or an internal conjunction of
8 Remove from N examples not covered by PS
values of attributes that are constituents of
9 Until N = Ø
a compound attribute; and A is an optional annotation
10 Return PS
that lists statistical information about the condition
(e.g., pc and nc are condition coverages, defined as the
300 A AQ Learning

numbers of positive and negative examples, respec- ● AQVAL1/AQ7 (1975), which was developed in the
tively, that satisfy the condition). PL/1 programming language to infer optimal or
sub-optimal disjunctive formulas in VL1variable-
Important Scientific Research and valued logic system.
Open Questions ● AQ11 (1978), which was derived from earlier sys-
Research on AQ learning includes topics considered in tems, but included several novel features such as
many machine learning methods. These include creating incremental learning and event selection.
knowledge in forms that are easy to interpret, learning ● AQ15 and AQ15c (1986, 1995), which included
from very large datasets, learning from very small several novel features, such as truncation of learned
datasets, using background knowledge to guide learning rules.
process, computational efficiency of algorithms, and ● AQ17 (1991), which included constructive induc-
others. A special focus of research on AQ learning is in tion methods for automatically improving the rep-
creating knowledge in forms that can be easily under- resentation space.
stood by people not trained in machine learning by ● AQ19 (2001), which included new methods of han-
incorporating constructs that directly correspond to dling noise in the data, including pattern discovery
natural language (Kaufman and Michalski 2005). mode in which a set of general patterns is discov-
ered rather than regular complete and consistent
Major Modifications covers.
Since its inception, AQ learning has gone through ● AQ21 (2004) is to date the newest implementation
several major modifications and improvements. More of AQ learning. The program includes the largest
advanced versions of the AQ method extend it in number of features from previous implementations,
a variety of ways: using several seeds (to protect the as well as several new ones, such as generating
method against noise), employing different concept alternative covers, generating natural language
representations (attributional or relational), generating descriptions, handling meta-values, and handling
rules with different interrelationships (independent, additional attribute types. The program is currently
disjoint, or sequentially ordered covers), using different being extended with new features.
methods for handling data inconsistency (minimum,
Several independently developed rule learning
maximum, free and statistic-based generalization),
programs are based on AQ algorithm or its variants.
learning rules in batch or incremental mode, seeking
One such well-known program is CN2 developed by
rules that represent the best trade-off between their
Peter Clark and Tim Niblett.
consistency, coverage, and simplicity, using different
criteria of rule optimality, involving operators for
deriving more relevant attributes (data-driven, hypoth-
Cross-References
▶ Constructive Induction
esis-driven, or multistrategy constructive induction),
▶ Rule Learning
applying prior knowledge (a- and l-rules, knowledge-
▶ Supervised Learning
driven constructive induction), post-optimization of
learned descriptions (TRUNC/s and TRUNC/sg),
generation of single or alternative descriptions, learn- References
ing rules with exceptions or preconditions, use of Kaufman, K., & Michalski, R. S. (2005). From data mining to knowl-
edge mining. In C. R. Rao, J. L. Solka, & E. J. Wegman (Eds.),
different types of attributes (nominal, structured,
Handbook in statistics, vol. 24: Data mining and data visualization
graph, ordinal, interval, ratio, absolute, set-valued, (pp. 47–75). North Holland: Elsevier.
and compound), reasoning with meta-values Michalski, R. S. (1969). On the quasi-minimal solution of the general
(unknown, not applicable, and irrelevant), and others. covering problem. Proceedings of the V international symposium
on information processing (FCIP 69) (Switching Circuits), vol. A3.
Yugoslavia, Bled, pp. 125–128, October 8–11.
Main Programs Developed Michalski, R. S. (2004). Attributional calculus: a logic and representa-
Over 4 decades of research have resulted in several tion language for natural induction. Reports of the Machine
implementations of AQ learning. Among the best- Learning and Inference Laboratory, MLI 04–2, George Mason
known programs from the AQ family are: University, Fairfax, VA.
 Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274) A 301

Contribution(s) to the Field of A

Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274) Learning
Aquinas’ theory of knowledge relies on the senses accu-
DAMIAN GRACE rately representing the world, and on the understand-
Department of Government and International ing grasping immediately the nature of truths. Error,
Relations, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia however, comes from judgments, which can be mis-
taken because judgment pronounces upon the world by
way of comparison and affirmation and denial of sim-
Synonyms ilarities. We might believe, for example, that water boils
St Thomas; Angelic Doctor at 100 and judge – incorrectly – that water boiling in
a hut on a 3,000 m mountain was 100 . We could
Life Dates correct this error by ourselves or be corrected by others.
Thomas Aquinas was born at Roccasecca in the King- Should we choose to pursue the matter, we might
dom of Naples, in 1225 or 1226 to Theodora, Countess eventually arrive at a true scientific understanding of
of Teano and Landulph, Count of Aquino. His family boiling points through the Clausius–Clapeyron equa-
was connected to the Emperors Henry VI and Frederick tion. The correction of error by education is an obvious
II, and to the Kings of Argon, Castile, and France. and economical way of learning. It might appear from
Disappointing his aristocratic family’s expectations, the theological context of Aquinas’ views about educa-
he chose to become a Dominican friar, devoted to tion that he would argue from authority. Indeed, he
academic life, principally at the University of Paris, as cites authorities, Christian and non-Christian, copi-
a theologian and philosopher (Finnis 1998, p. 1, 15). ously but he also recognizes the limits of appeal to
He died at Fossanova Cisterican monastery on 7 authority. Hence, in disputes to remove doubts about
March, 1274 and was canonized on 18 July, 1323. a matter of fact, authority has its place. For example, if
Aquinas is generally regarded as the greatest of medie- one is addressing Jews, one can appeal to the authority
val philosophers and theologians. of the Old Testament. With Christians, the authority of
the Old and New Testaments and the Church Fathers
may be invoked. With those who accept no authority,
Theoretical Background arguments employing “natural reasons” are appropri-
While primarily a natural theologian, seeking to ate. Disputes of a pedagogical nature also require the
illuminate God and Creation through natural reason employment of reasons, “reasons which track down the
rather than scriptural exegesis, Aquinas was root of the truth and create a real knowledge of how it is
a considerable philosopher. His use of the newly avail- that your assertions are true. Otherwise, if professors
able works of Aristotle became the main route by settle questions by bare authorities, listeners are indeed
which Aristotelian philosophy was reintroduced to told that such-and-such is so, but gain nothing in the
Western Europe. The Middle Ages were very different way of knowledge or understanding, and go away
from the modern era, but it is wrong to caricature empty” (Finnis 1998, p. 12).
them as benighted, resistant to intellectual endeavor, Doubt for Aquinas is not the mark of skepticism
and dominated by a church suspicious of heresy and but of inquiry. He held that doubt derives from rea-
demanding unquestioning obedience. The political sons, that is, it is not mere unbelief but puzzlement
tumults of the time are not reflected in Aquinas’ arising from a problem. Philosophy is the unrestricted
works, but philosophical controversies are. Aquinas consideration of truth arising from doubt (Finnis 1998,
was a devout friar but he was quite unafraid of dispu- p. 12, n. 14).
tation about matters central to his beliefs. He held that Clear though this debt to Aristotle might be,
faith and reason complemented each other. Moreover, Aquinas’ philosophical views have to be distilled from
he was a strong advocate for values not dissimilar a theological context. Moreover, as he wrote no work
from those held dear in educational circles today. dedicated to the philosophy of education, Aquinas’
To illustrate this, consider his views on authority, views about teaching and learning have to be gathered
argument, and doubt. from a number of his writings, principally from his
302 A Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274)

magnum opus, the Summa Theologiae (Summation of there must be an active faculty in the intellect for this
Theology), and the Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate to occur, for the abstraction of general principles from
(Disputed Questions on Truth). These are works of a world of particular objects in flux (Aquinas 1265–8, 1,
metaphysics, and so his views of teaching and learning 84, a. 6). There is in the human person, “a certain
are not only dispersed, but are also embedded in some principle of knowledge namely the light of the active
difficult Aristotelian philosophy. intellect,” which holds the potential to make universal
Most relevant here is the Aristotelian view of forms, principles immediately understood (Aquinas 1265–8,
which differs greatly from those of his teacher, Plato. Q 117, a. 1). As the source of that light, God is ulti-
Plato explained the persistence of objects, such as mately the cause of understanding, but at the basic level
horses or triangles, by the existence of a realm of of sensory acquaintance with the world, the agent intel-
“forms,” separate from the concrete particulars to lect is the means by which we acquire our store of
which they gave shape. How is it that we learn what concepts about it. It is the agency which accounts for
a horse or triangle is by looking at examples, but are the mental change that occurs with the acquisition of
then able to recognize other horses or triangles not knowledge. Following Aristotle (Aristotle, 350 BC, iii,
having the particular characteristics of the examples? 5), Aquinas argues that the agent intellect moves from
For Plato, “horseness” and “triangularity” existed in ignorance to knowledge, from quiescence to thinking.
a realm of unchangeable forms that gave stability to The more the intellect is able to abstract from the
the world of flux and variety, in which there are many particular objects, the more sure the knowledge. “The
possible types of horses and objects of triangular perfect intellectual operation in man,” writes Aquinas,
appearance. Aristotle rejected this doctrine of forms “consists in an abstraction” from mental images and the
but not the need for an explanation of our understand- more free intellect is from images the better able it will
ing of general concepts. He located the forms not in be to understand (Aquinas 1265–8, II-II, Q. 15, a. 3, 3).
a separate realm, but in the intellect. For Aristotle, it is For the material conditions that originate sense knowl-
intellect that abstracts forms from matter – the univer- edge also obscure it to an extent by their very materi-
sal concept “horse” from viewing a particular horse. ality. Hence, sight is the best of the senses because it is
This abstracting function he called the “agent intellect.” “the least material” (Aquinas 1265–8, I, Q. 84, a. 2).
That part of intellect that receives, understands, and
stores abstractions he called the “possible intellect.” Important Scientific Research and
Within a Christian context, Thomas Aquinas Open Questions
explicitly rejects Plato’s theory of knowledge, and Knowledge may be acquired by discovery or by instruc-
adopts Aristotle’s view of the intellect (Aquinas 1265–8, tion (Donohue 1968, p. 83f.). As indicated above, the
1, Q 84 & 117). Persons neither have innate knowledge light of the agent intellect enables us to learn through
nor are their intellects passive machine-like recorders grasping universal principles of knowledge as soon as
of information. On the contrary, states Thomas, “the they are proposed. When these universal principles are
passive intellect of the human soul is in pure potenti- applied to particular sensory experiences or memories,
ality to intelligible (species), as Aristotle says (Aristotle, a person moves from what he or she knows to what was
350 BC, iii, 4: Aquinas 1265–8, 1, Q 117, a. 1). This kind not previously known. A similar process occurs in
of Aristotelian language permeates the works of teaching. Instruction from a teacher is a less accurate
Aquinas. It indicates the methodological strategy of means of learning than personal discovery. Instruction
seeing temporal change in terms of potency and act – can point pupils toward conclusions, but the mere
or potential and actualization. Hence, persons by their provision of information or conclusions is neither
very nature possess an intellective soul, and this is what teaching nor learning. Without understanding, the
distinguishes them from other animals. Persons are pupil does not truly know: he or she has not been
potential knowers, acquisitive inquirers about the taught and has not really learnt.
world, and not mere passive receivers of sense data According to Aquinas, “the teacher causes knowl-
(Donohue 1968, p. 68f.). Although the senses produce edge in the learner by reducing him from potentiality
knowledge, they cannot do so by themselves. Sense data to act.” This strange way of putting the matter reflects
are transformed into knowledge by the intellect, so a point of view that sees a real, if immaterial, change in
 Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274) A 303

the learner’s mind after that mind acquires knowledge. There is another reason that the role of the teacher A
A materialist theory of knowledge acquisition would in imparting knowledge is indirect. Because a teacher
find in sense impressions sufficient cause for alteration uses signs to instruct and because knowledge of prin-
of the mind. Just as an impression might be made on ciples, not of signs, gives us knowledge of conclusions,
wet clay, so sense data would make physical changes in then true learning is always a matter of discovery by the
the brain that we might call knowledge. Aquinas takes learner. We can never come to know about the nature of
the contrary view: the mind is immaterial and so can- things through signs alone. The teacher must, however,
not be changed directly by sense data, which he takes to use signs – usually words – to guide the pupil to apply
be physical. The agent intellect abstracts from sense principles known self-evidently (per se nota) by the
data and in an intellective act changes the mind. It light of the intellect to concrete particulars and deter-
now contains the abstracted understanding of what minate conclusions about them (Aquinas 1256–9,
was observed. This is a peculiarly human form of learn- Q 11; Aquinas 1265–8, 1, Q. 117). The question of
ing (Aquinas 1265–8, 1, Q. 117). The mind comes to principles known self-evidently raises a host of argu-
possess the object that it learns about in an intellective, ments, but Aquinas’ point may be illustrated by princi-
immaterial fashion, not as the result of the action of ples such as the sum of angles in a triangle being equal to
stimuli on a passive and material organ of thought. It the sum of two right angles; or that color is coterminus
will be obvious that learning on this understanding is with extension. The truth of such propositions is imme-
always accomplished by discovery (inventio), even if diately evident to the intellect. With respect to the mate-
assisted by formal instruction (disciplina). The art of rial world known through the senses, it is the action of
the teacher is significant, but like the art of the physi- the agent intellect that abstracts intelligible forms
cian, it is indirect. The physician does not impart heath directly from sense experience to produce an “intelligi-
directly to a patient, but uses his art or skill to assist ble likeness” of sensory observations in the mind. The
nature to heal. So too, a teacher cannot cause knowl- instruction of the teacher can produce an effect on the
edge directly in a pupil, but can nevertheless by skill agent intellect by presenting the pupil with “signs of
cause an ignorant person to become learned. Like the intelligible things” from which the agent intellect may
doctor, the teacher leads by the path which is most derive “intelligible likenesses (which cause) them to exist
natural. And just as the body will heal itself if so led, in the possible intellect” (Aquinas 1256–9, Q 11, Art. II).
the pupil will learn if led along the path by which she Obviously, learning on this account is not some-
would most effectively learn. thing that can be “outsourced” to a teacher or an
The role of the teacher is to motivate learning in the education system. A teacher cannot fill a pupil’s head
pupil, and to propose to them signs so that they may with knowledge, and a system cannot “deliver” educa-
form “intelligible concepts” by the power of their own tion as material goods, such as a pizza, might be deliv-
intellect (Aquinas 1265–8, 1, Q. 117, 3.). Teaching can ered. Aquinas does not diminish of the role of the
take two forms. According to the first, the teacher offers teacher, for his argument is metaphysical, not practical.
the pupil familiar examples or propositions of a less Rather, he affirms the potential and accomplishment of
general kind that draw on the pupil’s previous knowl- the learner: the teacher cannot make the pupil know,
edge and which allow them to make comparisons of but when the teacher has taught the pupil, then the
likenesses and differences and so extend their knowl- pupil’s knowledge will resemble that of the teacher
edge. The teacher leads the learner from things known (Aquinas 1265–8, II-II, Q 171, a. 6).
to new discoveries. Aquinas cites the principle from
Aristotle: “All teaching and all learning proceed from Cross-References
previous knowledge.” Secondly, the teacher might ▶ Aristotle (384–322 BC)
strengthen the intellect of the pupil in a kind of ▶ Epistemology and Learning in Medieval Philosophy
demonstration of the order of principles underlying ▶ Plato (429–347 BC)
conclusions (Aquinas 1265–8, I, Q 117, a. 1). One
cannot passively know something. A set of conclusions References
is not really known unless the premises that led up to Aquinas, T. (1256-9). Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate. Accessible
them are understood. online at http://dhspriory.org/thomas/QDdeVer.htm
304 A ARCS Model

Aquinas, T. (1265-8). Summa Theologiae. Accessible online at http:// value theory, reinforcement theory, intrinsic motiva-
www.newadvent.org/summa/ tion theory, and cognitive evaluation theory (Keller
Aristotle. (350 BC). De Anima. Accessible online at http://etext.
1983, 2010). Concepts were placed in given categories
virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AriSoul.html
Donohue, J. W. (1968). St. Thomas Aquinas and Education. New York: depending on whether their primary area of influence
Random House. was on gaining learner attention (A), establishing the
Finnis, J. (1998). Aquinas. Oxford: Oxford University Press. relevance of the instruction to learner goals and learn-
ing styles (R), building confidence in regard to realistic
expectations and personal responsibility for outcomes
(C), and making the instruction satisfying by managing
ARCS Model learners’ intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes (S).
The conceptual foundation for the first category,
▶ ARCS Model of Motivation attention, is based on attributes related to gaining
attention, building curiosity, and sustaining active
engagement in the learning activity. Research on curi-
osity, arousal, and boredom illustrates the importance
ARCS Model of Motivation of using a variety of approaches including such things
as interesting graphics, animation, or any kind of event
JOHN M. KELLER that introduces incongruity or conflict or that stimu-
Instructional Systems Program (Emeritus), lates a learner’s sense of inquiry. Another aspect of this
Department of Educational Psychology & Learning category refers to attention span in relation to sensa-
Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA tion seeking needs, or boredom susceptibility. People
differ with respect to their optimal arousal levels.
The second category, relevance, includes concepts
Synonyms and strategies that establish connections between the
ARCS model; Motivational Design; Motivation to learn instructional environment and the learner’s goals,
learning styles, and past experiences. Learner goals
Definition can be motivated by extrinsic requirements, intrinsic
The ARCS model (Keller 1983) is a motivational design desires, or a combination of these as explained in self-
process that includes a synthesis of motivational con- determination theory. Other concepts that help explain
cepts and theories that are clustered into four catego- relevance are motives such as the needs for achieve-
ries: attention (A), relevance (R), confidence (C), and ment, affiliation, and power, competence, flow, and
satisfaction (S). Each of these major categories contains authenticity.
subcategories that consist of smaller, more homoge- Confidence, the third category, incorporates vari-
neous subsets of concepts. The categories resulted ables related to students’ feelings of personal control
from grouping motivational concepts based on shared and expectancy for success. When students are moti-
attributes. The categories and subcategories provide vated by beliefs that success is primarily due to their
a basis for analyzing the characteristics of learner own abilities and efforts rather than to luck or the task
motivation to determine how to create motivational being too easy, they are more likely to persist in their
strategies and learning environments that stimulate achievement striving behavior. Thus, the confidence
and sustain people’s desires to learn. The design process category includes areas of motivational research such
can also be used to identify deficiencies in specific areas as self-efficacy, attribution theory, locus of control, and
of learner motivation so that remedial strategies can be goal orientation theory; that is, if people are focused on
developed. the task and/or process of learning, which are control-
lable foci of effort, then they are more likely to be less
Theoretical Background anxious about outcomes and be more productive than
The categories that emerged were based on an empir- if they are focused on outcomes such as people’s atti-
ical examination of the attributes of each concept and tudes about them and about how successful they will be,
in relation to underlying theories such as expectancy- which can be called a performance or ego orientation.
 Argumentation and Learning A 305

These first three categories pertain to conditions ▶ Motivational Variables in Learning A

that are necessary to establish a student’s motivation ▶ Self-Regulation and Motivation Strategies
to learn while the fourth category, satisfaction, is
necessary for learners to have positive feelings about References
their learning experiences and to develop continuing Baylor, A. (2007). Pedagogical agents as social interface. Educational
motivation to learn. This means that extrinsic rein- Technology, 47(1), 11–14.
Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M.
forcements, such as positive rewards and recognition,
Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An
must be used in accordance with established principles
overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
of behavior management, and must not have Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance:
a detrimental effect on intrinsic motivation. Finally, The ARCS model approach. New York: Springer.
a sense of equity, or fairness, is important. Students Kim, C. M., & Keller, J. M. (2008). Effects of motivational and
must feel that the amount of work required by the volitional email messages (MVEM) with personal messages on
undergraduate students’ motivation, study habits and achieve-
course was appropriate, that there was internal consis-
ment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 36–51.
tency among objectives, content, and tests, and that Oh, S. Y. (2006). The effects of reusable motivational objects in design-
there was no favoritism in grading. ing reusable learning object-based instruction. Tallahassee: The
Florida State University.
Important Scientific Research and Song, S. H., & Keller, J. M. (2001). Effectiveness of motivationally
adaptive computer-assisted instruction on the dynamic aspects
Open Questions
of motivation. Educational Technology Research and Develop-
Research on the ARCS model has seen a shift in empha-
ment, 49(2), 5–22.
sis from model-validation studies to design-based
studies that focus on the improvement of instructional
materials as in the design of motivationally adaptive
instruction (Song and Keller 2001), and the develop- Argument by Analogy
ment of the concept of reusable motivational objects
(RMO) (Oh 2006). This research also focuses on ▶ Analogical Reasoning
learner support as in the incorporation of animated
pedagogical agents in computer-based instruction
(Baylor 2007), and the incorporation of personal moti-
vational message in face-to-face and blended learning Argumentation and Learning
environments (Kim and Keller 2008).
There are important questions that can be asked in MICHAEL J. FORD
all of these areas, but one that is particularly challeng- Department of Instruction and Learning, University of
ing in both basic research and design-based research is Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
the identification of motivational deficits that are
salient at the time a motivational intervention is
being introduced. This process can be assisted by the Synonyms
use of measurement surveys and the analysis of specific Dialogue; Social interaction; Social learning
motivational challenges to learner motivation (Keller
2010). However, this is an area that can benefit from Definition
additional research on the development of indicators Argumentation and learning typically are not thought
that help distinguish symptoms from causes and that about in tandem, particularly because the word
can be administered in action, or design-based research “argumentation” can conjure notions of divisiveness
settings. and acrimony. However, argumentation can be not
only combative, but also cooperative. Psychologists
Cross-References and educators, who study how people learn, consider
▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories argumentation to be an important influence on learn-
▶ Motivation Enhancement ing. How engaging in argumentation influences the
▶ Motivation, Volition, and Performance learning of individuals is the subject of this entry.
306 A Argumentation and Learning

Theoretical Background Early in his career, Piaget had an interest in the way
Scholarship on how argumentation influences learning conflict between alternative ideas arises between
can be organized into a number of approaches. children when they interact, that is, from a social
One approach is to identify activities that, in general, source. Although his career did not continue to focus
support individuals’ learning, and then to consider on this so-called sociocognitive conflict (see entry on
which of these are happening when people engage ▶ Social-Cognitive Influences on Learning), other
in argumentation. For example, it has been found researchers in this tradition, (now referred to as neo-
that when people make knowledge explicit, their learn- Piagetians) have continued this approach to study how
ing is supported. During argumentation, making one’s argumentation influences learning. Researchers within
ideas explicit is required because communication this have considered learning to be traced through
demands it. Learning researchers also have argued social interactions themselves. For example, if one
that learning is supported when one encounters ideas person puts forward an idea and another person differs
that differ from one’s beliefs, because this motivates with that idea by critiquing it, then the first person
efforts to resolve the differences. During these efforts, often changes the original idea in some way. Because
much is learned about the ideas themselves and the idea has been changed in the process of argumen-
whether and how they apply to the situation at hand. tation, it can be thought of as an instance of learning.
Finally, learning researchers have found that when peo- Although this is a very simple example, it demonstrates
ple talk about ideas and their application, they contrib- a framework that is used within this approach.
ute to knowledge that is co-constructed. That is, when Another popular approach to studying argumenta-
one individual contributes some ideas, and another tion and learning focuses on the structure of arguments
individual contributes others, the resulting shared and how structure underpins sound reasoning. Kuhn
understanding is comprised by elements of both con- (1991) is a developmental psychologist who has focused
tributions, which is by definition greater than what on how arguing and sound reasoning are related. In
either individual could have learned alone. Andriessen a series of interviews about social issues, she invited
(2006) represents a very accessible review of the people to voice their opinions and the reasons for
research that could be considered under this approach. them, often motivating argument by presenting alter-
Another approach to studying the relationship native points of view. She found that people very often
between argumentation and learning is to consider do not reason in sound ways, and that one common
the differences between two points of view in terms error is to cite one’s opinion as the evidence for it or the
of the cognitive conflict these produce. The role of reasons behind it. In other words, people tend to allow
cognitive conflict is central to ▶ Piaget’s learning their beliefs to color the information they consider to
theory (this volume), who posited that humans have bear on those beliefs. Kuhn noted that this is an issue
a fundamental need to make sense of their environment of structural integrity. An argument that keeps
and experiences. From a very young age, the human a distinction between beliefs and evidence is structurally
mind develops cognitive structures in various forms sound, whereas an argument that blends the two is not.
(e.g., ideas, schemas) that interpret the environment It is only when beliefs and evidence are held apart as
and make sense of experiences as a person interacts distinct categories that evidence can serve as an objec-
with it. As more interactions are experienced, some tive, independent reference for judging those beliefs.
novel aspects are experienced for which the current Other research within the structural approach
cognitive structures are insufficient. Driven by a need to studying argumentation has focused on the
to make sense (what Piaget called equilibrium), the discipline-specific aspects of arguments (i.e., academic
human mind appeals to one of two strategies. If possi- disciplines or school subjects). One of the underlying
ble, the mind tries to alter the sense that can be made of assumptions of these efforts has been that learning of
the novelty by interpreting it through existing cognitive disciplinary content involves not only what is known
structures. If this is not possible, the cognitive struc- (the accepted ideas in a discipline), but also how it is
tures themselves are altered, either by addition or known, or what are called the epistemic aspects of it.
change, to achieve sense of the novelty. (Piaget labeled Science learning has been a particular focus of the
the former assimilation and the later accommodation). structural approach. Some researchers, convinced
 Argumentation and Learning A 307

about the importance of discipline-specific aspects of The role of social interaction generally on learning A
argumentation, appealed to literature in science studies during argumentation is an approach that is currently
(a field comprised by history, philosophy, and sociol- gaining attention of scholars. Asterhan and Schwartz
ogy of science) to gain understanding of how science (2009) studied pairs of undergraduate students as they
constructs knowledge through argumentation. learned key ideas in evolutionary biology. Students were
A particularly popular version of this was put forward instructed on the notion of natural selection and
by Toulmin (1958). The Toulmin Argument Pattern is were provided examples of phenomena that this
a scheme for parts of arguments and how these parts explains. They were then presented with an organism’s
are related. It highlights the claim, the evidence for it, feature (webbed feet of ducks) and asked to explain how
warrants (reasons why the evidence supports the this feature might have evolved. Later, all students were
claim), as well as counterarguments, rebuttals, and tested on the key ideas. Asterhan and Schwartz orga-
the like. Although Toulmin has noted that his intent nized the student pairs into two groups according to
in creating this scheme was not to provide an analytical whether they learned natural selection or not. They then
tool for education or linguistics, it has nevertheless identified features of student discourse that were corre-
been a very productive tool for such scholars. The lated with learning. They found that dialectical discourse
Toulmin Argument Pattern is used in linguistic schol- (in which one of the students disputed or challenged an
arship for characterizing the texts of completed argu- idea) was related to learning. Moreover, learning also
ments and in education as structural prompts for depended on one of the students identifying with the
students to argue and through arguing, to learn scien- idea that was being challenged, rather than it being
tific ideas and the reasons behind them. hypothetical or not belonging to someone. This study
The scholarship of D. Kuhn and Toulmin put for- is particularly interesting because in contrast to expec-
ward a structural account of what comprises good tations, consensual discourse, (when students agree and
arguments. That is, arguments are good if the evidence build upon each other’s ideas) was not related to learn-
(and other structural parts) supports them sufficiently. ing. Asterhan and Schwartz note that consensual dis-
An alternative approach is represented in the work of course may be necessary, but it clearly is not sufficient.
Argumentation Theorists (van Eemeren and The combination of consensus with challenge dur-
Grootendorst 2004). Rather than the structure of an ing argumentation is also considered important by
argument determining whether it is good, Argumenta- Mercer and Littleton (2007). In a series of studies of
tion Theorists assert that arguments are good when classroom learning, Mercer and Littleton note three
they successfully persuade a reasoned critic. This kinds of talk are common during argumentation, but
point of view highlights the dynamic nature of argu- that only one is particularly important for learning.
ments, and even the criteria by which they should be Disputational talk is characterized by disagreement
judged, by centering these not on some abstract and individualized decision-making, when students
category of evidence, but in the reaction of another make few attempts to pool resources or build on each
person. Moreover, whereas a structural approach pro- other’s ideas. Cumulative talk is when students affirm
vides a static picture of arguments, a dynamic view each others’ ideas and accumulate them together.
could help illuminate the very raison d’être of evidence Exploratory talk, which is most related to learning, is
as independent from belief. That is, whereas the struc- when students engage both critically and constructively
tural view merely notes that evidence is part of a good with each other’s ideas. Statements may be challenged
argument, in argumentation as it develops, evidence – and counter-challenged, but challenges are justified
and more fundamentally, a need for an independent and alternatives are offered. In exploratory talk, knowl-
reference – emerges when two or more parties disagree. edge is made publicly accountable and reasoning is
When more than one alternative idea is in play, and made visible.
when a choice among them must be made, successful
resolution often depends upon information that is Important Scientific Research and
independent of those ideas. Thus, it is from interaction Open Questions
with and the reaction of an audience that the concept of It remains unclear in what ways consensus and chal-
evidence as an independent adjudicator emerges. lenge contribute to learning during argumentation,
308 A Argumentation and Learning in Science Education

and more research is needed. On the surface, it seems Definition

that consensus and challenge stand in opposition. But If language is considered as playing an important role
it is undeniably the case that academic disciplines in science, since 10–20 years now research and educa-
themselves construct knowledge using both. That is, tion practices turn attention to argumentation as
during the process of peer review, colleagues critique a critically important epistemic discourse process in
ideas put forward by their peers. It is only when ideas science education. Argumentation in science, i.e., the
pass peer review, when the critiques have been interactive coordination of evidence and theory to sup-
answered, that new knowledge is put forward as port or refute an explanatory conclusion, model, or
accepted by the community. Some psychologists have prediction, may help to construct scientific knowledge.
argued that individual reasoning is influenced by Argumentative practices to learn are defined as activi-
community practices. It remains an open question ties in which interlocutors cooperate in solving or
how learning on an individual level might be exploring a particular problem to which a number of
influenced by participation in social processes like hypothesis or solutions are proposed, by engaging in
peer review. reasoning.

Cross-References Theoretical Background

▶ Argumentation and Learning in Science Education At first glance, argumentation to learn in science edu-
▶ Learning and Understanding cation might look paradoxical as argumentation is
▶ Piaget’s Learning Theory often seen as a kind of discursive practice used to take
decisions, deliberate, or persuade actions or opinions.
Deductive thinking and use of proof would be more
References relevant to scientific domain. In school context, science
Andriessen, J. (2006). Arguing to learn. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.),
has long been considered from a “positivist perspec-
The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 443–460).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
tive” which states that science is based on empirical
Asterhan, C. S. C., & Schwartz, B. B. (2009). Argumentation and processes, where claims to truth are grounded in obser-
explanation in conceptual change: Indications from protocol vation, and conclusions are unproblematic deduction
analyses of peer-to-peer dialog. Cognitive Science, 33, 374–400. from such observations. Research in the everyday activ-
Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. New York: Cambridge Uni- ities of scientists show however that they are engaged in
versity Press.
“argumentative” practices of evaluating the validity
Mercer, N., & Littleton, K. (2007). Dialogue and the development of
children’s thinking. New York: Routledge. and the reliability of competing theories. Science is
Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. New York: Cambridge therefore a social process of knowledge construction
University Press. that involves conjecture, rhetoric, and argument. Argu-
Van Eemeren, F. H., & Grootendorst, R. (2004). A systematic theory of mentation can thus be seen as “the language of science”
argumentation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
(Driver et al. 2000) since this kind of discourse means
to critically examine and evaluate transformations of
evidence into explanations.
In this perspective, argumentation in science edu-
cation provides a “literacy in science,” sustaining the
Argumentation and Learning in development of the scientific reasoning that students
Science Education will use to investigate, discover, represent, communi-
cate, assess, and evaluate knowledge claims. They will
NATHALIE MULLER MIRZA search for reasons, examine the available data, test
Institute of Psychological, University of Lausanne, alternative hypotheses, etc., which allows them to real-
Lausanne, Switzerland ize that science is more about trying to construct and
resolve problems in specific theoretical frames than
a matter of “discovering” things that might have been
Synonyms hidden since the beginning of the world. Argumenta-
Line of reasoning; Logical argument; Ratiocination tion in teaching science is meant to facilitate the
 Argumentation and Learning in Science Education A 309

comprehension of scientific arguments which is on evidence rather than on (uncritical) authority from A
a crucial part of scientific literacy, and an important textbook or teacher (Jiménez-Aleixandre and Erduran
step in the development of critical, cultivated citizens 2007).
(Osborne 2002). However, using argumentation as a learning tool in
This shift in defining the scientific activity associated the context of school raises questions and difficulties at
with both the enhancement of the socio-constructivist different levels, psychosociological, interpersonal, insti-
and sociocultural approaches of learning in school and tutional, and cultural. If argumentation is conceived as
a concern with the development of a critical reasoning “helping to recognize” the reasonableness of a position
toward scientific and technical facts in a complex society and involves at least justification and negotiation oper-
probably explain the growing interest about argumen- ations, these main features are objects of development
tative practices in science education. by the child. Argumentation means to be able to
decentrate, in the piagetian terms, to consider the
Important Scientific Research and point of view of another person rather than just one’s
Open Questions own. It also means to master linguistic and cognitive
Argumentation means a relationship with an “other” tools. Argumentation however cannot be reduced to its
who physically or virtually provides a rupture in the developmental and intrapersonal factors. Such practices
action and a reflexive turn toward his/her own claim must be seen as “situated” in specific contexts. At the
and perspective. The presence of another person is not institutional level, argumentative activities are some-
only a characteristic of argumentation as a special form times considered time consuming when curricula are
of communication; it is also the source of thought and already overloaded. These activities require social skills
learning. A sociocultural perspective draws attention to from the teachers, as well as ad hoc teacher training and
the fact that development and learning are embedded assessment practices. At the interpersonal level, argu-
in social interactions in which talk plays a central role. mentation means confronting other people’s perspec-
Education is a dialogic process in which both the talk tives, situations which are often avoided since
between teachers and learners and talk among learners participants perceive them as a risk to the self and to
are a tool for creating a shared framework of under- the relationship. At the cultural level, argumentation
standing (see for example the chapter of Mercer, in means the acceptance that social harmony is not threat-
Muller Mirza and Perret-Clermont, 2009). ened by the expression of a plurality of opinions, that
Research have shown that particular verbal authority is not sufficient, and that discussions are
interactions in which sociocognitive conflicts arise permitted even when relationships are asymmetrical
may be a source of development and construction of (Muller Mirza and Perret-Clermont 2009).
new knowledge under certain conditions: the child In the specific field of science education, one must
must be ready from a developmental point of view for not overlook that scientific reasoning is complex, even
this destabilizing sociocognitive encounter, and the for scientists. Researchers observe, for instance,
search for a common solution to the conflict should difficulties by the children in constructing scientific
avoid subordination and blind acquiescence (Muller argumentation: to conclude before providing enough
Mirza and Perret-Clermont 2009). data, to not consider sufficiently the evidence,
Argumentative interactions, implying a conflict etc. Difficulties rise also by the fact that from the
of perspectives resolved by the means of discursive teachers’ point of view, using argumentation in their
coordination, might support the elaboration of scien- lessons means not only to change vocabulary, but to
tific concepts: the notions are made clearer by the fact adopt a more dialogical communication, in brief, a new
that the students have to justify their claims and way of understanding science.
provide information, knowledge are more articulated, Taking into account all these difficulties and the fact
epistemological obstacles are identified, weak hypoth- that everyday argumentation, made by children and
esis are put aside as they do not resist to the counter- even adults, rarely shows sophisticated elaboration
arguments or as they are not linked to the empirical (Kuhn 1999), leads to raise an important issue: how
data, and data are articulated to theoretical frames. to design learning activities in which productive argu-
Moreover, it seems that the students are more focused mentation can develop. Different (sets of) conditions
310 A Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)

or principles, which can be the frame of an “argumen- representations, personal values, identification pro-
tative design” have been suggested by researchers (see cesses, emotions play an important role in argumenta-
for instance the chapters of Jiménez-Aleixandre, in tion about scientific topics. Another issue concerns
Erduran and Jiménez-Aleixandre (2007), or of ethical and epistemological questions: in certain situa-
Andriessen & Schwarz, in Muller Mirza and Perret- tions argumentation might reinforce social inequalities
Clermont 2009). These conditions focus on the and legitimate invalid thesis. Moreover, since argumen-
“prerequisites” from the point of view of the students tation can mean “troubling” learners’ believes, about
(motivation, initial cognitions, etc.), on the role of what is real, valuable, and right, a particular attention
external resources such as texts and devices that provide to the frame of discussion is needed. Research, in col-
information and feedback, on the way to organize the laboration with teachers, is therefore important in
design through different kinds of “chained” activities order to further understand the conceptual and psy-
(around the same topic but with different motives), on chosocial issues of argumentation in science education.
the ways to structure the argumentative interactions
(that include teacher’s interventions oriented toward Cross-References
epistemic and/or social dimensions, and rules to set ▶ Argumentation and Learning
up argumentative norms of talk). In this line, from ▶ Learning and Understanding
several years now, electronic environments have also ▶ Models and Modeling in Science Learning
been developed aiming not only at facilitating argumen- ▶ Science, Art and Learning Experiences
tation but also at providing a space for specific argu- ▶ Socio-Constructivist Models of Learning
mentative dynamics, which in turn affect the whole
pedagogical activity (Andriessen et al. 2003). The role
References
Andriessen, J., Baker, M., & Suthers, D. (Eds.). (2003). Arguing to
of the teachers to elaborate these designs in order to
learn. Confronting cognitions in computer-supported collaborative
promote argumentation, taking into account the spec- learning environments. Utrecht: Kluwer Academic.
ificities of their own pedagogical and institutional con- Driver, R., Newton, P., & Osborne, J. (2000). Establishing the norms
text, is seen as essential to educational improvement. of scientific argumentation in classrooms. Science and Education,
Argumentation in science meets contemporary 84(3), 287–312.
Erduran, S., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (Eds.). (2007). Argumenta-
approaches in education claiming that learning does
tion in science education. Perspectives from classroom-based
not mean simple acquisition of “ready-made” objects
research. Dordrecht: Springer.
of knowledge but implies complex meaning-making Kuhn, D. (1999). The skills of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge
processes, deep conceptual changes, and thus the active University Press.
participation of the learner with other people in well- Muller Mirza, N., & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (Eds.). (2009). Argumen-
structured activities. Research in argumentation in sci- tation and education: Theoretical foundations and practices.
New York: Springer.
ence education is nowadays a growing field which deals
Osborne, J. F. (2002). Science without literacy: a ship without a sail?
with open issues yet. Alongside to the questions about Cambridge Journal of Education, 32(2), 203–215.
teachers training, arguments and argumentation
assessment, and environment designing, let us suggest
some relatively new fields of exploration. If argumen-
tation is conceived as a psychological tool for learning, Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
the question of the relationship between the learners
and the content under discussion, i.e., the affective and MICHAEL JACKSON
identity dimensions of argumentation, have probably Department of Government and International
been underestimated as well as the epistemic specific- Relations, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW,
ities of the object of knowledge itself. Arguing about Australia
capital punishment, sound in physics, or life evolution
on earth does not mean the same sociocognitive
involvement and differ following the age of the partic- Life Dates
ipants and the general context in which the discussion Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers, was born in
takes place. Recent studies show that social Stageira in northern Greece. His father was the personal
 Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) A 311

physician to the king of Macedon. At about the age of political theory makes it clear that only the sons of A
18, he went to Plato’s Academy in Athens and remained citizens would be educated in mind and character.
there for nearly 20 years, only leaving at Plato’s death in Earlier in the Politics, in a few words, he dismisses
347 BC. King Philip II of Macedon invited Aristotle to Plato’s arguments for the education of women.
educate his son Alexander the Great. Aristotle’s work
spans biology, logic, metaphysics, and political theory. Contribution(s) to the Field of
Many of the works attributed to him consist of a series Learning
of notes compiled by his students. In contrast to Plato, Aristotle found truth in the empir-
ical world and he was an omnivorous collector of data;
Theoretical Background he compiled specimens of all manner of objects from
Aristotle constantly emphasized education as a civic seashells to constitutions. Empiricism as an epistemol-
responsibility. This was an unconventional position in ogy and scientific practice both trace back to him. He is
a society where all education was private. His one credited with the first personal library which was also
systematic discussion of education occurs in the last a museum of natural history with its collections of
parts of the Politics. It turns on four questions: objects and specimens. In time wealthy gentlemen col-
(1) Should everyone learn the same things? He suggests lected books and specimens as he did. In this, too, he set
they should insofar as doing so leads to virtue. an example, which later researchers and educators
(2) Should education be aimed at the mind or the followed. Moreover, Aristotle implicitly distinguishes
character? The education of the body precedes that of between education of the cultured mind and vocational
the mind. We learn first through habit imposed on us training. The former is for male citizens. The latter is
and later we learn the reasons that justify those habits. not. The curriculum that he outlined for the cultured
We coerce children to avoid fire until they learn why to mind of the citizen was followed by many in Europe
do so. By then the habit is set. He implies that the polity and institutionalized in some universities. More gener-
must educate the minds of citizens. Character is ally, the gentleman amateur scientist played a part in
formed by a wider range of influences than direct European history, partly, albeit unconsciously, inspired
instruction alone. (3) Should the education of the by Aristotle’s example. Educators, be they private
mind aim at the useful or not? The young should tutors or members of universities, ranged over the
learn some useful knowledge like reading and writing, fine arts, eschewing the practicalities necessary to
but they must not learn a trade. The educated class is make a living, with their charges for many generations
a leisured class defined in part by not earning a living inspired and justified by the echoes of Aristotle’s
though a trade. Thus he speaks of an education that argument. This distinction between intellectual and
befits a free person: reading, writing, music, gymnas- vocational education remains entrenched. Music
tics, drawing, and other cultured pursuits. Music appreciation but not auto mechanics figures in many
education is not a means to any other ends than the college degrees. Yet it is clear that nearly all graduates
enjoyment of music. It is not useful in any sense and is will drive a car but very few will develop an abiding
all the more valuable for that, but akin to music appre- interest in any aspect of music.
ciation courses offered in colleges and universities. He His influence was immense. He provided the pri-
cautions against developing anything like a profes- mary intellectual source for much of Western European
sional interest in creating or performing music. None society from the fall of Rome. His works were widely
of his citizens would become musicians, still less car- distributed in the Roman Empire and he had inter-
penters like Rousseau’s Émile. (4) What can education preters among Arabic thinkers, too. He was a reference
contribute to virtue? His suggestion is the Aristotelian point for the intellectual leaders of Christianity like
mean – all things in moderation. Saint Thomas Aquinas. Such was his stature that he
After this prologue there follows a technical discus- was sometimes referred to simply as The Philosopher,
sion of aspects of music, harmony, and gymnastics. The as if there were no other. While his scientific works are
purpose in each case is to assess how that field of now a part of the archive of experience, his social and
learning can contribute to the whole man. Though it political works on ethics and government are still read
is not said explicitly, the overall character of Aristotle’s as testing accounts of the evaluation of human goals and
312 A Aristotle on Pleasure and Learning

institutions. Moreover, his empirical method now dom- a completion of an activity: “as a supervening end”
inates the sciences and more. Libraries and museums (Nicomachean Ethics 10.1174b32). Learning is
continue in evolved states as digitization spreads. described as acquiring knowledge from demonstration
or definition (for an example, see Metaphysics 1.992b–
Cross-References 993a1).
▶ Aristotle on Pleasure and Learning
▶ Plato (429–347 BC) Theoretical Background
▶ Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712–1778) Aristotle’s treatment of pleasure raises several prob-
lems, especially whether Aristotle’s account is consis-
References tent and coherent. For example, pleasure is seen as “a
Aristotle, Politics, Books VII and VIII (1997). Translated and with movement by which the entire soul is brought into its
commentary by Richard Kraut. Oxford: Clarendon. normal state in a conscious manner,” as well as the
Curren, R. R. (2000). Aristotle on the necessity of public education. opposite of pain (Rhetoric 1.1369b–1370a), which
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
recalls Plato’s description of pleasure as restoration
The Aristotelian society web site. (2010). Retrieved October 7, 2010,
from http://www.aristoteliansociety.org.uk/. (e.g., in the Philebus), whereas the accounts of pleasure
The Politics of Aristotle (1946). Edited and translated by Ernest Baker. in the ethical treatises appear to go well beyond Plato’s
Oxford University Press. account (for a comparison between Plato and
Aristotle’s views, see Taylor 2003). In the Nicomachean
Ethics, Aristotle deals with pleasure from different
angles, as the two above-mentioned definitions suggest
(generally, see Riel 2000, pp. 43–78). A particularly
Aristotle on Pleasure and important and novel Aristotelian concept is that of
Learning proper pleasure (oikeia hedonê) of an activity, developed
in the Nicomachean Ethics, Book Ten. Pleasure com-
DANA LACOURSE MUNTEANU pletes every type of activity, in the sense of supervening
Ohio State University at Newark, Newark, OH, USA the activity (Nicomachean Ethics 10.1174b–1175a).
Thus, pleasures are as diverse as the activities they
complete (Nicomachean Ethics 1175a23; 25–26). Over-
Synonyms all, pleasure represents a good, and crowns an activity
Cognitive pleasure; Satisfaction properly done.

Definition Important Scientific Research and

The relationship between learning and pleasure is Open Questions
fundamental in Aristotelian thought: “Naturally, all Aristotle assumes that learning is inherently pleasur-
men desire to know (eidenai),” reads the opening sen- able (Lear 1988, pp. 1–14), as the above-quoted pas-
tence of the Metaphysics (1.980a22). Similarly, several sages from the Metaphysics and Rhetoric clearly suggest.
statements in the Rhetoric emphasize the connection: Does Aristotle presume that any kind of learning is
“learning things and wondering about things are pleas- pleasurable for everybody, at all times? In fact,
ant as well, in general” (1.1371a31–32); “to learn (to a hierarchy is outlined: everyone enjoys a type of basic
manthanein) easily is naturally pleasant (hedu) to all; learning, but only some people (philosophers, for
and words designate something; thus whenever words example) seem to enjoy learning more than others,
bring about knowledge in us, they become more and therefore they acquire a more sophisticated kind
pleasurable” (3.1410b10–12). of learning. This division can be observed, for instance,
Aristotle generally defines pleasure as an activity in a famous passage from the Poetics, in which Aristotle
and end (Nicomachean Ethics 7.1153a10=Eudemian deals with imitation (mimesis). Imitation, a key-notion
Ethics 6). But pleasures complete activities without, in in Aristotle’s writings about art (Halliwell 2002,
themselves, being activities (Nicomachean Ethics pp. 151–206), is understood both as a natural (e.g.,
10.1174b–1175a). Thus, pleasure is described as children acquire language by imitating their parents)
 Arousal and Paired-Associate Learning A 313

and an artistic process (e.g., tragedy is an imitation of Cross-References A

an action), and it produces cognitive pleasure: “it is ▶ Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
natural that everyone enjoys mimetic representations. ▶ Learning Activity
A common evidence of this comes from the following: ▶ Learning and Understanding
we enjoy contemplating the most precise images of
things whose actual sight is distressing, such as the References
forms of the most repulsive animals and of corpses. Halliwell, S. (2002). The aesthetics of mimesis: ancient texts and mod-
The explanation for this is that to learn (manthanein) is ern problems. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Heath, M. (2009). Cognition in Aristotle’s poetics. Mnemosyne, 62,
very pleasurable (hediston) not only to philosophers
51–75.
(philosophois) but likewise to other (allois) people,
Lear, J. (1988). Aristotle: The desire to understand. Cambridge: Cam-
although the latter share in it less (than the former). bridge University Press.
This is why people take delight in looking at images: Taylor, C.C.W. (2003). Pleasure: Aristotle’s Response to Plato. In Robert
while contemplating them it happens that they learn Heinaman (ed.), Plato and Aristotle’s Ethics. Aldershot: Ashgate
(manthanein) and infer (syllogizesthai) what each ele- Publishing, pp. 1–20.
Van Riel, G. (2000). Pleasure and the good life. Leiden and Boston:
ment is, for example, this is that” (Poetics 4.1448b8–
Brill.
17). Scholars have mainly used this observation in the
Poetics to examine the cognitive pleasure of artistic
mimesis (Heath 2009). In the context of linking plea-
sure and learning, however, the most interesting point
is that people seem to be separated into categories of
Arithmetic Learning Difficulties
common and intellectually gifted (philosophers, as Aris- ▶ Dyscalculia in Young Children: Cognitive and
totle calls the latter) by the degree of pleasure that they Neurological Bases
feel when they learn.
Several questions remain open to interpretation.
First, why do certain people enjoy learning more than
others? Presumably, innate abilities play a role here, but
Artificial Neural network
it is, perhaps, a matter of education that divides people
in this respect, since all share the desire to learn, as
modeling
stated in the opening of the Metaphysics. Most people, ▶ Connectionism
we hear in the Nicomachean Ethics (1.1095b), choose
pleasure (here certainly of a nonintellectual type) as the
highest good and a life of enjoyment, which is less
valuable than a life of action in politics or a life of
contemplation. Is that because, overall, people are not Arousal and Paired-Associate
sufficiently taught to appreciate the pleasure of learning? Learning
Second, why do certain people seem to enjoy a particular
type of learning, as opposed to another type? Pleasure JASON ARNDT
intensifies an activity, while pain brings it to a halt, as, Department of Psychology, 5605 Middlebury College,
for example, is the case with calculating sums Middlebury, VT, USA
(Nicomachean Ethics 10.1175b17–19). Again, Aristotle
probably believed that one is naturally inclined toward
certain types of learning (e.g., mathematical). It Synonyms
remains, then, to be established: What exactly is the Associative learning; Emotion
common, basic type of learning that all people enjoy?
What is the specialized type that some may like while Definition
others may dislike? Further, what role does pleasure Arousal is a psychological and/or physiological increase
play in the process of learning as opposed to feeling in excitation that is typically the consequence of
pleasure once having learned or mastered something? experiencing an emotional event.
314 A Arousal and Paired-Associate Learning

Paired-associate learning is a classic memory para- encode other events that occur in close proximity
digm that is used to understand how people encode to arousing events. Thus, the attention-narrowing
and retrieve newly formed associations among stimuli. hypothesis generally expects that memory for events
In a typical study using paired-associate learning, that produce arousal (e.g., that the perpetrator was
people are asked to learn unrelated word pairs (e.g., holding a gun) is enhanced. However, improved mem-
stove–letter). At a later time point, memory for those ory for the arousing event comes at a cost – memory for
pairs is tested by having them either recall one of the events that occur in close proximity to arousing events
words in response to the word it was paired with during (e.g., what the perpetrator looks like) is reduced.
encoding (e.g., recall the word that was paired with A second theory, priority binding theory (MacKay
“stove”) or by asking them to distinguish between and Ahmetzanov 2005), argues that arousal enhances
word pairs that were encoded together (e.g., stove– memory processes that serve to bind, or tie together, an
letter) and word pairs composed of two words that event that causes arousal to other aspects of the event
were studied, but were not paired during encoding that are directly linked to it. Thus, according to priority
(e.g., stove–dance; known as associative recognition). binding theory, arousal potentially improves memory
for many aspects of an arousing event by tying together
arousing information such as a gun and non-arousing
Theoretical Background information, such as what the perpetrator holding the
A key question that memory theorists are interested in gun looks like and the events that preceded the perpe-
is how emotional responses such as arousal influence trator pulling out the gun. As a result, arousal should
the ability to remember events. Similarly important improve memory for many parts of an event, provided
is how events that create arousal affect memory for the relationship between non-arousing events and an
non-arousing events that occur near arousing events in arousing event is accessed when the person is retrieving
time and space. As an illustration of the importance of a memory.
this question, consider a situation where a person Finally, object-based binding theory (Mather 2007)
witnesses a robbery during which the perpetrator suggests that arousal produces relatively selective
pulls out a gun. In this situation, the gun is effects on memory, such that it binds together the
a stimulus that creates arousal due to the threat it pieces of the event that produced arousal (e.g., the
poses. While it is important for a witness to remember details of the gun’s appearance, as well as the appear-
that the criminal was carrying a gun, numerous other ance of the perpetrator). However, the binding
aspects of this situation will be important for the produced by the arousing event does not extend to
witness to remember, such as the events that preceded non-arousing events, such that memory for events
the criminal pulling out a gun, what the criminal looks unrelated to the arousing event is not improved (e.g.,
like, and the things that the criminal says. As a result, it what the clerk of the store being robbed looked like or
is important to understand not only how the arousal the events that preceded the perpetrator pulling out the
created by seeing the gun influences people’s ability to gun). Thus, the positive influence of binding mecha-
remember the gun and features of the gun (type, nisms is restricted to the object, or event, that produced
color), but also how the arousal created by seeing the arousal.
gun impacts memory for other parts of the event
where the gun was seen.
There are three primary theories that attempt to Important Scientific Research and
explain arousals’ effects on memory, and all can be Open Questions
applied to understanding the learning of newly formed While much of the literature has been concerned with
associations in paired-associate learning. The atten- how stimuli that produce arousal are remembered in
tion-narrowing hypothesis (Easterbrook 1959) suggests comparison to stimuli that do not produce arousal,
that arousal focuses attention on the event that caused paired-associate learning offers the opportunity to
arousal. Because attention is limited in capacity, the examine how arousal influences the ability to remem-
focus of attention on arousing events reduces the ber events that are not naturally arousing, but are
amount of attention that is available to process and learned in the presence of arousing stimuli. Generally,
 Artificial intelligence A 315

research has shown that paired-associate learning MacKay, D. G., & Ahmetzanov, M. V. (2005). Emotion, memory, and
attention in the taboo Stroop paradigm. Psychological Science, 16,
A
improves when one of the members of the pair is
25–32.
arousing (Kleinsmith and Kaplan 1963; Guillet and
Mather, M. (2007). Emotional arousal and memory binding: An
Arndt 2009), suggesting that arousal enhances the for- object-based framework. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2,
mation of novel associations in memory. 33–52.
There are, however, outstanding questions about
how arousal influences paired-associate learning, as
well as memory in general. For example, paired-
associate learning generally utilizes words as stimuli,
so it will be important for future research to determine Arousal Level
how general is the result of arousal’s effects on paired-
associate learning with stimuli other than words. While How calming or soothing, versus how exciting or agi-
not a perfect analog of paired-associate learning, tating, a particular stimulus or event is perceived to be.
research with pictorial stimuli has often shown that
arousing aspects of pictures harm memory for sur-
rounding pictures, as well as non-arousing aspects of
a picture that contain arousing stimuli (Kensinger et al.
2007). Additionally, most of the research regarding ART
arousal’s effects on memory in general, and paired-
▶ Action Regulation Theory
associate learning in particular, have used stimuli that
have inherently arousing characteristics. Thus, a second
open question regards how sources of arousal that are
not related to any of the stimuli in a scene or paired
associate impacts memory. Answering these questions
Articulation
serve as key challenges for research on arousal’s impact
on memory in the coming years. ▶ Covert Pronunciation and Rehearsal

Cross-References
▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
▶ Associative Learning of Pictures and Words
▶ Cued Recall Artifacts
▶ Emotional Memory ▶ Learning Through Artifacts in Engineering
▶ Mood and Learning Education
▶ Mood-Dependent Learning
▶ Paired-Associate Learning

References
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and
Artificial intelligence
the organization of behavior. Psychological Review, 66, 183–201.
This is one of the fields of study in computer science
Guillet, R., & Arndt, J. (2009). Taboo words: The effect of emotion on
memory for peripheral information. Memory & Cognition, 37, that endow human intelligence onto the computer. It
866–879. makes up for the weak ability in the current computer
Kensinger, E. A., Garoff-Eaton, R. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2007). Effects system such as human’s learning ability, inference
of emotion on memory specificity: Memory trade-offs elicited by ability, perception ability, and natural language
negative visually arousing stimuli. Journal of Memory and Lan-
understanding ability, and it will implement it into
guage, 56, 575–591.
Kleinsmith, L. J., & Kaplan, S. (1963). Paired-associate learning as
the program. It has a branch of expert systems, case
a function of arousal and interpolated interval. Journal of Exper- based reasoning, natural language processing, neural
imental Psychology, 65, 190–193. networking, agent systems, and fuzzy systems.
316 A Artificial Intelligence in Education

Cross-References
▶ Adaptive Game-Based Learning Asperger’s Syndrome
▶ Cognitive Artifacts and Developmental Learning in a ▶ Diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome
Humanoid Robot
▶ Learning Algorithms
▶ Learning to Sing Like a Bird: Computational Devel-
opmental Mimicry
▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning (TL) Assessing Student Progress in
Learning
▶ Evaluation of Student Progress in Learning

Artificial Intelligence in
Education
▶ Advanced Learning Technologies
Assessment
▶ Diagnosis of Learning
▶ Feedback and Learning

Artificial Life
▶ Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems Assessment for Learning
▶ Formative Assessment and Improving Learning

Artificial Societies
▶ Agent-Based Modeling Assessment Grid
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess-
ment Criteria

Artificial Society/Economy/
Market
▶ Learning Agent and Agent-Based Modeling
Assessment in Learning
EVA L. BAKER
National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards,
and Student Testing (CRESST), University of
Ascription California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

▶ Attribution Theory in Communication Research

Synonyms
Appraisal; Evaluation

Asperger’s Disorder Definition

Assessment in the educational context typically refers
▶ Diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome to inferences made about student’s behavior,
 Assessment in Learning A 317

sometimes their achievement and sometimes their (OECD). Although the goals of the two groups were A
affective states. In this article, the term assessment similar, IEA studies were designed and managed by
will be used to denote the process by which informa- teams of international experts, and funding for both
tion is gathered, either formally or informally, about national and international participation was often
the status of students’ learning. Assessment is an a struggle. In contrast, OECD studies were funded by
activity which for many years was the province of the member countries, perhaps disproportionately by
teacher through the use of examinations, shorter some, but had the power of governments to help deter-
quizzes, recitations, or longer assignments like research mine the topics and frequencies of assessment and the
papers or science projects. The goals of classroom necessary national compliance with the sampling plan,
assessment were twofold: to gauge the progress the standardization, and so on.
student was making, and thereby to provide feedback, Assessment transformed in the last quarter of the
and to sum up, in one manner or other, the students’ twentieth century from being principally a measure-
levels of attainment for the purpose of being given ment process that was undertaken at the close of
a mark or grade, such as A, B, or C. a sequence of instruction, although that function
remained, and turned into a strategy for developing
Theoretical Background outcomes themselves. Test-driven, evidence-driven
In the last third of the twentieth century, three forces examinations, tests, and so on, became more of
combined to change this use of assessment. The first a governmentally endorsed approach to educational
was the applied focus that learning was significantly reform. As a result, many educators and practitioners
affected by teachers and they might judge their students focused instruction on what was to be measured. In the
and themselves by specifying explicit objectives and USA, this typically meant on multiple choice test items
measuring their attainment or even the change from that were relatively shallow samples of very general
pretest to posttest. These goals may have been very goals. It was only sensible, given vague or non-clear
specific, applicable to a day or more of instruction, or curricula, for teachers to focus on what was to be tested.
apply to a more extended period of time. But the And in some places, the curriculum and teaching
practice reinvigorated an earlier idea that learning is narrowed to that which was on externally mandated
a measurable outcome of teaching. A second force was tests.
the need to evaluate, at least in the USA, the impact of Any test or assessment attempts to measure a par-
financial support provided to students at risk. The ticular construct or domain. The construct may be
Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided inferred from the patterns of test performance; whereas
extra resources to children who were underperforming, a domain is typically pre-specified, and usually focuses
and widespread tests were commercially developed to on the subject matter of the examination, national
monitor their progress. Simultaneous, other tests that literature, mathematical concepts and computations,
had been used in a benign system monitoring way and biological sciences, for example. Assessments
became more important, with progress and scores on sample only a small subset of the entire construct or
them associated with both political and economic con- domain, because there would never be sufficient time
sequences. The commercial testing companies became to measure one in its entirety. Another key point is that
very big business. In many countries and in the USA in all assessments include error and should be thought of
particular, national examinations sampled perfor- as estimates rather than precise values that label any
mance and gave periodic estimates of progress in particular student.
basic subjects. The third and continuing force was Reactions to the political use of tests occurred peri-
the power of published international comparisons. odically, with early attempts at performance-based
Beginning in the second part of the twentieth century, assessments seen in the USA on its National Assessment
multinational comparative studies using common of Educational Progress (NAEP) and in England for
examinations were conducted by the International younger children following the Brown Act of 1988
Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achieve- when teachers were encouraged to give students objects
ment (IEA), and later under the auspices of the Orga- and extended tasks in order to assess their deeper
nisation for Economic Cooperation and Development understanding. In the USA, the movement focusing
318 A Assessment in Learning

on extended performance, such as portfolios of student enable the reflections, identification of shortfalls, and
work, research projects, and the like, began in the 1990s repair of weak concepts or problem-solving skills. In
and significantly lagged behind efforts in other coun- some cases, formative assessments were used as part of
tries, including Australia and Germany. Performance the accountability system itself, weighted in some man-
assessments were overcome as a plausible accountabil- ner in combination with a more formally monitored
ity option by problems in the reliability of scoring, the end-of-course examination.
cost of marking, and ill-defined boundaries of the
domain or construct. Subsequent efforts to revive Important Scientific Research and
such forms of assessment have occurred, and there are Open Questions
common expectations in parts of the world for teacher A current reaction to formal tests that emphasize less
marking of student papers required to pass a school advanced thinking skills has been the movement
leaving or advanced certification examination. In these toward twenty-first century skills. Beginning also in
cases, supported by an extensive research literature, the last century, certain researchers derived key cogni-
approach to preparing competent markers of student tive requirements for schooling, university, and the
work involved the development of operational scoring workforce. These were gleaned from research on stu-
rubrics that incorporated expectations. Careful train- dent learning and from questionnaires, and interviews
ing on examples of students work illustrating various of college and workforce personnel. The combined list
strengths and weaknesses removed the lack of scorer of twenty-first century skills is very long, but most
reliability. However, studies that found tasks by student contain notions of problem solving, communication,
interactions suggested that the assessments were not teamwork, conceptual and procedural content knowl-
selected from the same domain, had not been well edge, and the ability to think metacognitively about
instructed, or both. In the late 1990s and persisting one’s own learning process. There is an underlying
through the first part of the twenty-first century was theme related to the importance of applying such
a call for systematic formative assessment or assess- knowledge, not only in well-defined content areas,
ment for learning. In these cases, assessments were to but in transferring performance to new, unforeseen
be given by teachers, who would infer diagnostic mean- situations. These twenty-first century skills have in
ing for individual students, provide feedback, and sug- the past served as the basis for some measures of indi-
gest courses of action to improve student performance. vidual differences, where people might be differenti-
The utility of this approach depends of course on the ated by their general, problem-solving ability. In the
teachers’ ability to design situations that would expose present case, there is a mix of applications, where some
strengths and weaknesses, have skill in inferring possi- attribute of a twenty-first century skill is particularly
ble causal links to explain inadequate performance, and domain specific. For example, the ability to communi-
have a repertoire of options that they could apply cate certain information clearly may be very audience
adaptively to students with particular needs. This dependent, and certain strategies may be learned to
sequence, called formative assessment (Black and focus on particular rhetoric for particular audiences.
Wiliam 1998), was a takeoff on formative evaluation, Similarly, certain problem-solving tasks are extraordi-
that is, the process of improving a program or system narily knowledge driven. If problems need to be
while it was under development. Formative assessment discerned and found in a particular setting, the student
appeared to be a good idea, and some might say it must understand the content more deeply than if the
incorporated key features of previously advocated problem is made explicit and the student must only
instructional paradigms. Nonetheless, educational select from among learned procedures which to apply.
authorities have stepped in a provided “formative In almost every case, it is true that the psychometrics
assessments” to teachers to be used to assist their needed to estimate the quality of longer, more-complex
teaching and to support student learning. These assess- tasks do not exist, or have significant missing pieces.
ments may or may not be scored or evaluated by A great problem is to determine the comparability of
teachers, and results may or may not be given to them scenarios or other extended tasks that take many days
in a timely fashion. In some venues, instruction is fairly to complete. It is difficult to infer from performance
rigidly paced, so there may be no discretionary time to whether low marks are the result of poor instruction or
 Assessment in Learning A 319

incredible difficulty. In addition, these twenty-first cen- on purpose such validity inferences may be appropri- A
tury skills are now being included in content standards, ate, but they are not tied necessarily to unique
central to the current form of assessment driven analyses.
reform, known as standards-based learning. Standards Some authors have described features or character-
are verbal statements, which can be illustrated by exam- istics of assessments that should lead to their greater
ples. Yet, there is plenty of opportunity for misunder- validity, despite particular purposes (Linn et al. 1991;
standing by teachers and students of what is wanted. To Shepard 2005; Sweller 2005). These characteristics
avoid regressing to practicing test items, certain include the domain definition, correctness of content,
research has been undertaken to develop explicit challenge of cognitive demands, clarity of scoring
graphical representations of domains to be taught and options, generalization and transfer, and appropriate
assessed. These are useful to assure transparency, to linguistic requirements. The last point related to the
resolve differences in interpretation, and to allow language of the test illustrates a more general precept
teachers and students to understand in advance what that the test score should not involve construct-
is important to learn. Called ontologies, these irrelevant variance (Messick 1989) obscuring the pur-
approaches usually involve network representations of pose and inference of intended performance. Because
content and have been used in the sciences and of such strictures and the overarching need to assure
computer fields for many years. Their application fairness, accommodations for tests have been devel-
to education suggests that they can help resolve oped that attempt to simplify overwrought language
issues of sampling and of instructional sequencing, so as not to disadvantage students who are immigrants
although order of learning may not be a simple or or non-native speakers of the language of the tests
single path. (Abedi 2008). Other accommodations in tests involve
The instance above leads us to the topic of validity, providing more time in a speeded examination, and
that is, how one knows that the assessment is leading to physical help, larger font sizes, readers, or other
the appropriate inferences and actions. Validity support for physically disabled students.
depends on test purposes (Messick 1989) and is not A particular problem with the current validity
a coefficient or inherent in a particular artifact, like test frame is the issue of assessments with multiple pur-
paper or writing prompt and rubric. Validity depends poses. An assessment may be used for teacher account-
on the purposes for the examination or assessment, the ability, for system quality, for student certification, or
inferences that will be drawn from the results, and some to inform teachers and educators of needs for improve-
would say the consequences that follow on those infer- ment. Some tests are intended to measure attainment
ences. Because consequences can be stringent or as well as to serve as selection measures for tertiary
benign, and because any assessment includes some educational opportunities. Evidence to support all
error, experts have argued that no single assessment of these purposes may be in conflict, and it may be
should be used to make a high stakes or consequential difficult to optimize designs to meet all intentions.
decision about an individual (American Educational Nonetheless, some elements are important for certain
Research Association, American Psychological Associ- uses. If one is engaged in selection, then it is simply
ation, and National Council on Measurement in a matter of choosing the highest (or in some cases the
Education 1999; Heubert and Hauser 1999). These lowest) performing students to be admitted to a special
warnings have, for the most part, been ignored. As program. Often the decision is made based on how
mitigation, some authorities permit the retaking of many spaces exist, so the quality of applicants to be
high-stakes examinations multiple times, but such an teachers or physicians may vary with the number of
option is not in the spirit of the dictum. These new individuals seeking the number of available positions.
evidentiary basis of assessment has been adopted by For measures of effectiveness, either of the learning of
some as a model for development (Baker and Linn the student, the educational system, or the teacher,
2004; Mislevy et al. 2002; Pellegrino et al. 2001). This there must be clear evidence that the assessments are
purpose orientation of validity supplants particularis- sensitive to instruction and that scores would be
tic methods recommended for content validity, predic- different if no quality instruction occurred. If students’
tive validity, criterion validity, and so on. Depending talents were sufficient for particular outcomes, the
320 A Assessment in Learning

schools would serve little purpose. Validity of measures However, current researchers have developed sensors
in terms of their sensitivity to learning opportunities such that some significant aspects of performance can
(as well as the motivation of students) should be be inferred from physiological changes. If that line of
obtained. inquiry becomes plausible and distributed, then we will
Most of the foregoing discussion applies to mea- be spared more investment in marking performance.
sures of status, except for formative assessment within We will still be required to design good assessment
classrooms or courses. Newer statistical approaches are tasks, however.
focusing on policy desires to measure students’ growth
over time, to understand their learning trajectories, and Cross-References
to assure they reach goals overall rather than limited to ▶ Aligning Learning, Teaching and Assessment
a particular point in the educational sequence. ▶ Diagnosis of Learning
A second, similar desire is using value-added models ▶ Dynamic Assessment
to look at teacher performance over time, with different ▶ Evaluation of Student Progress in Learning
cohorts of students. Both of these approaches are pop- ▶ Formative Assessment and Improving Learning
ular with policymakers, but do not take sufficient ▶ Learning Criteria and Assessment Criteria
account of the error in the tests, in the sample of
individuals, or moderate the inferences to be drawn
References
from these types of analyses. Serious problems occur Abedi, J. (2008). Classification system for English learners: Issues and
when tests vary in difficulty and when different grade recommendations. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice,
levels may have assessments that do not have the same 27(3), 17–31.
range available for growth. Secondly, many of the sta- American Educational Research Association, American Psychological
tistical models used assume that there is only one major Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education.
(1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Wash-
construct to be measured, but many newer examina-
ington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
tions have significantly different components and Baker, E. L., & Linn, R. L. (2004). Validity issues for accountability
would seem to require multidimensional approaches. systems. In S. H. Fuhrman & R. F. Elmore (Eds.), Redesigning
These methods are only just evolving, and may not accountability systems for education (pp. 47–72). New York:
keep pace with policymakers’ expectations or use of Teachers College Press.
findings. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards
through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–
Solutions for some technical difficulties may come
149. Available at http://blog.discoveryeducation.com/assess-
through the use of technology to design, administer, ment/files/2009/02/blackbox_article.pdf.
adapt, and mark responses. The adaptive assessment Heubert, J. P., & Hauser, R. M. (Eds.). (1999). High stakes: Testing for
movement is only at its beginning. Interesting explora- tracking, promotion, and graduation (Committee on Appropriate
tions of computer-scored essay and other open-ended Test Use, Board on Testing and Assessment, Commission on Behav-
ioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Coun-
examinations have been made, but more agile methods
cil). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
will need to be found. Their integration with game Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, perfor-
technologies and other high-fidelity simulations may mance-based assessment: Expectations and validation criteria.
allow for extended practice needed by some learners Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15–21. ERIC Document Repro-
and for greater challenge needed by others. duction Service No. EJ 436999.
One must close a top-level discussion of assessment Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. Linn (Ed.), Educational measure-
ment (pp. 13–103). New York: McMillan.
with suppositions about the future, based on current
Mislevy, R. J., Steinberg, L. S., & Almond, R. G. (2002). On the roles of
research and development. Of great interest are studies task model variables in assessment design. In S. H. Irvine & P. C.
of brain images and electrical impulses as various inter- Kyllonen (Eds.), Item generation for test development (pp. 97–128).
ventions are applied to the respondent. One obvious Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
idea is that activation of various brain sectors may be Pellegrino, J. P., Chudowsky, N., & Glaser, R. (Eds.). (2001). Knowing
what students know: The science and design of educational assess-
a more accurate measure of learning than responses to
ment (Committee on the Foundations of Assessment, Board on
more global problems. The difficulties inherent in scal- Testing and Assessment, Center for Education, Division of Behavior
ing up such processes include the limited quantities of and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council).
technology and the invasive nature of the measures. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
 Assessment of Academic Motivation A 321

Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking formative assessment to scaffolding. For example, in the early 1980s Susan Harter devel-
Educational Leadership, 63(3), 66–70.
A
oped the scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation
Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multime-
in the classroom using pupils from grade three through
dia learning. In R. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multi-
media learning (pp. 19–30). New York: Cambridge University grade six. The scale, based on White’s model of
Press. “effectance motivation,” is a 30-item questionnaire
designed to assess, along an intrinsic to extrinsic
continuum, various different components of the stu-
dent’s orientation toward schoolwork. A total of five
Assessment Matrix components is measured: (a) preference for challenges
vs. preference for easy schoolwork, (b) curiosity in the
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess- subject vs. getting grades or pleasing the teacher, (c)
ment Criteria independent mastery vs. dependence on the teacher,
(d) independent judgment vs. reliance on the teacher’s
judgment, and finally, (e) internal criteria for success
vs. external criteria for success. Harter’s scale uses
Assessment of Academic a format of structured alternatives that contrast intrin-
Motivation sic orientation with extrinsic orientation and the stu-
dent is then asked to make a second 2-point judgment
FABIO ALIVERNINI as to whether the selected statement is “really true” or
Instituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema “sort of true.”
Educativo, Italian National Institute for the Evaluation Another example of a self-report measure is the
of the Education System (INVALSI), Frascati Roma, children’s academic intrinsic motivation inventory
Italy (CAIMI) developed by Adele Eskeles Gottfried in the
mid-1980s for students from the fourth to eighth
grades. The CAIMI is a 122-item measure based on
Synonyms intrinsic motivation theories, and provides a general
Assessment of motivation toward education; Assess- scale in addition to four subject area scales referring to
ment of motivation to learn reading, math, social studies, and science. Items in the
four subject areas are identical except for the reference
Definition to the specific subject. Students respond to all the items
The assessment of academic motivation involves the on the CAIMI on a basis of 5-point Likert scale ranging
use of specific techniques for the evaluation of the from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5). There
quality and the quantity of students’ motivation toward is also a simplified version of the CAIMI, the Y-CAIMI
education. for young children (grade 1–3).
In the early 1990s, Pintrich and his colleagues
Theoretical Background developed a further self-report measure, the motivated
The various different techniques for the assessment of strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ), with the
academic motivation can be distinguished on the basis specific purpose of investigating the factors that influ-
of the data collection strategies employed (e.g., obser- ence academic performance. The instrument includes
vations, self-report measures, interviews), the method 56 items on student motivation, cognitive strategy use,
adopted (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods), metacognitive strategy use, and management of effort.
and the conceptualization of academic motivation Students answer the various items on a 7-point Likert
applied (e.g., unidimensional construct vs. scale (from 1 – not at all true of me, to 7 – very true of
multidimensional construct). Although there is me). The MSLQ has gone through many revisions and
a wide range of data collection strategies, those that refinements and has been used with both college and
are based on self-report measures are certainly the most high school students.
extensively used. Over time several instruments of this In the current scientific literature (Alivernini and
kind have been proposed. Lucidi 2008), many studies on academic motivation are
322 A Assessment of Academic Motivation

based on assessment instruments that refer to the self- a version in English was subsequently published. The
determination theory (SDT). The SDT ( Deci and Ryan questionnaire has been used to assess academic moti-
2002) claims that there are different styles of regulation vation in college and high school students. The AMS
as regards academic motivation in students, which consists of 28 items that represent possible reasons why
reflect differences in their relative levels of autonomy. students go to school. Students have to respond to the
Academic motivation can thus be placed on items on a seven-point scale ranging from “not at all”
a continuum starting with amotivation and moving (1) to “exactly” (7). The AMS includes seven scales:
on to extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation amotivation, external motivation, introjected motiva-
according to the various levels of motivation, which tion, identified motivation, intrinsic motivation to
differ theoretically, functionally, and experientially. The know, intrinsic motivation to achieve things, and
two most commonly used scales for the assessment of intrinsic motivation to experience stimuli. In the
academic motivation according to the SDT are the most recent literature, the AMS is frequently used in
academic self-regulation questionnaire and the a simplified version with five scales, which has a single
academic motivation scale. dimension of intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motiva-
The academic self-regulation questionnaire (SRQ- tion to know). As regards reliability and validity,
A, Ryan and Connell 1989) was elaborated for children various studies have shown that the AMS has:
from elementary school to middle school age. It inves-
● Good reliability both in terms of internal consis-
tigates the reasons why students do a series of activities
tency and in terms of test–retest reliability
related to school, both at home and in class, and seeks
● Good factorial validity, also as regards longitudinal
to determine the commitments needed to achieve good
cross-gender factorial invariance
academic results and overcome difficulties regarding
● Good construct validity according to the predic-
studying. The SRQ-A, which uses a four point response
tions of the SDT both in terms of correlation with
scale (very true, partly true, not very true, not true at
antecedents and consequences of academic motiva-
all) has four subscales: external regulation, introjected
tion and in terms of the pattern of correlation
regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motiva-
between the scales
tion. For the SRQ-A, a single score is usually calculated,
● Concurrent validity when compared to other moti-
called RAI (relative autonomy index), attributing
vational scales such as the CAIMI
different weights to each of the various types of
motivation depending on their position on the Although the academic self-regulation question-
self-determination continuum. Various studies have naire and the academic motivation scale differ as
shown that the SRQ-A scales have a good degree of regards the age of the subjects they are aimed at and
reliability in terms of internal consistency. As regards the number of motivational constructs they measure,
concurrent and criterion validity, Ryan and Connell their use has led to comparable results.
(1989) showed that:
● SRQ-A scales correlate with scores in other motiva-
Important Scientific Research and
tional questionnaires such as Harter’s Scale of
Open Questions
In the past, a common approach to the problem of
intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the
assessing academic motivation was to think of student
classroom.
motivation as a single characteristic of an individual,
● As one would expect from the theory, the SRQ-A
and as a unidimensional construct. According to this
internal dimensions of regulation (intrinsic and
point of view, if one asks the question “how motivated
identified) correlate more closely with more
is a student?” it is possible to have a simple answer such
adaptive strategies for coping with school and
as “he/she is highly motivated” or “he/she is not moti-
with perseverance in study, while the external
vated.” The assessment approaches most often used in
dimensions of regulation (external and introjected)
more recent scientific literature, however, tend to
have a closer correlation to anxiety.
consider academic motivation as a multidimensional
The academic motivation scale (AMS, Vallerand construct, in which each dimension must have its own
et al. 1992) was originally formulated in French and appropriate evaluation. According to this trend, some
 Assimilation A 323

authors have proposed assessment instruments, which A

further articulate the multidimensionality of academic Assessment of Motivation to
motivation. For example, Green-Demers et al. (2008) Learn
developed the academic amotivation inventory (AAI),
▶ Assessment of Academic Motivation
an instrument based on the idea that amotivation, one
of the dimensions of academic motivation according
to the SDT, is, in turn, further articulated into
sub-dimensions.
Another area that is also of interest for the assess- Assessment of Motivation
ment of academic motivation is the combined use of Toward Education
quantitative and qualitative methods. In fact, mixed
▶ Assessment of Academic Motivation
methods approaches can integrate the in-depth explo-
ration of various aspects of an issue, which is possible
in qualitative methods, with the reliable forms of anal-
ysis typical of quantitative methods. For example,
a mixed methods assessment of academic motivation Assessment Rubric
(Alivernini et al. 2008) makes it possible to:
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess-
1. Discover new features of students’ academic moti- ment Criteria
vation by means of a reliable data-driven approach
2. Use various theoretical perspectives for analyzing
the data collected
3. Integrate the results obtained and evaluate them by Assessment Schemes
means of a rigorous statistic assessment
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess-
Cross-References ment Criteria
▶ Academic Motivation
▶ Mixed Methods Research on Learning

Assessment Validity
References
Alivernini, F., & Lucidi, F. (2008). The Academic Motivation Scale ▶ Validity of Learning
(AMS): Factorial structure, invariance and validity in the Italian
context. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychol-
ogy, 15(4), 211–220.
Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., & Manganelli, S. (2008). The assessment of
academic motivation: A mixed methods study. Journal of Multi- Assignment of Credit
ple Research Approaches, 2, 71–82.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination ▶ Contingency in Learning
research. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
Green-Demers, I., Legault, L., Pelletier, D., & Pelletier, L. (2008).
Factorial invariance of the Academic Amotivation Inventory
(AAI) across gender and grade in a sample of Canadian high
school students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68, Assimilation
862–880.
Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and This term is used differently in various disciplines. For
internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. instance, in biology “assimilation” refers to the incor-
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761.
poration or conversion of nutrients into protoplasm. In
Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., Senécal, C.,
& Vallières, E. F. (1992). The Academic Motivation Scale:
linguistics it refers to the change of a sound in speech so
A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. that it becomes identical with or similar to another,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 1003–1019. neighboring sound. In psychology, “assimilation”
324 A Assimilation Hypothesis

refers to the process of responding to new facts and The assimilation theory of learning emerged in the
situations in accordance with what is already known 1960s as a consequence of the paradigm shift in
and retrievable from memory. In terms of Piaget’s psychology sometimes referred to as the “cognitive
epistemology, assimilation and accommodation are revolution,” which was “an all-out effort to establish
the two complementary processes of the adaptation of meaning as the central concept of psychology” (Bruner
intelligent systems to their environments. 1990, p. 2). The assimilation theory of learning is
closely related to meaningful verbal learning (in con-
Cross-References trast to rote learning) and presupposes two stages:
▶ Enculturation and Acculturation (1) initial acquisition and immediate post-learning
▶ Internalization and (2) retention and forgetting. Accordingly, learning
refers to the process of acquiring or constructing mean-
ings from new learning material, retention refers to the
process of maintaining the availability of new meanings
(or at least some part of them), and forgetting refers to
Assimilation Hypothesis a decrement in the availability of separable meanings.
▶ Assimilation Theory of Learning Ausubel’s assimilation theory states that meaning-
ful learning occurs as a result of the interaction between
new information that the individual acquires and
a particular cognitive structure that the learner already
possesses and that serves as an anchor for integrating
Assimilation Theory of Learning the new content into prior knowledge. This interaction
results in the assimilation (or functional incorpora-
NORBERT M. SEEL tion) of both the new and the stored information to
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, form a more detailed or comprehensive cognitive
Freiburg, Germany structure. Ausubel and Robinson (1969) have described
the process of assimilation as follows: We want to teach
a new idea (or meaning) a, for instance the concept of
Synonyms a rhombus. Due to previous learning experiences the
Assimilation hypothesis concept A of rectangles should already be stored in the
learner’s memory. According to the assimilation the-
Definition ory, meaningful learning occurs when the learner cre-
The assimilation theory of learning is a cognitive learn- ates a link between a and A, resulting in an interactional
ing theory developed by David Ausubel in the early product A´a´, which includes both a´ as the meaning of
1960s and widely applied to the area of meaningful a (rhombus) and A´ as the meaning of rectangle. Early
verbal learning. It is based on Piaget’s genetic episte- and later retention of the meaning a´ depends on the
mology and focuses on the assimilation hypothesis, dissociability of the new meaning a´ from A´a´.
which assumes that new learning experiences are Although A´ and a´ will remain closely linked with
always integrated into preexisting knowledge struc- each other, the learner should still be able to recall the
tures. Accordingly, the assimilation theory of learning meanings A´ and a´ independently of each another, at
states that new information is subsumed or incorpo- least immediately after acquiring the new meaning. The
rated into an anchoring structure already present in the basic assumption is that a´ and A´ remain dissociated
student. from the product A´a´. Remaining within the example,
the learner can still differentiate the concept rectangle as
Theoretical Background well as the concept rhombus from their common super-
" If I had to reduce all educational psychology to just one ordinate concept parallelogram and remember the
principle it would be this: The most important single defining characteristics of each of them.
factor influencing learning is what the student already During the first stage of assimilation, the initial
knows. (Ausubel et al. 1978, p. 163) learning and immediate post-learning of a is closely
 Assimilation Theory of Learning A 325

linked with A and is anchored in the ideational com- below the threshold of availability. This threshold is the A
plex A´a´. This anchoring makes it possible for the level below which an idea cannot be retrieved, but the
learner to retain concept a permanently, but of course level is subject to variation, for instance due to anxiety.
only as long as a´ can be dissociated from A´a´. To Ausubel and Robinson describe two critical degrees of
explain how successful this process of retention is, dissociability, the higher of which is linked to the
Ausubel and Robinson introduced a variable dissocia- reproduction of a´. If dissociability falls below this
bility strength. It is of course fairly simple to dissociate level, the person will no longer be able to remember
a´ from A´a´ immediately after the meaning of the the exact meaning of a´ but will still be able to recognize
former has been acquired. This is due to factors such corresponding objects. Remaining within the example,
as the affinity between A and a´, the stability and clarity although the learner is no longer able to provide
of the anchoring concept, and the extent to which new a definition for a rhombus, he or she can select
ideas can be differentiated from the anchoring concept. a rhombus from a group of various geometrical figures
If, for example, the anchoring idea A itself is unclear, on the first attempt. Later on, of course, the learner will
one will not be able to distinguish it from a´ very reach the point at which the dissociability of A´a´
clearly. This also holds true if a´ is only an insignificant reaches zero and individual meanings are no longer
variation or modification of A, making the two hard to available at all. At that point, the learner will have
distinguish from one another. In this case, both mean- forgotten the meaning of a´. Figure 1 summarizes this
ings are included in one and the same idea. argumentation by referring to the example of mean-
During the process of assimilation, the new mean- ingful learning of a subordinate meaning.
ing gradually loses its discrete identity as it becomes Similarly, Ausubel and Robinson described the
part of the modified anchoring structure, i.e., newly learning and retention of superordinate meanings.
acquired meanings tend to become assimilated into Ausubel’s assimilation theory is a comprehensive
more comprehensive meanings. This process is termed approach for explaining both the acquisition and the
▶ obliterative subsumption and is dependent on dis- forgetting of knowledge. It also forms the fundamental
sociability strength. If the dissociability of a´ falls below basis of his ideas concerning the organization of
a certain level, then a´ can no longer be distinguished instruction and the main variables affecting school
from A´a´. This gradual loss of separable identity ends learning. One of the key strategies for learning
with the meaning being forgotten when the idea falls advocated by Ausubel is the concept of “advance

I Meaningful learning New potential Applied to and assimilated An idea which is Product of the
or acquisition of sub- meaningful idea a by established in the interaction: A´a´
ordinate meaning a´ cognitive structure A

II Consolidation and The new meaning A´a´ ¤ A´ + a´

initial retention of a´ is dissociable
meaning a´ from A´a´ (High dissociability strength)

III Long-term retention Gradual loss of the A´a´ ¤ A´ + a´

of meaning a´ dissociability of a´
from A´a´ (Low dissociability strength)

IV Forgetting of a´ is no longer The dissociability of a´ from A´a´ lies below the threshold of availability: a´
meaning a´ effectively is reduced to A´
dissociable
from A´a´

Assimilation Theory of Learning. Fig. 1 Learning and retaining a subordinate meaning (Ausubel and Robinson 1969,
p. 108)
326 A Associability

organizers,” a strategy introduced in advance of any Ausubel, D., Novak, J., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychol-
new material in order to provide an anchoring ogy: a cognitive view (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
structure for it.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Important Scientific Research and Novak, J. (1998). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: concept
Open Questions maps as facilitative tools for schools and corporations. Mahwah:
The assimilation theory of learning is closely linked to Erlbaum.
Seel, N. M. (1991). Weltwissen und mentale Modelle. Göttingen,
the name David Ausubel and his research on school
Germany: Hogrefe. [World knowledge and mental models].
learning. Closely related to and influenced by the
assimilation theory is the theoretical approach of gen-
erative learning and in particular the idea of concept
maps advocated by Novak (1998). The assimilation
theory of learning had its heyday in the 1980s; only Associability
the idea of advance organizers has survived and is still
▶ Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning
a key concept in educational psychology.
From the perspective of Piaget’s epistemology, the
assimilation theory of learning is strictly limited to assim-
ilation and thus does not include accommodation.
Assimilation is certainly a central form of learning, but Association
not the only one. Another form of learning consists
in restructuring knowledge and understanding new ▶ Contingency in Learning
experiences on the basis of accommodative activities. ▶ Infant Learning and Memory
An elaborate form of accommodation is the construction ▶ Inhibition and Learning
of mental models, which learners construct on the basis
of their world knowledge in order to process new tasks
or solve problems for which no appropriate schemas
are available (Seel 1991). As long as new information
can be assimilated into the structures of previous
Association Psychology
knowledge, there is no need to construct a mental ▶ Associationism
model. However, neither mental models nor schemas
have been incorporated into the assimilation theory of
learning, although a central argument of Piaget’s epis-
temology is that schemas regulate the assimilation of
new information into preexisting cognitive structures. Association Theory
Another critical comment is concerned with the
▶ Associationism
substantial lack of research on the assimilation theory.
The only aspect that has been investigated extensively is
the concept of advance organizers.

Cross-References Associationism
▶ Advance Organizer
▶ Ausubel FRANÇOIS TONNEAU
▶ Generative Learning Escola de Psicologia, Universidade do Minho, Braga,
▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning Portugal

References
Ausubel, D. P., & Robinson, F. G. (1969). School learning. An intro- Synonyms
duction to educational psychology. New York: Holt. Association psychology; Association theory
 Associationism A 327

Definition the associative process. Did it apply to rational thought, A

“Associationism” can refer to a well-defined historical for example, or only to haphazard mental sequences
tradition or, more controversially, to a range of forged out of coincidences? Did the associative process
approaches influenced by the former. The historical account for all of psychological structure, or should
tradition, developed from the seventeenth to the nine- it be supplemented by faculties responsible for the
teenth century mainly by British philosophers, organization of mental contents? Other differences
appealed to the association of mental contents with concerned the nature of the elements being associated.
one another to explain the nature of human thought Could they include sensory presentations, feelings, or
and knowledge. Current forms of associationism motor elements, as well as mental contents? Could
assume that complex psychological units are built volition and motor control be built on associative prin-
from simpler elements on the basis of experience and ciples? The modes of association, simultaneous versus
through a process (“association”) that is both general successive, were also the subject of controversy. Some
across domains and structure-independent. This pro- associationists admitted simultaneous association as
cess is typically sensitive to coincidences, correlations, a genuine process so as to account for perceptual
or statistical dependencies among events, and the organization (with different visual components, for
psychological units formed on its basis come to reflect example, combined into a single scene), but others
such dependencies. emphasized the successive associations necessary to
produce trains of thought. The principles of similarity
Theoretical Background and contrast were debated, with some associationists
The philosophical tradition of associationism can be attempting to reduce contrast to a combination of
traced back to Aristotle, but it developed mainly from identical elements paired with different associates.
the seventeenth to the nineteenth century through the Another important debate opposed “mechanical” to
effort of scholars, most of them English, interested in “chemical” conceptions of association (Warren 1921).
the origins and nature of human knowledge (Warren Did the components of a complex thought preserve
1921). Important exponents of associationism include, their identity through the association process, or did
in historical order, Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), they merge so as to produce a mental configuration
David Hartley (1705–1757), Étienne Bonnot de irreducible to its antecedents?
Condillac (1715–1780), James Mill (1773–1836), Associationism strongly influenced experimental
Thomas Brown (1778–1820), John Stuart Mill (1806– psychology at the end of the nineteenth century and
1873), Alexander Bain (1818–1903), and Herbert Spen- the beginning of the twentieth century. Research aimed
cer (1820–1903). Associationism also can be found in at associationist principles involved the investigation of
the philosophical works of John Locke (1632–1704), memory and the effect of practice on behavior, the
George Berkeley (1685–1753), and David Hume measure of reaction times in the production of verbal
(1711–1776), reflecting its dual importance for associates, and the use of verbal association in the study
psychology and epistemology. The associationist phi- of individual differences, development, intelligence,
losophers relied on the introspective method and the and psychopathology. Warren (1921) also mentions
phenomenological investigation of thought sequences the “conditioned reflex” as a case of “motor associa-
to uncover the psychological principles that might tion” and suggests that “the conditioned reflex belongs
underlie the latter. Most of these philosophers also to the present and future of association psychology”
speculated on the nature of the physiological machin- (p. 257).
ery that made association possible. All invoked associa- Applying the label of “associationism” to any theory
tive principles (not necessarily under that name) formulated after the early twentieth century, however,
through which complex mental contents could be faces a serious conceptual problem. In the twentieth
produced out of simpler ones. century, the emergence of behaviorism shifted the
Beyond this shared commitment, associationist methodological ground of psychology from introspec-
philosophers differed among themselves in ways that tion to behavioral evidence (Brunswik 1952), and the
anticipate current debates in behavioral and cognitive information-processing theories formulated after the
sciences. Important differences concerned the scope of establishment of behaviorism often appealed to
328 A Associationism

representational constructs that may not be accessible forms of associationism in which the conditional prob-
to consciousness. Thus, contemporary psychological abilities between stimuli and operant actions change
theories typically do not involve the association of through reinforcement.
conscious contents with one another. The association- At the same time, Fodor’s (1983) definition is not so
ist label can retain its usefulness only if a definition of general as to be vacuous. An important point, left
“associationism” can be provided that is broad enough implicit in the 1983 definition but later emphasized
to cover widely different perspectives but not so broad by Fodor and Pylyshyn (1988), is that not any relation
as to exclude nothing. or structure-building process among psychological
Anderson and Bower (1973) have risen to the chal- components qualifies as association. To qualify as the
lenge and proposed a definition of “associationism” in latter, the process that builds more complex units out
terms of four basic assumptions (p. 10): of simpler ones must proceed on the basis of experience
(expressed as contiguity, correlation, or statistical
● Psychological units are connected by experience.
dependency) and regardless of the structure of the com-
● Complex units can be reduced to a limited stock of
ponents being related. The issue with associationism,
primitive units.
therefore, is not whether psychological states are struc-
● These primitive units consist of sensations.
tured. All parties in the debate agree on this score. The
● Units combine through simple additive rules.
issue is rather whether the processes that build complex
Although this characterization of associationism psychological states are structure-sensitive or not.
as relying on elementary sensations may be adequate The claim that they are not is characteristic of
to mentalistic psychology, it fails to capture the associationism.
associationism (if any) of behavioral psychology, In current behavioral theories, for example, rein-
the basic units of which are certainly not sensory forcement depends on the temporal correlation
experiences. Following on Anderson and Bower’s between responding and its consequences and operates
proposal, therefore, Fodor (1983) has defended regardless of the organization of the action being
a broad definition of “associationism” that is better reinforced. Whether the latter consists of a simple
designed to cover “the classical mentalist or the more response or a complex hierarchy of interlocked actions
recent learning-theoretic variety” (p. 27) of association- is irrelevant to the reinforcement process (although the
ist psychology. According to Fodor, associationism speed with which conditioning takes place may depend
entails: on the duration of the reinforced unit and other tem-
poral parameters). Similarly, the strength of the links in
● A set of basic elements out of which more complex
a connectionist network is modified by statistical and
structures are built
temporal relations among activation values regardless
● A relation of association defined over these ele-
of the internal structure (if any) of the connected nodes
ments and structures
and of what they are supposed to represent. And in the
● Principles of association whereby experience deter-
philosophical tradition of associationism, mental
mines which structures are built
contents are associated by experience regardless of
● Theoretical parameters of the associative relation
their intrinsic organization.
and its terms
By contrast, in the theory of mind as a physical
Fodor explicitly admits behavioral as well as mental symbol system, the computational (not associative)
elements in his definition of “associationism,” so the operations that produce new states out of previous
latter does cover the full range of approaches that may ones are sensitive to the structure of these states
be reasonably called associationist. His definition (Fodor and Pylyshyn 1988). Thus, when a desktop
accommodates the philosophical tradition of associa- computer prints “17” in response to “13 + 4” and
tionism (in which mental contents are associated with “35” in response to “31 + 4,” what is printed does not
one another) as well as current connectionist models of depend on a history of association between inputs and
cognition (in which the links between nodes are output – a history which, under different circum-
strengthened on the basis of experience) and behavioral stances, might just as well have linked “31 + 4” to
 Associationism A 329

“17” and “13 + 4” to “35.” Rather, the printed output concern how much of a child’s linguistic organization A
depends on a sequence of built-in operations such that derives from statistical regularities in the child’s input.
structural differences in the input (“13 + 4” versus There is no guarantee that this sort of question has
“31 + 4”) lead to structural differences in the output a unified answer across domains or even phenomena
(“17” versus “35”) through different intermediate within the same psychological domain. Associationism
steps. Such structure-dependent operations are charac- may well fail in some cases while applying to others.
teristic of the computational theory of mind and other The basic phenomena of Pavlovian conditioning, for
approaches to cognition that oppose associationism instance, seem to call for explanations with association-
(Fodor 1983). ist aspects. (The researchers who attribute conditional
Associationism and the computational theory of responding to the formation of cognitive maps may
mind, however, do not exhaust all theoretical possibil- want to deny this, but their denial would simply reflect
ities. The analysis of development in ecological a narrower definition of “associationism” than the one
psychology, for example, qualifies neither as computa- adopted here.) As formal models developed in the field
tional nor as associationist, since the principles it of conditioning are extended to cover features of
proposes operate neither according to associative prin- human perception, memory, and language, the limits
ciples nor on the basis of internal representations. of associationist explanations in psychology should
Neither are associationism and representational sys- become clearer.
tems mutually exclusive, since representational models In many cases, a successful associationist account of
may combine aspects that are structure-independent the data may require relations among elements, as well
(as when objects are linked to a cognitive map regard- as the elements themselves, to be subject to association.
less of their composition) with others that are struc- If the structure-building operation proceeds regardless
ture-sensitive (as when combining two paths into of the nature of the relations involved, then the
a novel one). Furthermore, authors may disagree on resulting models will remain within the province of
whether a model is or is not strictly associative, associationism as we defined it (although they may
depending on what they stipulate to be the defining fail to qualify on a narrower definition). The most
features of “associationism” (besides the broad notion difficult cases for any associationist account involve
of a building process indifferent to the structures that it cognitive phenomena in which structure is paramount:
relates). The label of “associationism,” although useful in particular, inference and reasoning through lan-
in pinpointing shared issues, should not obscure the guage-like processes. Whether such phenomena can
variety and richness of the theoretical views to which it be accommodated within a broadly associationist
has been applied. framework may depend on the development of more
powerful theoretical formalisms.
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions Cross-References
Associationism in a broad sense assumes principles of ▶ Associative Learning
development or psychological change that are struc- ▶ Connectionism
ture-independent. A set of associative relations defined ▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
over a collection of components, however, is itself References
a form of organization. According to associationism,
Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. (1973). Human associative memory.
the latter organization has been derived from experi- Washington, DC: Winston.
ence. The main question with respect to association- Brunswik, E. (1952). The conceptual framework of psychology. Inter-
ism, therefore, is the question of the origins of national Encyclopedia of Unified Science, 1(10), 1–102.
psychological structure; in particular, the extent to Fodor, J. A. (1983). The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty
psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
which psychological structure can be attributed to reg-
Fodor, J. A., & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1988). Connectionism and cognitive
ularities in experience, and the extent to which other architecture: A critical analysis. Cognition, 28, 3–71.
sources of organization must be postulated. In the case Warren, H. C. (1921). A history of the association psychology. New
of syntax acquisition, for example, the issue may York: Scribner’s.
330 A Associative Learning

all: Subjects are usually presented with a series of cues (list

Associative Learning of a patient’s symptoms, list of food items eaten by
a patient, or simply abstract visual shapes) followed by
JEREMIE JOZEFOWIEZ a series of outcomes (disease that the patient has, presence
Escola de Psicologia, Universidade do Minho, Braga, or absence of an allergic reaction, abstract visual shapes)
Portugal and are then asked to rate the contingency relationship
between a cue and an outcome. Despite these procedural
differences, the models developed in the context of
Synonyms nonhuman animal experiments using biologically rele-
Causal learning; Conditioning; Contingency learning vant stimuli apply just as well to human studies using
biologically neutral ones (Bouton 2007).
Definition Operant conditioning involves the learning of
Associative learning is the ability of living organisms to a relationship between a response and a stimulus. The
perceive contingency relations between events in their response is usually called an operant and the stimulus
environment. It is a fundamental component of adap- either a reinforcer or a punisher, depending on whether
tive behavior as it allows anticipation of an event on the the learning of the response–stimulus relationship
basis of another. Despite its name, it is theoretically leads to an increase or a decrease in the probability of
neutral: While many theories of associative learning are emission of the operant. Because the experimenter has
indeed associative, others are not. A cornerstone of no control on when the subject decides to emit the
classic behaviorist learning theories from the 1950s response in operant conditioning, those who are
(such as Hull’s), associative learning was then viewed interested in the mechanisms underlying associative
as a very elementary process of association between learning usually favor Pavlovian conditioning. Operant
stimuli or response and stimuli which would form the conditioning is more used by researchers interested in
building block of more complex activities. Work on how the feedback loop between a behavior and its
associative learning since the 1970s has totally shattered consequence affects the activity of an organism.
this view by showing the critical role of cognitive Hence, since this entry is mainly dealing with the vari-
processes in conditioning and the overall cognitive ables affecting associative learning and the theories
sophistication of associative learning. developed to account for them, it will focus primarily
The two main experimental procedures for the study on Pavlovian conditioning.
of associative learning are Pavlovian (aka classical) and
operant (aka instrumental) conditioning. Pavlovian con- Theoretical Background
ditioning involves the learning of a contingency relation- Stimulus salience and temporal contiguity between the
ship between two stimuli. In most animal procedures, CS and the US were among the first variables identified as
one of these stimuli is a biologically relevant event having an impact on associative learning (Bouton 2007).
(unconditioned stimulus – US) with either appetitive More salient CS and US usually lead to faster learning.
(food, water. . .) or aversive (electric shock) properties The US magnitude also affects the asymptotic level of the
while the other is a biologically neutral stimulus (condi- CR. Good temporal contiguity between the CS and the
tioned stimulus – CS). Learning of the CS–US relation- US seems also necessary: The longer the CS–US interval
ship is assessed by measuring the conditioned response (the time between the CS and the US onset), the less
(CR) which the CS triggers as the consequence of its efficient conditioning seems to be. This statement needs,
pairing with the US. Biologically relevant US is necessary however, to be qualified as, in most conditioning prepa-
in animal studies in order to induce behavioral changes rations, the relationship between the CS–US interval and
that will allow us to assess the development of associative the efficiency of conditioning (as measured by the mag-
learning but is not necessary for associative learning itself nitude of the CR or the probability that a CR is emitted in
to take place. It can be shown that even nonhuman presence of the CS) is usually an inverted U-shaped
animals will learn relationships between neutral stimuli. function: No or poor conditioning is observed if the US
Indeed, most studies of Pavlovian conditioning in is presented before or simultaneously with CS onset while
humans do not involve biologically relevant stimuli at it seems to get better with increasing CS–US interval up
 Associative Learning A 331

to the point where an optimal interval is reached. After conditioning sustained by a CS is proportional to ΔP A
that, further increase of the CS–US interval leads to = P(US|CS)  P(US|no CS). Hence, maintaining P(US|
poorer conditioning. While this seems to fly in the face CS) constant and varying P(US|no CS), one can modify
of the idea that the efficiency of conditioning increases the conditioning of a CS, even though the temporal
with temporal contiguity between the CS and the US, it is contiguity between the CS and the US is not affected.
very likely that the increasing limb of the CS–US interval The contingency effect is also a good illustration of the
function reflects a performance rather than a learning level of sophistication of the process underlying asso-
deficit. CRs anticipate the US and functionally, prepare ciative learning as ΔP is a rational measure of the causal
the organism for the US. Hence, there would be no reason link between the CS and the US as well as of the amount
for their emission in situations where the US has already of information the CS carries about the US. For condi-
been or is currently presented, even if the subjects had tioning to take place, ΔP must be different from 0, that
learned the relationship between the CS and the US. is to say, it must bring some information regarding the
Indeed, using appropriate experimental techniques, it is US. The same conclusion can be drawn from the
possible to show that the subject has learned this rela- blocking phenomenon, where responding to
tionship in backward and simultaneous conditioning a stimulus X conditioned in compound with a stimulus
paradigms, even though the CS does not trigger any CR. A is greatly reduced if A has previously been condi-
The role of temporal contiguity needs also to be put tioned to the US. In this case, X does not bring much
in perspective: Good temporal contiguity between the more information about the US relative to A. The same
CS and the US is necessary for associative learning, but way, in the relative validity effect, subjects are exposed
what constitutes good temporal contiguity is relative. to compound stimuli AX and BX. If the US is only
First, it depends on the type of behavioral system presented after AX and never after BX, A has a higher
recruited by the learning situation. A CS–US interval information value than X. On the other hand, if the US
superior to 500 ms greatly impairs associative learning is presented equally after AX and BX, X has a higher
in a rabbit nictitating membrane response condition- information value than A. Indeed, when tested in such
ing procedure while learning is still observed in a taste a design, subjects show a stronger responding to X in
aversion paradigm even if several hours separate the the later than in the former condition.
presentation of the CS from the one of the US (Bouton Phenomena such as the contingency effect, blocking,
2007). Second, it seems that what matter is not so much and relative validity lead to the development of the
the CS–US interval per se but the so-called C/T ratio, Rescorla–Wagner model (Rescorla and Wagner 1972),
that is to say the ratio between the CS–US interval and probably the most influential work on associative
the intertrial interval (time between CS offset and the learning since Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner’s semi-
next CS onset): The lower this ratio, the better the nal research. The Rescorla–Wagner model postulates
conditioning. Moreover, if the CS–US interval is that associative learning is basically a prediction pro-
lengthened but the intertrial is also lengthened so as cess where the subject tries to predict the US on the
to keep the C/T ratio constant, there is no decrease in basis of environmental stimuli and that learning only
the efficiency of conditioning (Bouton 2007; Gallistel takes place when the subject is surprised, that is to say
and Gibbon 2000). when there is a mismatch between what is predicted
The most critical insight on associative learning and what actually happens. For instance, in blocking,
from the last 30 years of research is the finding that the subject is not surprised by the US because A is
temporal contiguity is not sufficient for conditioning: already predicting it and hence no new learning, nota-
The information value of the CS, how much informa- bly of the X–US association, occurs. Formally, the
tion it brings regarding the issue of US onset in the Rescorla–Wagner model assumes that each CS as an
future, is also, if not more, critical. This conclusion associative strength representing the US prediction in
derives mainly from three fundamental experimental presence of that CS. Those associative strengths are
findings, first demonstrated in the 1970s: The contin- updated on a trial-by-trial basis according to the fol-
gency effect, the blocking effect, and the relative validity lowing equation:
effect (Bouton 2007; Rescorla and Wagner 1972). The  X 
VðXÞ ¼ VðXÞ þ a b R  V
contingency effect is the fact that the amount of
332 A Associative Learning

where V(x) is the associative strength of stimulus x, All the models mentioned until now have in
a and b are learning rate parameters (one determined common the fact that they all view cue competition
by the CS salience, the other by the US salience), R is phenomena such as blocking as the consequence of
the US intensity on that trial and ∑V is the sum of the a learning deficit. In the Rescorla–Wagner model, for
associative strengths of all the CSs present on that trial. instance, responding to X is decreased in the blocking
Since V(x) is the US prediction for stimulus x, ∑V is the paradigm because, due to the lack of surprise of the
total US prediction for the trial, and R-∑V is the subject when the US was presented following AX, the
mismatch between this prediction and the actual US X–US association was never encoded in the first place.
magnitude R. Learning occurs only when R-∑V is Other models have considered that, on the contrary,
different from 0, that is to say when the subject is cue competition is a performance deficit: The associa-
surprised. tion between the CS and the US has been encoded but is
Despite its simplicity, the Rescorla–Wagner model not expressed in behavior for some reasons. Cheng’s
is able to account for a wide range of phenomena probabilistic contrast model (Bouton 2007) assumes
(including the contingency effect, blocking, the relative that organisms keep track of both P(US|CS) and P
validity effect, and other so-called cue competition (US|no CS) and then compute the ΔP difference
effect where conditioning of one cue interferes with between them to decide whether they should expect
the conditioning of another, some of which actually the US in presence of a CS. The same idea of animals as
predicted by the Rescorla–Wagner model. See Bouton, intuitive statisticians can also be found in Gallistel and
2007) explains its long-lasting importance in the field. Gibbon’s model (Gallistel and Gibbon 2000), where
Notably, its core idea that associative learning is the subject is assumed to record the rate of US delivery
underlined by a surprise-driven prediction process in the presence of every CSs and CS combinations
has proven extremely influential and can be found in and to infer from this database the simplest causality
almost every model of conditioning developed since model consistent with the data. Not all performance-
1972. This influence goes actually beyond psychology focused models of conditioning assume this degree of
as reinforcement learning algorithms, developed in sophistication from the organism. Notably, Miller’s
artificial intelligence for the adaptive control of auton- comparator model (Bouton 2007; Denniston et al.
omous agents and which have played a critical role 2001) is a straightforward associative performance-
recently in the interpretation of the role of midbrain focused model where temporal contiguity between
dopamine neurons in learning, are basically real-time a CS and the US is regarded as necessary and sufficient
extension of the Rescorla–Wagner model (Maia 2009). for the encoding of the CS–US association. Difficulties
Also, by emphasizing the role of expectations in learn- arise when this association is retrieved: Presenting the
ing, the Rescorla–Wagner model started the shift CS not only retrieves the CS–US association but also
toward more cognitive explanations of conditioning. associations between the US and other stimuli with
Mackintosh on the one hand and Pearce and Hall on which the CS had itself become associated through the
the other, have proposed models emphasizing the role principle of contiguity. These associations interfere with
of attention in conditioning (Bouton 2007). In both the behavioral expression of the CS–US association.
models, attention is necessary for the encoding of a CS– The strongest empirical argument for performance-
US association. In the Mackintosh model, attention to deficit models of cue competition comes from the
a CS increases when a CS is a better US predictor than existence of so-called retrospective reevaluation phe-
the other stimuli present at the time. In the Pearce and nomena where manipulation of the associative strength
Hall model, attention to stimuli increases when the of a CS allows responding to another CS with which it
subject is surprised and decreases otherwise. Wagner’s was interfering to recover (Bouton 2007; Denniston
SOP model is an artificial-network model synthesizing et al. 2001). For instance, in a learning paradigm, if,
insights from the Rescorla–Wagner model and following the blocking phase, A is presented not
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s cognitive architecture for followed by the US (an extinction procedure which
memory and exploring the implications of short-term will reduce the conditioned responding to A through
memory priming and short-term memory limited the unlearning or the inhibition of the A–US associa-
capacity for associative learning (Bouton 2007). tion), responding to X might recover. Although it is still
 Associative Learning A 333

not clear in which conditions such retrospective association (Bouton 2007). Stimuli having such a role A
reevaluation phenomena will be observed or not (they are called occasion-setters. Their discovery is relatively
are notably more easily obtained in procedures not recent and as such are not yet integrated into current
involving biologically relevant stimuli and, as models of associative learning. More research needs to
a consequence, easier to get in humans than in be done to understand under which conditions
nonhuman animals), many studies have been able to a stimulus acts as an occasion-setter instead of a CS,
replicate them. Learning deficit model of cue competi- as well as the mechanisms by which an occasion-setter
tion such as the Rescorla–Wagner model cannot is able to modulate the association between a CS and
account for them because they do not have a US (Bouton 2007). Research on renewal also made
a mechanism by which the associative strength of clear that the view of extinction as the mere unlearning
a stimulus not present on a trial can be modified. Yet of a CS–US association, held by many models of
modifications of the Rescorla–Wagner model and of conditioning including the Rescorla–-Wagner, is
Wagner’s SOP having this exact feature have recently inadequate.
been proposed and are able to handle retrospective Partly due to the populariry of the Rescorla–Wagner
reevaluation phenomena (Bouton 2007; Denniston model, cue competition has been the main focus of
et al. 2001). Hence, the controversy between learning- research for the last 30 years with very little attention
deficit and performance-deficit accounts of cue paid to other forms of cue interaction, notably cue
competition remains open. facilitation where conditioning of one cue improves
the conditioning of another. Such phenomena are
Important Scientific Research and well-documented in taste-aversion learning paradigms
Open Questions and are usually considered as consequences of the
If a rat is presented with a CS followed by a shock US, it adaptive specialization of the taste-aversion learning
will rapidly developed conditioned fear responding to the system but recent research seems to suggest that they
CS. Presenting the CS by itself, not followed by the US, have less to do with the idiosyncrasies of the taste-
will extinguish this responding. But, if the extinction aversion system and more with some procedural spec-
takes place in a context different from training, the fear ificities of taste-aversion procedures (Bouton 2007). If
CR will reappear when the CS is presented in the training confirmed, that would mean that by manipulating the
context (Bouton 2007). This well-known phenomenon, relevant experimental variables, one could determine if
called renewal, is highly relevant clinically. One of the cues interact in a competitive or coorperative way. That
great successes of conditioning is its application to would indicate that cue processing is much more plas-
behavioral therapy, notably exposure treatments of anx- tic and fluid than aknowledged by current theories of
iety disorders and phobia. The basic idea is that the conditioning, which are all calibrated to account only
anxiety generated by the phobic stimulus is a CR caused for cue competition. Similarily, it seems that experi-
by the stimulus due to its prior pairing with an aversive mental parameters determine whether compound
US. The goal of exposure therapy is to extinguish the stimuli are processed as combinations of more elemen-
anxiety CR by presenting the phobic stimulus by itself, tal stimuli or as configural wholes distinct from their
so that the patient learns that it is not a predictor of the elements rather than the subjects processing them
US. The problem is that since the exposure treatment on a default elemental or configural mode (Melchers
usually takes place in a specific context (the clinic), et al. 2008).
anxiety CR to the phobic stimulus renews once the Focusing mainly on the variables and mechanisms
context is changed, notably once the patient returns to determining when a stimulus becomes a fully condi-
his or her everyday life (Bouton 2007). tioned CS, research has comparatively neglected the
Hence, considerable amount of research has recently study of the mechanisms determining the CR,
been devoted to renewal and how to avoid it. They have a fundamental problem if one wants to understand
revealed that the context plays a critical role, not so much behavioral adaptation to associative learning in situa-
by signaling the nonoccurence of the US (a so-called tions involving biologically relevant stimuli, such as
conditioned inhibitor) as predicted by most models of fear learning. The old view that the CR is simply the
conditioning, but by modulating directly the CS–US unconditioned response triggered by the US now
334 A Associative Learning in Bees

triggered by the CS is clearly inadequate. Research has ▶ Perceptual Learning

made clear that CRs are anticipatory adaptive ▶ Reinforcement Learning
responses, whose shape is determined by many vari- ▶ Reinforcement Learning (Focus on Animal
ables including the CS, the US, and the CS–US interval, Learning)
and where species-specific adaptations play an impor- ▶ Skinner B.F. (1904–1990)
tant role (Bouton 2007). Yet, a coherent and compre- ▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
hensive theoretical framework is still missing. A related, ▶ Temporal Learning in Humans and Other Animals
unresolved and understudied issue concerns the rela- ▶ The Role of Attention in Pavlovian Conditioning
tions between the associative learning mechanisms in ▶ Tool Use and Problem Solving in Animals
Pavlovian stimulus–stimulus learning and the ones in
operant response–stimulus learning. Contrasting with References
early views such as Skinner’s who considered that Pav- Bouton, M. E. (2007). Learning and behavior: A contemporary synthe-
lovian and operant learning were two radically forms of sis. Sunderland: Sinauer.
Denniston, J. C., Savastano, H. I., & Miller, R. R. (2001). The
learning, it is now widely held that the differences
extended comparator hypothesis: Learning by contiguity,
between Pavlovian and operant conditioning are responding by relative strength. In R. R. Mowrer & S. B. Klein
mainly procedural and that the underlying associative (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary learning theories (pp. 65–117).
learning mechanism is the same. Though there are Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
good theoretical reasons to think so, the empirical Gallistel, C. R., & Gibbon, J. (2000). Time, rate, and conditioning.
evidences supporting this claim are few and not as Psychological Review, 107, 289–344.
Maia, T. V. (2009). Reinforcement learning, conditioning, and the
convincing as one would want. Hence, more research
brain: Successes and challenges. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral
needs to be devoted to this issue, notably in the light of Neuroscience, 9, 343–364.
recent neurophysiological findings that different brain Melchers, K. G., Shanks, D. R., & Lachnit, H. (2008). Stimulus coding
areas process stimulus–reward and response–reward in human associative learning: Flexible representations of parts
associations (Maia 2009). and wholes. Behavioural Processes, 77, 413–427.
Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian
conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement
Cross-References and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.),
▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence Classical conditioning II: Current theory and research (pp. 64–99).
▶ Arousal and Paired-Associate Learning New York: Appleton Century Croft.
▶ Associationism
▶ Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories
▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning
▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology Associative Learning in Bees
▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning ▶ Bee Learning and Communication
▶ Cross-Situational Learning
▶ Extinction Learning
▶ Hebbian Learning
▶ Human Causal Learning Associative Learning in Early
▶ Human Contingency Learning Vision
▶ Internal Reinforcement Hypothesis
▶ Law of Effect DOV SAGI, YAEL ADINI, MISHA TSODYKS
▶ Nonassociative Learning Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute
▶ Matching of Science, Rehovot, Israel
▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning
▶ Neuropsychology of Learning
▶ Operant Behavior Synonyms
▶ Paired-Associate Learning Associative sensory learning; Hebbian learning in the
▶ Pavlov, Ivan P. (1849–1936) visual cortex
 Associative Learning in Early Vision A 335

Definition such associations. Accordingly, a neuron A, within the A

Associative learning in early vision refers to experience- network, whose activation is assisted by the consistent
dependent modification of lateral interactions in the contribution of another neuron B, improves its con-
visual system. This type of perceptual learning improves nectivity with the activating neuron (B) so that an
the integration of spatial information and is manifested activation of B suffices to activate A. This mechanism
via improved performance on simple visual tasks such as allows for associations between simultaneous, or nearly
integrating local line elements into contours. Learning is simultaneous events, enabling the learning of complex
modeled using associative rules, expressed as increased sensory patterns and of sensory-motor associations.
(Hebbian) or decreased (Anti-Hebbian) strength of con- The reverse, Anti-Hebbian learning rule was also
nections between elementary sensory units (neurons) suggested. On this rule, the strength of connectivity
that are activated in temporal proximity by distributed from B to A is reduced as a result of the failure of B to
visual stimuli. activate A. Thus, associations can be broken by inde-
pendent presentations of the associated stimuli.
Theoretical Background Hebb (1949) believed that associations play an
Two, or more, visual stimuli that tend to appear important role in visual perception, and suggested
together, such as parts of an object, generate correlated that associations are formed by strengthening connec-
brain events. Associative learning in the brain, which is tions between cells in primary visual areas 17 and 18.
the acquisition of knowledge about correlations Such connections were thought to be formed during
between events, is thought to be implemented by mod- early development, within the “critical period” after
ifying the neuronal connectivity between cell assem- which neuronal connectivity in sensory brain regions
blies having correlated activities. Associations are stabilizes. Clearly, the ability to form associations
formed by strengthening synaptic connections within across the visual field has the potential to solve some
neuronal networks co-activated by input patterns that open problems in visual perception, such as figure
are distributed in space and time. Such networks are completion under conditions of incomplete retinal evi-
expected to restore memorized patterns by partial acti- dence owing to, for example, occlusion or noise
vation, so that a part may enhance the recall of objects (Fig. 1). Here, the associative properties of perception
within which it is embedded. Hebbian learning rules allow patterns to be visually completed based on partial
provide a possible learning mechanism for forming information (filling-in). More recent research suggests

a b

Associative Learning in Early Vision. Fig. 1 Visual associations. (a) Humans have the ability to bind together similar,
proximal elements that form a “Gestalt.” It was suggested that this ability is based on associative (lateral) connections in
the brain, and on mechanisms such as those that were demonstrated in the experimental paradigm presented in Fig. 2 . (a)
The elipse created by the closely aligned (Gabor) patches can be detected even in the presence of noise (after Kovács
1996), demonstrating that grouping by quasi-collinearity enhances the saliency of visual objects. (b) The illusory contours,
as shown in the Kanizsa illusion, are thought to result from associations between local edge detectors implemented by
lateral interactions in the visual cortex (Fig. 2)
336 A Associative Learning in Early Vision

that such associations can be formed in the adult visual mechanism considered here, while consisting of basic
system (perceptual learning), possibly by modifying elements responding to image parts, integrates image
lateral connectivity within the primary visual cortex parts to form a global percept. In addition, the current
(Polat and Sagi 1994). More specifically, detection of scheme accounts for the dependence of perception on
an oriented target is improved in the presence of previous experience, such as is observed in perceptual
flanking patterns of similar orientation, aligned with learning and adaptation. Taken together, with the
the target. This facilitation of neuronal activity extended understanding of neuronal processes
corresponding to the gap in between the flankers is subserving visual perception, associative phenomena
thought to be generated by the mechanism the brain in visual perception are thought to serve as
uses while filling-in for missing information. Although a tractable, well-defined model for studying mecha-
this basic function of associative filling-in is available to nisms underlying learning and association in the
the untrained observer, experimental results indicate brain. Given the surprising similarity in the anatomy
that it can be modulated by learning; associations can of different cortical regions, the neural mechanism of
be strengthened or weakened depending on the spatio- associations is thought to be uniform across the differ-
temporal relationship between the visual stimuli. Thus, ent sensory and non-sensory brain areas.
it was suggested that associations within early visual
areas are formed using the existing connectivity Important Scientific Research and
between neurons. This connectivity was thought to be Open Questions
established during development, as Hebb (1949) Much insight into learning can be gained from study-
already suggested. In this way, correlations existing ing experience-dependent long-term modifications in
within the visual world, to which the newborn is perception. Perceptual learning refers to improvements
exposed, can be captured. Psychophysical, electrophys- in sensory tasks that are gained through practice. The
iological, and anatomical results support the existence phenomenology of perceptual learning is rich and
of a well-defined architecture within early visual areas, diverse, indicating a multiplicity of underlying mecha-
including short- and long-range connections, with the nisms (for a recent review see Sagi 2011). Most impor-
latter transmitting neuronal information between neu- tantly, this type of learning can be found in simple
rons responding to co-aligned stimulus features visual tasks, such as orientation and contrast discrim-
(Kovács 1996). But, in contrast to the classical notion ination, and thus it is more tractable. Learning such
of a critical period early in life which imposes a finite elementary visual tasks was found to be specific to the
maturational window, our results indicate that these task at hand and to basic image features, such as ori-
interactions can be modulated by experience in the entation, spatial-frequency, target location, and the eye
adult brain. Accordingly, we suggest that perceptual of stimulation. The task-dependency of learning was
learning shares basic mechanisms with early develop- thought to indicate that learning is controlled (gated)
ment and thus can compensate for insufficient devel- by high-level cortical areas. The high feature-specificity
opment caused by environmental or neuronal issues. of learning predicts that some of the learning takes
An interesting example here is Amblyopia (“lazy eye”) place at relatively low-level cortical areas, where the
which is caused by misalignment of the eyes (squint) neurons selectively respond to these features. Consid-
during development. Here, the visual cortex receives ering that perceptual tasks can be of different types
conflicting images from the two eyes and as a result the (detection, discrimination, and recognition) and are
input from one eye is suppressed in the brain leading to applied on stimuli of different complexities (light, tex-
reduced vision through this eye. Recent results indicate ture, and patterns), one can expect that the learning
that once the squint is fixed, perceptual learning can be mechanisms will differ accordingly. Several models
used to restore vision through the “lazy” eye (Polat have been proposed, depending on the stages of visual
et al. 2004). processing involved (Sagi 2011). Though models may
The scheme previously outlined can be used to differ in the assumed cortical architecture, there is
explain much of the phenomenology that ushered in a broad consensus regarding the learning rules used
the Gestalt theory of perception: percepts reflect wholes by the learning process. Hebbian rules can be found
rather than a collection of parts. The neuronal in models assuming an association formed within
 Associative Learning in Early Vision A 337

a visual area (Adini et al. 2002) and between areas when (Fig. 2b) after the discrimination of the stimulus con- A
a feedforward architecture is assumed (Lu et al. 2010). trast was practiced in the presence of similar laterally
Of particular interest to our topic is the low-level-stage placed stimuli (Fig. 2c). This suggests that context
model based on a finding related to learning of contrast affects the local neuronal circuit involved in the task.
discrimination tasks in different contexts. These exper- Remote flankers had a stronger effect on target detec-
iments provide the experimental support needed for tion when the space between them was filled with other
associative networks in early vision. flankers (Fig. 2c). The detection threshold is therefore
Although training improves the performance of affected by the dynamics of large neuronal populations
humans on a variety of visual perceptual tasks, the in the neocortex, with a major interplay between exci-
ability to detect small changes in the contrast of simple tation and inhibition. However, most interestingly,
visual stimuli (Fig. 2a) could not be improved by mere these remote flankers rekindled learning in the local
repetition. However, Adini et al. (2002) showed that the network, which was otherwise unmodifiable. We
performance of this basic task could be modified considered a model of the primary visual cortex as

a b c

N=6
Threshold (%)

20

10

0
0 20 40 60
Contrast (%)

d Lateral input e

Jie = 21; Jei = 33

Δe Δi
Jie = 31.3
Threshold (%)

Jie 20 Jie = 19.9

Jee E I Jii
Jei
10

e i

0
0 20 40 60
Thalamic input Contrast (%)

Associative Learning in Early Vision. Fig. 2 Experiments and models supporting associative learning in early vision. (a)
An isolated Gabor Signal (GS) used in contrast discrimination tasks. (b) Contrast discrimination thresholds for an isolated GS,
before and after practice with chains of flankers (shown here in c). Before training observers exhibit the classical increase in
increment thresholds when base contrast is increased (Weber Law); however, after practice increment thresholds are
independent of base contrast above some contrast level. Such result cannot be achieved by practicing an isolated target (a),
only when contextual elements are present (c). (d) The basic unit of our model, namely, a pair of balanced E-I neuronal
networks with lateral inputs destabilizing the E-I balance, thus reducing inhibitory effects (underlying the Weber Law) and
inducing long-term plasticity. (e) Model simulation (adapted from Adini et al. 2002).
338 A Associative Learning of Pictures and Words

a network consisting of excitatory and inhibitory cell ▶ Perceptual Processing and Learning
populations, with both short- and long-range interac- ▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
tions (Fig. 2d). This model exhibited behavior similar ▶ Visual Perception learning
to the experimental results throughout a range of
parameters (Fig. 2e). These experimental and modeling
References
results indicated that long-range connections play an
Adini, Y., Sagi, D., & Tsodyks, M. (2002). Context-enabled learning in
important role in visual perception, possibly mediating the human visual system. Nature, 415(6873), 790–793.
the effects of context. Based on combining Hebbian Hebb, D. O. (1949). Organization of behavior. New York: Wiley.
and Anti-hebbian synaptic learning rules compatible Kovács, I. (1996). Gestalten of today: Early processing of visual
with these results, a mechanism of plasticity in the contours and surfaces. Behavioral Brain Research, 82(1), 1–11.
visual cortex was suggested, which is induced by Lu, Z. L., Liu, J., & Dosher, B. A. (2010). Modeling mechanisms of
perceptual learning with augmented Hebbian re-weighting.
a change in the context.
Vision Research, 50(4), 375–390.
A major problem with Hebbian learning is the risk Polat, U., Ma-Naim, T., Belkin, M., & Sagi, D. (2004). Improving
of explosion: connections may become increasingly vision in adult amblyopia by perceptual learning. Proceedings of
stronger until synaptic strength reaches its maximal the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
value. In such cases, differences between synaptic 101(17), 6692–6697.
Polat, U., & Sagi, D. (1994). Spatial interactions in human vision:
weights may diminish and the information stored in
From near to far via experience-dependent cascades of connec-
the connections may be lost. The model presented tions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
above includes a feedback mechanism to protect United States of America, 91(4), 1206–1209.
against such saturation. Other suggestions include Sagi, D. (2011). Perceptual learning in Vision Research. Vision
homeostatic processes operating during sleep, Research 51, 1552–1566.
supported by experimental results showing reduced
learning owing to overexposure, which can be
counteracted by sleep (Sagi 2011).

Summary Associative Learning of Pictures

Accumulating experimental results during the last two and Words
decades, in both humans and animals, support the view
that sensory regions in the adult cortex, including the MELISSA L. ALLEN
primary visual cortex, can be modified throughout the Psychology Department Fylde College, Lancaster
whole lifespan. It is suggested that early development, University, Lancaster, UK
during the critical period, and adult learning form
a continuum. Psychophysical and neurophysiological
evidence support a theory of perceptual learning, Synonyms
according to which, learning is governed by associative Classical conditioning; Learning mechanism; Operant
Hebbian and Anti-Hebbian learning rules. The chal- conditioning
lenge faced now is to generalize these concepts to non-
sensory brain functions and to account for associative Definition
learning of abstract concepts. Associative learning is a learning process by which ideas
or responses become linked through reinforcement and
Cross-References statistical covariation. Operant conditioning and clas-
▶ Abnormal Learning Behavior sical conditioning are both types of associative learning
▶ Adaptation and Learning and have been put forth as explanations for many
▶ Associative Learning aspects of behavior in humans and nonhuman species,
▶ Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning including spatial navigation, language acquisition, and
▶ Development and Learning memory. Associative learning of pictures and words is
▶ Network Models of Learning and Memory one theory of how individuals learn to understand and
▶ Perceptual Learning use communicative signals.
 Associative Learning of Pictures and Words A 339

Theoretical Background were learned, and only become generalizable to differ- A

Pictures and words are both ▶ symbols that can refer ent exemplars after repeated exposure or reward. On
to, or stand for, entities in the environment. It has been this account, words and pictures are non referential and
argued that symbolic knowledge is a uniquely human non symbolic. Alternatively, symbolic understanding is
capacity (Deacon 1997). Certainly, the ability to use more flexible, which would manifest in novel symbol
symbols has transformed humans as a species. It has combinations and facile use of pictures and words in
allowed us to transmit knowledge across cultures, refer new surroundings and contexts, including non-
to things that are not present in space and time, and has ostensive situations.
been argued as an explanation for how our species has
rapidly evolved communication abilities (DeLoache Important Scientific Research and
2005). Open Questions
One central debate is whether individuals who use There is evidence that young typically developing
these signs for communication actually understand the children demonstrate the symbolic understanding of
symbolic relation between pictures, words, and their pictures and words by the time they are 2-years of age.
corresponding referents. This debate is relevant to child In the real world, parents will often teach their child
development, primate research and other animal stud- a new word for a novel picture in a book (e.g., “look,
ies, and also particularly important when considering a giraffe!”). If the child is taken to a zoo later in the
individuals with ▶ Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), week, will he know that the word he learned for the
who are noted to have strengths in associative learn- picture actually refers to the funny looking creature
ing, but difficulty with language acquisition and usage, with the long neck? Or will he instead think the word
and with other forms of symbols such as pictures and applies only to the picture itself? This reflects the
gestures. critical debate regarding symbolic understanding, and
According to a symbolic account, there is has been demonstrated empirically. Specifically, when
a meaningful relationship between a symbol and what 18- and 24-month old children were shown a novel
it refers to. In this way, symbols are used purposefully picture and told a label for it (e.g., this is a “whisk”),
and are based upon the intentions of the user of the they selected the previously unseen real object as the
symbol (Bloom 2000). Symbolic knowledge of pictures referent of the word rather than the picture that had
and words requires an individual to have a ▶ mental been previously paired with it (Preissler and Carey
representation of the relationship between a picture, 2004). This suggests that very young typically develop-
word, and its corresponding real world referent; this is ing children know that pictures and words are
because very often pictures and words stand for, and referential.
are used to signify, items that are of out sight However, when the same word-picture pairing is
(DeLoache 2005). taught to children with ASD with cognitive impair-
An alternative interpretation of the mapping ment, they tend to think the word applies only to the
between words/pictures and their referents is that it is picture, and fail to generalize it to a real world exem-
associational. Associative mappings may be created plar. This reflects associative learning, and suggests that
between any arbitrary stimuli, as when a tone signals at least some individuals on the autistic spectrum do
shock or predicts reward following a bar press. Asso- not understand the referential nature of pictures and
ciative mappings are governed by statistical input and words. This is consistent with other research suggesting
classical laws of association (Rescorla and Wagner associative learning is intact in individuals with ASD,
1972), reflecting frequency and temporal contiguity of and underpins memory, visual processing, and the
pairings of stimuli. metaphorical or “literal” use of language.
These two accounts have very different predictions In similar studies of lexigram learning in bonobos,
for how an individual (whether a typically or atypically the issue of symbolic understanding vs. associative
developing human child or a primate) both learns learning remains an important debate. On one hand,
about and uses symbols. For instance, associative learn- researchers claim that progressive bonobos such as
ing of pictures and words would predict that these Kanzi have demonstrated symbolic knowledge by
entities are used mainly in the contexts in which they producing novel combinations of picture symbols
340 A Associative Memory and Learning

(Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 2001); however, critics claim

that the hundreds of trials taken to learn new picture- Associative Memory and
action sequences and the profound reinforcement Learning
required to consolidate such learning are more reflec-
tive of an associative learning mechanism. FRIEDRICH T. SOMMER
There are several open questions regarding associa- Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience,
tive learning of pictures and words. One question University of California, Berkeley, USA
concerns the origin of symbolic understanding;
perhaps very young infants begin to learn about
words and pictures as associative pairs, but then exhibit Synonyms
a conceptual change and consequent shift to a symbolic Associative network; Attractor neural network;
way of thinking. In this way, many children with Autoassociative memory; Content-addressable mem-
ASD or primates never achieve this conceptual ory; Heteroassociative memory
understanding, but instead rely upon the associative
mechanisms which may support more general types of Definition
learning. Associative memories are neural networks (NNs) for
Another open question concerns the specificity of modeling the learning and retrieval of memories in the
symbolic systems in the brain. Is symbolic understand- brain. The retrieved memory and its query are typically
ing domain-general, for instance, in that it stems from represented by binary, bipolar, or real vectors describ-
a faculty in the brain which supports all types of sym- ing patterns of neural activity. Learning consists of
bolic understanding? Or perhaps symbolic skills are modifying the strengths of synaptic connections
domain-specific, meaning that gestures, words, pic- between neurons in the network so that neural activity
tures, and object substitution (e.g., pretend play) all can flow from memory queries to memory contents.
originate from a different source and are unrelated in During memory retrieval, the query pattern sets the
development. initial activity in the neural network and the memory
content is represented by the activity pattern emerging
Cross-References from the activity flow through the synaptic connec-
▶ Associative Learning tions. Associative memories permit error-tolerant
▶ Infant Language Learning retrieval; that is, a memory can be recalled not only
▶ Paired-Associate Learning by the exact original query used during learning, but by
▶ Word Learning all input patterns that are similar to the original query.
The similarity measure for error-tolerance is typically
the inner product or the Hamming distance between
References two patterns of neural activity. There are two different
Bloom, P. (2000). How children learn the meanings of words.
types of operation in associative memories. In
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Deacon, T. (1997). The symbolic species. New York: W.W. Norton autoassociation, each memory is identical to the query
and Co. that is associated during learning. Because the retrieval
DeLoache, J.S. (2005). Mindful of symbols. Scientific American. is error-tolerant, autoassociation can be used to restore
August, 60–65. incomplete or noisy query patterns, for example, when
Preissler, M. A., & Carey, S. (2004). Do both pictures and words
completing missing words in sentences or de-noising
function as symbols for 18- and 24-month-old children? Journal
of Cognition and Development, 5, 185–212.
sensory inputs. In heteroassociation, the query and
Rescorla, R., & Wagner, A. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian condition- content patterns differ. For example, an associative
ing: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and memory can be trained to associate the visual appear-
nonreinforcement. In A. Black & W. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical ance of objects with their function.
conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64–99). New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Shanker, S. G., & Taylor, T. J. (2001).
Theoretical Background
Apes, language, and the human mind. Oxford: Oxford University Plato (428–348 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC), and Zeno
Press. the Stoic (334–262 BC) anticipated ideas that memory
 Associative Memory and Learning A 341

function is based on associations between mental con- ● Spike-timing-dependent learning is another form of A
cepts that are governed by similarity, contiguity, and experimentally observed synaptic plasticity that has
contrast. William James (1842–1910) hypothesized been proposed for associative memories built with
that similarity-based mental associations could be exe- spiking neurons (Gerstner 2002).
cuted by flow of neural activity in the brain if learning
Retrieval schemes: Retrieval in associative memories
through experience could shape the activity flow. In
depends on the type of neuron involved and the net-
1949 and 1952, respectively, the psychologist Donald O.
work architecture. Common neuron types are binary
Hebb (1904–1985) and the economist Friedrich Hayek
threshold neurons (Willshaw et al. 1969; Hopfield
(1899–1992) formulated independently a simple rule
1982), units with sigmoid transfer function (Hopfield
of synaptic plasticity, which can perform this type of
1984) or biologically more realistic spiking neurons
learning. Meanwhile, a large body of experimental evi-
(Gerstner 2002). The network architecture can be
dence is supporting the existence of ▶ Hebbian synap-
feed-forward or feedback. Retrieval in feed-forward
tic plasticity in the brain.
architectures (Willshaw et al. 1969) is fastest (requiring
Synaptic plasticity and learning schemes: The most
the minimum number of neural updates), but can be
common form of synaptic plasticity in associative
more accurate in feedback networks as looping of the
memories is Hebbian plasticity. This type of plastic-
neural activity permits iterative refinement of the
ity is local as it depends only on signals that are
memory recall. The computational function of feed-
locally available at the synapse. Models of associative
back is determined by the attractors in the network
memories can be classified by the type of synaptic
dynamics, which, in turn, reflects properties of the
plasticity and by the learning scheme, i.e., the
synaptic matrix formed during learning. The following
scheme by which the data are presented for driving
types of feedback associative memory are possible:
synaptic plasticity:
● Attractor network associative memories (Hopfield
● In one-shot learning, the most common learning 1982) employ autoassociative Hebbian learning,
scheme, synaptic plasticity is driven by presenting which forms a symmetric synaptic matrix for
each association between query and memory only which the dynamics can be proven to converge to
once to the network (Willshaw et al. 1969; Hopfield fixed points, ideally corresponding to the memory
1982). One-shot learning is the fastest possible states. However, depending on the number of
learning scheme but it cannot guarantee that all stored memories, mixtures of memories will also
learned associations can be retrieved perfectly. Spe- become fixed points (spurious states) and can
cifically, retrieval is impaired by cross talk between reduce the error-tolerance in the retrieval. These
different stored associations. networks are typically used for content-addressable
● Iterative learning schemes revisit training examples memory and the de-noising of data.
multiple times and thus are slower than one-shot ● Bidirectional associative memories (Kosko 1988)
learning. Further, they typically involve nonlocal are feedback networks with heteroassociative
learning rules that rely on error values or other Hebbian learning that use the synaptic connec-
signals to be propagated to each synapse requiring tions bidirectionally to iteratively arrive at a fixed
additional machinery, e.g., pseudoinverse learning, point. These networks are used to perform
error back-propagation (Kohonen 1984). Iterative associative mappings between different types of
learning schemes can guarantee error-free retrieval representation.
but they come with other problems, such as reduced ● Sequence associative memories (Kohonen 1984) are
error-tolerance during retrieval. recurrent networks with an asymmetric synaptic
● Palimpsest learning includes synaptic decay mech- matrix that is formed by Hebbian learning of
anisms for erasing unused memories. Such a heteroassociations between successive states in
forgetting mechanism can avoid catastrophic sequences of patterns. Thus, loops of learned
memory loss due to cross talk that can occur if sequences form limit cycles of the network dynam-
a critical number of memories is surpassed (Amit ics. When initialized to a pattern in a learned
1992). sequence, the network will replay the sequence.
342 A Associative Network

Important Scientific Research and memories. However, the full advantage of associative
Open Questions memories in terms of retrieval speed relies on
▶ Memory capacity and sparse coding: A prerequisite implementations in parallel hardware. Early hardware
for analyzing and optimizing models of associative implementations used mercury relays for
memory is the measurement of memory capacity. implementing adaptive synapses and were not scalable.
Interestingly, sparse coding is a prerequisite for opti- Efforts to implement associative memories in parallel
mizing the memory capacity in networks with local hardware have started in the nineties (mainly on single
learning rules. The relationship between sparse asso- instruction multiple data processors). These efforts
ciative memory and the theory of sparse neural coding currently regain momentum due to the foreseeable
of sensory signals is an active field of current research to leveling off of ▶ Moore’s law and due to new discover-
reveal underlying principles of cortical computation. ies of suited, highly scalable computing structures, such
Online associative memory: In classical models of as the ▶ memristor.
associative memory, the learning and retrieval phase
are separated in time, which is an unrealistic assump- Cross-References
tion for the brain where learning and retrieval might ▶ Cued Recall
temporally coexist. Recent work on online associative ▶ History of the Sciences of Learning
memories explores the coexistence of learning and ▶ Memory Codes and Neural Plasticity in Learning
retrieval. ▶ Supervised Learning
Invariant associative memories: Traditional associa-
tive memory cannot perform invariant pattern recog- References
nition; for example, a memorized visual pattern cannot Amit, D. J. (1992). Modelling brain function: The world of attractor
neural networks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
be retrieved by shifted or scaled versions of the pattern.
Gerstner, W. (2002). Spiking neuron models: Single neurons,
Building on earlier research by C. von der Malsburg, populations, plasticity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
E. Bienenstock, C. Anderson, and B. A. Olshausen, Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with
a recent model of invariant associative memory by emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of the
D. Arathorn – the “map-seeking circuit” – shows very National Aacademy of Sciences USA, 79, 2554–2558.
Hopfield, J. J. (1984). Neurons with graded response have collective
promising performance in invariant pattern
computational properties like those of two-state neurons. Pro-
recognition. ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 81, 3088–3092.
Neurobiological evidence: Associative memories Knoblauch, A., Palm, G., Sommer, F. T. (2010). Memory capacities
have served as computational models for the function for synaptic and structural plasticity. Neural Computation, 22,
of various brain structures, such as the cerebellum, 289–341.
cortical areas, hippocampus, the olfactory bulb, and Kohonen, T. (1984). Self-organization and associative memory. Berlin:
Springer.
many others. However, empirical testing of such theo-
Kosko, B. (1988). Bidirectional associative memories. IEEE Trans-
ries of neuronal computation is still ongoing. Current actions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 18(1), 49–60.
research focuses on the design of models that allow for Willshaw, D. J., Buneman, O. P., & Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1969).
testable predictions and the development of recording Non-holographic associative memory. Nature, 222, 960–962.
techniques and data analysis methods for simultaneous
recordings of large numbers of neurons. Another active
field of research addresses the question of how struc-
tural plasticity in the brain, such as spine growth on Associative Network
neural dendrites, affects and constrains functions of
▶ Associative Memory and Learning
associative memory in the brain (Knoblauch et al.
▶ Semantic Networks
2010).
Technical applications and parallel implementations:
Currently, associative memories are implemented in
software, that is, run on standard computers. Software Associative Sensory Learning
implementations can be useful for applications that
benefit from the error-tolerant properties of associative ▶ Associative Learning in Early Vision
 Asynchronous Learning A 343

“time”) occurs in online educational environments A

Associative Strength as a means for teacher and student interactions of
A theoretical term representing the strength of relation- intermittent communication. Asynchronous learning
ship between stimuli or between a stimulus and is time delayed and allows flexibility so that student
a response. Most mathematical models of Pavlovian participants in an online classroom need not engage in
conditioning specify how associative strength changes a discussion at the same time. It is also referred to as
in response to reinforced and nonreinforced presenta- online learning in a computer-based learning modality,
tions of a conditioned stimulus. Associative strength is where geographically separated learners interact on
often thought to reflect the amount of unconditioned a given subject, independent of time and place. This
stimulus expectation produced by a conditioned modality, or online course management platform,
stimulus. offers an Internet-based network of learners an oppor-
tunity to share information in multiple electronic
threaded communication formats including, but not
limited to, email, threaded discussion groups and blogs.

Associative Transfer of Valence Theoretical Background

With many advances in educational technology and
▶ Evaluative Conditioning electronic communication over the last two decades,
shifting paradigms are occurring in the dissemination
of knowledge and information to students around the
world. Currently, the most prominent shift is one of
Assumptions distribution of information and knowledge to one of
access. This paradigm shift leads to a learning environ-
▶ Beliefs About Language Learning ment that is accessible at any time and from any where.
Asychronous learning provides opportunity for stu-
dent-centered environments that are Internet-based,
independent of time and place. Currently witnessed is
an online community with a student-centered learning
Asymptotic Performance environment having moved from a traditional, brick-
▶ Approximate Learning of Dynamic Models/Systems and-mortar, institution-centered environment. This
has occurred in large part due to a societal evolution,
whereby information technology has provided the
means to the Internet, offering the potential to revolu-
tionize the learning environment. Because of this,
Asynchronous Learning a limitless number of people share information
through discussions and dialog all over the world in
VIVIENNE B. CARR a common online educational platform and, hence,
College of Education and Human Services, Seton Hall construct knowledge together (Palloff and Pratt
University, South Orange, NJ, USA 2007). The utilization of asynchronous learning opens
the walls of the classroom and eliminates the bound-
aries by providing new methods of communication
Synonyms with a shifting focus from teacher to student.
Electronic threaded discussion; Internet-based learning Ultimately, this shift is helping to develop new types
network; Online learning of learning communities with a student-centered
approach. Students have increased access to the profes-
Definition sor and other students, course information and mate-
Asynchronous learning (derived from the Greek lan- rials, as well as resources for research with control over
guage Asyn meaning “not with” and Chronos meaning their time, place, and frequency of learning.
344 A Asynchronous Learning

Asynchronous learning emerged in the early 1980s therefore, is based on the constructivist theory whereby
when colleges and universities around the world began instructors act more as facilitors, guides on the side,
to keenly invest in the use of information technology and knowledge disseminators whom ensure that con-
for teaching and learning. In fact, educators began to tent and curriculum are delivered effectively and effi-
heighten their scholarly research largely due to the ciently (Tobias and Duffy 2009).
development of the graphical portion of the Internet Ultimately, the commitment to asynchronous
called the World Wide Web (WWW) in the early 1990s. learning on all levels is to refocus the way information
Higher education played a key role in the development is shared, realized, and communicated. With the grow-
of the WWW medium and the first navigation tool can ing changes of our environment in an information age,
be attributed to Tim Berners-Lee (Morley 2010). With asynchronous learning has emerged as an effective
rapid growth and appeal, the WWW was the fastest means for providing students significant access to
growing portion of the Internet, with its graphic, information and knowledge. Especially with the
hypermedia interface, presenting a significant means enhancements made to Internet Service Providers
for asynchronous learning. New online tools and (ISPs), giving way to emerging technological delivery
instructional technology platforms, such as Asynchro- systems and innovative course platforms, a heightened
nous Learning Networks, began to emerge as technol- number of educational institutions have increased
ogy was used to access the Internet at homes and in access to academic programs via alternative delivery
school. The Asynchronous Learning Networks, defined systems (Morley 2010). Classroom discussions have
as online learning environments or virtual classrooms, been replaced with online threaded discussions or
represented one of the most significant advances in blogs; visits to the professor have been replaced by
education (Hiltz and Wellman 1997). Due to this, the email; and in many cases, class note-taking has been
mid-1990s marked the launch of the initial online replaced by Web pages or text files from the Internet. It
educational course offerings and online degree pro- is apparent, that the goal of introducing advanced
grams via traditional and virtual campuses. Individual instructional technology and asynchronous learning
courses and full-time online degree programs were into education has been to aid students in the learning
made available through online course management process. It can be seen that in doing so, technology
platforms or systems that hosted video conferencing, provides an even greater vehicle for communication
threaded discussions, email, and synchronous, real- as well as allowing for clarity of presenting course
time chatrooms. material in a detailed, dynamic, and concise manner
Today, aynchronous learning has grown any time, any where.
exponetially and online learning environments employ
new technologies providing viable means for Important Scientific Research and
geograpically seperated learners to acquire knowledge Open Questions
and resources independent of time and place. These Asynchronous learning is found among a significant
environments are dynamic with interactive platforms number of educational institutions around the world
including various multimedia, RSS feeds for twitter, where curriculum is adopted to meet the interests and
blogs, and wikis, online journaling and peer assess- needs of students. Research has indicated that most
ment, live video streaming as well as podcasting. students interested in asynchronous learning are those
More and more online learning environments are who have multiple life roles and increased demands on
reflecting the growth of technology and the globaliza- their time. Simultaneously, studies have shown that
tion of the economy. These changes are causing sociocultural changes and declines in budgets and
instructors, students, and administrators to reflect resources have had a significant impact on providing
more on the entire educational process. Part of the a quality education with larger class sizes and in tan-
process has involved the shift from a teacher-centered dem, competition for enrollments. Instructors are
learning environment to a student-centered learning found working harder to apply new approaches to
environment where both the instructor and student teaching and learning which can be intimidating and
assume different roles. Asynchronous learning, threatening to some. Moreover, not every discipline can
 Asynchronous Learning Networks A 345

be delivered technologically. With asynchronous learn- A

ing, the delivery should be content driven and the Asynchronous Learning
instructional technology applied to enhance the online Networks
teaching and learning experience.
The use of asynchronous learning may not make KRISTINA WIELAND
teaching simpler. Therefore, research and assessment Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
should take place in order to critically evaluate the Freiburg, Germany
condition in which asynchronous learning is applied.
For instance, instructors might consider the best fit for
their particular teaching style as well as any limitations Synonyms
to instructional technology that might prevent the suc- Computer-supported collaborative learning; Learning-
cess of asynchronous learning from occurring. Asyn- community; Virtual classroom
chronous learning can provide an instructor with
significant opportunities for student engagement; Definition
however, an instructor should be properly trained on An asynchronous learning network (ALN) is a form of
delivery and methodology (Matusov et al. 2005). Fur- remote teaching and learning approach where learners
ther research on asynchronous learning is needed to communicate with each other from a distance in
determine outcomes based on students access to the a structured way. ALNs enable people to build
instructor and other students, needs for materials and a virtual learning community, which is defined as
resources, training and the students increased control a social and mutually supportive network of learners.
over their time, place, and frequency of learning. Cer- Cooperation between participants takes place using
tainly, many benefits have been witnessed in asynchro- computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems.
nous learning given the interactive features for student The collaborative manner is essential to the process,
participation. However, instructors must be able to com- which is based on interactions among the students or
municate well in writing and in the appropriate lan- between students and an instructor by means of com-
guage. Ultimately, the instructor must be able to create munication tools such as discussion boards or e-mail.
a supportive learning environment that fosters effective The focus on collaboration, which is based on con-
student engagement and the acquisition of knowledge. structivist principles, is what distinguishes an ALN
from the notion of e-learning or distance learning,
which are not based on any specific learning or teach-
Cross-References
ing models. Another key characteristic of ALNs is the
▶ Asynchronous Learning Networks
independency of time and place, because interaction
▶ Distributed Technologies
takes place asynchronously, meaning that people do
▶ Information Gathering and Internet Learning
not have to be present at the same time. It does not
▶ Online Collaborative Learning
matter if the course is delivered purely online or in
▶ Virtual Learning Environments
a blended mode with alternating online sessions and
face-to-face meetings.
References
Hiltz, S., & Wellman, B. (1997). Asynchronous learning networks as
a virtual classroom. Communications of the ACM, 40(9), 44–49.
Theoretical Background
Matusov, E., Hayes, R., & Pluta, M. J. (2005). Using a discussion web The key characteristic of an ALN is the collaboration
to develop an academic community of learners. Educational between learners. Collaborative learning is a learner-
Technology and Society, 8(2), 16–39. centered approach derived from social learning theo-
Morley, D. (2010). Understanding computers in a changing society. ries as well as the constructivist perspective on learning.
Clifton Park: Thomson Course Technology.
Both conceptions complement each other insofar as the
Palloff, R., & Pratt, K. (2007). Building online communities: Effective
strategies for the virtual classroom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. main goal of collaborative learning is the acquisition
Tobias, S., & Duffy, T. (2009). Constructivist instruction: Success or and construction of knowledge through social pro-
failure? London: Routledge. cesses. Social learning theories, such as Vygotsky’s
346 A Asynchronous Learning Networks

Social Development theory (Vygotsky 1978), stress the collaborative tasks like working on group assignments,
primary role of communication and interaction in discussions about specified topics, and information
meaning making and cognition. Learning is considered exchange that concerns course/work organization.
as a social process that is based on interpersonal The last category, assessment, mainly consists of peer
actions. Vygotsky assumes that meaning making is evaluation and feedback. Students publish assign-
developed from society to individual in a two-stage ments, projects, or ideas, and receive critiques and
process. Knowledge is first shared between people and feedback from their peers, which in turn helps them
then gradually internalized. Advocates from the con- to develop critical thinking skills and learn from each
structivist perspective believe that learning is an indi- other (Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fich 2005).
vidual meaning-making process where individuals Collaboration between learners occurs in many
create meaning based on their experiences and interac- ways and forms. Important distinctions between col-
tions with the environment (Alavi and Dufner 2005). laboration modes include the degree of presence in
The implementation of learning environments that regard to time and geographic location. Face-to-face
are derived from social learning theories and the settings, for instance, allow for synchronous commu-
constructivist perspective require the application of nication where students work together at the same time
learner-centered instructional models. The learner- and place. New technologies like the Internet have
centered conception differs from classical teacher- extended these existing collaboration options. Partici-
centered learning environments in that the latter are pants in online communities can work together regard-
characterized by a one-way transmission of knowledge less of whether they are geographically dispersed,
with teachers as the only source of information. colocated, or close-by, and technology-mediated col-
Learner-centered learning environments, on the other laborative learning allows for synchronous and asyn-
hand, are characterized by individual knowledge chronous modes of communication. Asynchronous
construction through mutual exchange of ideas, argu- collaboration does not require real-time interactions
ments, and information. Learning occurs when partic- between learners who are normally not colocated, so
ipants’ initial ideas and conceptions are modified, each student in an ALN can work at preferred times and
using peers as a remote resource for collaborative at his or her own pace. Students are therefore able to
knowledge construction. Main interactions take place send and receive communications whenever they want.
between learners. The instructor takes on the role of This ongoing conversation has an irregular working
a coach whose responsibility is to set up and maintain rhythm where students will not get an answer right
opportunities for the learners to interact and learn away, but it is likely that someone will have responded
from each other. In this way, learners are required to when they log in again. Even though students preva-
consider their peers as valuable resources for their lently come together by chance rather than by schedule,
individual knowledge creation, rather than perceiving ALNs are not limited to pure online courses. Most
learning as a knowledge transfer from the instructor to common are ALN courses in blended modes where
the student and thus expecting permanent input from learners work together using computer-conference
the instructor (Alavi and Dufner 2005; Bransford et al. facilities, but also meet face-to-face, for example, in
2000). a kick-off meeting.
Depending on the underlying instructional model,
there are several pedagogical techniques that can be Important Scientific Research and
applied in ALNs. The three main areas of application Open Questions
are content transmission, communication, and assess- Many researchers examined the effect of ALNs to
ment. Content transmission means that the instructor explore how well students learn compared to tradi-
or the students provide(s) others with files, such as tional delivery modes. Some argue that ALN courses
lectures in audio/video format, learning materials, are not as rich in social cues, doubt the development of
and articles. Communication between learners and a sense of community, and consider the waiting time to
instructor as well as among learners includes receive feedback or a response as problematic. On the
 Asynchronous Learning Networks A 347

other hand, the quality of online discussions is gener- contributing to the quality of a learning network and A
ally considered to be higher than in the classroom and identified areas where further research is needed. Open
activities are not limited by a scheduled class time, questions regarding factors for ALN effectiveness
because participants can take as much time as they include the role of course content, the identification
want to write and refine contributions before submit- and impact of institutional factors, class size, and the
ting them to their peers. Also, students tend to partic- interaction effect of different variables. Two factors
ipate more online than in face-to-face settings (Hiltz have received particular attention in the area of ALN
and Goldmann 2005). The bottom line is that both research: technology/tools and media.
delivery modes have advantages as well as shortcom- The question as to what extent media affects learn-
ings and there is no overall significant difference ing has been extensively discussed in the past and out-
between ALN and face-to-face communities in regard comes are controversial. Even though the extent of
to effectiveness (Alavi and Dufner 2005). It can further media having a direct impact on educational processes
be contended that ALNs are suitable for some learners and outcomes is uncertain, particular media may be
and not for others. Due to time and place indepen- more suitable for specific types of content and peda-
dency, ALNs provide opportunities for particular gogical strategies (Rice et al. 2005). For example,
groups of people, for instance full-time workers, who learners may better understand complex processes
would otherwise not be able to take courses or partic- when given a multimedia simulation that allows them
ipate in collaborative working environments. ALN are to manipulate objects in an exploratory manner, rather
also suitable for learners who prefer to work at their than receiving an image in combination with exposi-
own pace. When pedagogical techniques are applied tory text. Another issue regarding the use of media is
where students become the teachers, ALNs are better the cost-benefit ratio. Students may benefit, for exam-
for less advanced students who may not present well in ple, from combining text-based materials and commu-
oral form (Rice et al. 2005). However, ALNs are not the nication with other forms of media such as images and
preferred mode for all faculty and students. Asynchro- video. More research is needed, though, to explore
nous learning is not suitable for learners who do not whether additional media leads to a sufficient increase
want to engage much in a course, lack self-regulation in student learning and satisfaction to justify the
skills, have deficiencies in reading/writing, or no access increased effort and costs required to include them
to the Internet. (Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fich 2005).
Another body of research is concerned with the Technologies and tools for online communities
design of more effective ALNs by way of identifying have developed over the last 20 years. Many ALN
and examining the factors determining course effec- courses are based on commercial or open source soft-
tiveness. The success of a learning environment is ware platforms like Blackboard©, WebCT ©, and
dependent on several variables, such as learner and moodle©, which enable students to manage the learn-
instructor characteristics, course materials, and ade- ing process and the learning materials. These modern
quacy of medium as well as technology. Two main learning management systems offer a variety of tools to
approaches can be differentiated within this research meet the different needs of an ALN. Tools to enable
subject: those who address the problem by means of asynchronous group working processes include wikis,
practice-based research and those who focus on theory e-mail, threaded discussion boards, bulletin boards,
development. An example for the latter is Benbunan- link creation to internal as well as external web pages,
Fich et al. (2005), who argue that further advancement and file sharing. There are also features to support
in a particular area, such as learning networks, requires (peer) assessment, such as the possibility to write com-
theoretical principles. They developed a theoretical ments on an uploaded file, surveys, online quizzes, and
framework called the online interaction model, exams. Software platforms usually have user manage-
consisting of individual key concepts and their interre- ment components to protect students’ content and
lationships. Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fich (2005), on communication or create areas only accessible to
the other hand, examined contextual factors a selected group of students. Comparative studies of
348 A Attitude Toward Mathematics (ATM)

these packages are, however, limited, and furthermore,

the impact of system reliability and system quality on At-Risk Learners
ALN effectiveness needs further investigation (Arbaugh
and Benbunan-Fich 2005). LESLIE NOVOSEL, DONALD D. DESHLER, DANIEL T. POLLITT,
CARRIE MARK, BELINDA B. MITCHELL
Cross-References Special Education, Department of Special Education,
▶ Collaborative Learning University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
▶ Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Synonyms
▶ Distance Learning Populations, learners, or students who are disadvan-
▶ Network Communities taged, educationally disadvantaged, low achieving, and
▶ Peer Learning and Assessment underachievement
▶ Virtual Reality Learning Environments
Definition
References The term at-risk learner is generally defined as a student
Alavi, M., & Dufner, D. (2005). Technology-mediated collaborative who is in danger of failing to complete school with
learning: a research prospective. In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldmann a basic level of academic proficiency. The construct is
(Eds.), Learning together online (pp. 191–214). Mahwah, NJ:
defined in terms of characteristics situated within the
Erlbaum.
Arbaugh, J. B., & Benbunan-Fich, R. (2005). Contextual factors that individual, family, and community. Characteristics
influence ALN effectiveness. In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldmann (Eds.), inherent to the individual include genetic or biological
Learning together online (pp. 123–144). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. conditions, which can be acquired or congenital (pre-
Benbunan-Fich, R., Hiltz, S. R., & Harasim, L. (2005). The online sent at birth). Psychological and behavioral concerns
interaction model: an integrated theoretical framework for learn-
are also inherent to the individual student. Within the
ing networks. In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldmann (Eds.), Learning
together online (pp. 19–38). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
family, characteristics include race, gender, language,
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How culture, socioeconomic status, abuse, neglect, tran-
people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, sience or homelessness, parents’ marital status, and
DC: National Academy Press. parents’ level of education. Examples of community
Hiltz, S. R., & Goldmann, R. (2005). What are asynchronous learning aspects concern the availability of quality educational
networks? In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldmann (Eds.), Learning together
opportunities, social networks, and public services.
online (pp. 3–18). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rice, R. E., Hiltz, S. R., & Spencer, D. H. (2005). Media mixes and
learning networks. In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldmann (Eds.), Learning Theoretical Background
together online (pp. 215–238). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Within education, at-risk has been studied within the
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher frameworks of epidemiological and social constructiv-
psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University ist models. The epidemiological model has been
Press.
borrowed from the medical field to create a process
for predicting students who may be at-risk for educa-
tional failure. Epidemiological reasoning requires inte-
grating biological as well as statistical elements to
Attitude Toward Mathematics derive the etiology of a problem. The theory holds
(ATM) that certain conditions can be prevented, ameliorated,
or significantly improved through a process of early
▶ Students’ Attitudes Toward Math Learning identification, prevention, and treatment (Lilienfeld
and Lilienfeld 1980). When applied within educational
settings, this process can be used to target students who
require supplemental, strategic, instructional, or
Atmosphere of Learning behavioral supports. To illustrate, once a student is
identified as possessing a learning or behavioral deficit,
▶ Climate of Learning they are provided with evidence-based strategies or
 At-Risk Learners A 349

interventions designed to directly address the problem. familial influences; (b) mesosystem, consisting of the A
The overarching objective of the epidemiological interplay between family, school, and peer groups; (c)
model, when applied in education, is to ensure that exosystem, the social networks surrounding the child,
all students, especially those identified at-risk for edu- such as political, governmental, and economic influ-
cational failure, are provided with high-quality instruc- ences; (d) macrosystem, which describes general attitu-
tion and equal opportunities to learn. dinal and beliefs; and (e) chronosystem, or change,
The social constructivist theory (Vygotsky 1978) continuities, and transitions over time. How these sys-
ascribes to the notion that learning is transmitted tems intersect and interact can have a lasting effect on
through interactions with people, objects, and events academic success. This theory suggests that in order for
in the environment that are embedded within social interventions to be effective, factors within each of the
contexts. As Vygotsky explained: five levels need to be considered. Even further,
addressing certain factors within each level of influence
" Every function in the child’s cultural development
can help to mediate between risk and outcomes. In
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on
summary, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
the individual level; first, between people (interpsy-
is useful in understanding the expansiveness and
chological) and then inside the child (intrapsy-
impact of influencing factors that may place a child
chological). This applies equally to voluntary
at-risk during multiple levels of a child’s development.
attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of
concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals. (p. 57)
Important Scientific Research and
Open Question
Richardson et al. (1989) pioneered application of Students labeled at-risk for academic failure face a far
the social constructivist theory to study at-riskness in more uncertain future than their non-risk peers. For
education. Richardson and his colleagues proposed this reason, it is imperative that educators take action
that a social constructivist theory enables one to to address at-risk learners’ academic and behavioral
account for characteristics that the child brings to the needs. As put forth by the epidemiological and ecolog-
classroom, many of which have been shaped by past ical systems theories, an undertaking of this magnitude
experiences in school. For example, the child interacts requires an understanding of identification methods,
within a classroom context that includes other stu- prevention practices, and treatment options, within
dents, teachers, and materials. What happens in the multiple levels of a child’s development.
classroom is shaped in part by school level factors. A convergence of literature suggests educators pro-
School level factors are therefore influenced by local vide students predicted to be at-risk of educational
and national political policy. Therefore, the social con- failure with the following: (a) early interventions that
structivist framework allows educators to broaden their target students who are at highest risk of school
focus and account for interactions between the stu- difficulties; (b) immediate, consistent, evidence-based
dents within these nested contexts. academic and behavioral strategies and interventions
One framework that has been used to understand delivered via small group or at an individual level, until
and identify levels of social construction associated the student is achieving at a rate commensurate with
with being labeled at-risk is Urie Bronfenbrenner’s his/her same age peers; (c) a student-centered, struc-
Ecological Systems Theory (1979). Citing Vygotsky’s tured curriculum approach; (d) limited class size and
theory of social constructivism as the foundation for teacher to student ratios; and (e) high expectations,
developing the Ecological model, Bronfenbrenner clearly stated goals and monitoring of student progress
introduced five nested environmental systems believed toward meeting these goals. It is also essential to pro-
to shape human development and to clarify why the vide teachers with ongoing job-embedded professional
label at-risk is insufficient in and of itself. Placing the development, to ensure that evidence-based practices
child at the center of the model, the five levels of are implemented with integrity in the manner for
influence that affect development are described as fol- which they were intended, and to make certain that
lows: (a) microsystem, composed of individual child active family and community involvement is encour-
behavior, characteristics, and skills, as well as immediate aged (Banks et al. 2005).
350 A Attention

It is important for policymakers to consider the role Cross-References

that education plays in a country’s social and economic ▶ AIME (Amount of Invested Mental Effort)
stability. Therefore, an essential task of the research ▶ Alertness and Learning of Individuals with PIMD
community is to identify variables that will aid in
predicting students who are at-risk for academic failure.
Research questions that need to be addressed are whether
some predictors of at-risk status carry more weight than Attention and Contemplative
others, according to country of origin, and how to best Discourse
respond to each predictor in a way that will efficiently
mobilize the student from an at-risk to non-risk status. ▶ Attention, Memory, and Meditation
Students labeled at-risk in academic settings face
a more difficult road to academic success than their
non-risk peers. It is imperative that students’ academic
needs are addressed. However, a parent, teacher, or Attention and Implicit Learning
school generally cannot accomplish this individually.
Rather, as explained by both the epidemiological and KERSTIN WOLF1, NOTGER G. MÜLLER2
1
ecological systems, it takes the understanding of iden- Institute of Psychology, University of Education
tification, prevention, and treatment at multiple levels Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
2
of the system to best help address students with the Department of Neurology, University of Magdeburg
label or characteristics of at-risk. & German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases,
Magdeburg, Germany
Cross-References
▶ Behavioral Capacity Limits
▶ Burnout in Teaching and Learning Definition
▶ Delinquency and Learning Disabilities ▶ Attention is a term that is used to describe the pro-
▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning cesses and mechanisms which entail that attended
stimuli are processed faster and more correctly than
References nonattended stimuli. It strongly influences how we
Banks, J., Cochran-Smith, M., Moll, L., Richert, A., Zeichner, K., experience our surroundings. Another fundamental
LePage, P., Darling-Darling-Hammond, L., Duffy, H., &
aspect of behavior is an individual’s ability to learn.
McDonald, M. (2005). Teaching diverse learners. In L. Darling-
Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for
Learning is often categorized into two basic types:
a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do explicit and implicit. ▶ Implicit learning is the type of
(pp. 232–274). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. learning which is non-intentional and takes place in the
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Exper- absence of conscious strategies. There is a strong func-
iments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University tional relationship between attention and implicit
Press.
learning. This relationship is reciprocal and can be
Lilienfeld, A. M., & Lilienfeld, A. M. (1980). Foundations of epidemi-
ology. New York: Oxford University Press. subdivided into two unidirectional phenomena: First,
Richardson, V., Casanova, U., Placier, P., & Guilfoyle, K. (1989). there is implicit attentional learning. Here, implicit
School children at risk. Philadelphia: The Falmer Press. learning of regularities in the stimulus material shapes
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard the deployment of selective attention. Second, there is
University Press.
attention-dependency of implicit learning. This refers to
the fact that underlying regularities in the stimulus
material can only be learned when those stimulus fea-
Attention tures for which the rule(s) exists are selectively
attended. Finally, there is a circular relation between
Attention is the sum of processes and mechanisms attention and implicit learning: selective attention
which entail that attended stimuli are processed faster modulates what is learned implicitly, the result of this
and more correctly than nonattended stimuli. learning process determines where selective attention is
 Attention and Implicit Learning A 351

directed to in the future, what, in a next step, deter- observers are not informed of this predictive relation- A
mines what is implicitly learned, and so forth. ship, yet they become increasingly faster in detecting
the target at the predicted location. This shows that
Theoretical Background they pick up the regularity and consequently, shift their
Attentional orienting can be voluntary, according to attention toward the anticipated location after the
the inner goals of the observer, or it can be reflexive, appearance of the cue. Participants can thus improve
driven by salient stimuli in the environment. In addi- the speed and efficiency of orienting toward an object
tion, orienting of attention can be biased by implicit of interest based on their prior experience. This learn-
learning and prior experience. The spatial cueing para- ing is usually non-intentional and takes place in the
digm is a prominent experimental task to investigate absence of conscious strategies and, therefore, has been
attentional orienting. Here, observers have to respond termed implicit attentional learning. In implicit atten-
as quickly as possible to the onset of a target stimulus, tional learning, a person implicitly learns to use regu-
which can appear at either of two locations, at the left larities in repeatedly presented stimulus material to
or at the right of the display. Before the target appears, consequently allocate attention more efficiently – that
observers are presented with a cue stimulus which also is, more quickly and in a more focused way – to the
appears at the left or the right of the display (Fig.1). locations indicated by the regularity. It has also been
In the variant of the cueing paradigm that is used to demonstrated in a number of other paradigms like the
study attentional learning, there is a predictive relation- contextual cuing paradigm (Chun and Jiang 1999).
ship between the location of the cue and the location of There are two types of implicit attentional learning
the target, in that, for example, the target appears at the which differ with regard to the complexity of the rule to
opposite side of the cue on 70% of the trials. Critically, be learned and the speed with which the regularity is
acquired.
● Short-term implicit attentional learning: a short-
response
term learning effect linking features of objects to
+ attentional deployment so that visual perception
Time
target and performance are enhanced. For example, if
+
target stimuli have appeared at the same location
of a display for several successive trials, the response
standard display for yet another target at that location will be faster.
+ This type of learning builds up very quickly, after
only one repetition of the stimulus containing the
cue
regularity. The knowledge that can be acquired is
+
quite primitive, i.e., more complicated if-then con-
standard display tingencies cannot be learned. The contingencies are
+ also quickly forgotten.
● Long-term implicit attentional learning: a rather
slow (it takes a larger number of trials to pick up
the regularity) and long-lasting learning effect
Attention and Implicit Learning. Fig. 1 Sequence of affecting the allocation of attention. Subjects
events during a trial of the spatial cueing paradigm. Each implicitly learn probabilistic regularities within
trial starts with the presentation of the cue which here the stimulus material which are predictive of the
consists of the filling of one box. After a short inter- location of an upcoming stimulus and they subse-
stimulus interval, the target is presented. Cue and target quently direct their attention to the location
can either appear on the same side or on opposite sides. In predicted by the regularity. At the same time, the
the predictive spatial cueing paradigm, the cue predicts participants are not able to consciously recall (i.e.,
the target for either the same or the opposite side with verbalize) any of the regularities, which implies that
a probability of more than 50% they had learned those regularities in an implicit
352 A Attention and Implicit Learning

manner. Also complex regularities can be learned. role of selective attention with regard to implicit learn-
The spatial cuing task presented before is an exam- ing can thus be considered as an instance of the “Atten-
ple of long-term implicit attentional learning. tion Hypothesis” of Logan and colleagues (Logan et al.
1999), according to which attention to an event (or in
Both types of attentional learning make vision more
the implicit learning case, two related events) is
efficient by using the predictability of the environment.
a necessary and sufficient precondition for the event
They help build up knowledge that tells us where to
to be stored in memory (Fig. 2).
look in a certain environmental configuration.
It can thus be concluded, that attention and
Now, that it has become clear that implicit learning
implicit learning share a reciprocal relationship in
can determine where and how attention is directed, the
that implicit learning needs selective attention and
complementary question arises in how far attention
that implicit learning can determine the deployment
determines what is implicitly learned. Implicit learning
of attention. But this is not where the story ends.
has been defined as learning that occurs independently
Selective attention is now directed by previously
of conscious attempts to learn and largely in the
acquired implicit knowledge and only the objects that
absence of explicit knowledge of what has been learned
are attended to will in a next step be learned, since
(Reber 1993). Extending this definition, it was often
selective attention is a prerequisite for (implicit) learn-
suggested that implicit learning should be accom-
ing. The relationship between attention and implicit
plished through completely automatic learning mech-
learning thus goes on in a circular fashion.
anisms which do not require central attentional
resources and which are driven in response to stimulus
Important Scientific Research and
input independently of control processes or selection.
In line with this assumption, early research demon-
Open Questions
The topic of attention and implicit learning is an active
strated that adding a second task to a simultaneous
field of research with some questions not ultimately
implicit learning task did not deteriorate implicit
resolved and constantly new issues emerging. While
learning. Thus, although much less attentional
for a rather long period, the notion that implicit learn-
resources were available, the participants could pick
ing is independent from attention as a resource was
up the regularities of the implicit learning task. Accord-
prevailing, a recent study by Shanks et al. (2005) dem-
ingly, it was concluded that implicit learning does not
onstrated the opposite. Thus, the question of whether
depend on attention. Yet at this point, it is important to
implicit learning is attention-dependent cannot be
emphasize a distinction between two properties of
unequivocally answered at the moment and needs
attention: Attention can be considered as a resource
further research. On the other hand, a large amount
and as a selection mechanism. Both are aspects of the
of research rather unanimously supports the view that
non-unitary concept of attention. In a large number of
studies, it has been shown that implicit learning is
largely independent from attention as a resource. How- cessary fo
is ne r
ever, a series of other studies has demonstrated that for
implicit learning to occur, it is necessary that selective
attention is directed to the relevant dimensions of the
stimulus material, be it color, shape, or location. Sup-
pose, for example, in a ▶ serial reaction time task, Selective Implicit
Attention Learning
observers are instructed to attend only to the locations
of the targets while ignoring their color. They will not
be able to pick up any regularity that exists in the
sequence of colors. They will only do so if their
responses are based on the color of the objects so that
this dimension is attended. They need not be aware of Attention and Implicit Learning. Fig. 2 Illustration of the
the regularity; attending to its component events is relationship between selective attention and implicit
a sufficient condition for the learning to occur. The learning
 Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning A 353

selective attention is a necessary (and even sufficient) efficient deployment of attention. In the same vein, A
prerequisite for implicit learning (for a review see Chun studies have investigated whether associations can be
and Turk-Browne 2008). established between features other than space or time
The phenomenon of implicit attentional learning (like color or shape) or whether cross-dimensional
has also become increasingly well-confirmed. It keeps associations (like, for example, a shape or a semantic
being demonstrated with different paradigms, with category predicting a location) can be formed. Results
a recent focus on investigating the special characteris- in this regard have been equivocal and further research
tics of the learning mechanism. In addition, behavioral is needed.
research on implicit attentional learning has recently
been complemented by neuroscientific investigations Cross-References
looking for the underlying neural mechanisms. To the ▶ Associative Learning
same extent that short-term and long-term implicit ▶ Automatic Information Processing
attentional learning show different behavioral charac- ▶ Cueing
teristics, both types of attentional learning seem to be ▶ Implicit Learning
mediated by different neural substrates or mechanisms. ▶ Implicit Sequence Learning
A hallmark of short-term implicit attentional learning is ▶ Incidental Learning
lower activity of the brain regions that are responsible ▶ Procedural Learning
for the analyses of the repeatedly presented stimulus. ▶ Short-Term Memory and Learning
This reduction is already observable with the second ▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
presentation of the stimulus. It is conceivable that this
so-called repetition suppression reflects the sharpening References
of neural responses to a repeated stimulus. In addition, Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (1999). Top-down attentional guidance
the repetition suppression seems to be correlated with based on implicit learning of visual covariation. Psychological
the activation of brain areas that are involved in the Science, 10, 360–365.
Chun, M. M., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2008). Visual memory. In S. J.
operation of visual attention. This suggests that
Luck (Ed.), Oxford series in visual cognition (Vol. 5, pp. 209–245).
repeated activation of the same brain area initiates the Oxford: Oxford University Press.
activation of attentional systems. Long-term implicit Jiménez, L. (Ed.). (2003). Attention and implicit learning. Amsterdam:
attentional learning, on the other hand, seems to Benjamins.
involve brain structures that sustain the formation of Logan, G. D., Taylor, S. E., & Etherton, J. L. (1999). Attention and
automaticity: Toward a theoretical integration. Psychological
long-term memory. Research centers on the medial
Research, 62, 165–181.
▶ temporal lobe (MTL) with its subregions, hippo- Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on
campus, parahippocampal cortex, and perirhinal cor- the cognitive unconscious. New York: Oxford University Press.
tex. This formation is also the target structure of Shanks, D. R., Rowland, L. A., & Ranger, M. S. (2005). Attentional
research on ▶ associative learning and previous load and implicit sequence learning. Psychological Research, 69,
research suggests that in this brain area, neurons code 369–382.

temporal relationships between events by changes in

their activity.
Another topic of ongoing research is the question as
to how far implicit attentional learning is a mechanism Attention and Pavlovian
that is restricted to the visuo-spatial domain or Conditioning
whether it can be extended to other dimensions as
well. While for short-term implicit attentional learn- MARK HASELGROVE
ing, it is conceived possible (yet not investigated) that School of Psychology, The University of Nottingham,
the learning mechanism may be more general, in long- Nottingham, UK
term learning, it has been shown that the learning can
also generalize to other domains. For example, it has
been demonstrated, that not only spatial but also tem- Synonyms
poral associations can be acquired and be used for an Associability; Classical conditioning; CS processing
354 A Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning

Definition the US, and the third (again, a), which reflects the
Pavlovian conditioning is a procedure for studying the attention that will be paid to the CS on the next trial,
properties and mechanisms of learning. In this proce- and again changes with experience. The value of a is
dure an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned equal to the absolute difference between the magnitude
stimulus, CS) is repeatedly paired with a biologically of the US and the sum of the associative strengths of all
significant stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, US). the CS present on that trial. In contrast to Mackintosh’s
As a consequence of these pairings, the CS comes to theory, therefore, Pearce and Hall’s theory stipulates
evoke a learned response, the conditioned response that learning will progress more to CSs that are
(CR). The most successful analysis of Pavlovian condi- followed by surprising, or unpredictable USs. Pearce
tioning is provided by associative theories, which pro- & Hall’s theory was based upon observations first
pose that pairings of the CS and US establish an reported by Hall and Pearce (1979), and has been
associative connection or link between representations expanded upon by Pearce, Kaye, and Hall (1981). The
of these stimuli. An issue of continuing theoretical and principles proposed by Pearce and Hall have been
empirical scrutiny is whether associative connections incorporated into the neural network model proposed
are determined by (1) variations in the processing of by Schmajuk, Lam, and Gray (1996).
the US or, in contrast, (2) variations in the processing
of (or attention to) the CS. Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
Theoretical Background
Two theories of attention and learning have had Latent Inhibition
a substantial impact upon the Pavlovian conditioning Lubow and Moore (1959, see also Lubow 1973)
literature. These theories are, at face value, reported an experiment in which the acquisition of
contradictory. Pavlovian conditioning was retarded if the CS had
been pre-exposed in the absence of the US. This effect
Mackintosh (1975) has been obtained in a variety of Pavlovian condition-
According to the theory proposed by Mackintosh ing procedures, such as conditioned emotional
(1975), the change in the connection between the CS responding and flavor-aversion learning. In addition,
and the US is determined, on each trial, by the differ- simple pre-exposure to the CS has been shown to
ence between the magnitude of the US and the associa- attenuate the acquisition of inhibitory conditioning
tive strength of the CS. Importantly, this value is (e.g., Rescorla 1971). Although open to alternative
multiplied by a learning rate parameter, a, which analyses (e.g., Wagner 1981; Bouton 1993) this latent
reflects the attention paid to a stimulus and changes inhibition effect has been taken as evidence for animals
with experience. More specifically, the value of a learning to ignore the CS. The effect follows from the
increases if the CS is the best available predictor of the theory proposed by Mackintosh (1975) as, during pre-
US on a conditioning trial, and decreases if it is no exposure, attention to the CS will fall; this follows
better a predictor of the US than any other CS on because the CS is no better a predictor of the absence
a conditioning trial. This model builds upon early of the US than is the background context. Latent inhi-
observations by Krechevsky (1932), which were devel- bition also follows from the theory proposed by Pearce
oped further by Sutherland and Mackintosh (1971). and Hall (1980) as, during pre-exposure, the CS is
The theory proposed by Mackintosh has been instan- never followed by a surprising US – attention to the
tiated as a neural network model by Kruschke (2001). CS will therefore fall. Latent inhibition has been taken
as a model of the attentional dysfunction that is
Pearce and Hall (1980) observed in acute schizophrenia (e.g., Weiner 2003).
According to the theory proposed by Pearce and Hall
(1980), the change in the connection between the CS Blocking
and the US is determined, again on each trial, by the Kamin (1968) described a series of experiments in
product of three parameters, two of which are fixed and which prior conditioning with CS A prevented, or
are determined by the physical properties of the CS and blocked, conditioning with CS X when CSs A and
 Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning A 355

Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning. Table 1 Design however, an alternative analysis of learned irrelevance A
of a blocking experiment which appeals to the summed effects of CS pre-exposure
and US pre-exposure – both of which, alone, are known
Group Stage 1 Stage 2 Test (and result)
to retard the acquisition of conditioning (e.g., Bonardi
Blocking A ! US AX ! US X (weak CR)
and Ong 2003). It remains to be determined if learned
Control – AX ! US X (Stronger CR) irrelevance represents more than the sum of CS and US
pre-exposure effects. If it does, it then remains to be
determined if these two phenomena can be explained
X were subsequently conditioned in compound (see with an attentional mechanism alone.
Table 1). Blocking is a robust property of Pavlovian An alternative method of demonstrating the effect
conditioning and has been demonstrated across a wide on learning of irrelevance training is exemplified by the
variety of conditioning procedures and species. superiority of an intradimensional shift (IDS) over an
According to the theories proposed by Mackintosh extradimensional shift (EDS). A particularly clear dem-
(1975), and Pearce and Hall (1980), prior conditioning onstration of the effect was described by George and
with A should result in a loss of attention to X. Pearce (1998) who presented pigeons with different CSs
A number of experiments are consistent with this pre- that signaled the presence and absence of the US and
diction, for blocked stimuli are resistant at acquiring which each comprised two features: a color, and lines at
new associations (Mackintosh 1978). Furthermore, a particular orientation. Once learning in stage one was
when a surprising upshift or downshift in the magni- complete the pigeons transferred to a test discrimina-
tude of the US is introduced following AX, blocking is tion, which again involved different CSs that signalled
predicted to be attenuated, as attention should be the presence and absence of the US, and which again
restored. Again, extant evidence is consistent with this comprised color and line orientation features. However,
prediction (Dickinson et al. 1976). It must be stated, the specific colors and orientations were different to
however, that it seems likely that an additional mech- those used in stage one. For animals in the IDS group,
anism contributes to blocking. Baxter, Gallagher, and the dimension that was relevant to the solution of the
Holland (1999) showed that lesions of the cholinergic discrimination in stage1 (e.g., color) was again relevant
inputs of the hippocampus disrupted the attenuation of at test. For the EDS group the dimension that was
subsequent learning about a blocked CS but left irrelevant in stage one was relevant at test. The results
blocking itself unaffected. These results might be taken showed the test discrimination was learned faster in
to imply that a US processing mechanism (e.g., Rescorla Group IDS than in Group EDS. These results are com-
and Wagner 1972) might also contribute to blocking. patible with Mackintosh’s theory as stage 1 training
should establish, for example, color, as the best predictor
Learned Irrelevance of the US, and thus attention to this stimulus dimension
According to Mackintosh’s (1975) theory, conditioning should increase – easing learning in the test discrimina-
will be retarded if the CS has, in the past, been a poor tion for Group IDS. At the same time line orientation is
predictor of the US; that is to say, it has acquired irrelevant to the solution of the discrimination in stage
irrelevance. Evidence consistent with this prediction one, and this dimension should therefore come to be
has been provided by, for example, Mackintosh ignored – hardening the learning in the test discrimina-
(1973) who exposed one group of rats (Group random) tion for Group EDS. The IDS/EDS effect has, again, been
to random presentations of the CS and US, before then demonstrated in a variety of species using different
examining the speed of conditioning in a test stage in conditioning procedures. Furthermore, lesions to the
which a predictive relationship was established between medial frontal cortex in rodents (e.g., Birrell and
the CS and the US. Rats in Group random were slower Brown 2000) and the lateral prefrontal cortex in pri-
to learn in the test stage than control rats, for whom the mates (e.g., Dias et al. 1996) have been shown to atten-
initial, random, training was omitted. Random pre- uate the IDS/EDS effect. The Wisconsin card sorting
sentations of the CS and US have also been shown to task is a variety of the IDS/EDS task, and is widely used
attenuate the subsequent acquisition of inhibitory con- by neuropsychologists to test for attentional dysfunc-
ditioning (e.g., Baker and Mackintosh 1977). There is, tion in patients with frontal lobe injury or mental
356 A Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning

illness such as schizophrenia. The attenuation of learn- (1975) theory stipulates that CSs that are good pre-
ing by learned irrelevance training is not consistent dictors of the US will come to attract more attention
with the theory proposed by Pearce and Hall (1980). than CSs that are poorer predictors of the US, and
a number of studies have supported this stipulation.
Continuous and Partial On the other hand, the theory proposed by Pearce and
Reinforcement Hall (1980) stipulates, to the contrary, that CSs that are
It follows from the proposals of Pearce and Hall (1980) poor predictors of the US will come to gain more atten-
that if a CS is followed on each trial with a US (contin- tion than CSs that are good predictors of the US, and
uous reinforcement), attention to the CS will fall. This again, a number of studies have supported this stipula-
has been confirmed by Hall and Pearce (1979) who tion. To resolve this contradiction, it has been suggested
showed that continuous reinforcement of a CS with that the attention paid to a CS is affected by two pro-
a weak shock, retarded conditioning of the same CS cesses, and it is the net outcome of the interaction
when it was subsequently paired with a stronger shock. between these processes in any conditioning task that
It also follows from the Pearce and Hall theory that if determines whether attention to a CS is high or low (Le
the CS is intermittently paired with a US (partial rein- Pelley 2004; Pearce et al. 1998). A common assumption
forcement) attention to the CS will be maintained as of these theories, which differ in detail, is that on every
the presentation of the US – or its omission – will conditioning trial, a calculation is made about how well
always be surprising. Consequently, partial reinforce- each CS predicts the US (ala Mackintosh) and about
ment of a CS should facilitate later conditioning. This the extent to which each CS is followed by an accurately
prediction was confirmed by Kaye and Pearce (1984) predicted US (ala Pearce and Hall); and evidence which
who presented a continuously reinforced group of rats supports this assumption has recently been provided by
with the sequence light-tone-food, and a partially Haselgrove, Esber, Pearce and Jones (2010). According
reinforced group the same sequence intermixed to Le Pelley’s (2004) theory, the product of Mackintosh
among trials in which the light was presented by itself. and Pearce-Hall attention is then used to determine the
In a final test stage, the light was paired directly with total attention that is paid to the CS on the subsequent
food: the previously partially reinforced group showed trial, and simulations of this theory have provided
superior conditioning relative to the continuously a good fit to the existing conditioning data. A crucial
reinforced group. Kaye and Pearce (1984) provided goal for future research is to determine the conditions
direct evidence that a partially reinforced CS maintains under which attention and conditioning adheres to the
more attention than a continuously reinforced CS. proposals of Mackintosh, or the proposals of Pearce
They examined the extent to which a localized light and Hall, and indeed whether separate models of atten-
evoked an orienting response in rats. Their results tion are required (Esber and Haselgrove 2011).
showed that a CS that was partially reinforced with
food maintained an orienting response for longer Cross-References
than a CS that was continuously reinforced with food. ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
Lesion experiments with rodents have identified the ▶ Animal Perceptual Learning
amygdala as a crucial structure that mediates the ▶ Associative Learning
types of attention posited by Pearce and Hall (Holland ▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning
and Gallagher 1999). The effects of continuous and ▶ Conditioning
partial reinforcements that have been investigated by ▶ Discrimination Learning Model
Pearce and his colleagues are not consistent with the ▶ Formal Learning Theory
theory proposed by Mackintosh (1975). ▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning
▶ Pavlov, Ivan P. (1849–1936)
Hybrid Models of Conditioning and
Attention References
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Baxter, M. G., Gallagher, M., & Holland, P. C. (1999). Blocking can Mackintosh, N. J. (1975). A theory of attention: Variations in the
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358 A Attention and the Processing of Visual Scenes

Definition conscious awareness (Kastner et al. 2000). The

Visual perception results from the dynamic interac- pre-attentive processing observed for figure-ground
tions between incoming “bottom-up” sensory signals segregation has been echoed in research investigating
and “top-down” knowledge of the world in order to our ability to search visual scenes. In typical search
mediate behavioral goals on a moment-by-moment tasks a target element, located in a field of distracter
basis. Selective visual attention has been shown to elements, will be easily detected (i.e., will “pop out”) if
play an important role in shaping the perceptual and the target and distracter differ at a basic feature level,
neural representations of our visual world. Attention such as searching for red shirt in a crowd of blue shirts.
not only enhances responses in the brain to attend the As search does not require an effortful serial progres-
relevant stimuli, but it also alters our sensitivity to sion through all the elements in the scene, popout
sensory input and mitigates the influence of context segregation is therefore reasoned to be a pre-attentive
on what we see. Given the clear importance of attention process.
in guiding our actions, a great deal of theoretical and This strictly automatic view of segregation, how-
empirical work has been devoted to how attention ever, has been called into question by studies showing
shapes the way that we process, perceive, and navigate large impairments in performance on segregation and
the visual environment. The following entry describes search tasks when observers must also perform
current empirical and theoretical understanding of a secondary task that requires dividing of their atten-
how volitional attention serves to influence the tion. In addition, more complex scenes can only be
processing of visual scenes. discerned slowly by an effortful item-by-item (serial)
scrutiny, calling into question the notion that segrega-
Theoretical Background tion is strictly an automatic, pre-attentive process.
The ability to parse scenes into objects and their Therefore, based on a substantial body of behavioral
surrounding backgrounds is a fundamental aspect of research, it can be concluded that attention and aware-
visual perception that is crucial in guiding our actions ness appear to play a modulatory, but not defining, role
through the environment. Visual scene segmentation in figure-ground assignment and perceptual
represents the initial stages in a feed-forward hierarchy segregation.
of processing in which the visual system defines parts, While the central involvement of attention in per-
objects, and meaning within a scene. Attention, in turn, ception has been known since the dawn of experimen-
selects relevant locations, features, or objects while tal psychology, the advent of new techniques for
filtering out or attenuating the input from irrelevant imaging brain function have enabled neuroscientists
elements. As scene segmentation is a fundamental to map out the set of brain mechanisms and processes
problem that the visual system must solve quite early that mediate selective attention to visual scenes. From
in processing, much research has focused on the influ- a neural perspective, it is fairly clear that while much of
ence of selective visual attention on these early segmen- the eventual perception of scenes depends heavily on
tation processes and their behavioral and neural the allocation of attention, a great number of low-level
ramifications. processes can proceed in the absence of volitional
Scene segmentation in its simplest form is based on attention.
the separation of areas of visual space that distinguish Numerous neurophysiological and functional
an object from its surroundings. This elemental sepa- human brain imaging findings have demonstrated
ration of object-based “figures” from their “back- that figure-ground organization is one such process
grounds” has typically been described as proceeding that proceeds in a manner independent of attention.
independent of attentional allocation (Roelfsema Previous physiology and neuroimaging studies have
2006). This view of figure-ground segmentation as demonstrated that responses to figure and background
a pre-attentive process is supported by behavioral find- regions of scenes differ even under task conditions that
ings that elements in the scene can be grouped and rendered the observers inattentive or unaware of the
separated on the basis of relatively simple cues such presence of any figure-ground distinction. Similarly,
as color, orientation, texture, or motion without neurons whose receptive fields process image attributes
 Attention and the Processing of Visual Scenes A 359

that pop out receive enhanced processing relative to volitional attention. However, the deployment of A
neurons that do not. endogenous attentional resources to relevant aspects
While at least some basic aspects of scene of the environment has been shown not only to
processing, such as figure-ground segmentation and enhance performance to relevant visual elements, but
visual popout, can proceed automatically and without also neural representations of those elements.
the participant’s awareness, it is also appreciated that
selective attention has substantial modulatory Important Scientific Research and
influences on both thalamic and cortical processing. Open Questions
Ubiquitous findings have shown that neural responses While much visual processing proceeds in the absence
to attended objects, features, or locations are larger of attention, perception is ultimately shaped by how
when they are relevant to the behavioral task, attention is allocated to stimuli in the environment,
suggesting that attention serves to increase the sensory and therefore an understanding of the function and
gain for the attended stimulus. Further, the neural mechanisms is crucial to any adaptive learning system.
changes supporting endogenously controlled alloca- The influence of attention on the processing of visual
tion of attention have been shown to involve both scenes represents an active area of cognitive, computer,
enhancement of the “feed-forward” signal associated and neuroscience research yielding fascinating applica-
with sensory processing of relevant features, objects, or tions and great promise for future applications.
locations in a scene, and also “feedback” processing Important inroads are being made into exploiting
from frontal and parietal regions to visual sensory brain markers of volitional attention to control devices,
cortices that serve to shape the underlying neural rep- communicate desires, and modify behavior. Through
resentation. In this manner, the brain is able to dynam- brain computer interface (BCI) applications it is now
ically alter the processing of scenes to allow flexible and possible to utilize specific neural markers of attention
accurate neural representations of the rapidly changing to control external devices. Applications have been
environment (Grent-‘t-Jong and Woldorff 2007). developed for a host of useful functions such as con-
In recent years there has been a growing use of trolling wheelchairs and keyboards, and interfacing
computational modeling techniques to tie together with video game systems. The use of biofeedback has
the effects of attention on behavioral performance also been brought into the clinical setting by “feeding-
and the neurophysiological results observed when mea- back” attention-related brain signals to individuals
suring brain function. By accurately simulating neural with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in order
and behavioral data these models strongly suggest that to train them to better stay on task. Further advances
attention has co-opted the circuits that mediate hold additional promise for developing nonliving sys-
contrast gain control and in some instances operates tems that can “see” autonomously for use in medical
by increasing the effective contrast of the attended settings detecting anomalies in radiological images or
stimulus (Reynolds and Heeger 2009). By understand- in environments too dangerous for humans.
ing the neural mechanisms and behavioral ramifica-
tions of visual attention and scene segmentation, new Cross-References
technologies mimicking this ability can be developed in ▶ Attention and Implicit Learning
a variety of contexts, from computational modeling, ▶ Attention, Memory and Meditation
to a clinical setting, to applications in multimedia ▶ Attentional Modulation of Spread of Activation
entertainment. ▶ Spread of Activation Theory
In sum, the ability to parse the visual environment
into relevant objects and their surrounding back- References
grounds is essential for adaptive behavioral navigation Grent-‘t-Jong, T., & Woldorff, M. G. (2007). Timing and sequence of
brain activity in top-down control of visual-spatial attention.
of our largely visual environment. This function has
PLoS Biology, 5, 114–126.
been demonstrated on behavioral and neural levels to Kastner, S., De Weerd, P., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2000). Texture segre-
proceed, at least at its most fundamental levels (object gation in the human visual cortex: A functional MRI study.
boundaries, color, motion), without the necessity of Journal of Neurophysiology, 83, 2453–2457.
360 A Attention Deficit Disorder

Reynolds, J. H., & Heeger, D. J. (2009). The normalization model of the central impairment. Barkley links problems with
attention. Neuron, 61(2), 168–85. behavioral inhibition to four executive neuropsycho-
Roelfsema, P. R. (2006). Cortical algorithms for perceptual grouping.
logical abilities: working memory (holding information
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29, 203–27.
in mind, forethought, sense of time); internalization of
speech (reflecting on behavior, self-questioning, self-
instruction); self-regulation of affect, motivation, and
Attention Deficit Disorder arousal (self-control, perspective taking, goal-directed
action); and reconstitution (accurate and efficient com-
▶ Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder munication of information). Other models that tend to
center on biology propose that ADHD is a function of
disturbances in one or more neurotransmitter and
neurofunctional systems. Symptomatic models of
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity ADHD focus more on factors such as poor attention
Disorder span, decreased problem solving skills, inaccurate cod-
ing of information to working and long-term memory,
ANDREW J. MARTIN low frustration tolerance, problems with organization
Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of and self-regulation (see Purdie et al. 2002; Martin in
Sydney, Sydney, Australia press for reviews). Motivational models of ADHD in
relation to learning and achievement have also been
advanced. It has been suggested that students with
Synonyms ADHD experience more task-relevant frustration and
ADD; Attention deficit disorder; Hyperactivity; do not exert the effort required for completion of
Impulsivity; Inattention difficult tasks. In abandoning tasks sooner than other
students, they solve fewer problems, and thus progres-
Definition sively cut themselves off from possible academic learn-
ADHD is defined as “a persistent pattern of intention ing and success. Limited access to learning and success
and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity that is more frequent provides an insufficient basis for the development of
and severe than typically observed in individuals at academic self-worth important for subsequent learning
a comparable level of development” (American Psychi- (Martin in press).
atric Association 1994, p. 48). Three subtypes have
been identified: predominantly hyperactive–impulsive Important Scientific Research and
type, predominantly inattentive type, and combined Open Questions
type (American Psychiatric Association 1994). There One major research question pertains to the causes of
is general agreement on prevalence statistics of approx- ADHD. Numerous causes have been proposed. Biolog-
imately 3–5% among children, with approximately ical explanations tend to receive the most support, with
50–70% of childhood ADHD cases persisting into ADHD seen as a result of biological/genetic predispo-
adolescence (Barkley 1990, 1997; Purdie et al. 2002). sition (Barkley 1990, 1997). Other causes cited include
ADHD is comorbid with other conditions and disor- parental/home factors, including poor parental mental
ders that affect learning. Of relevance to academic life, health and maladaptive parenting skills (but note that
relatively high levels of oppositional defiance disorder/ poor parenting can result from the challenges of
conduct disorder are evident among students with parenting a child with ADHD), physical dysfunction,
ADHD and this has also posed a barrier to student difficult birth, and adverse early life and social experi-
learning (Purdie et al. 2002). ences. The social construction of ADHD has also been
suggested, with the rise in ADHD diagnoses said to be
Theoretical Background due to shifts in sociocultural values and standards of
A widely recognized model of ADHD is that proposed ‘acceptable’ behavior. Educational constructions of
by Barkley (1997), which posits behavioral inhibition as ADHD position ADHD behaviors and symptoms as
 Attention Training A 361

a response to disengaging and unmotivating curricu- functioning. Educational and classroom intervention A
lum and pedagogy (see Barkley 1997; Martin in press; addresses deficient academic skills, classroom struc-
Purdie et al. 2002 for reviews of etiology). ture, and effective use of time. Other educational
Another line of research investigates the effects of accommodations include decreased academic work-
ADHD on learning-related outcomes. It seems that load, individualized/differentiated instruction, daily
ADHD has effects across child and adolescent develop- planners, reading tests aloud, and using scribes during
ment (Barkley 1990, 1997; Purdie et al. 2002). However, tests – all aimed at cultivating more facilitating aca-
it is the intersection with the learning domain that demic conditions that optimize opportunities to
seems to pose most difficulties. The tasks and require- achieve to potential (Martin in press). Psychoedu-
ments presented to children and young people at cational intervention is aimed at addressing students’
school require the very functions that ADHD seems perceived competence and self-worth, effectively deal-
to most impair. Consistent with this, research demon- ing with fear of failure, harnessing personal bests (PBs),
strates poor performance in mental arithmetic, ele- attaining an appropriate balance between task chal-
vated rates of dyslexia, academic motivation deficits, lenge and student skill, effective application of behav-
underachievement, and significantly lower grade point ioral principles, and quality teacher–student
average (Barkley 1997; Purdie et al. 2002). relationships (Martin in press).
A further ongoing research question relates to the
most effective treatment. For the most part, research Cross-References
tends to examine treatment modes in isolation and so ▶ Attention Deficit Disorder
relatively little is known about their comparative effi- ▶ Working Memory
cacy when considered in the one investigation. Meta-
analysis is able to aggregate findings to get a sense of References
this (e.g., Purdie et al. 2002), however, more direct American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical
primary empirical analysis comparing diverse treat- manual of mental disorders, revised (4th ed.). Washington: APA.
ment modes in the one analytic model is needed. Treat- Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder:
A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford.
ment and intervention generally take the following
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and
forms: pharmacological, allied health-related, behav- executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD.
ioral, cognitive-behavioral, educational and classroom, Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.
and psychoeducational (Martin in press). Martin, A. J. (in press). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Pharmacological intervention (typically in the form (ADHD), perceived competence, and self-worth: Evidence and
implications for students and practitioners. In D. Hollar (Ed.).
of stimulants) is the most common form of interven-
Handbook on children with special health care needs. CA: Springer.
tion (Barkley 1990, 1997), with substantial increases in Purdie, N., Hattie, J., & Carroll, A. (2002). A review of the research on
medication rates over the past 3 decades (Purdie et al. interventions for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What
2002). More recent research has explored ‘organic’ or works best? Review of Educational Research, 72, 61–99.
‘natural’ supplements, with recent interest in the merits
of fatty acids. Allied health interventions focus on pro-
moting healthy lifestyles and habits that individually
and cumulatively seek to assist in managing ADHD
symptoms. These include fostering healthy sleep rou- Attention Regulation
tines, nutrition, achieving optimal weight, adherence
▶ Mindfulness and Meditation
to medication plans, and exercise and physical activity.
There tends to be less research into these factors
(Purdie et al. 2002). Behavioral intervention emphasizes
reinforcement and punishment to promote and reduce
desirable and undesirable behavior. Cognitive interven- Attention Training
tion includes approaches such as cognitive and brain
training exercises that target aspects of executive ▶ Mindfulness and Meditation
362 A Attention, Memory, and Meditation

widely accepted definition of attention available. Atten-

Attention, Memory, and tion refers to many separate processes, such as volun-
Meditation tary attention (in which one intentionally shifts
attention from one input to another), reflexive atten-
ULRIKE HALSBAND tion (in which the shift occurs in response to some
Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, Albert- external cue), selective attention (to focus on one
Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, source and to ignore another source), and divided
Baden-Württemberg, Germany attention (focus on more than one simultaneous
source).

Synonyms Theoretical Background

Attention and contemplative discourse; Meditation, The word “meditation” refers to a broad variety of
memory, and attention practices, and failure to make distinctions would be
akin to the use of the term “religion” to refer to all
Definition religious ceremonies as if they were essentially the same
The term “meditation” comes from the Latin (see Fig. 1).
“meditatio” which originally indicated every type of Different traditions suggest different physical pos-
physical or intellectual exercise. Meditation has been tures for meditation. Cross-legged sitting postures
practiced since antiquity. Generically, it refers to an (lotus position), supine, repetitive physical movements
extremely wide range of practices including Buddhist, such as swaying, standing postures, walking, dancing,
Christian, Islamic, Hindu, and Jewish traditions. Some and performing monotonous activities are used. The
meditative traditions, such as yoga or tantra, are com- eyes may be closed (most traditions), half-open and
mon to several religions. Meditation is also practiced looking slightly downward (e.g., Zen), or fully open
outside religious traditions. It is important to take the (e.g., Brahma Kumaris). Meditation can be performed
problem of terminology into consideration when the silently, or focused on an auditory input, such as
impact of meditation on attention, learning, and a mantra (sound, syllable, word, or group of words,
memory is investigated. for example, the syllable “om” or “aum” which is cen-
Attention is a major area of investigation within tral to both Hindu and Buddhist traditions) or a koan
neuroscience, psychology, education, and meditation (question or statement whose meaning cannot be
research. According to William James (1842–1910), the accessed by rational thinking, but by intuition, e.g.,
founder of experimental psychology, attention needs “Two hands clap and there is a sound; what is the
no definition. In fact, many of the major debates of sound of one hand?”). Hence, defining meditation
James’ time remain unresolved. As yet there is still no involves the need for a precise understanding of

Different Meditation Forms

Buddhist Hindu Islamic Christian Jewish

Attentional Training

Focused attention: Open monitoring:

directing and sustaining attention no explicit focus on objects
on a selected object

Attention, Memory, and Meditation. Fig. 1 Variety of meditation practices and attentional subsystems
 Attention, Memory, and Meditation A 363

meditation as a scientific explanandum taking into Descriptions of various meditation techniques A

account the importance of various traditions (Lutz imply that we should expect differences in attention,
et al. 2007). memory mechanisms, and brain function associated
Attentional regulation is a common cognitive func- with the exercises of the different types of meditation
tion associated with divergent meditation methods. techniques. Unfortunately, as yet there are no investi-
Several authors have demonstrated that meditation gations available which systematically compared the
practice alters brain activity in areas important for outcome of different meditation exercises on brain
sensory, cognitive, and emotional processing (e.g., plasticity chances, attention, and memory functions.
Newberg and Iversen 2003). During meditation, sen-
sory input is diminished and sustained concentration Important Scientific Research and
and heightened awareness can be achieved. Lutz et al. Open Questions
(2008) suggested a useful framework in which the Learning and memory can occur consciously (explicit)
diversity of different meditation techniques is grouped or without conscious awareness (implicit) and are
into two main categories: characterized by the acquisition of new knowledge,
behaviors, skills, and values. An important research
1. Focused attention: directing and sustaining atten-
question to be investigated is the outcome of long-
tion on a selected object, such as breathing, scrip-
term practices of different meditation techniques with
tural passage, mantra, religious pictures, etc.
focused attention versus meta-attention on implicit
A typical example is Shamatha, a single-pointed,
and explicit memory functions. There are different
focusing, pacifying, and calming meditation tech-
subcomponents which need to be systematically
nique. The key concept is the concentration of
addressed, such as working memory (temporarily
mind. If the mind is wandering, meditators show
stores information for detailed analysis), short-term
a disengagement of attention from distraction and
memory, long-term memory, prospective memory
a shift of attention back to the selected object.
(remembering what we must do in the future), tempo-
2. Open monitoring: no explicit focus on objects.
ral processing (sequential learning), autobiographical
This meditation technique is characterized by
memory, verbal and spatial memory, emotional mem-
meta-attention. Vipassana is an example of a form
ory, and lifelong learning (see Fig. 2). Relevant research
of meditation that includes any meditation tech-
is still in its infancy. As yet there are only few studies
nique that cultivates insight including contempla-
available that have analyzed the effect of individual
tion, introspection, analytic meditation, and
meditation techniques on subsystems of memory
observations about experience.
functions.
All meditation practices have in common that the Yoga exercises seem to improve short-term memory
meditator is asked to remain in the “here and now”; the performance. It was found that cyclic meditation
main focus of meditation is therefore the present. (cycles of yoga postures and supine rest) improved
Tart (2001) pointed out that in different kinds of memory scores on a standard memory test which
meditation, memory is largely inactive and, if it is examines spatial and verbal memory functioning
activated, ignored. There is a very strong focus on the (Wechsler Memory Scale) immediately after the prac-
present time, either in terms of concentration of tice (Subramanya and Teiles 2009). However, as yet
a specific object or the breath, etc. or on the larger there is no information on long-term effects of yoga
range of focus in insight meditation. The meditator is exercises on different aspects of learning and memory
interested in sensing what body sensations feels like function.
here and now, but not in remembering what it felt like From a neurobiological point of view the most
earlier or reflecting about how it might feel in the extensively studied form of meditation is Buddhism.
future. This stays in sharp contrast to hypnotic trance Nowadays practices of Buddhism with its emphasis on
in which suppressed memories may be reexperienced the individual’s independence in learning practice are
and where age-regression or age-progression are used becoming more and more popular in Western coun-
therapeutically to allow the subjects to experience all tries. Buddhism offers powerful and unique learning
forms of inner sensory, perceptual, or emotional events. techniques that are useful for improving lifelong
364 A Attention, Memory, and Meditation

Meditation and Attentional Learning

Focused Attention Open Monitoring

Subsystems of Memory

Implicit and Verbal and

Working Short Term Long Term
Explicit Spatial
Memory Memory Memory
Learning Memory

Autobio-
Temporal Prospective Emotional Life Long
graphical
Processing Memory Memory Learning
Memory

Attention, Memory, and Meditation. Fig. 2 Further research is needed to examine the effects of different meditation
techniques and attentional learning on subsystems of memory functions

learning which refers to an individual’s conscious with at least 4 years of regular meditative practices from
learning taking place throughout his whole life span. different meditative traditions (Tibetan Buddhists, Zen
Practices of Buddhist meditation, contemplation, and Buddhists, Yoga practitioners) and different experi-
mindfulness seem to improve conscious life experience ences in meditation practices and durations. Results
awareness. indicate that brain activities in the dorsal lateral
Attentional training constitutes a fundamental prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex varied
aspect of mindfulness training. In the most widely over the time of a meditation session and differed
used form, subjects are instructed to return to their between long- and short-term practitioners. In the
attention to their breath whenever it wanders. Numer- more practiced subjects, regional brain activations cor-
ous studies indicate that this kind of mindfulness train- related with better sustained attention and attentional
ing improves attention known as “concentrative” and error monitoring. Using fMRI, a major restriction is
restricted to a specific focus. If attention is objectless that subjects may find it extremely difficult to carry out
and the goal is to keep attention in the present moment their familiar meditation exercise when confined to
without orienting, directing, or limiting it in any way, a narrow scanner tube.
improvements were reported in so-called receptive Using electroencephalography (EEG) increases in
attention to the whole field of awareness. In the latter alpha (most pronounced in the frontal cortex),
case, attention remains in an open state and can be gamma, and theta power were observed by several
directed to currently experienced sensations, thoughts, authors in different types of meditation. In long-term
emotions, and memories (Jha et al. 2007). Since recep- meditators, changes in EEG activity are dynamical and
tive attention is open to the entire field of experience, dependent on the arousal level. Increasing the arousal
no external stimuli are considered to be distractors. level desynchronized activities in theta and alpha fre-
However, in concentrative attention outside stimuli quency bands. Meditation techniques based on focused
are considered to be interfering and distracting. attention showed a high amplitude activity and
Meditation is accompanied by plasticity changes in a marked phase synchronization in the gamma-band
the brain. Using functional magnetic resonance imag- (between 25 and 42 Hz), especially in lateral fronto-
ing (fMRI), Baron Short et al. (2010) tested subjects parietal locations. In the deepest stage of Zen
 Attention, Memory, and Meditation A 365

meditation, an increase in the alpha band (8–13 Hz) ▶ Associative Learning A

and theta-power (4–7 Hz) was recorded at all brain ▶ Complex Declarative Learning
locations (most prominent in the left parietal cortex) ▶ Conditions of Learning
(Coromaldi et al. 2006). ▶ Declarative Learning
In open monitoring meditation, the awareness of ▶ Explicit Learning
the subjective features of a given moment and its emo- ▶ Human Learning
tional tone are of crucial importance. Therefore, brain ▶ Imagery and Learning
regions involved in focusing or sustaining attention ▶ Implicit Learning
onto a specific object are less relevant. But instead ▶ Learning and Recall Under Hypnosis
processes that rely on meta-representation in the ▶ Memory Codes and Neural Plasticity of Learning
brain are critically involved including the anterior ▶ Memory Structure
insula, somatosensory cortex, and anterior cingulate ▶ Mental Imagery and Learning
cortex (Damasio 2000). ▶ Mental Models Improving Learning
So far only a few studies are available that specifically ▶ Neuropsychology of Learning
compared aspects of anatomical correlates between ▶ Pair-Associated Learning
meditators and non-meditators. Lazar et al. (2005) ▶ Procedural Learning
reported that brain regions associated with attention,
interoception, and sensory processing were thicker in References
long-term Vipassana meditators as compared to a Baron Short, E., Kose, S., Mu, Q., Borckardt, J., Newberg, A., George,
non-meditating control group including the prefrontal M. S., & Kozel, F. A. (2010). Regional brain activation during
cortex and anterior insula. Differences in cortical meditation shows time and practice effects: An exploratory
thickness were most pronounced in the most experi- FMRI study. Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative
Medicine, 7(1), 121–127.
enced subjects. Interestingly, there is recent evidence
Coromaldi, E., Stadler, M. A., & Basar-Eroglu, C. (2006). Correlation
for an increase in brain volumes of gray matter in areas between EEG-oscillations during deep meditation: A study with a
which are known to be critically involved in memory Zen master. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 61, 367–378.
functioning. In long-term meditators using different Damasio, A. R. (2000). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion
meditation techniques, larger hippocampal and frontal in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace.
volumes were observed (Luders et al. 2009). Taken Halsband, U. (2009). Plasticity changes in the brain in hypnosis and
meditation. Contemporary Hypnosis, 26(4), 194–215.
together, the results suggest that long-term meditation Jha, A. P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness train-
can induce changes in brain structure. But the correla- ing modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective &
tion with mental functioning remains unclear. Further- Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(2), 109–119.
more, it remains an open question whether alterations Lazar, S. W., Kerr, C. E., Wasserman, R. H., Gray, J. R., Greve, D. N.,
in brain functions like enhanced attentional capacities Treadway, M. T., McGarvey, M., Quinn, B. T., Dusek, J. A.,
Benson, H., Rauch, S. L., Moore, C. I., & Fischl, B. (2005).
are caused by long-term meditation training itself or by
Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thick-
individual personality differences. Therefore, longitu- ness. NeuroReport, 16(17), 1893–1897.
dinal studies are needed to follow individuals over time Luders, E., Toga, A. W., Lepore, N., & Glaser, C. (2009). The under-
in response to mental training. lying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: Larger hip-
Taken together, the results are controversial. There pocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter. Neuroimage, 45,
are so many different kinds of meditation techniques 672–678.
Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2007). Meditation and the
that findings are heterogeneous. The heterogeneity is neuroscience of consciousness: An introduction. In P. Zelazo,
additionally caused by the great variability in the degree M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of
of experience in meditation (Halsband 2009). It is also consciousness (pp. 499–554). Cambridge: Cambridge University
difficult to compare recent and older studies because Press.
technology and analytical procedures have changed. Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008).
Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 163–169.
Cross-References Newberg, A. B., & Iversen, J. (2003). The neural basis of the complex
▶ Amnesia and Learning mental task of meditation: Neurotransmitter and neurochemical
▶ Association Learning considerations. Medical Hypotheses, 61(2), 282–291.
366 A Attentional Control of Memory Retrieval

Subramanya, P., & Teiles, S. (2009). Effect of two yoga-based relaxa- influence that attention has on the flow of information
tion techniques on memory scores and state anxiety. among concepts.
Biopsychosocial Medicine, 3, 8.
Tart, C.T. (2001). Meditation: Some kind of (self)hypnosis? A deeper
look. Speech at the 109th Annual Convention of the American Theoretical Background
Psychological Association, San Francisco, August 2001. Although the oldest theories of knowledge representa-
tion and acquisition date back to Aristotle and the
associationists, the foundations of most of the contem-
porary knowledge we have about spread of activation
can be traced to the late 1960 and early 1970s. Research
Attentional Control of Memory on conceptual knowledge focused on how knowledge is
Retrieval represented in our mind. A closely related question is
▶ Attentional Modulation of Spread of Activation how knowledge accumulates in our mind. A first influ-
ential theory of how knowledge is represented is the
teachable language comprehender, more commonly
known as the hierarchical theory (Collins and Quillian
1969). In this theory, memory consists of three basic
Attentional Modulation of components: concepts, properties, and pointers that
Spread of Activation associate concepts with their properties. This theory
was called hierarchical because it assumed that con-
EDDY J. DAVELAAR cepts are linked in accordance to their ordinate cate-
Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck gory. For example, bird and fish are both types of
College, University of London, London, UK animal so they are both linked to animal, but they are
not interconnected. This hierarchy allows for property
inheritance, where any lower-level concept inherits the
Synonyms properties of the higher-level concepts to which it is
Attentional control of memory retrieval connected. In our example, both bird and fish inherit
the animal property that it eats and that it has skin. This
Definition feature of the theory leads to cognitive economy - every
Attention refers to a cognitive process that enhances the property needs to be represented only once.
availability of information. Depending on the type of The hierarchical theory was extremely powerful in
information that it enhances and its consequences, accounting for empirical data and in producing new
attention can be divided into several types. For exam- predictions. Some of these predictions soon proved the
ple, when the result of the process is that one informa- inadequacy of the model and resulted in it being aban-
tion channel comes to dominate a competing channel, doned as a model of human knowledge representation.
the type of attentional process is referred to as selective The immediate successor of the theory was called the
attention. Definitions of attention are rarely complete, spreading activation model (Collins and Loftus 1975),
as the term is used to describe a cognitive process or which abandoned the strict hierarchical nature and
a collection of processes and is used in the colloquial allowed the links among concepts to vary in strength
meaning of the word. In Cognitive Science, spread of and type. Importantly, the model includes the process
activation refers to a process by which knowledge by which energy or activation spreads from one con-
concepts that are stored in semantic memory become cept to the next via the links and in proportion to the
part of the overall stream of information. For example, strength of those links.
when a picture of a dog is presented, the conceptual A commonly used experimental paradigm to test
knowledge of dog becomes activated and part of the the amount of spreading of activation is the semantic
stream of information. Through spread of activation, priming paradigm of which there exist several variants.
the related concept of cat becomes somewhat activated, The basic paradigm involves the presentation of a word
even though no picture of a cat is presented. Atten- (or a picture) that the participant needs to read to
tional modulation of spread of activation refers to the themselves. This first word is called the prime (e.g.,
 Attentional Modulation of Spread of Activation A 367

dog) and is followed by a string of letters, the target. In A major assumption underlying the automatic/ A
the naming version of the paradigm, this letter string is controlled dichotomy is that the priming effect reflects
always a word and the participant reads aloud that at least the result of a pure automatic process. To
word. The time to read aloud the word, the naming address whether facilitatory priming reflect automatic
time, is faster when the prime and target are related spread of activation, a distracting task needs to be
(e.g., dog – CAT) compared to when they are unrelated conducted on the prime. This variant of the priming
(e.g., dog – PLANE). This effect is referred to as the paradigm leads to the prime-task effect, which is the
priming effect and it is also found in the variant called absence of priming when a non-semantic task is
the lexical decision paradigm. In this version, the letter performed on the prime (Maxfield 1997). In a typical
string can either be a word or a nonword (e.g., ANEPL). example, a prime word consisting of n letters is
The participant has to indicate whether the string of presented together with a string of n identical letters
letters forms a word or not. The time to say yes to the either above or below the prime word. The participant
word is taken as the relevant response time measure has to search the prime word and indicate whether the
and it is faster when it was preceded by a related prime. letter of the string is present in the prime. Following
The main explanation of this finding is that the activa- this prime task, the participant names a target word or
tion spreads from the prime concept to related con- makes a lexical decision to a target letter-string. The
cepts. When the target is presented, related targets have result is a complete absence of the priming effect –
their concepts already pre-activated and thus less time a null-effect. The importance of this null-effect is that
is needed to respond. When an unrelated target is priming is normally found under so many different
presented, the activation of its concept will take longer. manipulations that it is hard not to find an effect at
The lexical decision and naming paradigms are all. The prime-task null-effect has been held to provide
standard research paradigms and their use has led to evidence against the obligatory nature of semantic acti-
an increase in our understanding of how and when vation and spread of activation.
activation spreads through a semantic network (see The main argument against the view that concepts
Neely 1991). One important finding is that activation become automatically activated when processing the
can spread in an automatic or in a controlled fashion. environment focuses on the absence of priming when
This was inferred from the observation that priming the prime word is shown to have been processed, as
effects are larger after a long exposure to the prime and shown by accurate performance on the prime task.
a long duration between the onsets of the prime and A counterargument is that the absence of priming
target than with shorter exposures and durations. does not invalidate the automaticity of semantic spread
Typically, the priming effect is calculated as the differ- of activation, as it is possible that the task itself may
ence in naming or decision times when the target was have prevented concepts to become activated at the
preceded by a related or unrelated prime. When appropriate semantic level. For example, to decide
a neutral prime is used, such as a string of ampersands, whether the letter L is present in the word PLANE,
the naming or decision time of the target is it is not necessary to activate the semantic concept.
uncontaminated with any pre-activation that comes All that is needed to complete the prime task is to rely
from the prime. The difference in primed response on visual feature processing. In this manner, from
time against the unprimed or neutral response time a semantic point of view, the prime is processed as if
can be used to look at facilitatory (related versus neu- it was a neutral prime.
tral) and inhibitory (unrelated versus neutral) effects of The prime-task null-effect shows that spread of
primes. Short exposure durations to prime only leads activation is found when attention is directed at the
to facilitation, whereas with longer durations inhibi- semantic level of processing. When attention is directed
tory effects are found. This is explained in term of fast to other levels (visual, phonological), the semantic
automatic spread of activation, which is only facilita- concept might at best not be activated sufficiently to
tory in nature, followed by anticipatory, controlled allow spread of activation. Therefore, attention allows
processes. Other manipulations have further supported spread of activation in the entire semantic system.
the distinction between automatic and controlled The implicit assumption of the allowance-principle
spread of activation (Neely 1991). is that when attention is directed to the semantic level,
368 A Attentional Modulation of Spread of Activation

the prime does get activated automatically and hence theories fall into two groups: feature-based or distrib-
lead, via the automatic spread of activation, to priming uted models and decision-based models. Distributed
effects. To address this allowance-principle, a variant of models attack the assumption that knowledge is
the priming paradigm was used in which the prime had represented as a single node and instead assume that
to be held in active state. This variant required the concepts are represented by a large number of nodes
retention of the prime for a later memory task, and with each node partaking in multiple concepts. The
yields the prime-retention effect. The prime-retention difference among concepts lies in the difference in the
effect refers to the reduction of the priming effect when distribution of activation over the nodes, so that
the prime is maintained in active state. The prime- a single node might be more active for one than
retention task is such that the entire string of letters another concept. The associative links in the spread-
needs to be remembered for either recall or recognition. ing-activation models are then replaced by the similar-
The importance of this effect can be seen when it is ity of the distributions of activations. Decision-based
considered that all contemporary theories of semantic models attack the assumption that priming effects is
priming assume that the more activation is available for the result of pre-activating the target concept. These
processing the prime the larger the priming effect models instead appeal to the complexities of decision-
should be. Instead the priming effect decreases and making in that two concepts that are “linked” are more
for prime-target pairs that are weakly associated, the commonly experienced together than two concepts
priming effect even reverses. Although there has not that are not “linked.” The priming effects are then
been as much research with this paradigm as compared a reflection of the familiarity of the pair. These models
to the prime-task variant, the prime-retention effect clearly attack the entire assumption of spread of
has also been held to provide evidence against the activation and pre-activation.
obligatory nature of semantic spread of activation. It may come as no surprise that the three types of
The main argument against automatic spread of theories have produced hybrids that are able to explain
activation given the prime-retention effect is that even findings that challenge either parent theory. For exam-
when attention to the prime is directed to the semantic ple, sparse-distributed models assume that a single
level, spread of activation as measured by the priming node partakes only in a small subset of related concepts.
effect is diminished. The effect implies that the Nevertheless, all the models addressed here share the
allowance-principle is incomplete, as it assumes inability to account for the influence of attention. What
a monotonic relation between the level of attention this tells us is that either the fundamental one-layer
allocated to the semantic level and the amount of structure of semantic memory is false or that the asso-
semantic priming. When combining the prime-task ciative links are not as fixed as assumed from a stable
and prime-retention results, the influence of attention knowledge system. As the hierarchical model (Collins
on the spread of activation is in terms of permitting and Quillian 1969) has sparked much research until
(Davelaar 2005). Thus, attention permits the spread of it was proven to be incomplete, the inclusion of
activation in certain parts of the semantic system, attentional processes in empirical work might lead to
where the resulting priming effect is largest when an a reinterpretation of the entire structure of conceptual
intermediate level of attention is focused on the seman- knowledge. The main question then is what that struc-
tic level of the prime. ture is and how knowledge is assimilated and stabilized
within this alternative structure.
Important Scientific Research and Apart from gaining a theoretical understanding of
Open Questions the structure of conceptual knowledge, the importance
The construct of spread of activation is meaningful of attentional modulation of spread of activation
only in a knowledge system that has each concept extends to the field of clinical neuropsychology. It has
represented as a single node. Despite the success of been found that elderly individuals, patients with dam-
the spreading-activation models, other theories exist age to the prefrontal cortex, patients with certain types
that are able to account for the basic findings of seman- of dementia, and patients with schizophrenia show
tic priming paradigms (see McNamara 2005). These excessive semantic priming effects. These same
 Attitude Change Through Learning A 369

individuals have been studied in relation to their A

decreased ability to focus attention. Understanding Attitude Change Through
how attention modulates the spread of activation Learning
might lead to a reinterpretation of their neuropsycho-
logical symptoms and the development of new rehabil- ANDREW FINCH
itation programs. Department of English Education, Kyungpook
National University Teachers’ College, Daegu City,
Cross-References Republic of Korea
▶ ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought)
▶ Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
▶ Associationism Synonyms
▶ Knowledge Organization Attitudes; Beliefs; Opinions; Perceptions
▶ Knowledge Representation
▶ Memory Structure Definition
The word attitude refers to an individual’s orientation
References toward an item, person, concept, institution, social
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading activation theory of process, or situation, and is indicative of his/her web
semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407–428. of beliefs and perceptions, based on either direct expe-
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic
rience or observational learning, though it must be
memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240–
247.
noted that, as with other widely used terms, “attitude,”
Davelaar, E. J. (2005). A neurocognitive theory of attentional modu- “belief,” and “opinion” are subject to differences of
lation of spread of activation. In A. Cangelosi, G. Bugmann, & R. interpretation, overlapping of meaning, and even inter-
Borisyuk (Eds.), Modeling language, cognition, and action changeability when used in the social and behavioral
(pp. 217–226). Singapore: WorldScientific. sciences. Being complex mental orientations, some
Maxfield, L. (1997). Attention and semantic priming: a review of
researchers prefer to infer attitudes from observed
prime task effects. Consciousness and Cognition, 6, 204–218.
McNamara, T. P. (2005). Semantic priming: Perspectives from memory behavior, seeing them as a tendency to act in certain
and word recognition. New York: Psychology Press. ways toward persons and situations, a positive or neg-
Neely, J. H. (1991). Semantic priming effects in visual word recogni- ative attitude being evidenced in terms of the degree of
tion: A selective review of current findings and theories. In D. like or dislike shown. Rokeach combines various
Besner & G. Humphreys (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: Visual
perspectives, describing an attitude as “a relatively
word recognition (pp. 264–336). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
enduring organization of beliefs around an object or
situation predisposing one to respond in some prefer-
ential manner” (1976, p. 112).
Attentiveness to Learning Attitudes can be classified according to affective,
behavioral, and cognitive responses to an “attitude
▶ Interests and Learning object” and are expressed as positive and/or negative
judgments. The affective response expresses a degree of
preference, the behavioral response is conveyed
through words or behavioral tendencies, and the cog-
Attitude nitive response constitutes the individual’s beliefs
about the object (Mantle-Bromley 1995; Zimbardo
▶ Learner Characteristics and Online Learning
and Lieppe 1991). Attitude change through learning
occurs when these “learned responses” are modified
through further experience, self-observation and
Attitude Change reflection, consciousness-raising (awareness-raising),
and/or implicit/explicit instruction in learner strategies
▶ Persuasion and Learning or emotional management.
370 A Attitude Change Through Learning

Theoretical Background student-centered trend, focusing on the learner as the

Attitudes to learning and the perceptions and beliefs agent of his/her own learning. From this perspective,
which determine them have a significant influence on self-awareness of and reflection on individual attitudes
learning behavior and on learning outcomes, since can provide the foundation for acquisition of learning
successful learners develop insightful beliefs about the strategies, which can lead to life-long, self-directed
learning processes, their own abilities, and the use of (autonomous) learning. Role-plays have also been
effective learning strategies, which together have identified as effective tools for promoting attitude
a facilitative effect on learning. Mistaken or change, since they give the participants the opportunity
uninformed beliefs on the other hand may lead to to investigate issues from different perspectives and
dependence on less effective strategies, resulting in hence to understand that there are various, equally
indifference toward learning, poor cognitive perfor- valid ways of perceiving situations. The recent focus
mance, classroom anxiety, and a negative attitude to on diversity in cultural studies, international studies,
autonomy (Victori and Lockhart 1995). Teachers and language teaching is an example of this shift
therefore need to acknowledge and respect students’ toward the acknowledgment and acceptance of differ-
attitudes, beliefs, and expectations and help them over- ing perceptions, facilitating the consequent attitude
come any harmful perceptions and blocks, as well as modification which accompanies such awareness. In
enhance students’ awareness of their personal weak- terms of assessment, the “alternative assessment”
nesses and strengths and of their task/strategic knowl- movement has also placed the learner at the center of
edge, since beliefs differing from those of the teacher attitude modification through the use of learner
can lead to frustration, dissatisfaction with the course, journals, portfolios, projects, presentations, self-peer-
unwillingness to perform activities, and lack of confi- assessment, and classroom-based assessment (CBA), all
dence in the teacher, as well as affecting achievement of which encourage the learner to participate in and be
(Mantle-Bromley 1995). responsible for assessment and through awareness of
Adults and children form “self-schemata” the factors involved to develop sound attitudes toward
concerning capabilities and limitations, degree of per- learning and evaluation. The European Portfolio Pro-
sonal control over academic achievement, reasons for ject and the Common European Framework of Refer-
success and failure at different tasks, and expectancies ence for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment
for the future. These schemata and other beliefs help to (CEFR), with its DIALANG self-assessment scales are
construct attitudes to language learning, and have examples of such an approach being applied on an
various origins: (1) the mother culture, (2) the family, international scale.
(3) classroom/social peers, (4) repetitive experiences,
and (5) self-fulfilling (often negative) prophecies. Important Scientific Research and
Although usually related to past experiences, the Open Questions
resulting attitudes also contribute to future behavior, Early research on the relationship between attitudes
positive attitudes helping to overcome problems and and learning found that stress and anxiety were strong
thus sustaining motivation, and negative attitudes (negative) contributory factors for the students and
(including those of the teacher) leading to decreased that teachers also have attitudes and beliefs about
motivation. learning, which affect their teaching:
It follows that identification, analysis, and modifi-
" Not until we have taken a hard critical look at the
cation of students’ attitudes to learning are important
attitudes and motivation of teachers, both individually
procedures for teachers if they are to facilitate effective
and as a profession, will we be ready to determine what
learning and there has been extensive research into the
obstacles lie in the way of creating the kinds of learning
measurement of attitudes (as factors in the learning
environments which would be most helpful to our
process) on the part of social psychologists, sociolo-
students. (Sauvignon 1976, p. 296)
gists, and (to a lesser extent) researchers in the field
of education. Practical methodologies for actively Although it has been acknowledged for some time
pursuing attitude change in the classroom, based that all students have different needs, preferences,
upon this research, have largely followed the recent beliefs, learning styles, and educational backgrounds
 Attitudes – Formation and Change A 371

and that imposition of change upon these factors can ▶ Beliefs About Learning A
lead to negative attitudes to learning, the importance of ▶ Learning Strategies
student awareness of (and reflection on) learning ▶ Perceptions of the Learning Context and Learning
beliefs (metacognitive knowledge), learning styles, Outcomes
learning preferences, and expectations only began to
receive attention in the 1980s, when research was References
mostly limited to identification of those beliefs. One Horwitz, E. K. (1985). Using student beliefs about language learning
such research instrument was the Beliefs About Lan- and teaching in the foreign language methods course. Foreign
Language Annals, 18(4), 333–340.
guage Learning Inventory (BALLI), developed to assess
Mantle-Bromley, C. (1995). Positive attitudes and realistic beliefs:
teacher and student opinions on a variety of issues
Links to proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 79/3,
related to language learning (Horwitz 1985, p. 383). 372–386.
This was used in three quite large-scale American stud- Rokeach, M. (1976). Beliefs, attitudes and values: A theory of organi-
ies, with similar results, and Horwitz proposed that zation and change. San Francisco/London: Jossey-Bass.
gaps between teacher and learner beliefs probably result Sauvignon, S. J. (1976). On the other side of the desk: a look at teacher
attitude and motivation in second-language learning. The Cana-
in “negative outcomes” (Mantle-Bromley 1995,
dian Modern Language Review, 32, 295–304.
pp. 380–381). Mantle-Bromley also found that learners Victori, M., & Lockhart, W. (1995). Enhancing metacognition in self-
with realistic and informed beliefs are more likely to directed language learning. System, 23(2), 223–234.
behave productively in class, work harder outside class, Zimbardo, P. G., & Lieppe, M. R. (1991). The psychology of attitude
and persist longer with study (1995, pp. 373–375), and change and social influence. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University
Press.
that incorrect beliefs are detrimental to language learn-
ing. Furthermore, it has also been shown that mistaken
beliefs (and the resulting misinformed attitudes to
learning) can result in a lack of student confidence,
through lack of success being attributed to lack of Attitude Polarization
aptitude. In this case, teachers need to work on and
with students’ representations in the classroom, focus- ▶ Divergent Probabilistic Judgments Under Bayesian
ing on a change in conceptualization. Learning with Nonadditive Beliefs
Research on self-esteem has demonstrated a clear
link between individual perception of competence and
actual learning, though there is a need for further
research into learner beliefs about ability, self-efficacy,
and self-esteem and their contribution to the forma- Attitudes – Formation and
tion of attitudes. Personal variables such as intentions, Change
attributions, expectancies, perceptions, and beliefs
about learning abilities, which learners bring to the NORBERT M. SEEL
classroom, also need to be researched, on the basis of Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
“a clear understanding of attitudes and attitude-change Freiburg, Germany
theory in order to address these issues” (Mantle-
Bromley 1995, p. 373). Mantle-Bromley also strongly
recommends that “teachers design and implement les- Synonyms
sons on the language-learning process that incorporate Disposition; Inclination; Mindset; Opinion; Position;
attitude-change methods. Research then needs to be Prejudice; Sentiment; View
conducted to determine if such lessons can indeed
alter students’ beliefs” (1995, p. 383). Definition
An “attitude” is a hypothetical construct that repre-
Cross-References sents the degree to which an individual likes or dislikes
▶ Attitudes – Formation and Change something. Everything, i.e., any person, place, thing, or
▶ Beliefs About Language Learning event, can be the object of an attitude. People can be in
372 A Attitudes – Formation and Change

conflict with or ambivalent toward an object if they degrees of persuasiveness. The persuasiveness of com-
simultaneously possess positive and negative attitudes munication is dependent on characteristics of the indi-
toward it. However, social psychology speaks not only vidual who processes a message and characteristics of
of attitudes, but also of “beliefs,” “opinions,” “preju- the information sources. The first category of charac-
dices,” “values,” “positions,” “views,” and so on, and it teristics is named “target characteristics” and contains,
is not always clear how these concepts differ from one for instance, intelligence and self-esteem. Other per-
another. son-centered characteristics are the frame of mind and
Attitudes refer to a person’s predisposition or ten- mood of the targets of persuasion. The characteristics
dency to evaluate an object or its symbolic representa- of the communicated messages are named “source
tion in a certain way. Thus, attitudes always express characteristics” and contain variables such as expertise,
a person’s particular relation to objects and help to trustworthiness, and the interpersonal attraction or
structure the person’s consciousness by furnishing the attractiveness of the messages. Actually, the credibility
objects with a ▶ valence and preference. These factors of a perceived message and the messenger seems to be
are dependent on the centrality (i.e., the personal a key variable for the formation and change of
importance) of an object and its relevance for action attitudes.
in a certain context. Since the 1960s, numerous theories of attitude
Attitudes are the result of either direct experience or formation and attitude change have been developed.
observational learning from the environment. From An example is consistency theories, which imply that
the perspective of the neurosciences, attitudes can be people tend to be consistent in their beliefs and values.
considered as (parts of) associative networks in long- One well-known consistency theory is the ▶ disso-
term memory. These networks consist of affective and nance reduction theory advocated by Leon Festinger;
cognitive nodes linked through associative pathways. another example is the Fritz Heider’s ▶ balance theory.
Accordingly, most psychologists agree on the point that Finally, the ▶ self-perception theory (Daryl Bem) is
attitudes contain affective, cognitive, and behavioral also worthy of mention in the context of consistency
components (Eagly and Chaiken 1995). Taking into theories of attitude formation and change.
consideration previous and current attitude research, The various theories of attitude formation and
Breckler and Wiggins (1992) define attitudes as “men- change (through learning) are grounded on the
tal and neural representations, organized through assumption of an interplay between cognitive, affective,
experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence and behavioral components. The cognitive component
on behavior” (p. 409). of an attitude consists of beliefs as elementary cognitive
units that cannot be broken into smaller units
Theoretical Background (Rokeach 1973). Beliefs include an evaluation of the
Historically speaking, attitude is one of Jung’s 57 object of an attitude as correct or false, right or wrong,
definitions of psychological types. Jung’s definition of or desirable or undesirable, and they differ in their
attitude is a “readiness of the psyche to act or react in degree of centrality. As a rule of thumb, the more
a certain way” (Jung 1921/1971, p. 687). Attitudes very central a belief is, the more resistant it is to change.
often come in pairs, one conscious and the other However, when changes do happen (e.g., due to better
unconscious. Within this broad definition, Jung defines arguments), they have a lasting effect on the person’s
several attitudes, such as extraversion and introversion, entire system of attitudes and values. This theoretical
rational and irrational attitudes, individual and social position rests on the assumption that there is a strong
attitudes. connection between a person’s beliefs and his or her
Some decades later (i.e., in the 1950s and 1960s), it entire system of attitudes and associated values. Some
was particularly Carl Hovland who pioneered the social psychologists (e.g., Rokeach 1973) argue that
development of a comprehensive theory of attitudes attitudes are organized in consistent and coherent
and their formation and change as a result of experi- structures and form more or less integrated value
ence and learning with a special emphasis on the role of systems. These value systems may also be referred to
communication. Hovland argued that an attitude is as “ideologies” in that they constitute a strongly
a response to communication with messages of varying connected set of beliefs, opinions, and views, which
 Attitudes – Formation and Change A 373

are supposed to justify a group or institution. Beliefs route. The central route pertains to an elaborate cog- A
are associated with affective responses to the object of nitive processing of information, while the peripheral
an attitude, which also exerts a dynamic and guiding route relies on cues or feelings. A true attitude change
influence on human behavior. The question of how to only happens through the central processing route,
explain the relationships between beliefs, affects, and which incorporates both cognitive and affective com-
overt behaviors has occupied social psychologists for ponents as opposed to the more heuristics-based
decades. A model developed in the early 1960s, which peripheral route. In the HSM (Eagly and Chaiken
has since become widely accepted, is the three- 1993), information is either processed in a high-
component model (cf. Triandis 1971), which, as the involvement and high-effort systematic manner or
name suggests, is made up of three closely related through shortcuts known as heuristics. The EPPM
components: contains both thinking and feeling in conjunction
with threats and fear appeals. This model suggests
1. The affective component (indicated by responses of
that persuasive fear appeals work best when people
the sympathetic nervous system and verbal affect
have high involvement and high efficacy. In other
statements)
words, fear appeals are most effective when an individ-
2. The cognitive component (indicated by verbal belief
ual cares about the issue or situation and possesses –
statements or reaction times to attitude stimuli)
and is aware of possessing – the agency to deal with it.
3. The behavioral component (indicated by overt
actions or verbal behavior statements)
Important Scientific Research and
Each attitude contains feelings, opinions, and Open Questions
beliefs as well as actions and particular behaviors refer- According to Olson and Zanna (1993), attitudes
ring to the attitude object. However, each of these three are among the best investigated constructs of twentieth
components may be more marked than the others for century social psychology – from early work on attitude
a particular attitude. Some attitudes are highly affective measurement in the 1920s to research on attitude
and are only related to an object as the expression of change from the 1950s to the 1970s and attitude struc-
feelings, and some express themselves immediately in tures and their changes in the 1980s and 1990s.
overt action when a need can be satisfied simply and The cognitive component of attitudes holds
directly (e.g., choosing players for a soccer game). a prominent position in social psychology, not only
Other attitudes are highly intellectualized and can because it “mediates” between the other two compo-
thus not be used to predict a person’s behavior in nents of the model, but also because it is easier to
a concrete situation. But not only is it tough to judge measure by way of interviews, questionnaires, and spe-
the relationship between attitudes and behavior, judg- cial attitude scales (Dawes 1972). One way of doing this
ing the relationships between the various components is with multi-attributive attitude models, which assume
of attitudes in general is also a difficult undertaking. In that attitudes are grounded on numerous salient attri-
studying these relationships, social psychologists focus butes which immediately become the object of
especially on two main questions: first, the type of a subjective evaluation. These attributes may also be
relationship between the affective and cognitive atti- classified according to the way in which they are
tude components, and second, the type of relationship acquired (direct versus indirect experience) or what
between the cognitive judgment (beliefs) and consis- they contain. Some attitudes are grounded more on
tency of people’s attitudes and their overt behavior. object attributes and others more on behavioral attri-
Many dual process models have been developed in butes. This has led to the formation of two conceptions
order to explain the affective responses to and cognitive of attitudes in social–psychological research: “object
processing of messages. They include the elaboration attitudes” and “behavioral attitudes.”
likelihood model (ELM), the heuristic-systematic model The first main body of research investigates object
(HSM), and the extended parallel process model attitudes, focusing especially on the relationship
(EPPM). In the ELM (Petty and Cacioppo 1986), cog- between affective evaluation and beliefs. It is generally
nitive processing is the central route and affective assumed that the affective component is essential for
processing is often associated with the peripheral evaluating attitude objects since people are already in
374 A Attitudes

possession of it before being introduced to the object research methodology, the challenge for researchers is
domain. The cognitive component, on the other hand, measuring the affective component and its subsequent
takes shape only gradually in the process of attitude- impact on beliefs and overt action. Measures may
specific learning experiences. This means that the less include the use of physiological cues like facial expres-
experience someone has with an attitude object, the sions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures
more dependent the cognitive structure of the attitude (Breckler and Wiggins 1992). Other methods include
will be on the affective component. On the other hand, concept or network mapping and using primes or word
it may be assumed that the affective component is cues. An overview of the variety of assessment proce-
closely connected with the cognitive structural charac- dures traditionally applied in attitude research can be
teristics of the attitude, which means that it is possible found in Dawes (1972).
to predict whether these characteristics are known. As
an attitude becomes reinforced, the affective and cog- Cross-References
nitive components become increasingly independent ▶ Attitudy Change Through Learning
of one another and the subject makes the realization ▶ Change of Values Through Learning
that an affective judgment of the object can be different ▶ Persuasion and Learning
than a cognitive judgment. Social psychologists have ▶ Value Learning
succeeded in confirming this learning-dependent
“separation” of the two components as well as the
References
initial dominance of the affective component.
Breckler, S. J., & Wiggins, E. C. (1992). On defining attitude and
The second main group of social–psychological attitude theory: Once more with feeling. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J.
studies investigates behavioral attitudes and focuses on Breckler, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and func-
the relationship between the cognitive component of tion (pp. 407–427). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
attitudes and concrete action. This line of research is Dawes, R. M. (1972). Fundamentals of attitude measurement.
often said to go back to a “classic” study by LaPiere New York: Wiley.
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes.
(1934) in which the author found a minimal corre-
Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
spondence between verbally expressed beliefs and Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1995). Attitude strength, attitude structure
observable behavior. Eckes and Six (1994) conducted and resistance to change. In R. Petty and J. Kosnik (Eds.),
a meta-analysis of 501 of these studies and concluded Attitude strength (pp. 413–432). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
“that long-established and widely accepted beliefs Eckes, T., & Six, B. (1994). Fakten und Fiktionen in der Einstellungs-
Verhaltens-Forschung: Eine Meta-Analyse. Zeitschrift für
concerning the relation between attitude and
Sozialpsychologie, 25, 253–271.
behavior . . . need to be corrected” (270) since it is Jung, C. G. (1921/1971). Psychological types. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
clear that behavioral attitudes are related not only to University Press.
a particular goal but also to a particular action, the LaPiere, R. T. (1934). Attitudes vs. actions. Social forces, 13, 230–237.
specific context of that action, and a particular period Olson, J. M., & Zanna, M. P. (1993). Attitude and attitude change.
of time. The decision to behave in one way or another Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 117–154.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood
in a concrete situation involves not only short-lived
model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experi-
opinions and views but also more permanent value mental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). New York:
positions. There is also considerable research on Academic.
implicit attitudes, which generally remain unconscious Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free
but have effects on behavior that are measurable Press.
Triandis, H. C. (1971). Attitude and attitude change. New York: Wiley.
through sophisticated methods, such as through the
measurement of reaction times to attitude stimuli.
Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people’s
behavior in different ways. However, we still have
a poor understanding of the relationship between
them due to a lack of substantial research. Attitudes
Research on attitude formation and change focuses
on the way people process messages. In terms of ▶ Attitude Change Through Learning
 Attribution Theory in Communication Research A 375

theory. The primary causes for behavior can be an A

Attitudes Toward Learning internal or external locus. An internal locus is also
▶ Culture of Learning called dispositional because it reflects a person’s dispo-
sition shaping the behavior. An external locus is also
called situational because it reflects environmental fac-
tors shaping the behavior. The metaphor of scientists
guides Attribution theory. People are all scientists who
Attractor Neural Network collect information about their worlds in order to
understand that world. Attributions are one form of
▶ Associative Memory and Learning information people use to explain their worlds (Weiner
2004).

Theoretical Background
Attribute-Treatment Attribution theory was pioneered by Fritz Heider in the
1950s. Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner have made
Interaction
important contributions to the development of Attri-
▶ Aptitude-Treatment Interaction bution theory. Kelley developed the idea of covariance
in attributions – co-occurring factors that shape attri-
butions. Kelley identified three factors that help to
determine whether people attribute behavior to an
internal or external locus. The first factor is consistency,
Attribution Theory the question is whether or not the person previously
Individuals’ reasons for success and failure influence behaved in the same way in similar situations. If
their future motivation in related tasks. a person behaves the same way in similar situations,
consistency is high. The second factor is distinctiveness,
the question is whether or not the person behaved
similarly in different situations. If a person behaves
differently in different situations, distinctiveness is
Attribution Theory in high. The third factor is consensus, the question is
Communication Research whether or not other people would act the same way
in a similar situation. If others would act the same in a
W. TIMOTHY COOMBS similar situation, consensus is high. People are more
Nicholson School of Communication, University of likely to make internal attributions when consistency,
Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA distinctiveness, and consensus are low and external
attributions when they are high.
Weiner examined Attribution theory as a way to
Synonyms understand motivation. Weiner (2006) identified
Acknowledgment; Ascription three factors that shaped attributions: locus, controlla-
bility, and stability. Locus is whether internal or exter-
Definition nal factors are responsible for the behavior.
People have a strong need to understand the question Controllability is the degree to which the cause of the
“why” because it helps us to understand the world behavior can be altered. Was the person forced into the
around us. Attribution theory provides one way to behavior or was it done willingly? Though similar,
understand how people answer the question “why” controllability and locus are distinct. As Weiner notes
and make sense of their worlds. Attribution theory (2006), an external factor can be either uncontrollable
seeks to help people make sense of their world by or under someone’s control and some internal factors
identifying causes for the behaviors and events they are uncontrollable. Hence, we cannot simply equate
experience. Causal locus is the core of Attribution external for uncontrollable and internal for
376 A Attribution Theory in Communication Research

controllable. Stability is whether or not the cause is and intimate aggression and violence (Manusov and
stable over time or just temporary. Spitzberg 2008).
The initial research in Attribution theory involved Corporate communication examines the commu-
attributions as the dependent variable. Researchers nication context within and between organizations.
tried to determine what factors influenced people mak- Attribution theory has been used extensively to exam-
ing attributions that were dispositional or situational. ine crisis communication, a form of communication
We see search for what shapes attributions in Kelley’s between organizational actors (management) and the
covariance and Weiner’s early research. Attribution as organization’s stakeholders. A crisis is an event that
an independent variable examines how attributions violates stakeholder expectations for organizational
influence cognition, emotion, and actions. Weiner’s behavior and is potentially disruptive for an organiza-
own research reflects a shift to attributions as the inde- tion. A crisis is a negative event for an organization and
pendent variable. Weiner has examined the role of its stakeholders creating a perfect trigger for attribu-
attributions as they relate to motivation, more recently tions. Negative events are strong motivators for people
in a theory of social motivation and justice. For to seek attributions. People want to make sense of
instance, Weiner (2006) examined the effects of events such as transportation accidents, product harm
attributions on the emotions of sympathy and anger events, and management misconduct. When people
and their related behaviors. learn about a crisis they will engage in the attribution
While predominantly a psychological theory, process.
Attribution theory has been applied to the study of The attribution process can have significant,
communication. A wide range of communication negative ramifications for crisis communication and
research includes attributions as a variable. However, the effect of the crisis on an organization. The attribu-
Attributions theory as a critical component of research tions stakeholders make during a crisis can alter their
and theory building is mostly strongly rooted in inter- relationships with the organization in crisis. Marketing
personal communication and corporate communica- researchers were the first to link Attribution theory to
tion. The communication-based Attribution theory crises. Building upon this connection, Situation Crisis
research is constructed around “events.” An event Communication Theory (SCCT) constructed a more
occurs, people make attributions, those attributions detailed understanding of crisis communication
affect communication, and the communication affects premised upon Attribution theory. SCCT translated
the relationship between the parties. Interpersonal ideas from Attribution theory to the crisis context
events focus on conflict while corporate events center and extended upon those ideas. Instead of people,
on crises. Both events are negative occurrences that organizations are at the center of the attribution
trigger a search for attributions. Communication process. People (the organization’s stakeholders)
research adopted Attribution theory because under- make attributions about how responsible the organiza-
standing how people create meaning can be useful tion is for the crisis.
when explaining communication behaviors. Attribu- SCCT was developed to bridge a significant gap in
tions influence how people react, how they communi- the crisis communication literature. The crisis commu-
cate, and attributions can even be a topic of discussion nication literature is well populated with the lists of
(Manusov and Spitzberg 2008). types of crises and lists of crisis response strategies, and
The interpersonal communication Attribution the- what management says and does in response to a crisis.
ory research centers on conflict and is applied to the However, there was no connection between the lists.
context of communication between individuals. Con- A general tenet in much communication research is
flicts are the type of event that can have a significant that the nature of the situation can determine what
effect on relationships. How people communicate constitutes effective communication.
during a conflict has serious ramifications for their Attributions of crisis responsibility serve as the
relationship. Interpersonal communication is a broad linchpin of SCCT that connected crisis types and crisis
domain encompassing a variety of different contexts response strategies. Crisis managers adjust their com-
for conflict between individuals. Attribution theory has municative responses based upon how people are likely
been used extensively to study the contexts of marriage to attribute responsibility for a crisis – how people
 Attribution Theory in Communication Research A 377

perceive the situation. Crisis response strategies vary SCCT posits that as attributions of crisis responsi- A
along an accommodation continuum. The strategies bility increase, the crisis managers must use more
vary in how much they accommodate victims of the accommodative strategies. Two factors mitigate against
crisis ranging from denial (no accommodation) to crisis managers automatically using the most accom-
a full apology that accepts responsibility and asks for modative strategies: (1) cost and (2) low benefit.
forgiveness (strong accommodation). Accommodation Increases in accommodation also mean an increase in
in part reflects the amount of responsibility the costs for the organization in crisis. Management may
organization assumes with the response. Greater be unable or unwilling to accept the high cost of an
accommodation typically reflects a greater acceptance accommodative strategy. Using a highly accommoda-
of responsibility by the organization. tive strategy in a minor (low attribution) crisis may do
SCCT draws upon Attribution theory to explain more harm than good. Over accommodating does not
and to predict how people will react to crises and crisis increase the benefits of crisis response and may increase
response strategies. Crisis managers need to anticipate the harm. When an organization overreacts, people
how stakeholders are likely to react to a crisis. More begin to wonder if something else might be happening
specifically, crisis managers must understand what to warrant such an accommodative response.
attributions of crisis responsibility stakeholders are It should be noted that the reputation repair efforts
likely to develop from a crisis. Armed with such insight, presented by SCCT are used after the use of a base
crisis managers can select crisis response strategies that response strategy. The base response strategy begins
will most effectively protect their relationship with with public safety by providing any information stake-
stakeholders – minimize the negative effects of a crisis holders might need to protect themselves physically
(Coombs 2007). SCCT is premised on two-step process from the crisis. This is combined with efforts to help
for assessing potential assessments of crisis responsibil- stakeholders cope psychologically with the crisis and
ity based upon research inspired by Attribution theory. include expressions of sympathy and explanations of
The first step is to assess the basic crisis type the orga- what is being done to prevent a repeat of the crisis
nization faces. The crisis type is the frame being used to event.
define the crisis. Each frame will be associated with
a specific level of crisis responsibility. Important Scientific Research and
The second step is to determine whether or not any Open Questions
intensifying factors exist. Intensifying factors increase Three early topics that guided Attribution theory
attributions of crisis responsibility. When an intensify- research was the fundamental attribution error, actor
ing factor exists, stakeholders should view victim crises verses observer discrepancies, and hedonic bias. The
and accidental crises as intentional. Prior reputation fundamental attribution error states that we are more
and crisis history are two of the intensifying factors likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal
identified by SCCT. Prior reputation is how well or factors but attribute our behavior to external factors.
poorly an organization is perceived to have treated The actor versus observer discrepancy finds actors
stakeholders prior to a crisis. Crisis history is whether favor situational attributions while observers favor per-
or not an organization has had similar crises in the past. sonal attributions for behaviors. The hedonic bias finds
By combining assessments of the crisis type and the that people attribute success to personal factors and
intensifying factors, crisis managers have a good read failure to situational factors. These topics reflect the
on how stakeholders are likely to react to the crisis – need to understand whether people use an internal or
the level of crisis responsibility stakeholders are likely external locus to explain an event. The implications of
to hold. these three Attribution theory principles are still being
The level of crisis responsibility suggests the level of explored for their utility in explaining interpersonal
accommodation in the crisis response – how much and corporate communication.
responsibility an organization should accept from the Attribution theory assumes a rather linear relation-
crisis in its communication. Crisis response strategies ship between attributions (cognitions), emotion, and
should vary in how much the organization is perceived behavior (Weiner 2004). But research questions
to accept responsibility for the crisis. that linearity. Could it be that emotion precedes
378 A Attribution Theory in Communication Research

attributions or that emotion and behavior are simulta- SCCT research has shown that the most common
neous? These are important questions that are still crisis types/frames cluster into three groups: (1) victim,
open for study. the organization is attacked by outside forces such as
The research into interpersonal conflicts is interest- product tampering, terrorism, or natural disaster;
ing. There are three general communication strategies (2) accidental, some technical error created the crisis;
for conflict resolution: (1) avoidance, try not to com- and (3) preventable, management purposefully placed
municate with one another about the conflict; (2) com- stakeholders at risk and/or violated the law. Victim
petitive, try to become the winner in the conflict; and crises have minimal attributions of crisis responsibility,
(3) cooperative, try to work together to resolve the accidental have moderate attributions of crisis respon-
conflict. Alan Sillars has found that how people com- sibility, and preventable have very strong perceptions of
municate during a conflict is based in part on attribu- crisis responsibility. Crisis managers can use this infor-
tions of blame for the conflict. Cooperative strategies mation to anticipate stakeholder’s initial reactions to
are most likely to be used when the person sees them- the crisis/attributions of crisis responsibility.
selves as responsible for the conflict and/or you per- The SCCT research confirms that prior reputation
ceive the other person as cooperative. However, and crisis history are intensifiers. A negative prior rep-
attribution biases work against people seeing them- utation serves to intensify attributions of crisis respon-
selves as responsible thereby discouraging cooperation. sibility while a positive prior reputation has essentially
It is unfortunate that attribution works against coop- no affect on attributions. A history of crises intensifies
eration because ultimately it is the communication attributions of crisis responsibility in a similar fashion
strategy that produces the greatest satisfaction with (Coombs 2007).
the conflict outcome and has the most positive effect SCCT research has evaluated the primary crisis
on relationships. Competitive strategies create escala- response strategies for the way stakeholders perceive
tion and less satisfaction with the conflict outcome. the degree to which the organization accepts responsi-
The marriage context explores the way partner bility when using the strategy. The acceptance of
attributions affect the quality of a marriage. Attribution responsibility is equitable to accommodation. The
research in relationships has found that non-distressed three primary groupings of crisis response strategies
couples make low-impact attributions about negative are denial, diminish, and rebuild. Denial claims there
partner behaviors. Low-impact attributions are not is no crisis or that the organization has no responsibil-
internal or stable and therefore, serve to enhance the ity for the crisis. Diminish seeks to reduce perceptions
relationship. Distressed couples, on the other hand, of responsibility for the crisis and can involve justifica-
attribute partner behaviors to be internal and stable tion and excuses strategies. Rebuild tries to repair the
or a distress-maintaining response. When examining damage done to the reputation and includes both
violent men, researchers found that they attribute their apologies and compensation strategies. Bolstering is
violence to their wives. In each interpersonal context a fourth category but is supplementary to the other
Attribution theory sheds new light on communication three and seeks to aid the reputation through
issues by using attributions to better understand the reminders of past good works or establishing the orga-
communication process. nization as a victim of the crisis too. As a supplemental
The Attribution-bases corporate communication strategy, bolstering should not be used without one of
research has found that when people attribute the the other three primary strategies.
cause of the crisis to internal factors, high organiza- Research has confirmed the general recommenda-
tional crisis responsibility, they are more likely to tion that matching the level of crisis responsibility in
view the organization less positively (reputational the crisis response to the attributions of crisis respon-
damage), more likely to reduce purchase intentions, sibility lessens the threat from a crisis. Research sug-
and more likely to engage in negative word-of- gests that matching does protect the organizational
mouth. The research supports the belief that attribu- reputation, reduce anger, protect purchase intention,
tions of crisis responsibility can have a negative effect and reduce the likelihood of negative word-of-mouth.
on the relationship between an organization and its More detailed study of specific crisis response strategies
stakeholders. and their effect on post-crisis attributions, reputations,
 Attribution Theory of Motivation A 379

affect, and behaviors is needed. The initial studies have Bernard Weiner made some important contributions A
only scratched the surface of these critically important to the attribution theory, adding the dimension of
topics. temporal stability vs. instability and later that of respon-
sibility (or controllability), which indicates whether
Cross-References a causal factor of success or failure could be perceived
▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation as internal or external to a person.
▶ Communication Theory
Theoretical Background
References In order to understand the importance of attribution
Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during theory for motivation it may be useful to sketch the
a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis historical development of motivational theories in the
communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), twentieth century. Until the late 1950s, the reinforce-
163–177.
ment theory dominated motivational psychology as
Manusov, V., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2008). Attributes of attribution
theory: Finding good cause in the search for theory. In D. O. well as discussions in educational psychology on
Braithwaite & L. A. Baxter (Eds.), Engaging theories in interper- possibilities for a targeted influence of learning
sonal communication (pp. 37–49). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. motivation. In contrast to the mechanistic assumptions
Weiner, B. (2004). Social motivation and moral emotion: An attribu- of extrinsic reinforcement, some researchers (e.g.,
tion perspective. In M. J. Martinko (Ed.), Attribution theory in
Atkinson, McClelland) argued that the study of moti-
the organizational sciences (pp. 5–24). Greenwich, CN: Informa-
tion Age Publishing. vation is concerned with the emotions, cognitions, and
Weiner, B. (2006). Social motivation, justice, and the moral emotions: environmental influences that cause humans to act or
An attributional approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. not act on their own behalf or on that of others.
Atkinson and McClelland introduced the construct
“need for achievement” (nAch) to research on achieve-
ment motivation as an individual motive to do some-
thing better, faster, more efficiently, and with less effort.
Attribution Theory of In the 1960s the “expectation value theory” (Atkinson
Motivation 1964) became popular. On the one hand, it was used to
investigate the characteristics of tasks and, on the other
NORBERT M. SEEL hand, to find out which values and expectations for
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, solving these tasks are relevant for motivation. Values
Freiburg, Germany were conceived as important factors of “intrinsic learn-
ing motivation.” Eccles (1983) distinguished between
an intrinsic value, consisting in the immediate pleasure
Synonyms one experiences in working on learning tasks, an attain-
Attributional style; Causal attribution; Causation of ment value, consisting in the goal of solving a task in
behavior; Explanatory style; Locus of control a particular domain which coincides with the needs
and expectations of the learner, and a utility value,
Definition consisting in the learner’s estimation of the usefulness
Originally, attribution theory was an area of social of solving a task for reaching a particular goal.
psychology introduced by Heider (1958). It explains In continuation of the “expectation value the-
how people attribute causes to events and how this ory,” some theorists argued that the level of demand
cognitive perception affects their motivation. Another individuals set for themselves in achievement situa-
important contribution from social psychology is the tions is one of the central components of the achieve-
▶ locus of control theory, which is more concerned ment motive. Specifically, they identified two relatively
with individual differences in attributions. A central stable expressions of choice of risk, which Heckhausen
assumption of both theoretical approaches is the dis- (1963) termed hope of success and fear of failure. The
tinction between internal and external loci of causality investigation of these expressions of risk was at the
of good or bad results of behavior. In the 1970s, core of uncountable studies in the following decades.
380 A Attribution Theory of Motivation

They consistently demonstrated that success-oriented Attribution to internal factors leads to an increase in
people show a clear tendency to seek situations in self-esteem in the case of success and to a decrease in
which they are likely to succeed, whereas failure- self-esteem in the case of failure, a rule which does not
oriented people are more likely to avoid achievement apply in the case of attribution to external factors. The
situations. A further characteristic of people who are dimension of stability regulates the subjective expecta-
motivated by success is that they tend to set a level of tion of success. Initially, it does not make any difference
demand which is only moderately higher than their in this dimension whether a cause is internal or exter-
previous achievements and is thus realistic. People nal. When a person attributes a positive event to
who want to avoid failure, on the other hand, usually a stable internal cause (such as aptitude), he or she
choose either especially high or especially low levels of will anticipate success in the future. Correspondingly,
demand. By choosing the first option, these people when a person attributes a negative event to a stable
prepare an excuse for themselves which is particularly cause, he or she will anticipate failure in the future.
useful in maintaining self-worth before even having Persistence in the face of failure increases when it is
attempted the task, namely that the demands of the possible to attribute the failure to instable causes such
task were too high. The other option is even less useful as a lack of effort or bad luck. This statement makes it
for stabilizing self-worth because success in a task with evident that the dimensions of localization and stability
a low level of demand will not bring much social are interrelated in a special way. In accordance with
recognition and failure will only lower the person’s Weiner’s argumentation this relationship can be
self-concept further. In addition, failure-oriented peo- illustrated in a four-field schema (Table 1):
ple tend to attribute failure to stable internal factors Included in this schema is the dimension of
(such as their lack of ability), while success-oriented controllability, which is associated with numerous
people are more likely to look for the reason for failure emotions (such as anger, guilt, compassion, shame).
in variable factors (such as a lack of effort). When someone is hindered from succeeding by factors
These differences between success-oriented and controlled by others (e.g., noise, interruptions), it is
failure-oriented people form the core of the attribution almost inevitable that he or she will become angry.
theory of motivation developed by Weiner (1972, Feelings of guilt can become a factor, even in the case
1986), which attempts to identify the factors which of self-attribution, when someone fails to fulfill a social
people attribute to success and failure in achievement agreement due to internal, controllable causes (e.g.,
situations. a lack of effort or carelessness). Shame and embarrass-
The causes of success and failure named most fre- ment often arise when someone fails due to internal
quently include ability, effort, difficulty of task, luck, and uncontrollable causes (such as a lack of aptitude).
mood, and help or hindrance by others. People usually A person who attributes success to external factors will
attribute their success or failure to causes which already show compassion and sympathy for a person who does
played a role in their previous experiences with not reach the same goal due to internal, uncontrollable
achievement (in similar situations) or to causes which factors (e.g., a lack of ability, physical constraints).
correspond to social norms. For example, a person who These emotional states also serve as attribution
fails an exam that other people had no trouble passing hints. If, for example, a teacher expresses compassion
will probably attribute this failure to a lack of ability if and sympathy upon the failure of a student, this
he or she has failed similar exams in the past.
Weiner (1986) distinguishes between three causal
dimensions of achievement motivation: locus, stability,
Attribution Theory of Motivation. Table 1 Schema of
and controllability. The first dimension has to do with
causal attribution (Adapted from Weiner 1972)
whether a cause of success or failure can be localized
within the person or in the particular situation, that is Locus of control
to say, outside of the person, and with whether this Internal External
cause can be willfully changed. Aptitude and effort are Stability Stable Ability Task difficulty
considered as internal factors and difficulty of task and
Variable Effort Luck
chance as external factors for success or failure.
 Audiation A 381

student will tend to attribute the failure to a low level of “intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation,” and the pursuit of A
abilities. On the other hand, if the teacher sends an “cooperative vs. competitive goals.”
emotional message of anger, the student will be encour-
aged in the belief that he or she did not put in enough Cross-References
effort. The various emotional reactions serve as moti- ▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning
vational incentives, i.e., they suggest various actions: ▶ Confidence Judgments in Learning
Compassion with others leads a person to provide help ▶ Learned Helplessness
and bestow praise, whereas anger produces a lack of ▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
regard or even punishment when someone else is in ▶ Motivation, Volition and Performance
need. Shy students can usually expect more help from ▶ Self-Determination and Learning
their teacher than aggressive or hyperactive children, ▶ Self-Esteem and Learning
partly because shyness is seen as being less controllable ▶ Self-Regulation and Motivation Strategies
than aggressiveness. Teachers often react to students
who do not make any effort and do not try out any- References
thing by getting angry and giving them poor grades. Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton:
Students who are seen as capable but fail due to a lack Van Nostrand.
of effort (so-called ▶ underachievers) are often Eccles, J. S. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behavior. In
J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives: Psycho-
punished. On the other hand, students with low abili- logical and sociological approaches (pp. 77–146). San Francisco:
ties who put in a lot of effort and are successful (so- Freeman.
called overachievers) are praised and rewarded. Guilt Graham, S., & Folkes, V. (Eds.). (1990). Attribution theory: Applica-
and shame also have motivational effects. Guilt encour- tions to achievement, mental health, and interpersonal conflict.
ages goal-directed activities, while shame tends to have Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Heckhausen, H. (1963). Hoffnung und Furcht in der Leistungsmo-
a negative effect on motivation.
tivation. Meisenheim am Glan: Verlag Anton Hain.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York:
Important Scientific Research and Wiley.
Open Questions Weiner, B. (1972). Theories of motivation: From mechanisms to cogni-
For decades, the attribution theory has probably been tion. Chicago: Rand McNally.
the most influential theory on academic motivation Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion.
New York: Springer.
and achievement motivation. Accordingly, the attribu- Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories, and
tion theory of motivation has been studied in countless research. Newbury Park: Sage.
studies that demonstrate not only the theoretical power
of the postulated explanatory styles of causal attribu-
tion: Study after study showed that the way in which
people explain successes and failures in their lives is
related to whether they attributed them to internal or
Attributional Style
external factors and whether these factors are stable or ▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation
variable (see, for instance, Graham and Folkes 1990).
A good overview of research on the attribution theory
of motivation can be found in Weiner (1992) and other
sources. Audiation
The attribution theory forms the basis of recent
theories of motivation with relevance for school learn- A cognitive process by which the brain gives meaning to
ing. Some of these theories, including the theory of self- musical sounds. Audiation takes place when a person
worth, the theory of self-efficacy, and the theory of hears and comprehends music for which the sound is
“learned helplessness,” operate with constructs that no longer present or may never have been present. It is
refer either to the self-perception of ability or the goal possible to audiate when listening to music,
orientation of learning. A second group of theories performing from notation, playing “by ear,” improvis-
works with the constructs “task vs. ego involvement,” ing, composing, or notating music.
382 A Audio-Video-Redundancy in Learning

extremes are various positions including: (1) thematic

Audio-Video-Redundancy in redundancy, which occurs when the information in the
Learning visual channel is only thematically related to that in the
audio channel (e.g., the audio channel information is
ANNIE LANG about progress moving a specific bill through congress
Department of Telecommunications, Indiana and the audio channel shows pictures of the capitol, the
University, Bloomington, IN, USA American flag, and the house and senate chambers);
(2) semantically related, which occurs when the audio
and video channel are about the same thing but not
Synonyms duplicative (as in the redundant condition) (e.g., the
Auditory-visual consistency/consonance; Auditory- audio channel is about that day’s debate in the house
visual dissonance and the video channel shows stock footage of the house
in session – but not of that day’s debate).
Definition A great deal of research has also considered the case
Audio-video redundancy is a term that is applied to of “talking heads,” defined as a person talking on cam-
messages that include both audio and visual informa- era (in the visual channel) and what they are saying
tion. Usually, the audio information is spoken language (which could be anything from how to do algebraic
information rather than natural sounds or equations to the latest prices to visit the pharoah’s
music. Visual information runs the gamut from still tombs in Egypt) makes up the information in the
pictures or text to moving pictures, scrolling text, audio channel. While this is clearly an extremely
etc. Audio-video redundancy refers to the extent to natural occurrence that happens all the time – it is
which the audio and video channels contain the same not clear where it stands on the audio-video redun-
or different information. dancy continuum. Recent research, however, suggests
that talking head messages require very few resources to
Theoretical Background be processed and that both the audio and the video
Research in this area has focused primarily on televi- information contained in them tend to be well-
sion messages though there is also some information remembered – though not as well-remembered as
looking at computer-based instructional material completely redundant audio and video information.
(Drew and Grimes 1987; Grimes 1990). The question In general, research suggests that more redundant
of whether and how increasing audio-video redun- messages require fewer resources to process than less
dancy improves learning of message content is complex redundant messages. Memory for information in the
and to some extent depends on the context. In general, audio channel decreases with decreasing redundancy.
most research in this area uses some kind of limited Memory for video information fares somewhat better
capacity processing model. In these models, the ability as audio-video redundancy decreases. Indeed, when
to learn from the message requires that the message be audio-video redundancy is very low – or the channels
selected and that sufficient resources be allocated to it actually conflict – the messages tend to be too complex
for the information to be learned. Messages which are for thorough processing and, as a result, only one of the
more complex require more resources to be processed. channels is processed. In many cases, research suggests
Within this context, the complexity of the audio, the that, when this occurs, it is the video channel that will
video, or the combination of the two is considered. be better processed, perhaps because the video channel
In general, the level of redundancy is conceived to tends to be more dynamic and, when it carries
be a continuum from exact duplication, usually unrelated information, it actually distracts viewers
referred to as redundant, (e.g., in the audio channel from the audio message.
a voice says a word, for example, “dog,” and in the video However, several contextual variables play a role in
channel, there is a picture (still or moving) of a dog) to the outcome, including whether or not the learner has
conflicting, defined as there being no relationship control over message presentation (can they stop and
between the information in the audio and visual chan- start, rewind, etc.), the extent to which the learner is
nels (Grimes 1991; Lang 1995). In between these two motivated to learn the information (are they watching
 Audio-Video-Redundancy in Learning A 383

the message to learn, to be entertained, etc.), and the then reductions in redundancy severely reduce mem- A
extent to which the information relevant to the learner ory for the information contained in the messages.
is contained in one or both channels. Having control
over the message reduces the impact of message Important Scientific Research and
complexity variables on processing. If the learner can Open questions
stop the message, play it over again, and pause for Most research on audio-video redundancy has been
reflection – then learners can use these tools to allow done looking at television news and information pro-
themselves to keep up with even very complex gramming – as opposed to actually looking at educa-
messages. Similarly, one person’s complexity is tional material. In general, during news programming,
another’s simplicity. Reduced audio-video redundancy the important information is contained in the audio.
can increase interest and engagement for learners who Often the video information is complimentary at best
are already familiar or expert in the topic or motivated and is chosen primarily to maintain audience interest
to learn by introducing more information at any given in the message (to boost ratings) rather than being
time. But, that same format will result in cognitive selected to improve processing of the audio message.
overload and reduced learning for the novice or Much less research has been done on messages that
unmotivated learner. Thus, when the information actively seek to create visuals that specifically illustrate
contained in a message is thought to be difficult for or complete the audio messages. Some research has
the audience, it is best to maintain a high level of audio- been done looking at how appropriate 3-D animations
video redundancy. However, when information is presented simultaneously with verbal descriptions
familiar – or review – less redundancy may be a useful influence message processing. In these cases, it was
strategy to maintain interest. found that expertise of the audience and structural
It is also worth noting that audio-video redun- complexity of the message play pivotal roles. If the
dancy varies over time during television and com- audience has some familiarity with the area or the
puter-based messages. At some points in time, structure is simpler, simultaneous redundant anima-
messages may be extremely redundant while at other tion improves understanding and memory; however, if
points in the same message, there may be little or no the structure is complex or the audience is not familiar
redundancy in information. Thus, producers of mes- with the area, it reduces memory (Fox et al. 2004).
sages can increase redundancy at points in messages Recent research has also begun to look more closely
when they wish to maximize memory for the informa- at channel selection in the case of cognitive overload.
tion and reduce redundancy at other times to increase While a great deal of research has suggested that when
interest or motivation. Research suggests that redun- the audio redundancy is very low, people tend to give
dancy at a given time point primarily affects memory up on the audio channel and shift their attention to the
for the information occurring at that time and does video channel (Grimes 1991), some research has begun
not greatly impact the preceding and following time to suggest that structural properties of the two channels
periods. may play a role in the direction of the shift and future
Finally, the impact of the level of audio-video research will need to be done to determine which
redundancy is also greatly dependent on the structural factors influence attentional shifts toward the audio
complexity of the audio and video channels. In addi- or toward the video channel.
tion to carrying conceptual information, each channel
of information can also be described in terms of the Cross-References
complexity of its presentation. Among the variables to ▶ Attention, Memory, and Meditation
be considered here are speed of presentation (audio of ▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies
video), the presence of sound effects, camera tech- ▶ Cognitive Learning Strategies for Digital Media
niques, and the like, as well as the sheer number of ▶ Cognitive Load Theory
sources of information available per channel at a given
time (number of voices, or audio sources in the audio, References
number of objects and their movement on the screen). Drew, D. G., & Grimes, T. (1987). Audio-visual redundancy and TV
When the individual channels are structurally complex, news recall. Communication Research, 14(4), 452–461.
384 A Audio-visual (AV) Aids

Fox, J., Lang, A., Chung, Y., Lee, S., & Potter, D. (2004). Picture this: complexity and are commonly used to enhance learn-
Effects of graphics on the processing of television news. Journal of ing and instruction by improving comprehension,
Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48(4), 646–674.
retention, and transfer.
Grimes, T. (1990). Encoding TV news messages into memory. Jour-
nalism Quarterly, 67(4), 757–766.
Grimes, T. (1991). Mild auditory-visual dissonance in television news Theoretical Background
may exceed viewer attentional capacity. Human Communication The history of AV messages goes back to 10,000–15,000
Research, 18(2), 268–298. BC, when prehistoric humans painted images discov-
Lang, A. (1995). Defining audio/video redundancy from a limited-
ered on the walls of caves in modern-day France, or
capacity information processing perspective. Communication
Research, 22(1), 86–115.
3,500 BC, when the first roots of music were developed
in Mesopotamia. Another significant achievement for
AV learning is Johann Gutenberg’s invention of
movable type in 1450, which enabled the extensive
production of documents. Several centuries later in
Audio-visual (AV) Aids 1658, John Amos Comenius presented to the world
the first children’s encyclopedia – Orbis Sensualium
Materials that use sound or vision to present informa-
Pictus (“The Visible World in Pictures”). Often
tion; AV aids are the building blocks of AV learning.
credited as being the first highly structured textbook,
They may take the form of presentation slides, multi-
it included more than a hundred chapters covering
media programs, video and sound recordings, etc.
botany, zoology, humans, religion, etc., and was
illustrated with pictures, which played an important
role for children’s learning and instruction.
An important step for AV development in the
Audiovisual Learning history of modern instructional technology was the
elaboration of silent visual ▶ media, which includes
OLEG PODOLSKIY illustrations, slides, study prints, photographs, figures,
Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia charts, and so on (Dale 1969). In 1910, the first silent
instructional film was adopted for instructional pur-
poses and presented with a motion picture projector
Synonyms (Reiser 2002).
Bi-sensory learning; Media learning; Multimedia Driven forward by new media technologies, AV
learning learning and education has developed rapidly since
the early 1920s, when the radio was invented. Radio
Definition was often used to present various types of educational
Audio-visual (AV) learning is a type of learning which task, bringing dramatic feelings to the classroom and
is described by delivery and the use of instructional fostering the imagination of learners (Dale 1969). In
content that involves sound (auditory stimuli) and 1926, the first full-length motion picture with
sight (visual stimuli). AV learning takes place when a synchronized soundtrack (Don Juan) was released.
the instructional process is accompanied by AV learn- After the successful synchronization of sound and
ing aids such as handouts, flip charts, transparencies, motion pictures, AV aids were in high demand. During
whiteboards, illustrations, still and motion pictures, and after World War II, there was an increased interest
slide shows, television, videos, audiotapes, records, in media use for learning needs. Research has shown
projectors, computer graphics, multimedia, physical that during this period AV aids were used effectively to
objects, and 3D models. AV learning can appear when reinforce learning processes and strengthen retention,
an instructor’s verbal presentation is reinforced with thinking, interest, motivation, and imagination
a series of images or slides or as a self-standing instruc- (Allen 1956).
tional practice consisting of an instructional movie or The benefits of motion pictures for learning were
virtual reality simulation. The above-mentioned soon described by researchers, such as the ability to
▶ Audio-visual (AV) aids have different levels of create reality, enhance attention, and reinforce learners’
 Audiovisual Learning A 385

understanding of abstract concepts and relationships Important Scientific Research and A

(Dale 1969). The advent of television followed in the Open Questions
1950s. Instructional television raised much interest and High-quality AV learning has a strong theoretical basis
expectations, as evidenced by a score of instructional in the cognitive paradigm of learning and the ways in
TV channels in these years. Dale (1969) stresses the which people learn from words and pictures. People
importance of instructional television for demonstra- have two separate channels for visual/spatial and audi-
tion in a classroom setting, keeping and concentrating tory/verbal information processing (Paivio 1986;
attention, and speeding up and enhancing learning Baddeley 1999). Pictures are conveyed via the eyes
processes in classrooms. and are later processed in the visual/pictorial channel,
The development of personal computers since the while spoken words heard by our ears are processed in
late 1970s brought about a new surge in AV learning the auditory/verbal channel (see also ▶ Dual-Code
with multimedia technology. Computer-based multi- Hypothesis in this Encyclopedia). Another notion is
media learning consists of pictures and words in dif- the limitation of the capacity of auditory and visual
ferent mediums, such as text, narration, animation, working memory systems (Chandler and Sweller 1991).
sound, video, etc. (Mayer and Moreno 2002). One of Humans are able to actively process only a limited
the main strengths of multimedia is that it presents amount of information using each channel at any one
a potentially rich and powerful method for stimulating time (Baddeley 1999). In cases in which a lot of pic-
and improving students’ understanding (see also tures, videos, or other visual materials are presented at
▶ Computer-Based Learning and ▶ Multimedia once, the visual/spatial channel can easily appear to be
Learning in this Encyclopedia). overloaded. In the same way, the auditory/verbal chan-
The development and growth of the World Wide nel can become overloaded when a lot of spoken words,
Web (WWW) and the Internet in the 1990s marked sounds, etc. are presented at the same time. Finally,
a new era of communication, which had immediate meaningful learning occurs when people receive rele-
impact on the richness of AV learning. Totally new vant information, mentally organize the information in
forms of multimedia instruction like e-learning (see a coherent representation, build connections between
also ▶ E-Learning in this Encyclopedia) have created visual and verbal representations, and mentally inte-
many new possibilities and opened up new horizons in grate it with other prior knowledge (Mayer and
education. E-learning provides new possibilities for Moreno 2002).
media delivery, promotes a learner-centered environ- These notions lead researchers to assume that stu-
ment, motivates learners, and can make learning expe- dents learn more deeply through multimedia explana-
riences unique, convenient, and exciting. tion than verbal explanation only. This means that it is
To sum up, several important features of AV learn- more effective to use words and graphics together to
ing aids should be stressed. In modern instructional present content than it is to use just words. This is
settings AV aids are used to maintain high levels of known as the multimedia or modality principle. It
interest in learners and to promote active learning, was illustrated by Mayer (2005) in a series of experi-
involvement, self-control, and participation in learning ments and is often used for advanced multimedia
activities. Another advantage of modern AV learning is learning.
that it brings realistic settings to the classroom and is at Technology has been integrated into education, and
the same time easier to use and more affordable than the development of AV learning follows the track and
real objects or real-life learning settings. Audio-visual stages of technology and media development. AV learn-
devices and media can bridge the gap between socio- ing changes its face with the progress of electronic
economic barriers, disseminate learning and instruc- communication systems, IT, and telecommunications.
tion across large areas, expand educational possibilities, Each technological advancement leads to corresponding
and give more people a chance to learn. improvements in educational and learning capabilities
Still, the general principle and function of AV learn- and advantages. Methods and instruments used in
ing and education is representation: AV learning does human relations, mass media, and entertainment are
not actually reflect the world and real-life settings but transferred to the field of corporate training, K-12,
rather represents them. higher education, and other educational settings. AV
386 A Audio-Visual Learning

learning can appear on the TV screen, PC or notebook Baddeley, A. (1999). Human memory. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
monitor, PDA and mobile phone display, interactive Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the
format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8, 293–332.
whiteboard, as a multimedia projection in the class-
Dale, E. (1969). Audiovisual methods in teaching. Hinsdale: Dryden.
room, or via any other visualization tool. Mayer, R. E. (2005). Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E.
It is important to realize that AV aids and AV learn- Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning.
ing are used only to supplement training and develop- New York: Cambridge University Press.
ment. They are used to clarify, enrich, and strengthen Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Aids to computer-based multi-
media learning. Learning and Instruction, 12, 107–119.
instruction. Nevertheless, instructors, teachers, and
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach.
tutors are still the main actors in the learning process, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
and the chosen instructional methods should thus dic- Reiser, R. A. (2002). A history of instructional design and technology.
tate the type of instructional media used (AV media in In R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in
particular), not vice versa. instructional design and technology (pp. 26–53). Upper Saddle
Another open issue is the conflict between the River: Merrill Prentice Hall.

instructor/teacher and learning media, AV learning

media in particular. Currently the situation is becom-
ing more optimistic: Mass usage of technology in soci-
ety leads to its more frequent and correct use in Audio-Visual Learning
instruction, particularly by younger teachers/instruc-
tors, for whom the new technologies are often second ▶ Multimedia Learning
nature. However, there is still a gap in the “teacher–
technology” relationship. This may be explained first of
all by teachers’ unawareness of AV technologies and
their advantages. Secondly, some educators are afraid Auditory Affective Verbal
of new experiences; they are not able to master the AV
Learning
technology and thus lose control of the learning pro-
cess. Finally, some teachers are afraid that technologies ▶ Effects of Anxiety on Affective Learning
(especially new technologies) might completely replace
them and their instructional methods.
At the same time, the learners’ experience and
expertise, familiarity with computers, and affinity
toward technologies can also influence the final effec- Auditory-Visual Consistency/
tiveness of AV media and AV learning and should Consonance
always be taken into account.
▶ Audio-Video-Redundancy in Learning
Finally, the benefits and effectiveness of AV learning
depend on the interrelations between the features of
AV aids, the characteristics of the learners, and the
demands and desired outcome of the specific learning
task. Auditory-Visual Dissonance
Cross-References ▶ Audio-Video-Redundancy in Learning
▶ Computer-Based Learning
▶ Dual-Processing Models of Information Processing
▶ e-Learning
▶ Multimodal Learning Through Media Aural Learning
References Of or related to the ear or to hearing. Aural learning in
Allen, W. (1956). Audio-visual materials. Review of Educational music takes place through listening. Aural exercises in
Research, 26, 125–156. music are designed to train the ear.
 Ausubel, David P. (1918–2008) A 387

of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward A

Ausubel, David P. (1918–2008) discovery processes, whereas Ausubel focused on
meaningful verbal learning and the assimilation theory
NORBERT M. SEEL of information processing. He was primarily concerned
University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany with the acquisition and development of new concepts,
but he also focused on transfer of learning as well as on
motivational aspects of learning (see, for example,
Life Dates Ausubel and Robinson 1969).
Ausubel was born on October 25, 1918 and grew up Based on his subsumption theory of concept learn-
in Brooklyn, New York. He studied psychology at the ing, Ausubel derived some prescriptions on how to
University of Pennsylvania, where he graduated in design effective instruction. Sometimes this is called
1939. He then studied medicine at Middlesex Univer- “expository teaching.” Ausubel developed this teaching
sity, where he completed his degree in 1943. During his method immediately on the basis of the theory of
military service with the US Public Health Service, meaningful verbal learning. In accordance with the
Ausubel was assigned to the United Nations Relief assimilation theory of learning, Ausubel argues that it
and Rehabilitation Administration in Stuttgart, is economical to assimilate or subsume new informa-
Germany, where he worked with displaced persons. tion into already organized cognitive structures
Afterward he worked with the US Public Health Service because it facilitates the retainment of stable and
in Kentucky, the Buffalo Psychiatric Center, and Bronx anchored concepts rather than isolated facts and
Psychiatric Center. Following his military service he events. This so-called obliterative assimilation contains
earned a PhD in Developmental Psychology from two kinds of subsumption: a derivative subsumption
Columbia University in 1950. Then he served as (i.e., a deductive way of deriving subordinated concepts
professor for educational psychology at the University from superordinate concepts) and a correlative sub-
of Illinois, the University of Toronto, and in Europe at sumption, which includes learning of new concepts.
the University of Berne (Switzerland), as well as at the In order to counter obliterative assimilation effec-
Salesian University at Rome and the Federal Armed tively through derivative or correlative subsumption,
Forces University at Munich, Germany. Ausubel explored various consequences for organizing
In this time, Ausubel became one of the most influ- teaching and learning processes for school children
ential educational psychologists. Nevertheless, in 1973, (Ausubel and Robinson 1969). He summarized the
Ausubel retired from academic life and devoted himself consequences as follows: (a) The learning tasks consist
to his psychiatric practice. At the age of 75, Ausubel of verbal material which is organized by the teacher in
retired from professional life. He published 26 text- such a way that obliterative assimilation is stopped. (b)
books on developmental and educational psychology The learning activity of a student consists in identifying
as well as on specialized topics such as drug addiction, the meanings contained in the material to be learned
psychopathology, and ego development and more than and integrating them permanently into the cognitive
150 original articles in psychiatric and psychological structure. (c) The existing cognitive structure must
journals. In 1976, he received the Thorndike Award provide an adequate amount of anchors to enable the
from the American Psychological Association for Dis- pupil to integrate new concepts in the long term.
tinguished Psychological Contributions to Education. A method for ensuring that such anchors are available
He passed away in New York on July 9, 2008 (http:// is the technique of providing advanced organizers. The
keyserfuneralservice.com/obituary_view/53787). instructional method of expository teaching remains
unique today.
Theoretical Background
Ausubel was widely influenced by Jean Piaget and Contribution to the Field of Learning
contributed much to the development of cognitive Some educational psychologists believe that Ausubel’s
learning theory. Ausubel’s work has frequently been most notable contribution for classroom application
compared with Bruner’s work (Ausubel 2000). The was the introduction of advance organizers (Mayer
two held similar views about the hierarchical nature 1979). However, Ausubel’s contributions to the field
388 A Authenticity in Learning Activities and Settings

of learning are more far-reaching than this, because not activities refer to paid work (i.e., occupational) activi-
only did he contribute essentially to a new understand- ties; and authentic settings refers to the workplaces in
ing of meaningful verbal learning but also to a basic which those activities are enacted, and which act as sites
understanding of learning and forgetting, discussed in for engaging in and learning the knowledge required
terms of the assimilation theory of information for a specific occupational practice. However, students’
processing in accordance with Piaget’s epistemology. classroom experiences are also authentic in terms of the
Furthermore, Ausubel was also centrally concerned cultural practice of educating through school activities
with the various kinds of transfer of learning as well and school settings.
as with motivational conditions of school learning. The
textbook School Learning by Ausubel and Robinson Theoretical Background
(1969) is still considered to be one of the most Interest in authenticity in learning activities and set-
comprehensive and theoretically sound contributions tings has strengthened in the last few decades in
to the field of school learning (and beyond). response to at least three distinct concerns: conceptual
dissatisfaction with explanations of learning emphasiz-
Cross-References ing individuals’ cognitive processes alone; a need to
▶ Advance Organizers account for the situated contributions to cognition
▶ Assimilation Theory of Learning and human performance; and procedural concerns
▶ History of the Science of Learning about the lack of adaptability or transfer of knowledge
▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning learnt in educational institutions. Here, these concerns
are used to discuss the contributions of authenticity of
References learning experiences and settings.
Ausubel, D. P. (2000). The acquisition and retention of knowledge: Conceptually, accounts of the learning process need
A cognitive view. Boston, MA: Kluwer. to go beyond explanations provided by cognitive psy-
Ausubel, D. P., & Robinson, F. R. (1969). School learning. New York: chology, which tend to privilege individuals’ contribu-
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
tions to learning, in particular their current knowledge
Mayer, R. (1979). Twenty years of research on advance organizers:
Assimilation theory is still the best predictor of results. Instruc- and the capacity to manipulate knowledge, as under-
tional Science, 8, 133–167. pinning cognition (i.e., thinking, acting, and learning).
Instead, accounts of cognition needed to include the
contributions to thinking, acting, and learning pro-
vided by the physical and social settings with which
individuals engage. These contributions have long been
Authenticity in Learning identified within early psychological accounts and
Activities and Settings anthropology, and were particularly advanced in con-
siderations of learning through the ecological psychol-
STEPHEN BILLETT ogy and cognitive anthropology movements of the late
School of Education and Professional Studies, 1960s and 1970s. Seminal work advancing the salience
Griffith University, MT GRAVATT, QLD, Australia of the physical and social settings to cognition include
Barker’s (1978) account of ecological psychology,
Rogoff and Lave’s (1984) accounts of learning through
Synonyms everyday activities, and Lave and Wenger’s (1991)
Learning through practice; Situated learning account of learning through participation in situated
practice (i.e., communities of practice). The ecological
Definition psychologist Barker (1978) proposed that setting and
The concept of authenticity in learning activities and behaviors are linked and cannot be dismissed as being
settings refers to those activities that comprise the merely random (i.e., not probabilistic). He concluded
purposeful exercise of culturally derived practices in that physical and social environments consist of struc-
settings where they are ordinarily enacted. Most often, tured, highly organized phenomena that are not passive
and contemporarily almost always, the term authentic or without causal impacts. Instead, these environments
 Authenticity in Learning Activities and Settings A 389

are arenas for events, and causal relations exist between when mainstream views about learning had been dom- A
the environment and human cognition. Barker went as inated by behavioral and highly individualized cogni-
far to suggest that in terms of cognition these settings tive accounts, the acknowledgment of the contribution
are deterministic (i.e., they determine what individuals of physical and social settings to human cognition was
learn through their engagement with these socially seen as a means of addressing limitations identified in
derived environments). Rogoff and Lave (1984) cap- these accounts. In particular, these new accounts
tured the contributions to cognition of purposeful granted agency to contributions to learning from
everyday activities in social settings by similarly beyond the person. Cognitive properties came to be
suggesting that “activity structures cognition”: the regarded as being embedded in physical and social
socially derived activities in which we engage shape contexts, rather than just in isolated minds. Indeed,
how we think, act, and learn. Rather than just the the importance of inter-psychological processes (i.e.,
internal processes of the mind, as emphasized in those between the personal and social experience) came
cognitive accounts, the socially derived goal-directed to the fore here. As a result, the process of learning has
activities in which we participate shape our cognition. gone beyond a purely cognitive process to emphasize
So, there is a cognitive legacy – learning – arising from relations between the person thinking and acting (and
engaging in activities, and this legacy is socially learning) and the social and physical world in which
sourced. This is perhaps not surprising, because the they act and are located.
goals for the activities in which we participate and the The potency of the authenticity of experiences for
process we adopt to secure those goals are often social securing the knowledge or practices that are intended
in origin, and we are assisted in that process by socially to be learnt is threefold. Firstly, the physical and social
derived forms and practice. Hence, there are strong setting provides contributions that are not substitute or
social sources to the things we do, and for what pur- artificial; rather, they can represent genuine artifacts,
poses and how we do them, albeit at work, in school, or informed interlocutors and situationally pertinent
when parenting, for example. These social contribu- social forms. Through engaging with purposes,
tions are also important because much of the knowl- processes, and settings that are culturally authentic, it
edge we need to learn arises in the social world and we is possible for individuals to access and utilize situa-
need to access that knowledge to perform socially tionally pertinent knowledge, as long proposed by
derived roles such as when working, studying, or anthropology (e.g., Pelissier 1991). Secondly, engage-
parenting, to reuse those instances. Hence, when seek- ment in authentic settings and activities gives access to
ing to secure particular kinds of learning, access to understand the situational requirements for perfor-
activities that are authentic in terms of the knowledge mance, including the situated culture of practice and
required to be learnt become important. Moreover, practicing. Highly abstracted forms of knowledge (i.e.,
authentic activities and settings also support this learn- canonical occupational knowledge) or problem-
ing process through the provision of clues and cues that solving processes (i.e., general heuristics) are unlikely
assist in identifying both the goals for learning and the to be effective for responding to situationally derived
means by which activities progress and outcomes (i.e., problems, as the expertise literature demonstrates.
learning) are secured. Following from this and thirdly, the adaptability of
The standing of authentic activities and settings was the knowledge that has been learnt is premised upon
supported through Lave and Wenger’s (1991) account its discernible applicability to particular situations.
of communities of practice in which participation in That is, situational factors shape performance require-
socially situated practice supports collaborative learn- ments, which cannot be understood or responded to
ing. More than mere participation in a social practice, effectively without knowing about these requirements.
learners’ capacities and interests to engage effectively However, individuals need to understand those
(i.e., to observe, listen, approximate observed tasks, requirements through access to them. As enacted activ-
and reflect upon those approximations) and the con- ities and sites of enactment, authentic activities and
tributions and guidance of more expert partners is settings furnish particular and salient contributions to
central to maximizing learning through engagement human cognition. In different ways, these contribu-
in authentic activities and settings. Following eras tions to learning suggest that, rather than individual
390 A Authenticity in Learning Activities and Settings

factors alone (i.e., capacity to manipulate knowledge), this consideration of authentic settings and experiences
setting, activities, and artifacts also play a key role, is most noticeable in practices within higher education
particularly in tasks that require higher-order that aim to integrate students’ experiences across both
knowledge. practice and educational settings.
Such advances have been particularly buoyed by
concerns that what is learnt in educational institutions Important Scientific Research and
is limited in its application in “real world” settings Open Questions
beyond those institutions. As links between national A range of scientific questions arise from this sustained
economic and social well-being and educational out- interest in authentic activities and interactions.
comes have heightened, and accountability for national Firstly, little is understood about what kinds of learning
investment in education has increased, so have con- outcomes are realized through authentic activities and
cerns about the efficacy of learning in and through settings. The usual assumption is that procedural out-
educational institutions. Concerns about the lack of comes (i.e., how to do things) are most likely realized,
applicability of domain-general knowledge (e.g., although this is unhelpful because conceptual and
maths) and the lack of workplace-ready occupationally dispositional outcomes have been identified as well as
specific outcomes of educational programs in voca- procedural outcomes (Billett 2003). Secondly, there is
tional and higher education, both of which are increas- a range of limitations as well as contributions from
ingly focusing on occupationally specific learning learning through authentic practice-based experiences.
outcomes, have and continue to sustain broader inter- Hence, goals for and processes of effectively integrating
est in the provision of authentic experiences and set- these experiences with others (e.g., those in educational
tings. Specifically, the limited applicability of school- institutions) to both augment and redress the limita-
learnt knowledge has motivated much of the institu- tions need to be more clearly understood. It follows
tional (i.e., government and industry) interest in that there are important procedural questions about
authentic experiences and activities. In essence, schools the extent and use of pedagogic strategies in socially
and schooling experiences are seen as hybrid (i.e., inau- authentic activities and settings. There is a tradition of
thentic) spaces whose physical and social contexts are providing augmenting socially authentic experiences in
remote from the circumstances in which the knowledge order to secure the kinds of knowledge that need to be
students learn would need to be applied outside school- learnt (i.e., the use of shells and stones to assist Micro-
ing. To address these concerns, schooling experiences nesian fishermen learn the star patterns by which they
(i.e., activities and interactions) are being shaped to navigate [Pelissier 1991]), and the growing use of sim-
either find or create authentic instances of the targeted ulators that are physically and socially inauthentic, but
cultural practices (e.g., occupations in workplaces). are experienced as authentic, and provide experiences
Moreover, the interest in authenticity of learning expe- beyond what can reasonably be advanced through
riences and settings has promoted the need for peda- authentically flying a plane, for instance. Consequently,
gogies and curriculum models that reflect the use of greater scientific effort is required to understand the
practice-based activities and the contributions of set- particular contributions to knowledge arising through
tings in which the practice occurs. For instance, Lave’s engagement in authentic activities and settings; how
(1990) concept of a learning curriculum and Rogoff ’s these contributions can be maximized through appro-
(1995) concept of guided participation as a pedagogical priate models of pedagogy and curriculum; and how
practice are examples of accounts that acknowledge the these contributions can be most effectively integrated
potential of learning through authentic settings and with learners’ experiences in educational programs and
activities need to be advanced. An important outcome settings. The assumption is that a combination of these
of the interest in situationally authentic experiences experiences is required, but what that combination
within higher and vocational education is that these comprises and how best it might be realized remains
experiences are now being seen more as legitimate and to be more fully understood.
worthwhile settings for learning in their own terms and Another key question is how authenticity can be
not just places to practice and refine what has been understood as a personal practice. That is, in what ways
learnt in educational settings. In contemporary terms, is experience deemed authentic to the learner? At one
 Autobiographical Memory A 391

level, this concern has much to do with the significance A

of what is experienced to the individual and the Authoring Tools
engagement of their interest, intentionality, etc., that ▶ E-Learning Authoring Tools
is, is the authenticity of experiences given to, or
constructed by, individuals.

Cross-References
▶ Guided Learning
Autism Spectrum Disorder
▶ Workplace Learning A pervasive developmental disorder characterized by
deficits in three distinct domains: communication,
References social interaction, and repetitive and restricted
Barker, R. G. (1978). Habitats, environments and human behaviour. behavior.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Billett, S. (2003). Sociogeneses, activity and ontogeny. Culture and
Psychology, 9(2), 133–169.
Lave, J. (1990). The culture of acquisition and the practice of under-
standing. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), Autistic Psychopathy
Cultural psychology (pp. 259–286). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ▶ Diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning – legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pelissier, C. (1991). The anthropology of teaching and learning.
Annual Review of Anthropology, 20, 75–95.
Rogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Autistic Thinking
Participatory appropriation, guided participation, apprentice-
ship. In J. W. Wertsch, A. Alvarez, & P. del Rio (Eds.), Sociocul- ▶ Magical Thinking and Learning
tural studies of mind (pp. 139–164). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (Eds.). (1984). Everyday cognition: Its develop-
ment in social context. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Autoassociative Memory
▶ Associative Memory and Learning
Authenticity in Music
In presentation of multicultural music in music learning
environments: the accuracy of the link between a music
and its representative culture; the accuracy of presen-
Autobiographical Memory
tation of a music according to its representative Memory for one’s own personal events or personal
cultural tradition. history. In cognitive psychology, autobiographical
memory is considered as a memory system that con-
sists of episodes of an individual’s life (Williams et al.
2008). It is conceived as a combination of episodic
Authoring Tool memory (i.e., personal experiences at particular time
and place) and semantic memory (i.e., the fact knowl-
This is a software package which is to build Courseware edge about the world).
like programming language, but easier. It also decreases
the build time. It is famous for Toolbooks, Lectora, References
Authorware, and Director. It can be an authoring tool Williams, H. L., Conway, M. A., & Cohen, G. (2008). Autobiograph-
such as Flash and Dreamweaver which supports ical memory. In G. Cohen & M. A. Conway (Eds.), Memory in the
authoring on the web. real world (3rd ed., pp. 21–90). Hove: Psychology Press.
392 A Automated Learning Assessment and Feedback

and unambiguous, such as programming, algebra, or

Automated Learning geometry, a broad range of technologies from such
Assessment and Feedback simple stuff as mark-sensing optical readers can be
used all the way to more complex technologies of
JOSEPH PSOTKA model tracing tutors. Combined with large databases
Basic Research Unit, US ARMY Research Institute for of reusable questions, automated assessment can be
the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Arlington, VA, USA very effective. Model tracing tutors based on cognitive
models such as adaptive control of thought (ACT) in
unambiguous domains are based very effectively on
Synonyms detailed, fine-grained assessment and can cover very
Automated testing; Student modeling high proportions of all student errors. In order to do
this, they monitor student actions at a keystroke level
Definition and detect errors with a very fine grain of detail. The
Automated learning assessment measures the forma- downside of this is that students never are allowed to
tive success and effectiveness of teaching by testing progress along their error paths to discover the conse-
students’ skills, opinions, values, and knowledge. Test- quences of their errors. However, on ambiguous
ing is often done with simple classroom quizzes and domains such as history or English composition or
essay questions or objective forced choice instruments, criticism, this approach tests only factual and superfi-
but these are much weaker and less informative than cial aspects of instruction and fails to inspire creative
assessments based on model tracing, misconception thinking and imagination. For these domains, the fun-
analysis, knowledge organization, or any of a broad damental problems of semantics and language have
range of statistical and neural network techniques that proven to be much more difficult stumbling blocks,
recent research is creating. but even here some real progress is being made.
Situated tutors provide scenarios that act as real
Theoretical Background problem solving situations (situated judgment tests)
Effective assessment lies at the heart of effective teach- and so integrate assessment into the instruction.
ing and learning, but it is all too often superficial and Assessment is not just a set of tests at the end of the
inadequate because, as the development of intelligent scenario, but is instead embedded in the scenario or
tutoring systems has clearly demonstrated, assessing simulation by monitoring student actions and interac-
students’ state of knowledge so that feedback and tions. These tutors are required to record, track, and
instruction can conform to the zone of proximal devel- interpret student actions, but unlike model tracing
opment is fraught with enormous difficulties. All too tutors, assessment is at a coarser grain of detail and
often teachers simply do not have the time or resources deals with higher order plans, explanations, and pre-
to individualize tests or go beyond the simple assess- dictions. Situated tutors can provide the scenarios
ment of facts. Furthermore, the range of misconcep- through high-fidelity simulations such as virtual reality
tions and errors students can make is so broad that it or low-fidelity simulations such as video and pictures
lies outside the range of knowledge and skills teachers or even short paragraphs of text. Because of the broad
and experts may possess. Automating assessment character of the problem sets in these ill-defined sce-
appears to be the only way that progress in this area narios, where no absolute measure of correct or incor-
can reasonably be made. Not only does automation rect answers exists, unique assessment tools have had to
reduce the time and resources required by teachers, it be developed, including survey – like instruments of
offers the benefits of repeatable, immediate individual- Likert rating scales and consensus-based assessments in
ized feedback to students and to teachers. which the standard of measurement is either the con-
sensus of experts or the consensus of the learning
Important Scientific Research and students themselves. Natural language processing and
Open Questions statistical analysis of written responses using tools like
In certain areas, automated assessment is well latent semantic analysis also can provide a kind of
established and practical. In domains that are logical consensus-based assessment.
 Automatic Information Processing A 393

The consensus of peers can also be used in social A

interaction to provide student feedback and monitor- Automatic Encoding
ing as an effective assessment tool. Social interaction ▶ Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning
tutors can provide tools that structure collaboration
and make that structure visible in graphs and networks,
either face to face in classrooms or distributed across
the Internet. More frequently, peers and tutors are
represented as technological agents that guide and Automatic Information
structure as well as monitor inquiry, with the capability Processing
of presenting visual graphs and multimedia. These
agents are often based on machine learning and natural ÅSA HAMMAR
language technologies such as Bayes classifiers that Department of Biological and Medical Psychology,
analyze students’ preferences and knowledge states. Clinical Neuropsychology, University of Bergen,
Within the domain of physics, mixed initiative dialogs Bergen, Norway
have proven successful in guiding and interpreting
student problem solving. In these systems, formal lan-
guages are used to represent knowledge in structured Synonyms
ontologies. Students’ written responses are analyzed for Involuntary information processing
strengths, errors, and misconceptions. Statistical and
knowledge-based natural language tutors are growing Definition
in power by leaps and bounds and provide the best Automatic information processing refers to a mental
hope of empowering teachers and students with con- cognitive process with the following characteristics: it is
tinuous assessment and feedback in the future. fast, parallel, efficient, requires little cognitive effort,
and does not require active control or attention by
Cross-References the subject. This type of processing is the result of
▶ Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) repetitive training on the same task. Once learned, an
▶ Preconceptions and Learning automatic response is difficult to suppress, modify, or
ignore. Automatic information processing is used for
References skilled tasks and is considered to be the opposite pro-
Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995). cess to controlled information processing.
Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned. The Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 4(2), 167–207. Theoretical Background
Landauer, T. K., & Psotka, J. (2000). Simulating text understanding for
During the 1950s the field of cognitive psychology
educational applications with Latent Semantic Analysis: Intro-
duction to LSA. Interactive Learning Environments, 8(2), 73–86. focused on the capacity limits of human information
Shute, V., & Psotka, J. (1995). Intelligent tutoring systems: Past, processing, such as how the brain treats incoming
present, and future. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research information (stimuli). In 1958, the British psychologist
on educational communications and technology (pp. 570–600). Broadbent introduced a significant model of informa-
New York: Scholastic.
tion processing and was one of the first to draw
VanLehn, R., Lynch, C., Schulze, K., Shapiro, J., Shelby, R., & Taylor,
L. (2005). The Andes physics tutor: Lessons learned. Interna-
a distinction between automatic and controlled pro-
tional Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 15(3), 201– cesses. Automatic processing was later defined by
226. Posner and Snyder in 1975 to be an unconscious and
Woolf, B. P. (2009). Building intelligent interactive tutors. New York: unintentional process, whereas controlled processing
Elsevier. requires conscious intention. This view was redefined
by Schneider and Shiffrin in 1977 and has since been
supported by convincing evidence, and thereby kept its
Automated Testing relevance during the decades. In the “dual-process”
information processing model of Schneider and
▶ Automated Learning Assessment and Feedback Shiffrin, a distinction between “automatic detection”
394 A Automatic Learning

and “controlled search” emphasizes two fundamentally controlled information processing, whereas automatic
different human information processing operations. information processing has been proved more difficult
According to this view automatic processing is parallel, to localize.
fast, and a result of repeated training on a task, whereas
controlled information processing is slow, serial, lim- Cross-References
ited, and effortful. When learning a new skill, such as ▶ Attention and Implicit Learning
learning to walk, controlled processing is required and ▶ Automaticity in Memory
becomes more automatically processed as the skill is ▶ Bottom-Up- and Top-Down Learning
increasingly mastered. For example, learning how to ▶ Controlled Information Processing
read is initially effortful and requires extensive cogni- ▶ Dual-Process Models of Information Processing
tive capacity. Gradually, reading training will change
the information processing to a more automatic pro- References
cess. A novice reader needs more time and has more Birnbom, S. (2003). The automatic and controlled information-
errors compared to a skilled reader. Another example is processing dissociation: Is it still relevant? Neuropsychological
when first learning how to drive a car in order to Review, 13, 19–31.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York:
become an experienced driver, as information
Pergamon.
processing transfers from operations that require con- Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control.
trolled processing to more automatic operations. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The
Loyola symposium (pp. 55–85). Hillsdale, IN: Erlbaum.
Important Scientific Research and Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled ND automatic
human information processing: Detection search and attention.
Open Questions Psychological Reviews, 84, 1–66.
Numerous behavioral studies have shown that repeti-
tive training on the same task increases the speed of
performance and improves response accuracy, thus
changing from controlled to automatic information
processing. Various experimental paradigms have Automatic Learning
been developed in order to examine the distinction ▶ Scaffolding Discovery Learning Spaces
between automatic and controlled information
processing. The dependent variables Reaction Time/
Response Time (RT) and Accuracy (AC) are often
used as indicators of processes taking place, when solv-
ing a task with increasing demands on cognitive infor-
Automatic Process
mation processing. These studies have been examining ▶ Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning
information processing within different cognitive
domains, such as memory, attention, and executive
functioning. Several neuropsychological studies have
investigated automatic and controlled information
processing in various patient groups, such as ADHD,
Automatic Processing
learning disorders, patients with frontal lobe brain ▶ Automaticity in Memory
damage, Alzheimer´ disease, depression, etc. In cogni-
tive neuroscience, different techniques such as ERP
(event-related potentials), fMRI (functional magnetic
resonance imaging), and PET (positron emission Automaticity
tomography), have aimed to provide evidence for the
brain localization of automatic and controlled infor- Capacity to draw upon highly proceduralized knowl-
mation processing. So far, the frontal lobes have been edge to engage in uncontrolled information processing,
identified as the region of brain that are related to e.g., in performing highly polished skill.
 Automaticity in Memory A 395

Theoretical Background A
Automaticity in Memory Most automaticity theories hold that automatic pro-
cesses require no attention and that automaticity
JAMES B. WORTHEN1, R. REED HUNT2 develops from repeated performance or practice as
1
College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences, a result of gradual withdrawal of attention from the
Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, specified task. This type of automaticity theory is inex-
LA, USA tricably linked to capacity theories of attention. Capac-
2
Department of Psychology, University of Texas San ity theories suggest that we have a limited amount of
Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA attentional resources that must be allocated to differing
tasks that compete for such resources. Tasks that
require an abundance of attention leave relatively few
Synonyms resources available for competing tasks. Tasks that
Automatic processing; Effortless processing; require no attention for completion are typically con-
Uncontrolled processing sidered automatic.
Although attention-driven theories of automaticity
Definition are most common, alternative theories do exist. For
Most definitions of automatic processing define example, Logan (1988) suggests that automatic pro-
automaticity in terms of a set of criteria believed cesses are governed exclusively by the memory system.
to be indicative of processes that do not require Specifically, Logan suggests that automaticity is direct
effort and that are not under conscious control. retrieval of target information from memory without
Posner and Snyder (1975) set the standard for such intermediary computational steps. Mainly addressing
definitions by describing an automatic process as one automaticity that develops through performance and/
which (1) occurs without intention, (2) is concealed or practice, Logan’s theory proposes that effortful tasks
from consciousness, and (3) does not interfere are typically completed using general algorithms. Over
with and proceeds in parallel to other ongoing mental time, specific solutions to specific problems are learned
activity. Hasher and Zacks (1984) provided further and stored in memory. At that point, a response to
criteria by adding that automatic processes do not a problem for which a solution has been stored can be
benefit from training, are invariant across age and generated either by using an algorithm or by retrieving
individual difference, and are not affected by state, a solution stored in memory. Eventually, use of an
arousal, or situational factors. In contrast, controlled algorithm for a specific problem is abandoned and
or effortful processes require attentional capacity retrieval of a specific solution from memory becomes
such that subsequent performance is influenced by the dominant response to the problem. The develop-
intention and/or strategy. The consensus now is that ment of automaticity is marked by transition from
the distinction between automatic and effortful algorithm-based responses to memory-based responses
processes is not clearly bounded, but that cognitive such that the process is considered automatic when
processes lie on an automatic/effortful continuum. responses become exclusively memory based.
Additionally, some cognitive processes, such as Although Logan’s theory provides a reasonable
encoding of frequency information, are believed to explanation for automaticity developed through prac-
be inherently more automatic than effortful, while tice, it does not address the issue of inherently auto-
others are thought to become increasingly automa- matic processes. Hasher and Zacks’ (1984) discussion
tized through repeated performance and practice. of automaticity focused on innate automatic processes
With this distinction in mind, it should be noted such as the encoding of attributes of events such as
that whereas Posner and Snyder’s criteria were offered frequency, spatial location, and temporal order. Impor-
in an attempt to explain automaticity developed tantly, the authors suggest that these attributes are
through practice, Hasher and Zacks’ criteria were automatically encoded for attended events. That is, no
offered with respect to processes thought to be additional attentional resources are required to encode
innately automatic. frequency, spatial location, and temporal order of an
396 A Automaticity in Memory

event after the event initially receives attention. Specif- both spatial location and temporal order are influenced
ically addressing automatic encoding of frequency by intention, strategy, cognitive load, individual differ-
information, Hasher and Zacks suggest that such infor- ences, and age (see Naveh-Benjamin 1990, for an
mation is represented in memory in accordance with example).
a multiple-trace view of representation. That is, it is Craik et al. (1996) reported an extensive study of
believed that each repetition of an event is stored as an attentional demands on memory. In a series of four
independent memory trace. experiments, attention was divided at either study or
For general memory theory, the topic of automa- test. Dividing attention at study reduced memory
ticity has been of interest due, in part, to its supposed substantially with little cost to the secondary task
relationship with attention. Most theories of memory used to divide attention. Dividing attention at test
assume that attentional capacity influences memory. produced a smaller memory deficit but a larger dis-
Theories vary in their emphasis on automatic pro- ruption of the secondary task. Based on the trade-off
cesses, and all theories that adopt automatic processing between memory and secondary-task performance,
do so as an interdependent relation with controlled Craik et al. concluded that both encoding and retrieval
processes (dual-process theories and parallel distrib- processes require capacity. The data do imply that
uted processing theories). encoding requires more controlled processing than
retrieval, which in the presence of proper cues seems
Important Scientific Research to be obligatory. Nonetheless, the disruption of the
and Open Questions secondary task when attention is divided at retrieval
Frequency encoding has been the most extensively implicates controlled contributions to the output
studied topic related to inherent automaticity and process.
memory. Early empirical research suggested that accu- In sum, current research in the area of automaticity
rate memory for frequency information could be and memory provides little evidence to suggest that
obtained regardless of intention to process, practice, memory for any type of information is solely the result
feedback, individual differences, and age (Hasher and of innately automatic processes. Thus, defining auto-
Zacks 1984). However, subsequent research has dem- matic processes in terms of a set of necessary criteria
onstrated that memory for frequency is affected by does not appear tenable. On the contrary, the existing
levels of processing, intention, and encoding strategy. research is in keeping with the notion that cognitive
An example of the influence of levels of processing on processes can be described relative to an automatic/
memory for frequency is provided by Maki and Ostby effortful continuum and that memory is influenced
(1987, Experiment 1). These authors presented partic- by processes that lie on both ends of that continuum.
ipants with a list of words of varying frequency, which As such, promising future research will focus on deter-
were to be processed either structurally (by determin- mining how automatic and controlled processes work
ing word length) or semantically (by rating ease of in concert to create accurate memory.
imagery). The results indicated that memory for fre-
quency was more accurate after semantic than struc- Cross-References
tural processing. Similarly, research has demonstrated ▶ Attention, Memory, and Mediation
that memory for frequency of information that ▶ Automatic Information Processing
requires additional resources simply for comprehen- ▶ Controlled Information Processing
sion (e.g., bizarre or novel stimuli) is less accurate
than memory for frequency of easy-to-comprehend References
information. Overall, the current consensus is that Craik, F. I. M., Govoni, R., Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Anderson, N. D.
memory for frequency is not solely the result of auto- (1996). The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval
matic processes. processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 125, 159–180.
Research provides even less support for the notion
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. (1984). Automatic processing of fundamental
that spatial location and temporal order information information. The American Psychologist, 12, 1372–1388.
are encoded automatically. The bulk of research on Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization.
these topics suggests that the accuracy of memory for Psychological Review, 95, 492–527.
 Autonomous Learning and Effective Engagement A 397

Maki, R. H., & Ostby, R. S. (1987). Effects of level of processing and

rehearsal on frequency judgments. Journal of Experimental Psy- Autonomous Learning and A
chology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 151–163.
Naveh-Benjamin, M. (1990). Coding of temporal information: An
Effective Engagement
automatic process? Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning,
Memory, and Cognition, 16, 117–126. MARGARET MACDOUGALL
Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive Centre for Population Health Sciences, University
control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: of Edinburgh Medical School, Teviot Place,
The Loyola symposium (pp. 55–85). Hillsdale, IN: Erlabaum. Edinburgh, UK

Synonyms
Automatism Effective learning; Self-regulated learning
▶ Rote Memorization
Definition
The educational literature is replete with alternative
interpretations of what is meant by autonomous learn-
Automatization ing. More extreme interpretations of this notion, which
take autonomous learning to mean independent learn-
▶ Routinization of Learning ing, are based on the idea of the individual being
resistant to external influence at all stages of their
learning. Consequently, it is important to stress that
while autonomous learning is self-managed and self-
Autonoesis monitored, learning, sometimes referred to collectively
as self-regulated learning, (Entwistle and McCune
A mode of consciousness that embodies an individual’s
2004) such learning may also be informed through
awareness of continuity over time, allowing for
interaction with peers or by reflection on the views of
a mental exploration of the trajectory of personal
the educator. Here, the learner uses other persons’
experiences in the remote or recent past.
views to sharpen their own views without compromis-
ing their personal contribution to knowledge construc-
tion with its nuances and insights, so that transmission
is not their principal route to knowing. They also
Autonomous Agent accept their individual accountability rather than that
Architectures of the educator for setting of goals, identification and
use of resources in achieving these goals and for the
Autonomous agent architectures are design methodol-
perspectives they develop within a knowledge domain.
ogies, i.e., collections of knowledge and strategies that
Thus, autonomous learning may also involve personal-
are applied to create situated intelligence. The design
ized learning. It is not, however, synonymous with
knowledge expressed in agent architectures contains
student-centered learning, as the latter may tolerate
knowledge derived by reasoning and knowledge
higher degrees of instructor-directed learning, even
derived by experience. The design and implementation
where an emphasis is placed on student participation.
of autonomous agents includes classical, reactive and
The attribute of learner autonomy has also come to be
multiagent planning, and communication among
recognized as one to be acquired through a journey of
autonomous agents.
self-discovery. This is a “cultural journey” involving
initial “disorientation” and “emotional turmoil” while
learners’ early expectations on “learning, knowledge
Autonomous Learning and authority” conflict with their experiences and
they progress to the stage of being comfortable with
▶ Independent Learning uncertainty (Taylor 1986; Baxter Magolda 2001).
398 A Autonomous Learning and Effective Engagement

Effective engagement is also a term which is open through production of the Self-Directed Learning
to interpretation. A more recent interpretation, Readiness Scale (SDLRS). The value of such prepara-
influenced by Baxter Magolda’s work on self-author- tory work, aimed at recognizing the individuality of the
ship, is that of a quality of participation in the learning learner, is clear when one considers the evidence in the
experience which is not only supportive of knowledge literature that considerable variability in readiness for
retention, but also, transformative. Precisely, the learner self-directed learning may occur within any given
is empowered to reconstruct what they already knew or cohort based on psychosocial and cultural factors. For
believed into a system of beliefs, conceptualizations, example, British students from overseas have in some
values, and forms of reasoning which are symptomatic studies shown a tendency to assume that ownership of
of a more mature state of cognitive development academic knowledge lies mainly with the host country.
(MacDougall 2008). In turn, they have perceived their responsibility as that
This interpretation takes a deep approach to learn- of becoming acquainted with British ways of thinking
ing as a necessary but not a sufficient condition for concerning their fields of study. Consequently, they
effective engagement. Different characterizations have been less inclined to question the objectivity of
contrasting deep and surface learning exist, including beliefs and practises within their host institution and
a greater degree of semantic or cognitive analysis versus to recognize their own capacity for ownership or
repetition of analyses carried out, intention to understand construction of knowledge. Moreover, in some East
versus intention to reproduce and meaning directed ver- Asian countries, conformity to popular beliefs and
sus reproducing directed (Entwistle and McCune 2004). practise is seen as a cultural norm, and thus the idea
In turn, Biggs’s notion of internalizing, reflected by an of autonomous learning requires some explaining.
intrinsic interest in content, the intention to under- Such observations can help inform the design of
stand and openness to fresh perspectives on existing personalized E-Learning resources for entrants to
knowledge has at least become a part of what is recog- undergraduate courses in higher education.
nized as integral to deep learning. The concept of readiness for self-directed learning
In applying these definitions to course design, it is itself has a firm grounding in learning theory literature,
critical to appreciate that the presentation of material both through the multifarious studies through which
and the approach of the educator can influence learner the SDLRS has been validated and through Grow’s
traits and that these traits may be evolutionary rather Stages of Self-Directed Learning Model. The latter
than static. model (Fig. 1) highlights the various contexts in

Theoretical Background
Learning style Teaching style
Clearly, according to the above definitions, autonomous
learning and effective engagement are inextricably Self-directed Consultant,
linked. Central to this link is the sense of authenticity delegator
that arises when learners acquire some degree of own-
Involved
ership of learning through autonomous learning. The Facilitator
need for such authenticity to facilitate transformative
learning has been recognized. However, the role of the Interested Motivator, guide
educator in cultivating a student’s self-efficacy as an
autonomous learner at an early stage is also clear. As
Baxter Magolda observes (Baxter Magolda 2001), use Dependent Authority, coach
of the learner’s current knowledge and experience is
perceived as a “sign of respect” and simultaneously Student: Increasing stages Educator: Decreasing levels
furnishes the learner with an awareness of their of self-directed learning of control of learning
capacity to enhance their own learning.
The importance of assessing preparedness of Autonomous Learning and Effective Engagement.
students for autonomous learning in advance of their Fig. 1 Intended matching of learning and teaching styles
learning experiences has been partially recognized in Grow’s stages of self-directed learning model
 Autonomous Learning and Effective Engagement A 399

which mismatch can arise between teaching style in recognized two learning styles, cognitive and experien- A
terms of control of learning and student preparedness tial, as representative of meaningless and significant
for self-directed learning. learning, respectively. Cognitive learning is typified by
Such mismatch can occur when ellipses on the left memorizing vocabulary and recommended facts purely
and right of the figure are aligned in a different manner for reproduction. Experiential learning, by contrast, is
to that shown. Take, for example, the case of teaching affective and far more pervasive. In this case, learning
statistics to students enrolled in profession-orientated involves the whole person, thus influencing their
courses. Here, the educator may be employed to behaviour and attitudes and possibly their personality.
assume the role of facilitator when students are still at The latter form of learning might occur, for example,
the dependent stage due to their lack of preparedness when participating in clinical research to gather evi-
specifically in statistical learning. dence before reaching an optimal decision for patient
According to Grow’s model, it is the responsibility care. These learning styles are likely to have provided
of the educator to adapt their teaching style in such some essential groundwork for conceptualizations of
a way that the student’s ability to manage their own deep and surface learning. However, Rogers’s appreci-
learning increases. His underlying philosophy of edu- ation of the importance of “evaluational interaction
cation includes the doctrine that “[t]he goal of the with others” (Rogers 1967) and an environment of
educational process is to produce self-directed, lifelong empathy and unconditional positive regard for feelings,
learners.” This doctrine itself rests on the seemingly views, and ideas in allowing learners to reach their full
paradoxical assumption that “teachers can be vigor- potential and develop creativity and confidence
ously influential while empowering students toward concerning their own choices has also contributed
greater autonomy.” greatly to the democratic nature of autonomous learn-
In assessing potential for effective engagement, the ing. Rogers’s work has also informed educators of the
wide range of inventories available for diagnosing importance of context-driven learning, including case-
learning styles or approaches can be informative based inquiry learning, in facilitating effective engage-
(Entwistle and McCune 2004). In assessing learner ment. This type of learning involves integrating the
predisposition to disengagement, the relevance of voli- learning of new knowledge with scenarios which the
tion, defined as “students’ ability to maintain the effort learner is likely to consider important to living. Thus,
needed to achieve their goals, even in the face of adver- for example, in Medicine, students may learn to choose
sity” has been recognized. This construct may be appropriate methods for estimating patient risk within
viewed as a component of self-efficacy. However, the context of a case scenario where it is imperative that
more recently, it has also been represented more spe- the appropriate treatment pathway is selected for the
cifically within the context of assessing effort regulation, patient.
thus illustrating further the strong connection which Phenomenographic research has formed the basis
exists between autonomous learning and effective for, not only the deep-surface dichotomy but also, a
engagement. profusion of related conceptualizations for
Educators with an interest in promoting effective representing learning styles and approaches. However,
engagement through deep learning ought to be aware in recent years, the notion of threshold concept has also
that there is a wealth of recent literature available pro- become prominent in learning theory as a basis for
viding innovative illustrations of constructive measures evaluating teaching contexts. A threshold concept has
to ensure that short-answer question styles involve the been described “as akin to a portal, opening up a new
assessment of higher orders of learning. Also, they and previously inaccessible way of thinking about
should appreciate the relevance of the psychologist something. It represents a transformed way of under-
Carl Rogers’s earlier work on experiential learning as standing, or interpreting, or viewing something with-
informed by his earlier experience as a psychotherapist. out which the learner cannot progress . . .” (Meyer and
Experiential learning involves constructing authentic Land 2003). Thus, the identification of threshold con-
meaning based on one’s personal encounter with cepts ought to be highly relevant to any program aimed
a relevant event which necessitates re-evaluation of at promoting the transformative element of effective
personal knowledge and belief systems. Rogers engagement.
400 A Autonomous Learning and Effective Engagement

In the current age, distance learning and the use of that degrees of individual autonomy are not uniform
Web 2.0 technology to allow students to manage their across disciplines.
use of learning resources are becoming increasingly pop- Moreover, to optimize the use of such a scale in
ular. Within such contexts, particularly in higher educa- improving student learning, more work needs to be
tion, instructors are typically limited in terms of both done to ensure that it is itemized to capture the specific
contact hours and their available support network of co- types of task to be performed and that it is adapted
facilitators. Such developments point to the need to accordingly as these tasks change. In making such dis-
foster learner autonomy and effective engagement, not tinctions, however, it is important that the level of
only as a basis for enhancing the quality of student specificity is not so high as to preclude its utility
learning but also, in developing a realizable working beyond the level of an individual institution.
model for the educator in terms of student expectations. The relatively recent work on threshold concepts
opens the way for further case studies on subject-specific
Important Scientific Research and and context-specific threshold concepts. For example, in
Open Questions the case of learning statistics, it may be the case that
Given the very close link between the notions of auton- distinctions need to be made between threshold con-
omous learning and effective engagement, it is unsur- cepts encountered by specialists and non-specialists.
prising that the SDLRS should already contain
questions which measure self-efficacy in terms of self- Cross-References
concept as an effective learner. Nevertheless, since self- ▶ Approaches to Learning and Studying
efficacy in this sense is so fundamental to effective ▶ Case-Based Inquiry Learning
engagement, it is important to explore how it may be ▶ Constructivist Learning
measured more fully in preparing students for their ▶ Cultural Influences on Personalized E-Learning
learning tasks. Such work can be informed by consid- Systems
eration of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GES) of ▶ Deep Approaches to Learning in Higher Education
Schwarzer and Jerusalem. The GES is the most com- ▶ Experiential (Significant Learning)
monly accepted measurement of self-efficacy and like ▶ Phenomenography
the SDLRS, its construct validity has withstood scru- ▶ Rogers, Carl R. (1902–1987)
tiny from a number of sources. Within the SDLRS, ▶ Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning
important items from the GES have been omitted, ▶ Statistical Learning
particularly those relating to the capacity to handle
unforeseen difficulties, solve difficult problems, and References
remain focused on personal goals. As the GES Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2001). Making their own way: Narratives for
comprises only ten items, with a total average response transforming higher education to promote self-development. Ster-
ling, VA: Stylus.
time of about 4 min, it could conveniently be merged
Entwistle, N., & McCune, V. (2004). The conceptual bases of study
with the SDLRS inventory. However, style of the avail- strategy inventories. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 325–345.
able response categories for this add-on would need to MacDougall, M. (2008). Ten tips for promoting autonomous learn-
be highlighted for the benefit of the respondent and ing and effective engagement in the teaching of statistics to
would preclude the possibility of conveniently combin- undergraduate medical students involved in short-term research
projects. Journal of Applied Quantitative Methods, 3(3), 223–240.
ing scores from the SDLRS and GES in any meaningful
Meyer, J. H. F., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and trouble-
sense. some knowledge: linkages to ways of thinking and practice
Low self-efficacy scores can assist in identifying the within the disciplines. In C. Rust (Ed.), Improving student learn-
need to promote positive behavioral changes in indi- ing: Improving student learning, theory and practice - 10 years on
viduals who are particularly vulnerable to discourage- (pp. 412–424). Oxford: OCSLD.
ment and hence disengagement. The call for a revised Rogers, C. R. (1967). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of
psychotherapy. London: Constable.
version of the GES in assessing readiness of students for
Taylor, M. (1986). Learning for self-direction in the classroom:
self-directed learning in subjects which they encounter The pattern of a transition process. Studies in Higher Education,
as nonspecialist learners is implicit from the finding 11(1), 55–72.
 Aversive Learning in Drosophila melanogaster A 401

Autonomous Mental Aversive Learning in Drosophila A

Development melanogaster
▶ Developmental Robotics ERIC LE BOURG
Research Center on Animal Cognition, University of
Toulouse, Toulouse, Cedex 9, France

Autonomy Synonyms
Aversive conditioning; Conditioned avoidance
▶ Self-Determination and Learning
Definition
Flies normally avoid an aversive stimulus (e.g., electric
shock) and this reflex-behavioral response can be
conditioned to a neutral stimulus (e.g., an odor): if
the odor is paired with an electric shock, this odor by
Autopoiesis itself will induce the avoidance response. Then, the fly
has associated the odor and the electric shock, and the
A term coined by Humberto Maturana (1980) to
odor is now predictive of the punishment (Tully and
explain the process of living/cognizing. It comes from
Quinn 1985). In this example, the odor is neutral to the
the Greek auto meaning self and poiesis meaning crea-
fly before the learning session, but flies may also learn,
tion or production. The autopoietic (living) system is an
for instance, to avoid a lighted area to which they are
autonomous, self-organizing system. It is operationally
usually attracted if light is associated with a bitter
closed containing within it all the elements necessary
gustatory stimulus (Le Bourg and Buecher 2002).
for its own re/production and the maintenance of its
organization, but it is open to the flow of matter and
energy and hence coupled to its environment. Theoretical Background
For many decades, some – if not many – neuroscientists
considered that insects were unable to learn. Insects
References were (and are sometimes still) viewed as automata
Maturana, H. R. (1980). Autopoiesis and cognition: The realization of
only able to perform stereotyped behaviors. This atti-
the living. Dordecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co.
tude has been reinforced by the writings of esteemed
entomologists such as Jean-Henri Fabre who in 1879 in
his famous Souvenirs entomologiques wrote that
“Nature only endowed it (the insect) with faculties
needed in ordinary circumstances. . . and since these
Average Group Level blind faculties, not modifiable by experience, are
sufficient to save the race, the animal is unable to go
▶ Composition of Learning Groups further.” Textbooks now warn against the feeling that
insects are unable to learn.
Numerous aversive learning paradigms have been
developed in flies because reward learning is difficult to
establish. By contrast, bees are known to be easily
Aversive Conditioning trained with positive reinforcers such as sugar. The
reason for this difference between flies and bees has
▶ Aversive Learning in Drosophila melanogaster probably to be linked with the different constraints to
▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans which these insects are confronted. Bees have to find
402 A Avoidance Behaviour

specialized food sources (flowers), while Drosophila Nowadays, most neuroscientists are convinced that
flies can feed on various sources but need to avoid flies can learn. The challenge is now to use more thor-
environmental threats (e.g., dryness, heat). Due to oughly learning procedures to study for instance the
their tiny size (2 mm long), these flies cannot sustain effects of mutations known to have deleterious effects
such threats for a long time and learning to avoid them in human beings, or of environmental conditions
could be of adaptive significance. which could impair (or improve) the life of organisms
(e.g., Iijima et al. 2004). Both group and individual
Important Scientific Research and aversive learning procedures can be useful in these
Open Questions endeavors.
The first learning experiments on fruitflies were
performed in the 1960s, but it happened they could Cross-References
not be reproduced. Many attempts were done later but ▶ Associative Learning
only a few experiments have been successfully repli- ▶ Aversive Motivation and Learning
cated and used in other laboratories. The first such ▶ Avoidance Learning
study (Médioni and Vaysse 1975) involved the condi- ▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
tioned suppression of a reflex, the extension of the ▶ Conditioning
proboscis when a starved fly walks on sugar (legs con- ▶ Group Learning
tain chemoreceptors detecting sugar). If the fly encoun- ▶ Individual Learning
ters a bitter stimulus or an electric shock just after ▶ Invertebrate Learning
sugar, it will stop to extend its proboscis when walking ▶ Learning in Honeybees: Associative Processes
on sugar. The fly will again extend its proboscis when
walking on sugar if the aversive stimulus is removed
(learning extinction). Later on, other procedures have
References
Fabre, J. H. (1879). Souvenirs entomologiques (première série) (p. 207
been designed. For instance, contrary to virgin females,
in the 1951 edition). Paris: Delagrave.
mated females strongly reject males when they court Iijima, K., Liu, H. P., Chiang, A. S., Hearn, S. A., Konsolaki, M., &
them. Following this rejection, and depending on the Zhong, Y. (2004). Dissecting the pathological effects of human
time spent with unreceptive females, males will not aß40 and aß42 in Drosophila: A potential model for Alzheimer’s
court females even if they are receptive (Siegel and disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
Hall 1979). These two learning paradigms, as well as United States of America, 101, 6623–6628.
Le Bourg, E., & Buecher, C. (2002). Learned suppression of photo-
other ones, have been designed to train individual flies
positive tendencies in Drosophila melanogaster. Animal Learning
but there are procedures to train groups of flies. The & Behavior, 30, 330–341.
most famous one is the olfactory aversive conditioning. Médioni, J., & Vaysse, G. (1975). Suppression conditionnelle d’un
Groups of flies are put in a closed vial where there is an réflexe chez la drosophile (Drosophila melanogaster): Acquisition
odor associated with an electric shock and thereafter in et extinction. (Conditioned suppression of a reflex in Drosophila
melanogaster: Acquisition and extinction). Comptes Rendus des
a vial containing a second odor but no shock: when
séances de la Société de Biologie, 169, 1386–1391.
given the choice between two vials with the two odors, Siegel, R. W., & Hall, J. C. (1979). Conditioned responses in courtship
most of the flies will prefer the vial containing the odor behavior of normal and mutant Drosophila. Proceedings of the
not previously associated with electric shock (Tully and National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 76,
Quinn 1985). This procedure is used by many labora- 3430–3434.
tories. A debate occurred in the 1980s on the use of Tully, T., & Quinn, W. G. (1985). Classical conditioning and retention
in normal and mutant Drosophila melanogaser. Journal of
groups of flies or of individuals to study learning. Today,
Comparative Physiology A, 157, 263–277.
it can be said that this debate is over: group procedures
are best to quickly screen learning and memory mutants
and to study the different memory phases, while
individual paradigms provide individual scores, as in
studies of mammals, allow to verify that learning Avoidance Behaviour
mutants are impaired in other learning procedures, or
are used for instance to study the effects of aging. ▶ Abnormal Avoidance Learning
 Avoidance Learning A 403

(e.g., monkeys, dogs, guinea pigs, pigeons, chicks, and A

Avoidance Learning goldfish) have also been shown to learn to avoid.
Although there are some differences between species
TIAGO V. MAIA in avoidance learning – specifically, animals learn the
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University and avoidance response more easily when it is closely
New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, related to one of their species-specific defense reactions
NY, USA – many findings in avoidance learning have been shown
to generalize across species, and theories of avoidance
learning are generally assumed to apply to a wide vari-
Synonyms ety of species (including humans). Henceforward, the
Learning to avoid aversive outcomes term “subject” will be used instead of “animal,” to
highlight the fact that the findings and ideas discussed
Definition are generally assumed to apply to both humans and
Learning to avoid aversive outcomes is crucial for sur- nonhuman animals.
vival, and it is ubiquitous in everyday life. This entry One of the earliest explanations for avoidance
focuses on ▶ active avoidance, in which performing learning was based on Pavlov’s ▶ stimulus-substitution
a certain behavior prevents an aversive outcome that theory. In Pavlov’s experiments, a neutral stimulus
would otherwise occur. ▶ Avoidance learning in that such as the ringing of a bell (the CS) was paired with
context consists of learning to perform the appropriate food (the US). After a few such pairings, the CS would
behaviors in the appropriate circumstances to prevent elicit the same response (salivation) as the US. Pavlov
aversive outcomes. Active avoidance should be distin- proposed that the CS becomes a substitute for – that is,
guished from ▶ passive avoidance, often called punish- starts eliciting the same responses as – the US. This idea
ment, in which performing a behavior results in an also provided an elegant explanation for avoidance
aversive outcome, and learning therefore consists of learning, because in the early experiments on avoid-
suppressing, rather than strengthening, the behavior. ance, the avoidance response was typically a fleeing
Punishment is discussed in the “Punishment and behavior that was spontaneously elicited by the shock.
Reward” entry. Henceforward, whenever the term “avoid- Avoidance learning was therefore assumed to be due to
ance” is used, it is intended to mean active avoidance. the pairings of the CS with the US early in avoidance
training (before the avoidance response is learned);
Theoretical Background such pairings would make the CS elicit the same fleeing
The earliest avoidance-learning experiments were response that the US elicited. Experiments in the late
conducted at the beginning of the twentieth century 1930s, however, contradicted this Pavlovian account,
by Bekhterev, using what would become one of the suggesting that avoidance learning depends instead on
most common paradigms in research on avoidance: instrumental learning. Explaining avoidance learning
the signaled avoidance procedure. In this procedure, in instrumental terms raised a theoretical conundrum,
a trial starts with the presentation of a neutral warning though. The main account of instrumental learning
stimulus, often referred to as the conditioned stimulus was Thorndike’s ▶ law of effect. Thorndike proposed
(CS). Unless the subject performs a pre-specified that instrumental learning consists of learning stimu-
response, an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), lus-response (or situation-response; S-R) associations.
such as a shock, occurs at a given time following the The association between situation S and response R is
onset of the CS. If, however, the subject performs the strengthened when the subject is in situation S, per-
pre-specified response – the avoidance response – after forms response R, and that response is “accompanied
the onset of the CS but before the US occurs, the US is or closely followed by satisfaction” (in Thorndike’s own
omitted. Subjects – both humans and nonhuman words). As Mowrer (1947) noted, however, applying
animals – typically learn to perform the avoidance the law of effect to avoidance learning raised a difficult
response, thereby avoiding the US. question: “how can a shock which is not experienced,
Most experiments in avoidance learning have been i.e., which is avoided, be said to provide [. . .] a source
conducted with rats, but a wide variety of other species of [. . .] satisfaction” (p. 108)?
404 A Avoidance Learning

Mowrer’s (1947) two-factor theory – which Another prediction of two-factor theory was also
remains one of the main theories of avoidance learn- found to be at odds with experimental findings.
ing – provided an answer to this puzzle. Mowrer was According to the theory, the avoidance response is
strongly influenced by Hull’s ▶ drive-reduction theory. reinforced by reduction of the fear associated with the
Hull suggested that responses are learned via drive CS; fear of the CS and the strength of the avoidance
reduction, where drives are states such as hunger, the response should therefore correlate. Several studies,
reduction of which acts as a reward. Mowrer suggested however, found that long after fear of the CS had
that fear is an acquired drive, and that reductions in virtually extinguished (due to consecutive avoidance
fear are therefore reinforcing. He proposed that avoid- responses that ensured that the CS was not followed
ance learning involves two processes (hence the name by the US), the avoidance response still persisted.
“two-factor theory”). Early in training, before the These difficulties with two-factor theory prompted
subject consistently avoids, the CS is often followed the development of alternative theories, the most
by the US, and this produces fear of the CS via Pavlov- prominent of which is the cognitive theory of Seligman
ian conditioning. Subsequently, a response that and Johnston (1973). The main tenet of Seligman and
terminates the CS reduces fear, and that fear reduction Johnston’s theory is that the avoidance response is
reinforces the response. For Mowrer, the avoidance driven not by S-R associations, but by expectancies
response is therefore reinforced by CS termination, about response-outcome (R-O) contingencies. The
not by the actual shock avoidance. He suggested that theory suggests that during avoidance learning subjects
“the avoidance of the shock is a [. . .] by-product.” develop two R-O expectancies: (1) if they perform the
In experiments conducted before the development avoidance response, no shock will occur; and (2) if they
of two-factor theory, the avoidance response both ter- do not perform the avoidance response, shock will
minated the CS and avoided the US, making it impos- occur. Subjects perform the avoidance response
sible to determine the relative contributions of these because they prefer no shock to shock.
two events to learning. Following the development of This theory naturally explains the effectiveness of
two-factor theory, however, several experiments tried US avoidance in supporting learning. It also explains
to disentangle the differential effects of these events. the persistence of avoidance after fear is extinguished,
One of the most influential such experiments was the because avoidance is assumed to be driven by R-O
▶ acquired-drive experiment of Brown and Jacobs expectancies rather than being reinforced by fear
(1949). The experiment consisted of two phases. In reduction. The theory may even explain learning in
the first phase, rats underwent Pavlovian conditioning acquired-drive experiments: In the first phase of such
of a CS to a shock. In the second phase, the CS was experiments, subjects may develop the expectancy that
presented and the rats could terminate it by performing if they do not perform the avoidance response (which is
a response. The US was never presented during this typically blocked in this phase), shock will occur. In the
phase, regardless of the rats’ actions, so the response second phase, they may develop the expectancy that if
did not play any role in avoiding the US. The rats they perform the avoidance response, no shock will
learned to perform the response, suggesting that, as occur, while failing to disconfirm the expectancy that
predicted by two-factor theory, CS termination was shock will occur if they do not perform the response.
sufficient to support avoidance learning. The theory, however, has difficulty explaining avoid-
Although this finding was widely replicated, subse- ance learning when the response terminates the CS but
quent experiments demonstrated that, contrary to the is followed by the US.
predictions of two-factor theory, US avoidance also
plays a role in reinforcing the avoidance response. Important Scientific Research and
These experiments typically used a 2 2 factorial Open Questions
design, in which the two factors were CS termination The past decade has witnessed a revolution in our
(yes or no) and US avoidance (yes or no). Generally, understanding of conditioning, brought about by the
both factors were found to be effective in reinforcing use of computational models from the field of ▶ rein-
the response, with the highest level of avoidance learn- forcement learning to explain a myriad of behavioral
ing occurring when the response produced both effects. and neural findings in conditioning (Maia 2009).
 Avoidance Learning A 405

Recent work has shown that one such model – the so- performs the avoidance response, the model goes from A
called ▶ actor-critic – explains a wide variety of find- a situation with a value of 0 to another situation with
ings in avoidance learning (Maia 2010). Remarkably, a value of 0 (because the US is not predicted in either the
the model is closely related to two-factor theory (Maia presence or absence of the CS). The prediction error is
2010). The model consists of two components: the therefore 0, and the strength of the S-R association
critic and the actor. The critic implements Pavlovian remains unchanged. The response therefore persists
conditioning by learning the values of stimuli or situa- after fear has extinguished. In fact, in the model, the
tions (i.e., the future reinforcements predicted by those response persists perpetually, unless responding has
stimuli or situations). In fear conditioning, the critic some cost (representing the effort of responding).
learns a negative value for the CS, because the CS pre- With certain extensions, the model can also explain
dicts an aversive US. The actor implements S-R learn- the effects of US avoidance on learning (Maia 2010).
ing. Unlike in the law of effect, however, the change in Furthermore, the model explains some findings that no
strength of the S-R association is not determined simply other theory can explain – for example, the reduction
by whether the response is followed by a positive or in avoidance latencies that occurs with extended train-
negative outcome. Instead, it is determined by whether ing (Maia 2010). The model may therefore provide
the response is followed by an outcome that is better or the most comprehensive theory of avoidance to date.
worse than expected. Specifically, a ▶ prediction error is Furthermore, two aspects of this theory seem quite
calculated by subtracting the value that was expected satisfactory. First, the model was developed in machine
from the actual outcome. If the prediction error is learning and is independently motivated on computa-
positive, the outcome was better than expected, and tional grounds. The theory makes no assumptions
the S-R association is strengthened. If the prediction specific to avoidance; it simply shows that this
error is negative, the outcome was worse than expected, general-purpose ▶ reinforcement-learning system
and the S-R association is weakened. explains a variety of findings in avoidance. Second,
The actor-critic’s explanation for many of the find- the model maps closely to the brain (Maia 2009), so it
ings in avoidance learning is similar to the explanation offers the prospect for an integrated neurobehavioral
of two-factor theory. Consider, for example, the learn- theory of avoidance.
ing of the avoidance response. Early in training, when Despite the strengths of this approach and the
the CS is often followed by the US, the CS acquires appeal of explaining a broad range of findings using
a negative value. This corresponds to Pavlovian fear a simple model, the fact that the actor-critic does not
learning in two-factor theory. Subsequently, when the implement R-O contingencies may be a weakness of
CS is presented and the avoidance response terminates this approach. Substantial evidence suggests that in
it, the model goes from a situation with a negative value other instrumental-conditioning paradigms, subjects
to a situation with a value of 0 (because in the absence can learn both S-R and R-O contingencies, and the
of the CS, no shock is predicted). This produces same may apply to avoidance learning. Other rein-
a positive prediction error, which reinforces the forcement-learning models learn R-O contingencies
response. The positive prediction error is caused by (Maia 2009), and such models have been used to
a reduction in fear, so the avoidance response is explain the effects of antipsychotic drugs on avoidance
reinforced by fear reduction, as in two-factor theory. (Smith et al. 2004). A comprehensive theory of avoid-
Despite these similarities between the actor-critic ance may have to include both S-R and R-O learning, as
and two-factor theory, the fact that in the model the well as their interactions. Developing such a theory
S-R strength is changed on the basis of prediction should be a major focus for future research.
errors rather than on the basis of external outcomes
allows the model to explain findings that two-factor Cross-References
theory cannot explain (Maia 2010). Consider, for ▶ Abnormal Avoidance Learning
example, the persistence of the avoidance response ▶ Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories
after fear of the CS has extinguished. When fear of the ▶ Conditioning
CS extinguishes, the value of the CS becomes 0. When ▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
the CS is subsequently presented and the model ▶ Law of Effect
406 A Avoidant

▶ Operant Behavior
▶ Pain-Relief Learning Avoidant Oriented
▶ Punishment and Reward ▶ Fear of Failure in Learning
▶ Reinforcement Learning
▶ Reinforcement Learning in Animals

References
Brown, J. S., & Jacobs, A. (1949). The role of fear in the motivation
and acquisition of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Aware
39, 747–759.
Maia, T. V. (2009). Reinforcement learning, conditioning, and the ▶ Consciousness and Emotion: Attentive vs. Pre-
brain: Successes and challenges. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral attentive Elaboration of Face Processing
Neuroscience, 9, 343–364.
Maia, T. V. (2010). Two-factor theory, the actor-critic model, and
conditioned avoidance. Learning & Behavior, 38, 50–67.
Mowrer, O. H. (1947). On the dual nature of learning –
a reinterpretation of conditioning and problem solving. Harvard
Educational Review, 17, 102–148.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Johnston, J. C. (1973). A cognitive theory of Axiom Schema
avoidance learning. In F. J. McGuigan & D. B. Lumsden (Eds.),
Contemporary approaches to conditioning and learning (pp. 69–
Schemas are used in formal logic to specify rules of
110). Washington, DC: Winston. inference, in mathematics to describe theories with
Smith, A., Li, M., Becker, S., & Kapur, S. (2004). A model of antipsy- infinitely many axioms, and in semantics to give ade-
chotic action in conditioned avoidance: A computational quacy conditions for definitions of truth. Accordingly,
approach. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 1040–1049. an axiom schema is a well-formulated formula in the
language of an axiomatic system, in which one or more
schematic variables may appear. Well-known examples
of axiom schemas are the induction schema as part of
Avoidant Peano’s axioms for the arithmetic of the natural num-
bers, and the axiom schema of replacement as part of
▶ Fear of Failure in Learning the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.
B

Backpropagation of Error Barriers to Organizational

Algorithm Learning
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning DENIS FISCHBACHER-SMITH, MOIRA FISCHBACHER-SMITH
Department of Management, University of Glasgow
Business School, Glasgow, Scotland, UK

Backward Inhibitory Synonyms

Conditioning Crisis incubation
▶ Pain-relief Learning
Definition
Barriers to organizational learning are seen as those
systems and behaviors that prevent or inhibit organi-
zations from adapting to the main decision-making
Balance Theory challenges that they face. They can also arise from the
processes of identifying and adopting new behaviors
Balance theory is a motivational theory of attitude and practices in light of successes and failures. These
change proposed by Fritz Heider (1958) which concep- barriers can occur at multiple levels within and between
tualizes the consistency motive as a drive toward psy- organizations, and involve both individual and group
chological balance. Heider proposes that “sentiment” processes and behaviors.
or liking relationships are balanced if the affect valence
in a system multiplies out to a positive result. Theoretical Background
The manner in which organizations fail to learn lessons
References from both internal and external “sources” has been an
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York:
issue that lies at the core of a number of debates within
Wiley. “management” theory and practice (Argyris 1990;
Senge 1990; Toft and Reynolds 1994). General theories
of management have tended to focus on the positive
role of learning as a means of enhancing organizational
performance, and have advocated learning across
Bands organizational settings. However, there are inevitable
problems in simply taking a successful approach from
▶ Instrumental Learning in Music Education
one organization/context and applying it elsewhere,
without grounding that learning within the cultural,
spatial, and temporal settings in which that learning is
believed both to have taken place and subsequently to
Banking Education apply. Simplistic approaches to learning – termed
“template management” – are significant in shaping
▶ Reproductive Learning and limiting an organization’s abilities to learn and
N. Seel (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6,
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
408 B Barriers to Organizational Learning

may generate considerable barriers to appropriately rare (often termed, extreme) events. Given their
defining, framing, and addressing the problems from low frequency of occurrence and potential for serious
which learning is required. In the same way that learn- consequences, extreme events create a set of problems
ing is associated with improved performance, failure to for decision-makers who have no historical precedent
learn is associated with diminished performance. with which to ground their sense making around the
Research has identified a series of barriers to learn- problem. Such events also inhibit the ability of the
ing (Smith and Elliott 2007) that appear to have valid- organization to communicate the nature of the issue
ity in explaining the processes by which organizational and this may further escalate the problem. Organiza-
failures occur and are “incubated.” Several key barriers tions that constrain communication (both in terms of
to organizational learning have been outlined within volume and content) may also fail to pick up on early
the literature (for a summary see, Fischbacher-Smith warnings and near-miss events and this becomes
and Fischbacher-Smith 2009; Smith and Elliott 2007). compounded by the temporal constraints that are
A common barrier is generated by the core beliefs values often imposed upon decision making. By narrowing
and assumptions held by decision-makers about the these temporal boundaries, organizations will discount
organization and its operating environment and core the potential for long-term impacts associated with their
processes. These beliefs, values, and assumptions serve decisions. An incremental approach to decision making
to shape both the awareness and acknowledgment of may ensure that the organization is incapable of dealing
issues facing the organization along with the with both emergence and interaction effects that increas-
approaches that are taken toward addressing them. In ingly arise in complex, multi-locational organizational
relation to corporate social responsibility (CSR), for settings. The greater the interactions between elements of
example, a central argument is that the “ethical” the organization, the greater the potential that exists for
approach taken by the organization (or possibly, the the generation of emergent properties associated
lack of an appropriate ethical stance) will frame the with such interactions. It is this emergence that can
decisions of managers in relation to how they tackle serve to bypass organizational controls and constrain
considerations around risk and uncertainty. Organiza- the effectiveness of learning from near-miss events.
tional culture, and in particular dominant cultural The assumptions that are made around the nature
norms within the organization, is an important ele- and extent of such systems’ perturbations will
ment in this framing process and is linked to the determine the controls that are put in place to deal
power of technical and expert elites within the deci- with fluctuations in organizational performance. By
sion-making process. Learning becomes inhibited constraining the “worst-case scenario” for such events,
when the apparent lessons of an adverse event seem to organizations will inhibit the abilities of decision-
run counter to the dominant paradigmatic view of key makers to test the limits of their assumptions associ-
members of the organization. Denial of the potential ated with systems’ performance. When the operating
for adverse events – “it couldn’t happen here” – rests on environment moves from a typically ordered form into
the often unspoken, but closely held misconception a complex one, these constraints will inhibit the deci-
about the values held by organizational members and sion performance of management through processes of
those of the wider society and, can serve to be a key cognitive narrowing and they will become increasingly
barrier to learning. unable to recognize and absorb the full range of salient
A related process concerns the manner in which the information, and will unduly narrow their focus onto
organization communicates the extent of its uncer- constrained, and deceptively manageable, tasks. Such
tainty surrounding the decisions that it takes. The narrowing will be enhanced further as the task
failure to deal with information difficulties and the demands associated with such environmental shifts
likelihood of such difficulties helping to produce inef- increase. All too often, organizations fail to learn
fective communication, are shaped by, and reinforce the from such experiences by reconstructing the event
cultural dynamics that prevail within the organization narrative and blame projection after a crisis, doing
and can further exacerbate the potential for failure. so in a way that sees the failure as a function of
One obvious problem in this regard is the manner in the performance of an individual rather than the
which an organization deals with risk – particularly for “system.”
 Basal Ganglia B 409

Such limitations derive, in part, from the difficulties both formal and informal processes. Also of signifi-
of foresight and hindsight. Within the literature on cance are the dynamic capabilities within – and
crisis management and its related research areas, for between – organizations to identify and respond to B
example, failure to learn has been seen as a key element weak signals and to cope with the uncertainties and
in the process of crisis incubation for many of the pressures around decision making within fluid envi-
reasons highlighted above. Turner (Turner 1978) also ronments. It is within these territories that the barriers
highlighted the potential for failure within organiza- to learning arise, and therefore, need to be identified
tions due to a failure of foresight, whereby managers and removed if learning and improved organizational
were unable to anticipate and prevent failures arising performance is to be enabled.
from their actions and the core processes of the orga- A key area of research around the development of
nization. Subsequent research extended Turner’s initial barriers to learning concerns the nature of the process
research to focus on the failures of hindsight (Toft and around environmental shifts. As the operating environ-
Reynolds 1994) where lessons were not learned due to ment becomes more complex (moving from an ordered
the difficulties of post hoc interpretations of events and through a complex into a chaotic state) then the impact
processes, or in other words, challenges associated with of such phase transitions on the abilities of organizations
the often rapid, constrained, and context-specific pro- to learn remains a key area for further research.
cesses of sense making that take place during crises.
A further, and final, barrier to learning concerns the
abilities that managers and management teams have to Cross-References
cope with environmental shifts and the manner in ▶ Absorptive Capacity and Organizational Learning
which they “make sense” of these changing dynamics ▶ Acquiring Organizational Learning Norms
while the organization itself may also be undergoing ▶ Action Learning (and Organizational Development)
a process of change. An inability to develop the adap- ▶ Adaptive Behavior
tive capabilities (often termed “dynamic capabilities”) ▶ Adaptive Learning
to cope with such phase transitions can also have ▶ Organizational Change and Learning
a profound impact on the processes of learning and ▶ Technological Learning in Organizations
may, in turn, be undermined by the wider barriers to
learning that exist within the organization. At the core References
Argyris, C. (1990). Overcoming organizational defences. Facilitating
of this discussion is the manner in which organizations
organizational learning. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
are able to deal with uncertainty and the limitations to
Fischbacher-Smith, D., & Fischbacher-Smith, M. (2009). We may
predictive validity within decision-making processes, remember but what did we learn? Dealing with errors, crimes
and to then manage their responses accordingly. and misdemeanours around adverse events in healthcare. Finan-
cial Accountability and Management, 25(4), 451–474.
Important Scientific Research and Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the
learning organisation. London: Century.
Open Questions Smith, D., & Elliott, D. (2007). Moving beyond denial: Exploring the
It can be argued that the learning process is central to barriers to learning from crisis. Management Learning, 38(5),
organizational performance and to mitigating poten- 519–538.
tial crisis incubation. Essential to embedding learning Toft, B., & Reynolds, S. (1994). Learning from disasters. London:
within organizations is ensuring that cultural values Butterworth.
Turner, B. A. (1978). Man-made disasters. London: Wykeham.
and behaviors endorse learning and reflection and the
avoidance of blame, as well as ensuring that decision-
making processes and the behavior of the organization
as a system are understood and evaluated. Also impor-
tant are the interfaces between elements of the organi- Basal Ganglia
zation and indeed between organizations. While this
section has tackled learning within organizations, the The basal ganglia are a collection of subcortical nuclei
networked structure of business behooves organiza- at the base of the forebrain that are interconnected
tions to consider learning across organizations through with cortex, the thalamus, and the brainstem. These
410 B Basal Ganglia Learning

interconnections form cortico-basal ganglia loops can subthalamic nucleus (STN) and the external part of the
be anatomically and functionally differentiated. As a globus pallidus (GPe), create functionally different
result, the basal ganglia play a critical role in affective, pathways to allow for a more complex role of BG in
cognitive, and motor functioning. adapting behavior. The main characteristic of the BG is
The basal ganglia is a region of the brain located its dense innervation by dopaminergic (DA) cells in the
underneath the frontal parts of the brain, adjacent substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral teg-
to the cerebral cortex and the thalamus. It consists mental area (VTA), whose firing is related to reward
of the striatum, pallidum, substantia nigra, and the delivery and prediction. DA can modulate the activa-
subthalamic nucleus. Collectively, it plays a fundamen- tion and learning of most cells in the BG, placing it as
tal role in task performance, including the selection of a core structure in reinforcement learning processes.
actions in response to stimuli, task switching, and
motor control, which are fundamental aspects of pro- Theoretical Background
cedural knowledge. The BG are classically divided into three main func-
tional domains that are engaged in different types of
learning, even though finer subdivisions can be made
(Alexander et al. 1986): the limbic domain, which is
Basal Ganglia Learning involved in ▶ Pavlovian conditioning and evaluation of
motivational valence; the associative domain, involved
JULIEN VITAY, FRED H. HAMKER in ▶ goal-directed learning, action–outcome associa-
Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of tion and ▶ working memory; the sensorimotor
Computer Science, Chemnitz University of domain, involved in selection of action, stimulus–
Technology, Chemnitz, Germany response associations and ▶ habitual control. These
domains are anatomically segregated, with regard to
the cortical areas and thalamic nuclei that are targeted,
Synonyms but also to the region of the striatum and other BG
Biological groundings of reinforcement learning nuclei that are involved, what creates independent and
parallel cortico-basal-ganglia-thalamic loops.
Definition The limbic loop interacts with cortical areas
The basal ganglia (BG) are a set of nuclei located in the involved in emotional processing, motivation, and
basal forebrain, receiving inputs mostly from the cere- goal-directed behaviors: The orbitofrontal (OFC), ven-
bral cortex (especially the frontal lobe) and projecting tromedial prefrontal (vmPFC), and anterior cingulate
on various motor centers, as well as back to the cortex (ACC) cortices. Its striatal part, NAcc, integrates also
through the thalamus, forming a closed-loop. The information coming from the hippocampus (episodi-
main input station is the striatum, which can be ana- cal memory, spatial navigation) and the amygdala
tomically divided into three parts: the nucleus (emotional evaluation, novelty detection). It learns
accumbens (NAcc), the caudate nucleus (CN), and the emotional valence of stimuli, whether rewarding
the putamen (PUT). Striatal neurons collect cortical or painful, in the context of the organism’s state (value
activity and inhibit the tonically active neurons (high of food relative to satiety/hunger), location, or plans. It
activity at rest) in the output nuclei of the BG: the helps OFC and vmPFC to decide the motivational
substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) and the internal value of an outcome, i.e., how interesting it is to try
segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). These output to obtain it with respect to the previous experiences,
structures further inhibit some motor centers and tha- forming the basic mechanism of goal-directed learning.
lamic nuclei. This double inhibition allows to selec- It is particularly involved in Pavlovian conditioning,
tively open some recurrent loops between the especially in predicting the reward/punishment associ-
thalamus and the cortex, increasing the signal-to- ated to the CS. A key experiment is the observed pat-
noise ratio in the cortex and triggering movements or tern of activation of dopaminergic cells in VTA during
cognitive functions. Other nuclei in the BG, such as the a Pavlovian conditioning task (Schultz et al. 1997).
 Basal Ganglia Learning B 411

At the beginning of learning, these cells respond at motor centers like the superior colliculus for saccades
the onset of the US, but progressively respond at the (Hikosaka et al. 2000). It principally learns rewarded
onset of the CS, while the US-related activation van- stimulus–response associations, which are not sensitive B
ishes, reflecting the learned association. Furthermore, to outcome devaluation and changes in action-
when the US is omitted, these cells show a pause in outcome contingencies after learning, as shown by
firing that influence learning in other BG domains. lesion studies. This implies an involvement in habit
This behavior was compared to the reward-prediction formation rather than in goal-directed learning. It is
error signal of the ▶ temporal difference (TD) algo- a key structure in sequence learning, thanks to its
rithm in reinforcement learning, and the limbic loop is looped inner architecture, by associating a known
often compared to the critic in actor/critic architec- movement by its follower in the sequence and by con-
tures. Furthermore, it is a critical region in learning trolling the timing of the switch.
action–outcome associations in ▶ instrumental condi-
tioning, as shown by lesions studies. Contrary to Pav- Important Scientific Research and
lovian conditioning, this learning is sensible to the Open Questions
devaluation of the value of the outcome and to the Although these three loops have been thought to
contingency between the action and the obtaining behave independent, the question of their interaction
of the predicted outcome: The associative loop tracks during learning is still not clear. The Pavlovian-to-
the consequences of actions to guide goal-directed Instrumental transfer, for example, shows that Pavlov-
learning. ian conditioning influences instrumental responses
The associative loop, comprising mostly the dorsolat- learned in a similar context. Indeed, the three loops
eral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), is involved in executive are not totally segregated. They interact through
functions like working memory (WM), planning or set- overlapping cortical projections (for example, dlPFC
shifting, as well as action–outcome associations. WM, the also projects on NAcc and PUT, although less inten-
ability to maintain and manipulate sensory information sively) and divergent thalamocortical projections, but
over short delays, is principally supported by sustained also through the ascending spiral pattern of connectiv-
activation of cells in dlPFC and CN, the associative loop ity between the striatum and the dopaminergic areas
learning to selectively maintain and manipulate informa- SNc/VTA (Haber et al. 2000): Each domain of the
tion in WM through the disinhibition of the corres- striatum forms closed reciprocal connections with
ponding thalamocortical loops. This loop also rapidly a region of SNc/VTA, but also projects to the adjacent
learns task-relevant rules through reinforcement learning dopaminergic area. This anatomical arrangement cre-
to guide processing in dlPFC (Pasupathy and Miller ates a hierarchy of information flow from the limbic via
2005). Part of this loop is furthermore involved in visual the associative to the motor loop that has functional
categorization and visual memory retrieval with its implications still to be investigated.
connections with the inferotemporal cortex that Another open issue is the exact role of dopamine
processes high-level visual features. firing in behavior. The classical analogy with the error
The motor loop, with premotor (PM), motor (M), signal of the TD algorithm faces several problems:
and somatosensory (S) cortices, is involved in motor DA cells fire stereotypically with a very short latency to
control, action selection, stimulus–responses associa- reward-predicting events, but also to novel or salient
tions, and habit formation. The degeneration of its stimuli, that is inconsistent. An interesting alternative
corresponding dopaminergic cells is responsible for hypothesis is that DA cells only signal unpredicted behav-
the Parkinson’s disease. PUT is somatotopically orga- iorally relevant events through subcortical processes in
nized, with adjacent regions being selective for different order to direct attention and cognitive resources toward
effectors or body parts. It is active both in the prepara- this event and to promote the reselection of components
tion and execution of movements and is thought to of behavior and context that immediately precede it
favorize the most adequate movement (in terms of (Redgrave and Gurney 2006).
predicted reward) through the disinhibition of the More generally, the BG can be seen as a central
corresponding thalamocortical loop or directly of selection device that favorizes cortical representations
412 B Base Domain

which have been associated to emotionally relevant

events in the past experience. It is able to learn these Basis Behaviors for Robot
associations faster than the cortex and acts as Learning
a supervising teacher for the cortex, where they can be
▶ Motor Schemas in Robot Learning
stored on a longer timescale. The respective contribu-
tions to learning of the BG and the cortex are still
unclear.

Cross-References Bateson and Anthropology of

▶ Emotional Learning
▶ Habit Learning in Animals
Learning
▶ Operant Learning ▶ Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning Learning
▶ Reinforcement Learning
▶ Rule Learning
▶ Working Memory and Information Processing

References Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980):

Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R., & Strick, P. L. (1986). Parallel Anthropology of Learning
organization of functionally segregated circuits linking the
basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 9, WOLFRAM LUTTERER
357–381. Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
Haber, S. N., Fudge, J. L., & McFarland, N. R. (2000). Striatoni-
Freiburg, Germany
grostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from
the shell to the dorsolateral striatum. The Journal of Neuroscience,
20(6), 2369–2382.
Hikosaka, O., Takikawa, Y., & Kawagoe, R. (2000). Role of the basal Synonyms
ganglia in the control of purposive saccadic eye movements. Anthropological aspects of learning; Bateson and
Physiological Reviews, 80(3), 953–978. anthropology of learning; Cultural aspects of learning;
Pasupathy, A., & Miller, E. K. (2005). Different time courses of
Gregory Batesons’s anthropology of learning; Learning
learning-related activity in the prefrontal cortex and striatum.
Nature, 433(7028), 873–876. and anthropology
Redgrave, P., & Gurney, K. (2006). The short-latency dopamine
signal: a role in discovering novel actions? Nature Reviews Neu- Definition
roscience, 7(12), 967–975. Human learning is not only dependent on its close
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate
social settings (family, peers, school, etc.), it is also
of prediction and reward. Science, 275(5306), 1593–1599.
largely influenced by the particular culture, and it is
likewise enabled as also restricted by human biology.
The anthropology of learning searches for the variety
and homogeneity of human culture, and especially of
Base Domain human learning. So the research undertaken is largely
comparative.
Familiar situation, context or problem; the original The Anglo-American anthropologist Gregory
learning context. Bateson (1904–1980) undertakes a quite formal
approach to clarify the structure and the scope of the
learning process. He delivers a theoretical frame for
research. This is be done by a differentiation of five
Basic Units levels or types of learning. Learning of a higher logical
type is defined as “change in the process” of the lower
▶ Human Feature Learning level. So, for example, “Learning II is change in the
 Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of Learning B 413

process of Learning I ” (Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of character, something to be done sometimes in psy-
Mind, 1972/2000, p. 293). All in all, Bateson differenti- chotherapy or in religious conversion. So people
ates from Learning 0 (“zero learning”) up to Learning could learn “to form more readily” habits, or “to B
IV. These levels clarify the complexity and the structure change habits acquired by Learning II” (p. 303). In
in the process of learning. the 1970s, this level of learning gave reason to some
speculations about change in consciousness.
● Learning 0 describes a reaction to something, but
● Learning IV is change in the process of Learning III.
without learning anything “new” (in the common
The combination of phylogenesis with ontogenesis
sense view of learning). This Learning 0 may at first
would be of this type. But according to Bateson this
seem trivial, but it is needed for a complete descrip-
type of learning does probably not occur by any
tion of all five levels, and also in correspondence to
living organism. The limit of the human learning
other levels. The result of Learning 0 is indeed
process is at Level III.
a change in behavior, but in a highly stereotyped
way, as a simple reaction to something: Maybe the This listing should also demonstrate that the
alarm clock rings and you know it is time to get up. “higher” levels of learning are not the “better” ones.
● Learning I is more or less equal with our common They are different types, and they relate to each other.
sense view of learning. It is formally defined as With these levels of learning, several points in the
“change in specificity of response by correction of anthropology of learning can be clarified.
errors of choice within a set of alternatives.” So,
1. It is shown that there is an upper limit of the learn-
the precondition of this type of learning is the
ing process. Learning 0 to Learning II are part of our
ability for the perception of error and then to
everyday life, but the acquisision of Learning II
change behavior. The whole range of conventional
already tends to slow down by further learning, by
psychological learning theory is equivalent to
life time. Learning III is difficult and seldom, Learn-
Learning I (operant and classical conditioning,
ing IV impossible. So the “higher” the level, the
rote learning, etc.). So I am learning to repair my
more fundamental and the more restricted by
bike, to dance, or to speak another language.
nature and by former learning experiences.
● Learning II or Deuterolearning (see cross-refer-
It is demonstrated that learning (in sense of
ence) is “a corrective change in the set of alterna-
Learning I) is always in context. This context is of
tives from which choice is made, or it is a change in
significance for the interpretation of events. It is
how the sequence of experience is punctuated.” This
double sided: context created by others, and also
type of learning is in context to Learning I. The way
by oneself, the own expectations, the own world-
in which learning occurs has an impact to the way
view as a result of Learning II.
we see things, what we anticipate, what we experi-
2. Different cultures as also individual worldviews
ence as “normal” and therefore, also to the way we
create different contexts, and therefore different
behave. Our worldview is at least partly influenced
understandings of “reality” and of “truth.”
by learning processes and this kind of influence is
3. The process of learning is shown in his complexity.
on the level II of our learning process. Learning II is
It is to be assumed that Learning II occurs synchro-
also reached by some mammals (explicitly shown
nous to Learning I and to Learning 0. In addition to
by dolphins, see Bateson 2000, p. 394 ff). Habits as
Bateson, it can be assumed that Learning 0 is essen-
“fatalism”, “pride,” or “dependency” are results of
tial for the validation of Learning II, or our world-
learning processes of this type. Bateson understands
view. Successful learning leads to Learning 0 in
that much of this Learning II dates from early
repeated contexts.
infancy and it is unconscious. Another result of
4. It is formally shown how habits develop and, there-
Learning II is that I am learning to learn. Then
fore, how they are a matter of possible change.
I am starting to learn faster.
● Learning III is change in Learning II and therefore The complexity, the variability, and the flexibility of
something more difficult and rare even for human learning contexts is formally represented by
beings. It stands for a profound reorganization of a multilevel view of the learning process.
414 B Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of Learning

Theoretical Background section within the learning theory dedicated to

Bateson’s learning theory was developed over type theory.
three decades, beginning with a first version, Furthermore, Bateson’s application of type theory
distinguishing between proto- and deuterolearning seems to be a bit idiosyncratic: On a first view, it may
(later: Learning I and Learning II), in 1942. The final seem to be quite clear to distinguish the “higher” level
version of his theory, consisting in the five levels of as of a higher type than the other, but on a second view
learning, was mainly developed in the 1960s, finished it remains unexplained how Learning 0 relates to Learn-
1971, and published 1972. ing II, which is done directly and not via Learning I:
There are three main fields of research within Learning experiences are either Learning 0 or Learning
Bateson’s own writings, which are creating I, but they are always touching to Learning II. Further-
a theoretical background. First, his anthropological more it is not really clear how the temporal aspect of
research in New Guinea and Bali, performed partly the several levels changes. Learning 0 to Learning II
together with his at that time wife Margaret Mead surely are to be viewed as synchronous to each other,
and resulting in the first draft of the theory (period but Learning II has also diachronic aspects, still further
from 1927 to 1942, see Bateson and Mead 1942). Learning III.
Second, his research on human communication and Further research strengthens the impact of Learning
of pathologies in communication, resulting in his com- 0 : The multiplicy of Learning 0 experiences is essential
munication theory, 1951, and double-bind theory, for the affirmation of worldviews. There are also argu-
1956 (1948–1962). Third, research with dolphins and ments, which suggest that some aspects of Learning III
octopuses, showing the complexity of communication are less difficult to achieve than proposed by Bateson
and of learning by animals (1959–1972). (cf. Lutterer 2010).
Bateson was an active member of the famous Josiah Although Bateson’s contribution to learning theory
Macy conferences on cybernetics between 1946 and seems to stand somehow peripheral in the scientific
1953. His work is strongly influenced by cybernetics, discourse, it is also in the background of several
informations theory, and game theory. The impact of established concepts (see entry to Deuterolearning).
cybernetics in relation to learning theory is especially to This applies also for his contribution to the anthropol-
be seen in a wide-range consideration of the circularity ogy of learning. It seems to be the result of the failure in
of interaction. But Batesons view of cybernetics differs the constitution of a sustainable cybernetically orien-
from the steering and control-orientated view by tated scientific discourse. Bateson’s whole theory
Norbert Wiener and others. His reflexive understand- remains as another kind of scientific language (cf.
ing of cybernetics partly anticipates the second-order Bateson and Bateson 1987), which is apparently often
cybernetics of Heinz von Foerster. not compatible to the scientific mainstream.
A strong impact on the construction of the learning There are also other anthropological approaches to
theory itself has Bertrand Russell’s theory of learning, but they remain largely comparative. An over-
logical types, developed in the Principia Mathematica view including further discussion gives Wolcott (1982).
(1910–1913) to distinguish between elements and The anthropological approach to learning shows the
classes. So, as Bateson points out, for example, the diversity of human culture: the more the differences,
name of a thing is not the thing itself: you can sit on the less the biological (or genetical) constraints in the
a chair but not on the word “chair.” In the final version formation of character, behavior, and of society.
of Bateson’s theory of learning, type theory is central Bateson himself shows this paradigmatically on his
for the definition. research on the Iatmul in New Guinea (Bateson
1958), and of the people of Bali (Bateson and Mead
Important Scientific Research and 1942; Bateson 2000, p. 107 ff).
Open Questions
The full impact of cybernetics was not exhausted by Cross-References
Bateson. So, his theory remains largely hierarchical ▶ Anthropology of Learning and Cognition
(not systemic) and strongly influenced by Bertrand ▶ Deuterolearning
Russell’s theory of logical types. There is a whole ▶ Informal Learning
 Bayesian Learning B 415

References Constructing a Bayesian model involves two steps.

Bateson, G. (1958). Naven: A survey of the problems suggested by The first step is to specify the set of possibilities for the
a composite picture of the culture of a New Guinea tribe drawn state of the world, which is referred to as the hypothesis B
from three points of view (2nd ed.). Stanford: Stanford University space. Each hypothesis can be thought of as
Press.
a prediction by the subject about what future sensory
Bateson, G. (2000). Steps to an ecology of mind. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press [Orig 1972]. information will be encountered. However, the term
Bateson, G., & Bateson, M. C. (1987). Angels fear. Towards an episte- hypothesis should not be confused with its more tradi-
mology of the sacred. New York: Bantam. tional usage in psychology, connoting explicit testing of
Bateson, G., & Mead, M. (1942). Balinese character: A photographic rules or other symbolically represented propositions.
analysis. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
In the context of Bayesian modeling, hypotheses need
Lutterer, W. (2010). Der Prozess des Lernens: Eine Synthese der
Lerntheorien von Jean Piaget und Gregory Bateson. Velbrück:
have nothing to do with explicit reasoning, and indeed
Weilerswist. the Bayesian framework makes no commitment what-
Wolcott, H. F. (1982). The anthropology of learning. Anthropology & soever on this issue. For example, in Bayesian models of
Education Quarterly, 13(2), 83–108. visual processing, hypotheses can correspond to
extremely low-level information, such as the presence
of elementary visual features (contours, etc.) at various
locations in the visual field (Geisler et al. 2001). There is
Bayesian Learning also no commitment regarding where the hypotheses
come from. Hypotheses could represent innate biases
BRADLEY C. LOVE1, MATT JONES2 or knowledge, or they could have been learned previ-
1
Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at ously by the individual. Thus, the framework has no
Austin, Austin, TX, USA position on nativist–empiricist debates. Furthermore,
2
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA hypotheses representing very different types of infor-
mation (e.g., a contour in a particular location,
whether or not the image reminds you of your mother,
Synonyms whether the image is symmetrical, whether it spells
Bayesian model; Normative; Probabilistic approaches; a particular word, etc.) are all lumped together in
Rational a common hypothesis space and treated equally by
the model. Thus, there is no distinction between dif-
Theoretical Background ferent types of representations or knowledge systems
Bayesian methods have undergone tremendous pro- within the brain. In general, a hypothesis is nothing
gress in recent years, due largely to mathematical more than a probability distribution. This distribution,
advances in probability and estimation theory (Chater referred to as the likelihood function, simply specifies
et al. 2006). These advances have allowed theorists to how likely each possible pattern of observations is
express and derive predictions from far more sophisti- according to the hypothesis in question.
cated models than previously possible. These models The second step in constructing a Bayesian model is
have generated a good deal of excitement for at least to specify how strongly the subject believes in each
two reasons. First, they offer a new interpretation of the hypothesis before observing data. This initial belief is
goals of cognitive systems, in terms of inductive prob- expressed as a probability distribution over the hypoth-
abilistic inference, which has revived attempts at ratio- esis space, and is referred to as the prior. The prior can
nal explanation of human behavior (Oaksford and be thought of as an initial bias in favor of some hypoth-
Chater 2007). Second, Bayesian models may have the eses over others, in that it contributes extra “votes” (as
potential to explain some of the most complex aspects elaborated below) that are independent of any actual
of human cognition, such as language acquisition or data. This decisional bias allows the model’s predic-
reasoning under uncertainty, where structured infor- tions to be shifted in arbitrary directions regardless
mation and incomplete knowledge combine in a way of the data. As we discuss below, the prior can be
that has defied previous approaches (e.g., Kemp and a strong point of the model if it is derived indepen-
Tenenbaum 2008). dently, from empirical statistics of real environments.
416 B Bayesian Learning

However, more commonly, the prior is chosen ad hoc, To illustrate these two steps and how inference
providing substantial unconstrained flexibility to proceeds in a Bayesian model, consider the problem of
models that are advocated as rational and assump- determining whether a fan entering a football stadium is
tion-free. rooting for the University of Southern California (USC)
Together, the hypotheses and the prior fully deter- Trojans or the University of Texas (UT) Longhorns based
mine a Bayesian model. The model’s goal is to decide on three simple questions: (1) Do you live by the ocean?
how strongly to believe in each hypothesis after data (2) Do you own a cowboy hat? (3) Do you like Mexican
have been observed. This final belief is again expressed food? The first step is to specify the space of possibilities
as a probability distribution over the hypothesis space (i.e., hypothesis space). In this case, the hypothesis space
and is referred to as the posterior. The statistical identity consists of two possibilities: being a fan of either
known as Bayes’ Rule is used to combine the prior with USC or UT. Both of these hypotheses entail
the observed data to compute the posterior. Bayes’ Rule probabilities for the data we could observe, for example,
can be expressed in many ways, but here we explain PðoceanjUSCÞ ¼ :8 and PðoceanjUTÞ ¼ :3. Once these
how it can be viewed as a simple vote-counting model. probabilities are given, the two hypotheses are fully
Specifically, Bayesian inference is equivalent to tracking specified. The second step is to specify the prior. In
evidence for each hypothesis, or votes for how strongly many applications, there is no principled way of doing
to believe in each hypothesis. The prior provides the this, but in this example, the prior corresponds to the
initial evidence counts, Eprior, which are essentially probability that a randomly selected person will be
made-up votes that give some hypotheses a head start a USC or a UT fan, that is, one’s best guess as to the
over others, before observing any actual data. When overall proportion of USC and UT fans in attendance.
data are observed, each observation adds to the existing With the model now specified, inference proceeds
evidence according to how consistent it is with each by starting with the prior and accumulating evidence as
hypothesis. The evidence contributed for a hypothesis new data are observed. For example, if the football
that predicted the observation will be greater than the game is being played in Los Angeles, one might expect
evidence for a hypothesis under which the observation that most people are USC fans, and hence the prior
was unlikely. The evidence contributed by the ith would provide an initial evidence count in favor of
observation, Edatai ; is simply added to the existing USC. If our target person responded that he lives near
evidence to update each hypothesis’ count. Therefore the ocean, this observation would add further evi-
the final evidence, Eposterior, is nothing more than a sum dence for USC. The magnitudes of these evidence
of the votes from all of the observations, plus the initial values will depend on the specific numbers assumed
votes from the prior. (Formally, Eposterior equals the for the prior and for the likelihood function for each
logarithm of the posterior distribution, Eprior is the hypothesis, but all that the model does is take the
logarithm of the prior, and Edata(H) is the logarithm evidence values and add them up. Each new observa-
of the likelihood of the data under hypothesis H. The tion adds to the balance of evidence among the
model’s prediction for the probability that hypothesis hypotheses, strengthening those that predicted it rel-
H is correct, after data have been observed, is propor- ative to those under which it was unlikely.
tional to exp[Eposterior(H)]). There are several ways in which real applications of
X Bayesian modeling become more complex than the
Eposterior ðHÞ ¼ Eprior ðHÞ þ Edatai ðHÞ ð1Þ simple example above. However, these all have to do
i
with the complexity of the hypothesis space rather than
This sum is computed for every hypothesis, H, in the Bayesian framework itself. For example, many
the hypothesis space. The vote totals determine how models have a hierarchical structure, in which hypoth-
strongly the model believes in each hypothesis in the eses are essentially grouped into higher-level
end. Thus, any Bayesian model can be viewed as track- overhypotheses. Overhypotheses are generally more
ing evidence for each hypothesis, with initial evidence abstract and require more observations to discriminate
coming from the prior and additional evidence coming among; thus hierarchical models are useful for model-
from each new observation. At its core, this is all there is ing learning or change over developmental timescales
to Bayesian modeling. (e.g., Kemp et al. 2007). However, each overhypothesis
 Bayesian Learning B 417

is just a weighted sum of elementary hypotheses, and theory and data. Rational approaches attempt to
inference among overhypotheses comes down to explain why cognition produces the patterns of behav-
exactly the same vote-counting scheme as described ior that it does, but they offer no insight into how B
above. As a second example, many models assume cognition is carried out. Second, in general, there are
special mathematical functions for the prior, such as multiple rational theories of any given task,
conjugate priors, that simplify the computations corresponding to different assumptions about the envi-
involved in updating evidence. However, such assump- ronment and the learner’s goals. Consequently, there is
tions are generally made solely for the convenience of insufficient acknowledgement of these assumptions
the modeler, rather than for any psychological reason and their critical roles in determining model predic-
related to the likely initial bias of a human subject. tions. It is extremely rare to find a comparison among
Finally, for models with especially complex hypothesis alternative Bayesian models of the same task to deter-
spaces, computing exact predictions often becomes mine which is most consistent with empirical data.
computationally intractable. In these cases, sophisti- Likewise, there is little recognition when the critical
cated approximation schemes are used, such as Mar- assumptions of a Bayesian model logically overlap
kov-chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) or particle filtering closely with those of other theories. These challenges
(i.e., sequential Monte Carlo). These algorithms yield are currently being addressed by members of the Bayes-
good estimates of the model’s true predictions while ian community. The end goal is to integrate Bayesian
requiring far less computational effort. However, once approaches with what we know about the mental pro-
again they are used for the convenience of the modeler cesses that support learning and decision making
and usually are not meant as proposals for how human (Jones and Love 2011).
subjects might solve the same computational problems.
To summarize: Hypotheses are probability distribu-
Cross-References
tions and have no necessary connection to explicit rea-
▶ Concept Learning
soning. The model’s predictions depend on the initial
▶ Human Causal Learning
biases on the hypotheses (i.e., the prior). The heart of
▶ Learning Algorithms
Bayesian inference – combining the prior with observed
▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning
data to reach a final prediction – is formally equivalent
▶ Metatheories of Learning
to a simple vote-counting scheme. Learning and one-off
▶ Normative Reasoning and Learning
decision-making both follow this scheme, and are iden-
tical except for timescale and specificity of hypotheses.
Most of the elaborate mathematics that often arises in References
Bayesian models comes from the complexity of their Chater, N., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Yuille, A. (2006). Probabilistic models
hypothesis sets or the tricks used to derive tractable of cognition: Conceptual foundations. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 10(7), 287–291.
predictions, which generally have little to do with the
Geisler, W. S., Perry, J. S., Super, B. J., & Gallogly, D. P. (2001). Edge
psychological claims of the researchers. Bayesian infer- co-occurrence in natural images predicts contour grouping per-
ence itself, aside from its assumption of optimality and formance. Vision Research, 41, 711–724.
close relation to vote-counting models, does not make Jones, M., & Love, B. C. (in press, 2011). Bayesian fundamentalism or
psychological claims in recards to representational for- enlightenment? On the explanatory status and theoretical con-
mat, encoding, retrieval, attention, etc. However, the tributions of bayesian models of cognition. Behavioral and Brain
Sciences.
flexibility and power of the Bayesian framework has Kemp, C., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2008). The discovery of structural
allowed researchers to model complex learning and form. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105,
decision-making behaviors that have proven intractable 10687–10692.
or unwieldly under other formulations. Kemp, C., Perfors, A., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2007). Learning
overhypotheses with hierarchical Bayesian models. Developmen-
tal Science, 10, 307–321.
Important Scientific Research and Marr, D. (1982). Vision. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
Open Questions Oaksford, M., & Chater, N. (2007). Bayesian rationality: The proba-
The restriction to computational-level accounts (cf. bilistic approach to human reasoning. Oxford: Oxford University
Marr 1982) severely limits contact with process-level Press.
418 B Bayesian Model

can readily be trained, by food reward, to learn colors

Bayesian Model and to discriminate between them (von Frisch 1993).
▶ Bayesian Learning As in humans, bees are able to perceive the inherent
color (the reflectance spectrum) of an object largely
independently of the spectrum of the light that illumi-
nates it, a phenomenon known as “color constancy”
Bee Learning and (Srinivasan 2009). This enables a blue flower to be
perceived as having more or less the same blue hue
Communication regardless of whether it is viewed under the midday
sun – when the spectrum of the illumination is approx-
MANDYAM V. SRINIVASAN
imately “white” – or in the evening, when the illumi-
Queensland Brain Institute, School of Information
nation is more reddish. Color is perhaps the strongest
Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of
visual cue that bees use to distinguish between flowers.
Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
Pattern learning: Bees can be trained to distinguish
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in
between different patterns – such as horizontal stripes
Vision Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia,
versus vertical stripes, star-shaped patterns versus pat-
QLD, Australia
terns composed of concentric rings, objects of different
sizes, and so on (Wehner 1981; Horridge 2009). Obvi-
Synonyms ously, this is also of great importance in recognizing
Associative learning in bees; Honeybee learning food-bearing flowers. In learning to distinguish
between patterns, bees often display what appears to
Definition be an “eidetic” type of memory in which the patterns
Research over several decades has revealed that honey- are learned as a photographic image (Wehner 1981).
bees are probably the most highly evolved insect in However, bees can also “generalize” pattern learning to
terms of the capacity of individuals to learn colors, distinguish between different categories of patterns –
shapes, and smells, as well as relatively abstract associ- such as the class of all horizontally oriented patterns
ations and complex navigational routes. These crea- versus the class of all vertically oriented patterns, the
tures have also evolved sophisticated methods of class of symmetrical patterns versus the class of asym-
communicating information to one another through metrical patterns, and so on (Srinivasan 2009). These
complex, ritualized behaviors. This entry summarizes faculties are put to good use in distinguishing between
our current knowledge about these capacities, and different flowers, as well as between different classes of
highlights some of the unanswered questions. flowers, nests, or navigational landmarks. Bees can also
be trained to detect camouflaged patters that are nor-
Theoretical Background mally invisible to them (Srinivasan 2009).
The lifestyle of a honeybee requires the ability to learn Olfactory learning: Bees can learn a scent if they are
and recognize the visual appearance, smell, and location trained to feed at a sugar water feeder that is laced with
of nectar and pollen bearing flowers, so that it can return the scent. They can be trained to distinguish between
to the food source quickly, repeatedly, and unerringly. It two different scents by associating one of them with
also requires an individual bee to be able to communi- a sugar reward (von Frisch 1993). Rather like the Pav-
cate information on the location of the food source to its lovian dog, bees can be conditioned to extend their
nest mates so that they, too, can find the source and proboscis in anticipation of food when they experience
forage from it to build up the colony’s nectar and pollen a particular scent. This so-called proboscis extension
reserves. Here we outline some of the well-known learn- reflex (PER) is being used in many laboratories to
ing capacities of honeybees. investigate odor discrimination at the behavioral and
Color learning: Honeybees possess excellent tri- the molecular levels, and to tease out the mechanisms
chromatic color vision, involving three classes of of olfactory learning.
photoreceptors that are sensitive to the ultraviolet, Navigational learning in the laboratory: The ability
blue, and green regions of the light spectrum. Bees to learn routes through mazes has been investigated
 Bee Learning and Communication B 419

extensively in several vertebrates, notably rats, mice, B could be, for example, two different colors (blue and
pigeons, and fish. However, until recently, relatively yellow) and C and D two different patterns (horizontal
few studies have explored maze learning in inverte- and vertical stripes). In this task, the matching is sym- B
brates. We now know that bees can be trained to nego- bolic rather than literal. Bees are able to learn this task
tiate complex labyrinths in several different ways well, too (Srinivasan 2009). Until recently, only verte-
(Srinivasan 2009). For example, they can learn to nav- brates – humans, monkeys, and pigeons – were known
igate a labyrinth if a visual label is provided to identify to be able to learn DMTS and DSMTS tasks. In the
the correct exit in each chamber. Bees can also learn honeybee, these capacities are likely to enhance perfor-
a maze route if they are given symbolic guidance cues: mance in finding a target or navigating reliably to it.
for example, turn left if the chamber is blue, and right if Learning what to do where and when: Bees can learn
it is yellow. And they can also learn to conquer laby- tasks that require a flexible, context-dependent
rinths that carry no guidance cues whatsoever – response. For example, an individual bee can be trained
although their performance in such mazes is not as to find food at one particular location when it enters
good as in cued mazes. Bees can be trained to fly one enclosed space, and at a different location when
through unmarked mazes if the correct route involves it enters a different enclosed space. As another
a pattern of turns that is repetitive or predictable: for example, bees, trained to distinguish between two
example, always turn left, or always turn right, or turn different scents, say A and B, can learn to choose
alternately left and right in successive chambers. A over B at a particular time of day (e.g., in the morn-
Learning complex associations: Mazes have been use- ing) but to choose B over A at a different time of day
ful not only for studying the learning of complex (e.g., in the afternoon). The ability to learn to make
routes, but also for probing the ability of bees to form flexible choices that vary with changes in space and
complex associations. One example of such an appli- time is invaluable to a flower forager, because the avail-
cation is the so-called Delayed Match to Sample ability of nectar-bearing flowers in the environment
(DMTS) task. Here the bee is shown a “sample” stim- can often vary with location as well as time of day
ulus at the entrance to a chamber. When it enters the (Srinivasan 2009).
chamber, it is confronted with two stimuli, only one of Navigation in natural outdoor environments: Navi-
which matches sample. The bee has to learn to choose gation in flying insects has been studied most intensely
the matching sample, by reward. Bees learn to perform in the honeybee. The reason for this probably arises
this DMTS task well, regardless of whether the stimuli from the famous “waggle dance,” which a so-called
are presented in the color domain, in the pattern scout bee performs after returning home from an
domain, or in the olfactory domain (Srini ARE). Fur- attractive food source to advertise to its nest mates
thermore, bees that have been trained to match olfac- the distance and direction of the goal. The dance is
tory stimuli are able to match visual stimuli, without performed on the vertical surface of the honeycomb.
having to be trained specifically on the visual stimuli. The bee moves in a series of alternating left- and right-
Bees can therefore learn the concept of “matching” in hand loops, each pair of loops shaped roughly like
a general way and apply it across stimulus modalities a figure of eight. At the end of each loop, the bee enters
(Srinivasan 2009). Bees can also learn the concept a so-called waggle phase in which she waves her abdo-
of a “non-match”: that is, they can learn to choose the men rapidly from side to side. The angle between
stimulus that does not match the sample stimulus the axis of the waggle and the vertical direction repre-
(Srinivasan 2009). A task of greater complexity is the sents the angle between the sun and the direction in
“Delayed Symbolic Match to Sample” (DSMTS) task. which a bee should fly in order to find the goal. The
Here the bee has to use the identity of a sample stim- duration of the waggle phase is proportional to the
ulus (which can be A or B) to choose between two other distance of the food source from the hive. If the food
comparison stimuli (C and D) that are presented source is a very short distance away from the hive
simultaneously in a subsequent chamber. The bee has (within 50 m), the dance consists of a series of curved
to learn to choose stimulus C if the sample is A, and loops, with no waggle phase. This type of dance, termed
stimulus D if the sample is B. In other words, the bee the “round dance,” conveys no direction information
has to learn to associate A with C, and B with D. A and but signifies that the goal is very close to the hive.
420 B Bee Learning and Communication

The dancing bee therefore uses a highly symbolic pheromones to communicate information via the
“language” to communicate the location of the food olfactory sense. This is a separate topic, too extensive
source relative to the hive (von Frisch 1993). A bee that discuss here.
has discovered a new food source typically requires
about five visits to learn its location well, after
Important Scientific Research and
which it commences to dance and recruit other bees
Open Questions
to the location – but only if it finds the food to be
Although some of the capacities outlined above would
sufficiently nutritious and worthy of the energy that is
appear to be more ecologically relevant than others,
expended to make the journey to it. Bees estimate the
these studies have served to explore the boundaries of
distance they have flown to a food source by sensing the
the visual, perceptual, cognitive, and navigational
extent to which the image of the world has moved in
faculties of honeybees. They raise a number of ques-
the eyes during the journey (Srinivasan 2011). Learning
tions, particularly in relation to the underlying neural
the location of a food source, and the route to it,
mechanisms. Some of the challenging, and as yet unan-
requires combining information on the moment-to-
swered questions are:
moment directions of flight (as determined from the
celestial compass) with information on the distance ● What are the neural mechanisms that underpin
traveled along each of these directions during the jour- the learning of colors? Although there is data on
ney. This process is known as “path integration.” Route the color-induced responses in the photoreceptors
learning and goal recognition are made more robust by and in neurons at various levels of the visual path-
acquiring visual “snapshots” at various reference points way, we have scant knowledge about how colors are
along the way (which may contain salient landmarks) ultimately represented in the brain, and where their
and at the destination. memories are stored.
Counting: Bees are able to pinpoint the location of ● What are the neural mechanisms that underlie
a food source not only by measuring its distance from pattern recognition? What are the features of the
the nest as described above, but also by learning to image that are extracted by the visual system, and
count the number of salient landmarks that are how they are assembled to represent an object in
encountered en route. Bees can count sequentially up a compact and reliable way so that it can be recog-
to a maximum of four in this way. Bees can also learn nized when it is encountered again?
to assess the relative numerosity of objects viewed ● What is the nature of the neural circuitry that
simultaneously, again up to a maximum of four computes, registers, and stores how far a bee has
(Srinivasan 2009). flown? And how is this information “read out” and
Signaling schemas: We have already seen how the translated into a waggle dance?
dance is used to signal the location of a food source. ● At the neural level, how does the brain combine
Other behavioral forms of communication are, information on the distance and direction of flight
for example, (a) “begging”signals, that a potential to perform the process of “path integration” that
recruit directs at a dancing bee to request a taste of informs the insect about where it is located in
the nectar that the dancer has just brought in; (b) the relation to its nest?
“tremble” dance, in which a bee returning with a nectar ● How are landmarks encountered en route learned,
load signals that she is waiting for a nest mate to collect recognized, and incorporated into the bee’s neural
the nectar from her; (c) “stop”signals, where a bee head- representation of the route that it learns to
butts a dancing bee and/or emits a brief buzzing tone to a particular food source?
stop it from dancing, either to stop recruitment because ● How can some of these feats, accomplished by a
there are already too many foragers at the site creature possessing a 1 mg brain and fewer than
being advertised, or because the site harbors danger a million neurons, be translated into novel, biolog-
from a waiting predator, such as a spider (Srinivasan ically inspired algorithms for learning machines
2010). In addition, honeybees use a number of and miniature, intelligent flying robots?
 Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied Behavior Analysis and Learning B 421

Cross-References
▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals Behavior Modification,
▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals Behavior Therapy, Applied B
▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence Behavior Analysis and Learning
▶ Individual Learning
▶ Intelligent Communication in Social Animals JOSEPH J. PEAR1, GARRY L. MARTIN2
▶ Memory for “What”?, “Where”?, and “When”? 1
Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba,
Information in Animals Winnipeg, MB, Canada
▶ Learning in Honeybees: Associative Processes 2
St. Paul’s College University of Manitoba,
▶ Place Learning and Spatial Navigation Winnipeg, MB, Canada

References Synonyms
Horridge, G. A. (2009). What does the honeybee see? And how do we Behavioral engineering; Conditioning applications;
know? Canberra: ANU E Press, The Australian National Conditioning therapies; Learning-based therapies; Pav-
University. lovian and operant technologies
Srinivasan, M. V. (2009). Honeybees as a model for vision, perception
and ‘cognition’. Annual Review of Entomology, 55, 267–284.
Srinivasan, M. V. (2010). Honeybee communication: A signal for Definition
danger. Current Biology, 20, R366–R367. Behavior modification (BM), behavior therapy (BT),
Srinivasan, M. V. (2011). Honeybees as a model for the study of and applied behavior analysis (ABA) all refer to evi-
visually guided flight, navigation, and biologically inspired dence-based applications of learning theory to the
robotics. Physiological Reviews, 91, 389–411.
solution of practical problems. These terms all came
von Frisch, K. (1993). The dance language and orientation of bees.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
into prominence in the 1950s and 1960s, and their
Wehner, R. (1981). Spatial vision in arthropods. In H. Autrum (Ed.), meanings have evolved since their first introduction.
Handbook of sensory physiology. Berlin: Springer.
Theoretical Background
The roots of BM, BT, and ABA lie in the discovery of
conditioning or the development of new reflexes
through the pairing of stimuli, as identified indepen-
Beginner Learning dently by Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936) and Vladimir M.
Bechterev (1857–1927). Pavlov and his students also
▶ Novice Learning discovered counterconditioning, whereby an aversive
stimulus such as electric shock can be made less aver-
sive or even positive by pairing it with another stimulus
(e.g., food) that elicits a positive reaction. Pavlov and
Bechterev believed that conditioning or the formation
Behavior Change of what Bechterev termed association reflexes accounts
for all learning, including the learning of maladaptive
▶ Learning from Counseling behavior (Pear 2007).
In what has been termed the behavioral revolution,
John B. Watson (1878–1958) adopted Pavlov’s termi-
nology, or at least a close approximation to it (e.g.,
“conditional reflex” is a more accurate translation of
Behavior Family Therapy the term that is usually translated from Russian as
“conditioned reflex”) although not his methodology.
▶ Cognitive-Behavioral Family Therapy Using methodology more similar to Bechterev’s – i.e.,
422 B Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied Behavior Analysis and Learning

focusing on motor rather than salivary and other glan- Pavlovian, which works by the pairing of two stimuli,
dular responses – Watson and his graduate student and operant, which works by pairing a response with
Rosalie Rayner (1899–1935) demonstrated the condi- a subsequent reinforcing stimulus, resulting in the
tioning of fear by startling an infant while he observed increased rate of the response. The emphasis of Skinner
a white rat. Mary Cover Jones (1896–1987), a protégé and his followers on studying behavior in individuals,
of Watson, demonstrated that a fear response in a child on focusing on rate or probability of responding, and
could be eliminated through a counterconditioning eschewing theories that attempt to account for behav-
procedure in which the feared object (a white rabbit) ior on the basis of nonbehavioral (e.g., mental) pro-
was introduced gradually while the child was engaging cesses led to the founding of the Journal of the
in an incompatible behavior (eating). The following Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Skinner and many
generation of behaviorists focused mainly on animal of his followers stressed the application of the behavior
research in a field known as learning or learning theory, principles they were elucidating. This emphasis
where “learning” was generally thought of as another included all areas in which human and animal behavior
name for conditioning (Pear 2001). From an applied occurs. The exponential growth of applied behavior
point of view, much theoretical effort was devoted to analytic studies led to the founding of the Journal of
demonstrating the compatibility of learning theory Applied Behavior Analysis. Thus, behavior analysis sub-
with Freudian psychoanalysis. However, a clear break sumes both ABA and the experimental analysis of
between Freudian and learning theory occurred in the behavior (or basic behavior analysis). Behavior analysis
writings and work of Hans J. Eysenck (1916–1997). has grown into a controlled profession with the rise of
Through activities that included editing books on BT certifying bodies such as the Behavior Analysis Certifi-
and founding the journal Behaviour Research and Ther- cation Board.
apy, Eysenck brought together a number of researchers, In their systematic textbook, Martin and Pear
such as Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997), who were (2011) recommend that the term behavior modification
extending the work of Pavlov, Bechterev, Watson, be used to refer to all applications (including those
Rayner, and Mary Cover Jones, and members of the under the rubric of ABA) of learning principles to
next generation of learning theorists, such as Clark L. practical problems and that the term behavior therapy
Hull (1884–1952), to the treatment of clinical prob- be restricted to applications of learning principles to
lems. Eysenck and others also provided strong empir- clinical problems. BM according to these authors is
ical arguments for the greater efficacy of BT relative to broader than both BT and ABA, and includes them.
other psychotherapeutic techniques (Kazdin 1979).
While BT stemmed from traditional learning the- Important Scientific Research and
ory, BM has a broader base. It began as an extension of Open Questions
the methodology of experimental psychology to clini- The current and potential applications of BM are vast.
cal problems without regard to specific theoretical The numerous combinations and permutations of pro-
positions. For example, in an edited book in which cedures within BTand ABA that can be applied give rise
the term “behavior modification” was first used prom- to two overarching scientific tasks: (a) empirical deter-
inently, R. I. Watson (1962) credited Carl Rogers mination of which procedure is most effective for each
(1902–1987) with having “launched the research type of application; and (b) the search for a unifying
approach in behavioral modification through psycho- theory that will indicate which type of procedure is
therapy” (p. 21). Rogers’ humanistic theory was at odds most effective for each type of application. Regarding
with traditional learning theory. the first overarching task, each new type of problem
The origin of ABA can be traced to B. F. Skinner’s that behavior modifiers wish to address will require
book The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental extensive empirical study to determine the most effec-
Analysis (Skinner 1938). Skinner (1904–1990), tive procedures for that problem. Although more
a strong advocate of a conditioning/learning approach ambitious, the second task, if its goal is achieved, will
to behavior, was heavily influenced by both Pavlov and allow the most effective procedures to be applied to
Watson. However, Skinner stressed the importance of new problems. In addition, the second task will provide
distinguishing between two types of conditioning: a convenient rubric or mnemonic to facilitate the
 Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied Behavior Analysis and Learning B 423

training of new behavior modifiers and for established beyond those of straightforward cognition. Teasing all of
behavior modifiers to consult when confronted with these factors out for component analyses – i.e., deter-
a problem they may not have dealt with previously. At mining which of these new factors constitute effective B
this point, we are in the very early stages of embarking therapeutic ingredients and for which specific psycho-
on these two tasks, so it is not clear to what extent they logical problems – will be a decades-long task. In addi-
can or will be successfully completed. tion, the question arises as to how or whether this third
At about the time that BT was being developed, wave will maintain contact with the basic conditioning or
Albert Ellis (1913–2007) and Aaron Beck (1921-) learning theory literature that was so pivotal to the initial
were independently developing an approach called cog- development of BT. Of the third wave therapies, only
nitive therapy. Both of these investigators focused on advocates of one – acceptance and commitment therapy
debilitating or maladaptive thoughts in the etiology of (ACT) – explicitly claim adherence to basic learning
mental disorders, and proposed eliminating those theory findings and methodology.
thoughts as the main goal of treatment. Ellis and Beck ABA also has been applied to clinical problems,
had three things in common with behavior therapists: although much less frequently than BT has. Typically
(a) rejection of Freudian psychoanalysis with its focus ABA starts by identifying, for each client, behaviors
on the past events such as childhood memories and that need to be decreased (problem behaviors) or
peripheral phenomena such as dreams, (b) homework behaviors that need to be increased (desirable behav-
assignments for dealing with maladaptive thoughts and iors). Initial baselines are taken on those behaviors
behavior, and (c) a focus on empirical outcomes as the (often but not necessarily singly), and procedures (typ-
most important evidence for therapeutic success. ically based on current learning theory, functional ana-
Under the influence of cognitive therapists and the lyses of conditions maintaining the problem behaviors,
so-called cognitive revolution that was occurring and successful interventions in previous cases) to
against behaviorism, many psychotherapists adopted decrease the problem behaviors and increase the desir-
a blend of BT and cognitive therapy called cognitive able behaviors are implemented. Various methodolog-
behavior therapy (CBT; or sometimes cognitive behavior ical designs – e.g., reversal designs, multiple-baseline
modification, CBM). There is a long-standing tradition designs – are used to determine whether the interven-
within conditioning theory, going as far back as Pavlov tion was effective to the desired extent, and corrective
and Bechterev, that speech (whether overt or covert) is procedures are taken if it was not. ABA is not incom-
both behavior and stimuli for subsequent behavior. patible with the use of BT procedures, since the inter-
Following this tradition, the issue arises as to whether vention component of ABA can come from various
the cognitive component of CBT is (a) simply an addi- sources. Thus, ABA should be among the procedures
tional behavioral procedure (as argued by, e.g., Martin that are considered and compared to BT procedures in
and Pear 2011) or a qualitatively different kind of the treatment of clinical problems.
procedure; and (b) whether the cognitive component As mentioned previously, ABA has been used with
of CBT provides any added therapeutic value. The first a variety of nonclinical behaviors. These include aca-
issue, depending on how one views it, is either demic and other classroom behavior, drug-dependent
a theoretical, philosophical, or semantic problem that behavior, medical compliance, sports and other skill-
has yet to be resolved. Regarding the second issue, related behaviors, parenting, community problems,
however, the evidence so far indicates that the behav- behavior in institutional settings, and rehabilitation.
ioral component of CBT is the effective ingredient; the Although generally successful wherever it has been
cognitive component appears to provide little or no tried, ABA’s most widely recognized success to date
additional therapeutic effectiveness. has been in the fields of autism and developmental
If CBT constitutes a second wave within BT, it has disabilities. Various government bodies have desig-
been argued that a third wave has emerged. This third nated ABA as the only proven effective treatment
wave adds components such as experiential acceptance, for these conditions. One factor hampering research
mindfulness (e.g., meditation), dialectical thinking, on ABA in other fields is that other approaches are
interpersonal relationship building, and spirituality. demonstrating some effectiveness, so the need to
Clearly, the inclusion of these factors adds complexities consider new approaches is not seen as urgent as in
424 B Behavior State

the fields of autism and developmental disabilities.

Advances in genetics and neuroimaging provide addi- Behavior Systems and Learning
tional areas to investigate. Research questions to ask
with respect to these new technologies concern WILLIAM TIMBERLAKE
whether, for example, different components of BT and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences,
ABA would be more effective with some individuals Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
than with others on the basis of their genetic or neuro-
logical constituents. In addition, the effects of different
Definitions
BT and ABA procedures on various neural correlates
A Behavior System is an evolved, motivational system
may provide theoretical insights regarding the pro-
expressed through a sequence of search modes (strate-
cesses involved in these procedures.
gies) and sensory-motor modules relating environmen-
tal stimuli and adaptive actions. As an example, Fig. 1
Cross-References illustrates the Predatory Subsystem of the Feeding
▶ Behavioral Approaches to Instruction
System of a rat (rattus norvegicus), evolved by descent
▶ Conditioning
and modified in individuals through chance, develop-
▶ Formal Learning Theory
ment, and experience to serve the functions of
▶ Operant Behavior
searching for, acquiring and ingesting food for pur-
▶ Operant Learning
poses of survival and reproduction. The system is orga-
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
nized by motivational modes (strategies), including:
▶ Physiological Homeostasis and Learning
general search, focal search, and handling-consuming.
▶ Psychology of Learning (Overview)
Each mode is expressed through perceptual-motor mod-
▶ Social Learning Theory
ules (combinations of stimulus filters and action pat-
terns), selected by evolution and tuned by development
References and learning to facilitate the discovery, capture, han-
Kazdin, A. E. (1979). Fictions, factions, and functions of behavior
therapy. Behavior Therapy, 10, 629–654.
dling, and ingestion of food, and often adapted to serve
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2011). Behavior modification: What it is and how differentially the functional modes of general search,
to do it (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. focal search, and handling-consuming.
Pear, J. J. (2001). The science of learning. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology
Press. 1. Basic function(s): Searching for, capturing, and
Pear, J. J. (2007). A historical and contemporary look at psychological ingesting food for survival and reproduction
systems. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 2. ▶ Motivational modes (strategies): Functional
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental groupings of sensory-motor modules creating
analysis. Cambridge, MA: B.F. Skinner Foundation.
sequences of general search, focal search, and han-
Watson, R. I. (1962). The experimental tradition and clinical psy-
chology. In A. J. Bachrach (Ed.), Experimental foundations of
dling-consuming behaviors, often involving returning
clinical psychology (pp. 3–25). New York: Basic Books. and repeating portions of the sequence as
appropriate)
3. ▶ Sensory-motor modules: Combinations of
stimulus filters and action patterns selected by
evolution, but often tuned by learning to facilitate
Behavior State food discovery, handling, and ingestion

▶ Alertness and Learning of Individuals with PIMD ▶ Learning is a stable, usually adaptive, change in the
expression of sensory-motor modules, motivational
modes, and regulatory functions, based on:
1. Repeated stimulus presentations: producing habit-
uation, sensitization, stimulus integration
Behavior Styles 2. Pavlovian conditioning procedures: repeated
▶ Adult Learning Styles pairings of a predictive stimulus with reward,
 Behavior Systems and Learning B 425

SUBSYSTEM MODE MODULE ACTION

TRAVEL LOCOMOTE B
SCAN
GENERAL SOCIALIZE CRAWL OVER
SEARCH SNIFF

INVESTIGATE NOSE
PAW
CHASE TRACK
CUT OFF
LIFE IN WAIT IMMOBILE

PREDATORY FOCAL POUNCE

SEARCH CAPTURE GRAB
BITE
TEST GNAW
HOLD
INGEST CHEW
SWALLOW
HANDLE/
CONSUME REJECT SPIT OUT
WIPE OFF
HOARD CARRY

Behavior Systems and Learning. Fig. 1 The predatory subsystem of the feeding behavior system of Norway rats consists
of three search modes: General, focal, and handling/consuming, which control stimulus-response modules related to
foraging actions. Bouts of the expression of foraging modes and modules generally start at the top of the diagram and run
downward, moving back toward the top as the food is lost, rejected, or consumed. Experiments presenting stimuli
predicting food typically engage behavior appropriate to the physical resemblance and typical and actual temporal
proximity of the cue to food

typically altering skeletal and autonomic responses produces adaptive behavior. A behavior system
to the stimulus; for example, repeated presentations approach clarifies and suggests applications and limits
of a brief tone to a hungry dog – each tone followed on the traditional strengthening and prediction-based
by meat powder in its mouth – soon produces models dominating the study of learning. Specifically,
reliable environmental orienting search behavior a behavior system approach focuses on stimulus sensi-
and salivation during the tone. tivities, response forms, and processing and timing
3. (Discriminative) operant conditioning: repeatedly characteristics influenced by the evolutionary ecology
following a lever press with reward (in the context of a species’ niche, and the specific experiences of an
of a tone) typically increases the frequency and rate animal.
of lever pressing in the presence of the tone. The dominant approach to the study of laboratory
learning has focused on general, response-, or stimu-
Theoretical Background lus-reinforcer, models in which learning is attributed to
The development of general learning paradigms and the frequency and predictability of the pairing of stim-
procedures has resulted in general mathematical and uli and/or responses with a reinforcer (e.g., food, water,
neurophysiological models of the learning process, safety, social contact, and mating). For example, in the
improved techniques of animal training, and clarified case of food reward, the well-studied Norway rat is
the use of rewards in child rearing and education. What assumed to learn and perform a required response,
is missing is the integration of the learning models with such as maze running or lever pressing, because these
evolution-based predispositions and constraints responses differentially predict the receipt of food, and
pointed to by ethologists and other biologically ori- often because the more rapidly and accurately the rat
ented researchers concerned with how learning performs the response, the faster the food arrives.
426 B Behavior Systems and Learning

A behavior system approach focuses on relating the deprivation, systematic removal from a “goal,” and
stimulus sensitivities, response forms, and timing char- with maze arms flat on the floor (see Timberlake
acteristics of learning to the evolution and individual 2002). Lest the reader be concerned that the apparatus
development of the members of a species. Specific somehow imposed the behavior, it should be reported
examples of species’ related learning include: retention that Kangaroo “rats” (an unrelated genus with a niche
of components of adult male song by subadult male in high desert areas of California) completely ignored
songbirds (guiding later production) and by females floor arms, edges, and walls in favor of “looping” out
(guiding recognition of suitable mates); rapid imprint- from and back to a home base area (Timberlake 2002).
ing in young precocial birds related to following In short, although psychologists models have long
a proximate moving stimulus; and the ability of mam- credited food deprivation and reward with producing
malian omnivores to acquire one-trial avoidance of the maze learning and traversal in Norway rats, it seems
taste of any novel food followed by gastric distress apparent that Norway rats are evolutionarily selected to
within 24 h. learn and follow paths related to landmarks, whisker
The following sections provide specific examples of contact of edges, and repeated exposures.
how a feeding behavior system influences learning in
rats by clarifying how system components contribute to Pavlovian Procedures: Perceptual-
learning in the common laboratory tasks of maze learn- Motor Modules in Autoshaping
ing, autoshaping, and omission training. and Omission
A second data source questioning a general reinforce-
The Role of Perceptual-Motor ment-learning model concerns the effects of applying
Modules in Maze Learning in Rats: autoshaping and omission contingencies to the com-
Mazes as Trails mon instrumental responses of lever pressing in rats,
Although rats rapidly acquire efficient maze behavior and pecking in pigeons directed at circular plastic
when food is presented in the goal box, two important “keys.” It is widely assumed that experimenters picked
data sources question the sufficiency of this account. the responses of lever manipulation by rats and pecking
The first is Calhoun’s (USPHS) monograph by pigeons because they are easy to measure and conve-
documenting how a colony of wild rats rapidly estab- nient to teach by using food reinforcers to shape succes-
lishes burrows and trails connecting the burrows with sive approximations to pressing or pecking. However, it
foraging locations on the colony’s periphery. It is became clear in the early 1970s that this was not a full
important to note that the establishment of trails and account. In a phenomenon called “autoshaping,” food-
burrows is not limited to wild rats. A 1998 film by trained pigeons quickly began to peck a response key lit
Manuel Berdoy of Oxford (“The Laboratory Rat, several seconds before food was made available; similarly
a Natural History”) documents the release of a sizeable rats presented with a lever inserted shortly before food
group of laboratory-born and reared rats on a farm in arrived, began to tug, bite, and manipulate the lever. In
Oxfordshire, England. Within a few days, these both cases, food was presented on a fixed-time schedule,
multigenerational offspring of lab rats, like their wild independent of the animal’s behavior.
cousins in Calhoun’s work, began to establish burrows Although these data argue that manipulating a lever
and trails, interconnecting them with sources of food or pecking a “key” have species-related aspects,
and water – traversing them rapidly and showing their development can still be comfortably explained
robust predator avoidance. by assuming that occasional pecks or presses were
Of course, it might be argued that such bravura reinforced by accidental response contiguities with
performances were actually rapidly learned based on food. However, when experimenters added to the food
consuming food after a successful run through the schedule an “omission” component that canceled
trails. However, in the laboratory where feeding time food presentation if the animal contacted the lever or
is well controlled, rats acquire efficient locomotion in key during the preceding 15 s interval, it became evident
unbaited standard maze apparatus, including straight that the accidental food proximity explanation of why
alleys, radial arm mazes, and complex multi-choice lever pressing or keypecking occurred was incorrect.
mazes, all in the absence of food reward, food Under an omission contingency, food is prevented
 Behavior Systems and Learning B 427

from following recent presses (or pecks), so no acciden- food to arrive. In the absence of the wheel, they more
tal response shaping can occur. Nevertheless, responding often searched at a distance from the food tray and
still occurs and persists. The conclusion best supported drank excessive water. On the other hand, predictive B
is that contacting a moving lever in rats or a lighted key stimuli temporally or physically more proximate to
in pigeons is based on species-based perceptual-motor food entrained focal search behaviors, such as tugging
modules that underlie the evolution development, and on a protruding lever, or digging and nosing around
expression of their foraging behavior. the food tray. Finally, when food was highly proximate,
Combining the rat data showing rapid learning to behaviors related to a handling-consuming mode
traverse a maze in the absence of food deprivation or appeared, such as prey capture, or digging/nosing vig-
obvious reward, with the above data showing emer- orously in the food tray.
gence and persistence of lever or key contact under an Silva and Timberlake (2005) summarized a number
omission contingency (preventing a positive relation of studies using a probe technique to document differ-
between contact and food), argues for two conclusions: ent search modes for food. For example, if a lever is
(1) Scientists building experimental apparatus and inserted in the middle of the FT, the animal approaches
designing learning procedures for laboratory rats and and interacts with the lever for a time before moving
pigeons proved to be perceptive judges of the nature of toward the food tray. On the other hand, if the same
the stimulus-response organization (perceptual-motor lever is inserted close to the end of the interval, the rat
modules) underlying foraging in these species. more often moved directly to the food tray. Similarly,
(2) These perceptual-motor modules are sufficiently a far-to-near sequence of two levers predicting food is
integrated that they are engaged without food, and tracked in that order, but a near-to-far predictive
persist even when food is omitted when the animal sequence is not tracked. Instead, the animal goes from
expresses them. the near lever directly to the feeder.
It is worth noting that the perceptual-motor mod-
ules constituting a rat foraging system are not restricted Important Scientific Research and
to locomotion and food manipulation responses. For Open Questions
example, a social investigation module can be engaged Not only do behavior system modes, and modules
in both juvenile and adult rats simply by presenting a engaged by predictive cues or intervals vary with the
(constrained) adult rat as a predictor of food species, but also with the motivational system (e.g.,
(Timberlake 1990). A subject rat of any age will feeding vs. mating), but they also vary with the species,
approach and socially engage an adult rat (though not and sometimes with changes in the availability of
a juvenile) rat predicting food, as well as an adult rat a resource. In all cases, the reinforcer is less
randomly predicting food. These outcomes are predict- a “strengthener” of stimulus-response connections,
able from work by B. G. Galef Jr. on the role of social than a modifier of attention, a means of changing
communication in the feeding system of rats. That relative attractiveness of behaviors and locations, and
male hamsters will not approach adult male hamsters a determinant of available repertoire. Further, species’
predicting food (male hamsters establish individual differences in reactions to the same predictive stimulus
feeding territories) clarifies the unique social foraging can vary considerably based on how characteristics of
system of rats (Timberlake 2001). the stimulus fit with the set of available modules.
For example, Timberlake and Washburn (see
Contributions of Motivational Modes Timberlake 1989), basing their procedures on previous
to Laboratory and Ecological Learning work demonstrating predatory modules of rats
As noted in Fig. 1, modes are motivational substates expressed toward a rolling ball bearing predicting
that control modules as a function of their proximity to food, tested the reactions of seven rodent species to
reward. Predictive stimuli more distant temporally or the same stimulus predicting food. They predicted that
physically will support modules related to a general a species’ attention to and interaction with moving
search mode. For example, Timberlake (2001) reported bearing in the laboratory would be related to the
that rats under long fixed time (FT) food schedules amount of prey found in their stomachs in the wild,
frequently ran in an available wheel while waiting for as well as to how species members dealt with live
428 B Behavior Systems and Learning

crickets placed in their home cages. Supporting these unnatural to begin with, and that psychologists make
predictions, behavior to the ball bearing varied directly matters worse by running (sleepy) rats during the day,
with the predatory behaviors of a species. Grasshopper when (as a nocturnal species) they should be asleep. It
mice (O. leucogaster), and rats (R. norvegicus) attacked appears, though (as noted above), that the adaptive
the bearing; the Peromyscus species (P. leucopous and behavior of laboratory rats released on a farm highly
P. californicus) ran alongside the bearing, biting at it; resembles that of wild rats, providing good evidence of
while the herbivorous species, the cotton rat their basic behavioral “reality” as rats. In addition,
(S. hispidus) “froze” as the bearing rolled by. Because psychologists clearly figured out how to circumvent
all these responses constitute misbehavior (to get food the issue of testing sleepy rats during the day by dis-
each subject needed only to go to the food tray when covering that rats organize their daily circadian activity
the bearing appeared), the data strongly support the rhythm around the absolute time they are presented
view that misbehavior reflects a locally inappropriate with a significant amount of food (regardless of time
engagement of species-typical components of a feeding of day).
system. Finally, both behavioral ecologists and behavior
For additional examples of how species and system system researchers appear to agree that: (1) ecologically
behavior systems interact with learning procedures, see selected and constrained learning can be a major con-
symposium papers listed under Timberlake and tributor to vertebrate behavior; and (2) a behavior sys-
Fanselow (1994) in the Bibliography, including work tem approach shows important potential for
by Fanselow on the rat defensive system, by Domjan integrating the study of learning in the laboratory and
(and Akins) on the mating system of quail, and by field into an analytic, robust, and ecologically mean-
Hogan on chick development. ingful research program.
In short, the evidence reviewed and referenced
above supports the view that reliable laboratory learn-
Cross-References
ing phenomena in rats and pigeons stem from the
▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning
interaction of perceptual-motor modules and search
▶ Ecology of Learning
modes in the relevant behavior systems of a species
▶ Erotic/Sexual Learning
with the apparatus and tasks selected by experimenters.
▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
This conclusion reflects an important, two-sided,
▶ Learning and Instinct
irony.
▶ Operant Learning
In the case of the laboratory experimentalists, there
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
is irony in the contrast between their focus on abstract
▶ Place Learning and Spatial Navigation
general models of response strengthening and cue
▶ Selective Associations
validity and their ability to design ecological learning
▶ Spatial Learning
tasks that clearly engage the evolutionary behavior
systems of their subjects. It is remarkable that neither
keypecking by pigeons, nor maze performance or lever References
manipulation by rats requires operant training using Silva, K. M., & Timberlake, W. (2005). A behavior systems view of
response-contingent reward. Maze performance is pro- partially reinforced responding during an interfood clock. Learn-
duced by repeated exposure to the apparatus, and the ing & Behavior, 33, 99–110.
Timberlake, W. (1990). Natural learning in laboratory paradigms. In
acquisition of lever manipulation by rats and
D. A. Dewsbury (Ed.), Contemporary issues in comparative psy-
keypecking by pigeons requires only that movement chology (pp. 31–54). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
of the lever or illumination of the key signals the immi- Timberlake, W., & Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Symposium on behavior
nent arrival of food. Rat manipulations of the lever and systems: Learning, neurophysiology, and development.
pigeons pecking the key simply emerges and continues, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 403–456, includes:
Timberlake, W. Behavior systems, associationism, and Pavlovian
even if the response is under an omission contingency
conditioning. (405–420); Domjan, M. Formulation of a behavior
and, thus, is never followed by a food reward. system for sexual conditioning. (421–428); Fanselow, M. Neural
The other side of the irony relates to the belief of organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for
some biologists that laboratory rats and apparatus are fear. (429–438); Hogan, J. A. Structure and development of
 Behavioral Approaches to Instruction B 429

behavior systems. (439–450); Shettleworth, S. Commentary: (Pear 2007). The mind, according to functionalists, was
What are behavior systems and what use are they? (451–456). an evolved entity whose existence depended on its
Timberlake, W. (2001). Motivational modes in behavior systems. In
R. R. Mowrer & S. B. Klein (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary
contribution to evolutionary survival. Three function- B
learning theories (pp. 155–209). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. alists of special importance to the development of
Timberlake, W. (2002). Niche-related learning in laboratory para- behavioral approaches to instruction are William
digms: The case of maze behavior in laboratory rats. Behavioural James, John Dewey, and Edward L. Thorndike.
Brain Research, 134, 355–374. For William James (1842–1910) animals, including
humans, begin life with a set of instincts that are grad-
ually molded into habits. Beginning with the very
young child, the educator’s job is to modify these
Behavior Therapy habits. At some point the well-educated person learns
to control and modify his or her own habits. However,
▶ A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of
James believed that education was an art to which the
Psychotherapy
psychology of his day could offer little.
John Dewey (1859–1952) actively applied James’s
functionalist approach (which James called pragmatism
and Dewey called instrumentalism) to education.
Behavioral Approaches to Dewey emphasized that learning is best viewed as an
Education/Teaching active process in which thinking, doing, and problem
solving are closely intertwined. In short, he believed
▶ Behavioral Approaches to Instruction
that individuals learn best through active engagement
with their environments.
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was strongly
influenced by both James (under whom he received
Behavioral Approaches to his masters degree) and Dewey. Working with animals,
Instruction Thorndike demonstrated that three laws explain much
of what might appear to be the result of higher-order
JOSEPH J. PEAR faculties. The most important of these laws is the law of
Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, effect which states that if an animal in a given situation
Winnipeg, MB, Canada makes a response that is closely followed by an event
called a satisfier (e.g., food), a bond between that situ-
ation and response is strengthened so that the response
Synonyms will be more likely to occur the next time the animal is
Behavioral approaches to education/teaching; Empiri- in that situation. Through his animal research, Thorn-
cally supported methods of instruction; Evidence- dike had synthesized the teachings of James and Dewey;
based teaching; Technology of teaching i.e., animals formed or modified habits (James)
through trial-and-error interactions with their envi-
Definition ronments (Dewey). Thorndike extended his research
Behavioral approaches to instruction have the following to education, viewing instruction largely as a trial-and-
properties: (1) the learning that is to occur is defined error process in which S-R bonds are strengthened by
behaviorally – i.e., in terms of observable, measurable such satisfiers as the words “Right” and “OK.”
behavior; (2) the procedures used to produce the desired Initiating the behavioral revolution in psychology,
learning are defined in terms of clearly defined opera- John B. Watson (1878–1958) advocated banishing
tions; and (3) the procedures are evidence-based. from psychology terms such as “mind” and “con-
sciousness” that were prevalent in functionalism and
Theoretical Background other schools of psychology. Watson, reinterpreting
The theoretical roots of behavioral approaches to psychology as the science of behavior, discussed habit
instruction lie in the functionalist school of psychology without reference to consciousness. After becoming
430 B Behavioral Approaches to Instruction

familiar with the work of Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936) could be viewed but not changed. The frames were
and Vladimir M. Bechterev (1857–1927), Watson made designed and sequenced to minimize errors because
the conditioned reflex the basic unit of habit. Watson Skinner believed that (1) errors tend to generate sub-
argued that behaviorism opens the door to many sequent errors, (2) the aversive by-products of errors
empirical applications, including “experimental peda- interfere with the learning process, and (3) the
gogy.” However, he made no contributions to this field, matching of the student’s response with the correct
probably because the conditioned reflex is not a good response provided the positive reinforcement needed
model for achieving most instructional objectives. to maintain the student’s continued responding on the
Thorndike’s model provided a better starting point. machine. Skinner eschewed the use multiple-choice
Sidney L. Pressey (1888–1979) sought to automate questions for at least three reasons: (1) he believed
the application of Thorndike’s laws of learning through that being able to generate correct answers is more
a device called a teaching machine. The basic mecha- useful than simply being able to recognize them,
nism consisted of a metal case containing four or five (2) multiple-choice questions expose students to incor-
buttons for responding to multiple-choice questions. rect information that could interfere with subsequent
The student read an assignment and then took learning, and (3) it is possible for a student to make
a multiple-choice test using the machine. Whenever a correct response to a multiple-choice question with-
the student made a correct response, the pressure on out being under the control of the relevant educational
the correct button mechanically caused the machine to variables. Similar to Pressey’s teaching machines, Skin-
advance to the next question. If the student made an ner’s teaching machines provided written records of the
incorrect response, the machine did not advance and students’ performance for addressing any problems
the student was required to try again until he or she had students had with the material, for improving the
made the correct response. This procedure provided teaching program, and for research purposes. Skinner
the “stamping in” of the correct stimulus-response developed a paper version in the form of a book called
connection. Importantly, the machine provided a programmed textbook. Presentation of material in the
a written record of the student’s performance for manner of a Skinnerian-type teaching machine is called
addressing any problems the student had with the programmed instruction (PI). Computerized versions of
material, for improving the teaching program, and for PI, unlike Skinner’s teaching machines, tend to use
research purposes. Pressey also developed a paper ver- multiple-choice questions.
sion of his teaching machine. The student made choices Ogden R. Lindsley (1922–2004), who received his
on a chemically treated paper using a pen with a special doctorate under Skinner, developed a behavioral
type of red ink that turned black when the student method of instruction called precision teaching that
made the correct choice but remained red when the focuses on increasing the student’s response rate on
student made an incorrect choice. basic concepts and skills before going to more complex
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) developed a different concepts and skills (Lindsley 1991). Teachers are
design for teaching machines based on his research on encouraged to chart student performance on a special
operant conditioning (a concept very similar to logarithmic graphing paper, called a celeration chart, as
Thorndike’s law of effect). Rather than relying on mate- a means of evaluating the effectiveness of their teach-
rial from an external source as Pressey’s teaching ing. Precision teaching is often combined with
machine did, Skinner’s teaching machine presented a method called direct instruction (developed by Sieg-
small segments of material called frames in a sequence fried E. Engelmann) whereby teachers are given scripts
designed to facilitate learning of the material (Skinner to follow in demonstrating concepts and skills to stu-
1958). At the end of each frame was a question or dents, prompting responses from students, and provid-
a statement in which one or more words were blanked ing positive reinforcement for correct responses.
out. The student’s task was to write the answer to the Fred S. Keller (1899–1996), a colleague and friend
question or the missing word(s) from the information of Skinner, developed a method called personalized
in the frame. The student then pulled a lever causing system of instruction (PSI) (Keller 1968). In this method
the correct response to be shown and the student’s the course material (which may be in the form of
response to move under a transparent cover where it a textbook) is broken down into small units and students
 Behavioral Approaches to Instruction B 431

are provided with study questions on each unit. Students methods are used; (5) behavioral methods require
proceed through the units at their own pace, demonstrat- more advance preparation on the part of the instructor;
ing mastery of the material in each unit by passing a test and (6) traditional methods may be perceived as B
on the unit before proceeding to the next unit. Because of providing more opportunities than behavioral methods
the frequency of testing required, students (called proc- for the instructor to further develop his or her own
tors) from a more advanced course are used to grade the knowledge about the subject matter being taught.
unit tests and provide feedback to the students on those Typically the dependent variable that has been
tests. Computer-aided personalized system of instruction examined most extensively in comparing behavioral
(CAPSI), a computerized version of PSI, selects proc- instructional methods with traditional methods is the
tors (called peer reviewers) from within the same course learning of basic facts and concepts. The effects of
(Pear et al. in press). Serving as a proctor or peer behavioral instructional methods on the higher levels,
reviewer enhances the proctor or peer reviewer’s learn- including critical thinking and creativity, need also to
ing as well as the learning of the students whose unit tests be examined more extensively.
they grade. Data are archived for addressing any prob- Comparisons should also be made of different
lems the student has with the material, for improving behavioral methods in comparable educational set-
the teaching method, and for research purposes. tings; e.g., comparisons of PSI with IT, or of PI with
The final behavioral instructional method to be precision teaching. These comparisons will be most
considered here is called interteaching (IT) (Saville useful if each method is tested in its maximally effective
et al. 2011). In this approach, students receive a prep form with respect to the dependent variables being
guide at the end of each class consisting of study examined. This will require an analysis of the compo-
questions relating to the next assignment. At the next nents of the different methods.
class meeting each student teams up with a peer to Some examples of component effects that are
discuss their answers to the questions on the prep important to examine are: (1) the effects of multiple-
guide and to prepare a report on any difficulties they choice versus short-answer type questions; (2) the
encountered with the material. The instructor moni- effects of deadlines for completing course components;
tors the peer discussions and at the beginning of the (3) the effects of peer discussions; (4) the effects of
next class presents a lecture on material with which instructor, teaching assistant, and peer-reviewer grad-
students had difficulty. The method also includes ing versus computer grading; (5) the effects of methods
frequent tests based on questions in the prep guides. designed to improve peer reviewing and peer discus-
sions; and (6) the reinforcing effects of the numerical
Important Scientific Research and points given toward the final grade for various behav-
Open Questions iors outlined in the teaching methods.
Wherever behavioral instructional methods have been Hybrid behavioral instructional methods should
tested they have proven to be more effective than tradi- also be developed and examined for at least three
tional methods, which have typically been lectures. Why reasons: (1) some students may do better with one
then have they not been more widely adopted? Some method while other students do better with other
possible reasons to investigate are: (1) teachers receive or methods, (2) students may do better under a variety
perceive pressure from administrators, colleagues, and/ of methods than using one single method, and
or students to use traditional methods; (2) teachers are (3) some methods may be better for developing some
more comfortable teaching by methods by which they types or levels of knowledge or skills while others are
themselves have been taught and with which they are better at teaching other types of levels or skills.
familiar; (3) much of the teaching done using behavioral
methods is less conspicuous than the work done by Cross-References
teachers using traditional methods thereby resulting in ▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied
less reinforcement and/or punishment for the teacher; Behavior Analysis and Learning
(4) the audience effect is more reinforcing to the teacher ▶ Behavioral Skills Training and Skill Learning
when traditional methods are used than are the changes ▶ Behaviorism and behaviorist learning theories
in the students’ behavior that occur when behavioral ▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
432 B Behavioral Capacity Limits

▶ Critical Thinking and Learning the nature of this limitation and its relationship with
▶ Evidence-Based Learning attention is still an active source of debate.
▶ Learner-Centered Teaching
▶ Learning by Doing Theoretical Background
▶ Mastery Learning The distinction between limited and unlimited capac-
▶ Online Collaborative Learning ity components of memory has existed for at least
a century, ever since William James spoke of the differ-
References ence between primary and secondary memory (1890).
Keller, F. S. (1968). “Good-bye teacher. . .”. Journal of Applied Behavior Secondary memory, also known as long-term memory,
Analysis, 1, 79–89. is assumed to be nearly infinite, or at least so large that
Lindsley, O. R. (1991). Precision teaching’s unique legacy from it is not likely to be exhausted during a human lifetime.
B F. Skinner. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1, 253–266.
On the other hand, primary memory, otherwise known
Pear, J. J. (2007). A historical and contemporary look at psychological
systems. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. as short-term memory, is much smaller. In fact, short-
Pear, J. J., Schnerch, G. J., Silva, K. M., Svenningsen, L., & Lambert, J. term memory was first believed to be limited to seven
(in press). Web-based computer-aided personalized system of items (Miller 1956). Later, however, when factors such
instruction. In W. Buskist, & J. E. Groccia (Eds.), Evidence-Based as chunking and other strategic influences were con-
Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, (Vol. 128).
sidered, that number was found to be closer to four
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Saville, B. K., Lambert, T., & Robertson, S. (2011). Interteaching: items (Cowan 2000). This introduces an important
Bringing behavioral education into the 21st century. The Psycho- question: why do certain kinds of memory experience
logical Record, 61, 153–166. such limitations but others do not?
Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969–977. Although processing limitations are still poorly
understood, one likely interpretation is what psychol-
ogists call a cognitive bottleneck. A bottleneck occurs
when some cognitive resource is needed for more than
one task, leading to a disruption of performance when
Behavioral Capacity Limits more than one cognitive process calls upon that resource
(Pashler 1993). Bottlenecks occur at all stages of cogni-
SCOTT WEEMS1, JAMES REGGIA2 tive processing, not just memory. For example, bottle-
1
Center for Advanced Study of Language, University of necks have been observed during detection of novel
Maryland, College Park, MD, USA visual stimuli; when people consciously identify
2
Department of Computer Science, University of a visual stimulus, they may be unable to detect
Maryland, College Park, MD, USA a second stimulus for up to 500 ms after the first.
This effect is called attentional blink (AB), because
capacity to detect the second stimulus is briefly delayed
Synonyms by the first. Another example of a resource bottleneck is
Scope of attention; Short-term memory capacity called the psychological refractory period (PRP). This is
observed when subjects perform two sensorimotor
Definition tasks in rapid succession, with the second task often
Behavioral capacity limits refer to the resource-limited demonstrating delayed responses due to lingering
nature of human information processing. While this resources still being controlled by the first.
term can be used to refer to limitations in such infor- Although the nature of the limited resource which
mation-processing phenomena as sensory encoding, leads to the bottleneck in each of these situations is
short-term memory, and response selection, it is gen- poorly understood, with many simply calling it
erally accepted to apply to any cognitive process involv- a “resource” and others (Broadbent 1971) calling it
ing a bottleneck of available resources. The most widely “an information processing channel with limited
referred to behavioral capacity limit involves short- capacity,” it is widely believed that attentional limita-
term memory capacity, which is believed to be tions play a key role. For example, data support that the
constrained to approximately four items, although PRP results from the postponement of attention-
 Behavioral Capacity Limits B 433

demanding stages of the second task which are shared whether capacity limitations result from a single serial
and with the first. Attention also acts as an important bottleneck, a structure that queues items one at a time
bottleneck for short-term memory; specifically, Cowan for processing, or some abstract resource (e.g., B
has suggested that attention, by being limited in nature processing device, storage units, communication
and being a gateway to conscious awareness, deter- device, or energy) being distributed unequally between
mines the maximum number of items that can be tasks. Other researchers have argued that stimulus-
held in memory at any given time. Still, this leaves dependent influences on AB indicate that a single
many questions unanswered. For example, what stages resource cannot explain the effect, with some propos-
of visual processing are capacity unlimited (not ing an alternate interpretation involving multiple chan-
attentionally demanding) and what stages are capacity nels of interference leading to processing capacity
limited (require attention)? Does attention limit short- limitations. Studies of the neurobiological nature of
term memory prior to or during encoding? At what the AB, PRP, and visual working memory (VWM)
stage of response selection does an attentional bottle- have also shown that while AB and PRP share common
neck occur? physiological sources in the lateral frontal/prefrontal
cortex, VWM appears more relatively localized to the
Important Scientific Research and posterior parietal and occipital cortex. So it is possible
Open Questions the bottlenecks associated with each may share not just
Donald Broadbent was one of the first researchers to different neural loci, but also different cognitive infor-
use an information-processing approach to address mation-processing sources as well. Lastly, recent com-
bottlenecks. His Filter Model proposed that informa- putational work in the area of capacity limits has
tion from one’s environment is filtered early in the suggested that such limits may not result from some
perceptual process based on its physical characteristics, limited resource at all, at least with short-term mem-
with the filtering allowing the person to focus on spe- ory, but simply be an emergent property resulting from
cific aspects of the environment, albeit often at the decay and interference in the human memory system
expense of others (and therefore introducing capacity (Weems et al. 2009).
limitations). However, subsequent research demon-
strating that people still identify irrelevant and Cross-References
unattended stimuli required the model be revised, lead- ▶ Capacity Limitations of Memory and Learning
ing Anne Treisman to propose her Attenuation Model ▶ Short-Term Memory and Learning
(1964). While this model also postulated an informa- ▶ Working Memory
tion-processing bottleneck, it proposed one which
attenuates rather than eliminates those aspects of the
incoming signal which do not meet the filter criteria. In
References
Broadbent, D. (1971). Decision and stress. London: Academic.
this way, meaningful information can still reach atten-
Cowan, N. (2000). The magical number 4 in short-term memory:
tion provided it is salient enough to pass through the A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. The Behavioral and
filter. Lastly, much like Treisman’s Attenuation Model, Brain Sciences, 24, 87–185.
late selection models have also been developed to Deutsch, J., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: some theoretical con-
explain the important role of arousal and stimulus siderations. Psychological Review, 70, 80–90.
salience in attentional filtering. However, in contrast James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two:
to Treisman’s and Broadbent’s models, late selection some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psycho-
models assume that all stimuli are processed to the logical Review, 63, 81–97.
level of their semantic meaning before relevance deter- Pashler, H. (1993). Doing two things at the same time. American
mines what reaches conscious awareness (Deutsch and Scientist, 81, 48–55.
Deutsch 1963). Treisman, A. (1964). Verbal cues, language, and meaning in selective
attention. The American Journal of Psychology, 77, 206–219.
Today, many questions remain regarding not just
Weems, S., Winder, R., Bunting, M., & Reggia, J. (2009). Running
the timing of processing bottlenecks, but also their memory span: a comparison of behavioral capacity limits with
physiological underpinnings and their unitary nature. those of an attractor neural network. Cognitive Systems Research,
For example, some researchers have questioned 10, 161–171.
434 B Behavioral Cloning

an infant’s behavior to investigate infants’ understand-

Behavioral Cloning ing of the various components of language. Although
▶ Model-Based Imitation Learning the methodologies were initially developed to study
infant speech/phonemic perception, variations have
been used to study infants’ understanding of semantic
and grammatical components of language. The pre-
Behavioral Depression dominant methodologies include measuring infant
sucking rates and using infant orienting, gaze, and
▶ Learned Helplessness head-turn behaviors. Several versions of these method-
ologies have also used operant conditioning of specific
behavioral responses to demonstrate perceptual dis-
crimination in infants. The specific methodology
Behavioral Disorders
employed often depends on two constraints: (1) the
▶ Achievement Deficits of Students with Emotional age group under investigation (older infants possess
and Behavioral Disabilities many more measureable behavioral responses in
comparison to newborns) and (2) the specific nature
of the research question being examined (e.g., percep-
tual discrimination or perceptual preference).
Behavioral Engineering
▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied
Theoretical Background
The development of behavioral methodologies for the
Behavior Analysis and Learning
study of language development during infancy
stemmed from interest in psychoacoustic theories of
speech perception, which suggested that auditory per-
Behavioral Flexibility ception was a key factor in the development of speech
perception, and thus, language acquisition. Psycho-
▶ Impulsivity and Reversal Learning acoustic approaches involved examining the absolute
hearing sensitivities of listeners by manipulating stim-
uli and task factors. In the 1970s, the use of psycho-
acoustic theories and methodologies were used to
Behavioral Inhibition examine phenomena such as categorical perception of
▶ Neural Mechanisms of Extinction Learning and speech sounds and to test claims that specialized lan-
Retrieval guage mechanisms existed and were unique to the
human brain. In this way, behavioral methodologies
of infant language acquisition have evolved from basic
psychoacoustic paradigms.
Behavioral Methodologies in The high-amplitude sucking procedure has been
Infant Language Acquisition used to test perceptual discrimination abilities of new-
born infants in a variety of speech- and language-related
CHRISTINE D. TSANG studies. In this paradigm, a pacifier is connected to
Department of Psychology, Huron University College a pressure transducer, which in turn is connected to
at the University of Western Ontario, London, ON, a computer. The computer measures how often the
Canada infant produces a hard suck. In one version of
the sucking paradigm, infants are habituated to
a particular stimulus (e.g., the sound/ba/) such that
Definition each time the infant makes a hard suck, the stimulus is
Behavioral methodologies in infant language acquisi- presented. When the sucking rate decreases to some
tion generally involve measuring observable changes in habituation criterion (e.g., sucking rate decreases
 Behavioral Methodologies in Infant Language Acquisition B 435

to 50% of initial rate), infants are presented with either that side, a sound stimulus is presented from a sound
the same stimulus as heard during the habituation speaker located behind the visual target. When the
phase, or the infant is presented with another novel infant looks away for more than 2 s, the sound presen- B
stimulus (e.g.,/da/). If the infant’s sucking rate increases tation ends. The infant’s attention is once again
to the presentation of the novel stimulus but not to the brought to the center, and the next trial begins with
familiar stimulus, the infant detects the change in the same visual target flashing on the other side of the
the stimulus. Studies using the high-amplitude sucking infant. When the infant looks to that side, a different
procedure have shown that young infants possess many sound stimulus is presented and continues to play as
rudimentary speech perception abilities, such as long as the infant attends to that side. A difference in
categorical perception of speech sounds in 2-month- looking time to the two sides in response to one sound
old infants. stimulus in comparison to the other sound stimulus is
Observation of infant orienting responses is also interpreted as an indication that the infant discrimi-
a common methodology typically used with younger nates between the two sounds and that the infant pre-
infants (newborn to 4- or 5-month-olds). This para- fers one over the other.
digm utilizes the orienting response normally displayed
by infants when attending to a new or novel event. The Important Scientific Research and
specific response observed varies across infants, but Open Questions
may include a momentary cessation of ongoing behav- The high-amplitude sucking procedure has shown that
ior, orienting of eyes or head toward a new stimulus, or newborn infants are capable of discriminating many
changes in physiological measures, such as heart rate different speech sounds (e.g., Eimas et al. 1971). This
deceleration. Infants’ gaze or looking behavior can also technique has also demonstrated that newborns have
be used as an assessment of language sensitivity. This learned some characteristics of maternal speech pat-
multimodal procedure measures the length of time terns in utero. For example, newborn infants are not
infants visually attend to a particular visual stimulus only familiar with and are able to discriminate between
while listening to another auditory stimulus. Variants some characteristics of their mother’s speech patterns,
of this procedure include presentation of two different but generally prefer maternal voice and speech charac-
visual images side by side while a single auditory stim- teristics that were learned while in utero (DeCasper and
ulus is played and measuring how long the infant Fifer 1980; Mehler et al. 1988). More recently, studies
attends to one image or the other while the sound using the sucking procedure have found that newborn
plays, or presenting a single visual image for visual infants are highly sensitive to rhythmic and intona-
fixation (e.g., checkerboard pattern) and presenting tional (prosodic) features of speech (Nazzi et al. 1998).
two different auditory sound stimuli alternately and The use of the orienting response method has
measuring how long infants attend to the visual target been primarily used to obtain auditory threshold
while one sound is presented in comparison to the measures across several different age groups of infants
other sound. Generally, this paradigm has been utilized (see Werner 1992), but has also been employed to
to measure infants’ perceptual preference for examine 2–4-month-old infants’ ability to localize
a particular stimulus; however, it can be modified sounds (Morrongiello et al. 1990). Gaze- or looking-
into a habituation/dishabituation procedure relatively based procedures have been used successfully to dem-
easily to measure discriminatory abilities. The head- onstrate many aspects of early speech perception and
turn preference procedure is also a common method- semantic development. For example, at 2 months of
ology in studies of infant language discrimination, for age, infants can associate facial articulations with pro-
use with older infants capable of making a controlled, duced sounds (Kuhl and Meltzoff 1982), by 4 months,
voluntary head-turn (6 months and older). In this infants are able to integrate visual and auditory infor-
paradigm, infants are seated (on a caregiver’s lap) mation in speech perception (Werker and Desjardins
with an experimenter seated (or a video camera) facing 2004) and by 6 months of age, infants have already
the infant. At the start of a trial, a visual target (e.g., made an association between the sound patterns of
a flashing light) located on one side of the infant causes words and their meaning (Tincoff and Jusczyk 1999).
the infant to look to that side. When the infant looks to Head-turn methodologies have been used to
436 B Behavioral Methodologies in Infant Language Acquisition

demonstrate that 6–8-month-old infants are able to of infant cognitive capacity. However, behavioral
segment word in fluent speech using only frequency- methodologies such as the ones described here remain
based cues found in the statistical structure of speech the predominant research methodology for perceptual,
(e.g., Saffran et al. 1996), and by 14 months of age cognitive, and language research with infant
infants are capable of learning the association between participants.
new words and new objects (Werker et al. 1998).
The use of operant reinforcement procedures with
Cross-References
sucking and head-turn measures have yielded much
▶ Acoustic and Phonological Learning
information about infants’ early language abilities.
▶ Audiovisual Learning
Indeed, one of the variants of the high-amplitude suck-
▶ Conditioning
ing procedure operantly conditions infants’ sucking
▶ Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and
rates to show both perceptual discrimination and per-
Learning
ceptual preference for maternal features of speech. In
▶ Habituation
this version, infants are reinforced for either a high rate
▶ Habituation in Infant Cognition
of sucking (fast sucking) or a low rate of sucking (slow
▶ Language Acquisition and Development
sucking) by the presentation of either a reinforcing
▶ Phonological Representation
stimulus (e.g., mother’s voice) or a non-reinforcing
▶ Speech Perception and Learning
stimulus (e.g., strange female voice).
▶ Statistical Learning in Perception
For older infants (6 months and older), the operant
conditioned head-turn paradigm is often used to dem-
onstrate infants’ perceptual discrimination abilities. In References
this paradigm, the infant is presented with a sound DeCasper, A. J., & Fifer, W. P. (1980). Of human bonding: Newborns
prefer their mothers’ voices. Science, 208, 1174–1176.
stimulus (e.g.,/ba/) for which the orienting response
Eimas, P. D., Siqueland, E. R., Jusczyk, P., & Vigorito, J. (1971). Speech
to the sound is rewarded usually by some visual rein- perception in infants. Science, 171(968), 303–306.
forcement, such as a moving mechanical toy, or Kuhl, P. K. (1979). Speech perception in early infancy: Perceptual
a flashing light. Thus, the sound stimulus becomes constancy for spectrally dissimilar vowel categories. Journal of the
a discriminatory stimulus that predicts a reward, such Acoustical Society of America, 66, 1668–1679.
that if the infant has learned the association, the infant Kuhl, P. K., & Meltzoff, A. N. (1982). The bimodal perception of
speech in infancy. Science, 218, 1138–1141.
should make a head-turn as soon as the sound stimulus
Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P. W., Lambertz, G., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J., &
is heard. The difference between sound stimuli can be Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A precursor of language acquisition in
made very small during the course of testing to exam- young infants. Cognition, 29, 144–178.
ine infants’ thresholds for sound discrimination. This Morrongiello, B. A., Fenwick, K. D., & Chance, G. (1990). Sound
method has been used to successfully examine infants’ localization acuity in very young infants: An observer-based
testing procedure. Developmental Psychology, 26, 75–84.
abilities to discriminate between vowel categories as
Nazzi, T., Bertoncini, J., & Mehler, J. (1998). Language discrimination
well as infants’ discrimination of native language by newborns: Towards an understanding of the role of rhythm.
speech contrasts compared to nonnative language Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Per-
speech contrasts. formance, 24, 756–766.
It is clear that the use of infant behavioral method- Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1996). Statistical learning
ologies over the past 40 years has provided much infor- by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274, 1926–1928.
Tincoff, R., & Jusczyk, P. W. (1999). Some beginnings of word com-
mation about perceptual capacities that have effects on
prehension in 6-month-olds. Psychological Science, 10, 172–175.
both language and cognitive development during the Werker, J. F., Cohen, L. B., Lloyd, V. L., Casasola, M., & Stager, C. L.
first 2 years of life. Modern psychologists are now (1998). Acquisition of word-object associations by 14-month-
exploring the use of electrophysiological and neuroim- old infants. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1289–1309.
aging techniques such as EEG, ERP, and fMRI, which are Werker, J. F., & Desjardins, R. N. (2004). Is the integration of heard
and seen speech mandatory for infants? Developmental Psycho-
increasingly common in studies examining infant lan-
biology, 45, 187–203.
guage and cognition. Indeed, many researchers are Werner, L. A. (1992). Interpreting developmental psychoacoustics. In
attempting to combine electrophysiological and behav- L. A. Werner & E. W. Rubel (Eds.), Developmental psychoacous-
ioral methods to elucidate a more complete picture tics. Washington: American Psychological Association.
 Behavioral Skills Training and Skill Learning B 437

Theoretical Background
Behavioral Mimicry BST comes from a behavioral background. Sometimes
▶ Mimicry in Social Interaction: Its Effect on Learning research presents it in a relatively atheoretical manner as B
a strategy that appears to be robustly effective in skills
teaching. Applied behavior analysis approaches are likely
to be more explicit as to the possible functions of the
four components of BST. For example, instructions and
Behavioral Pathology modeling may function as antecedent stimuli, rehearsal
functions as an opportunity to emit behavior, and feed-
▶ Psychopathology of Repeated (Animal) Aggression back may function as consequences for trainee behavior.
That said evidence of the functions of each component is
minimal. For example, although feedback might at first
blush appear to function as a positive reinforcer for
correct responses, that is not the only possible function.
Behavioral Skills Package For example, it might function as a punisher for trainee
errors or as an antecedent stimulus for the next oppor-
▶ Behavioral Skills Training and Skill Learning
tunity for the trainee to respond.
The issue of generalization and maintenance of
performance is important to behavioral skills training.
Training on one set of stimuli and responses should
produce desired behavioral effects with untrained stim-
Behavioral Skills Training and uli and on untrained responses. For example, learning
Skill Learning to sight read music on a set of practice pieces should
produce accurate playing on new pieces of music with-
NANCY DIB, PETER STURMEY out practice (Dib and Sturmey 2011) or practicing
Department of Psychology, Queens College and teaching one skill during role play should produce
The Graduate Center, Flushing, NY, USA accurate teaching on many teaching programs with
children with autism spectrum disorders (Ward-
Horner and Sturmey 2008). Change agents should
Synonyms carefully program generalization through strategies
Behavioral Skills Package; Modeling, Rehearsal, and such as sampling multiple stimuli.
Feedback
Important Scientific Research and
Definition Open Questions
Behavioral Skills Training (BST) is a training package BST has been effective in teaching a wide variety of
that utilizes instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and skills. This has included teaching posture (Dib and
feedback in order to teach a new skill. Typically training Sturmey 2007a) and sight-reading skills (Dib and
is implemented not for some fixed time, but rather to Sturmey 2011) to flute players as well as social skills
some predetermined criterion. For example, a trainee to people with and without various disabilities
may be said to have acquired a skill when they have (Frederiksen et al. 1976; Stewart et al. 2007.) It has
emitted correct responses on 90% of three consecutive also been used to teach caregivers of children and adults
training sessions. Although these four components with disabilities to teach skills to the individuals they
are common there are many procedural variations in work with. For example, Dib and Sturmey
how researchers and practitioners apply them. For (2007b) used BST to improve staff implementation of
example, modeling might be done live, in role play, or discrete-trail teaching while working with children
through video-modeling. Feedback might be given with autism. Not only did the staff implementation
immediately or delayed, graphically or verbally, or in improve, but the stereotypical behavior of the
combinations. children they were working with decreased at the
438 B Behaviorism

same time. Although BST has been used for adults and
children with autism and other developmental disabil- Behaviorism
ities, the technique is just as useful in teaching new A psychological movement which marked a move
skills to the general population. away from descriptive studies toward a more scientific
There are several areas of active investigation. First, analysis of observable and measurable behavior.
it is unclear which of the four components of BST is Emphasized habit formation and the use of reinforce-
effective in producing behavioral change. Second, ment to condition new behavior. Leading proponents
although BST is relatively efficient compared to were Pavlov (classical conditioning) and Skinner
instruction-based training, future research should also (Operant conditioning) in which behavior was modi-
develop more efficient training formats. These might fied by associations and habit formation.
include group training, combinations of modeling and,
where necessary, feedback, and Web-based training. Cross-References
▶ Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories
Cross-References
▶ Behavior Modification as Learning
▶ Evidence-Based Learning
▶ Example-Based Learning Behaviorism and Behaviorist
▶ Feedback and Learning Learning Theories
▶ Feedback in Instructional Contexts
▶ Learning by Doing DENIS C. PHILLIPS
▶ Learning from Failure School of Education and Department of Philosophy,
▶ Learning in Autism Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
▶ Learning Skills
▶ Learning Tasks
▶ Model-Based Learning Synonyms
▶ Model-Based Teaching Behaviorism; Science of behavior
▶ Modeling and Simulation
▶ Models and Modeling in Science Learning Definition
Behaviorism is the name given to several approaches to
psychology, especially to the study of both animal and
References human learning, which arose in – and flourished during –
Dib, N. E., & Sturmey, P. (2007a). The effects of verbal instruction, the twentieth century. These approaches rejected the use
modeling, rehearsal, and feedback on correct posture during
of introspective methods (wherein individuals reported
flute playing. Behavior Modification, 31, 382–388.
Dib, N. E., & Sturmey, P. (2007b). Reducing student stereotypy by on their subjective experiences), and instead were based
improving teachers’ implementation of discrete-trial teaching. upon the study of behavior, its modification, and its
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 339–343. observable antecedents and consequences – which were
Dib, N. E., & Sturmey, P. (2011). The effect of general-case training, taken to be the only scientifically objective, publicly
instructions, feedback, and rehearsal on the reduction of sight-
observable, sources of data. Consequently, behaviorists
reading errors of competent musicians. Journal of Applied Behav-
ior Analysis, 44, 599–604.
rejected characterizations of psychology that were given
Frederiksen, L. W., Jenkins, J. O., Foy, D. W., & Eisler, R. M. (1976). in terms of the study of mental events or of consciousness
Social-skills training to modify abusive verbal outbursts in or “mind,” and instead defined psychology as the
adults. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 117–125. study of behavior and its modification. This focus, the
Stewart, K. K., Carr, J. E., & LeBlanc, L. A. (2007). Evaluation of family- behaviorists felt, brought unity to the psychological study
implemented behavioral skills training for teaching social skills to
of animals and humans.
a child with asperger’s disorder. Clinical case Studies, 6, 252–262.
Ward-Horner, J. C., & Sturmey, P. (2008). The effects of general-case
training and behavioral skills training on the generalization of
Theoretical Background
parents’ use of discrete-trial teaching, child correct responses, and The emergence of behaviorism as a broad movement
child maladaptive behavior. Behavioral Interventions, 23, 271–284. can be traced back to a variety of rich sources in the
 Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories B 439

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The British Whatever its status in the history of Western thought,
empiricist philosopher John Locke (1632–1714) held the canon clearly had an impact on subsequent psycho-
that “simple ideas” arose only from sense-experience, logical work, including that of the behaviorists: “In no B
but that the human mind had the capacity to combine case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the
these in various ways to form “complex ideas”; this exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be
philosophy eventually led to more detailed study of interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which
the specific mechanisms of “association of ideas” and stands lower in the psychological scale.”
thus to the birth of the psychological school of associ- The final influence worthy of mention here is the
ationism. Some comparative psychologists working on long tradition of work (and speculation) concerning
animal learning in the second half of the nineteenth reflexes and reflex action. For many researchers, from
century seemed to conceive of themselves as studying the time at least of Descartes down to that of Pavlov,
association – usually not of ideas per se, but of stimuli reflexes were regarded as the basic psychological unit,
and responses. (The ideas harbored by animals, of and animals often were conceived of as being “autom-
course, cannot be directly accessed by researchers, but ata” that were bundles of reflexes. However, it was
Romanes, Lloyd Morgan, and others thought that they Pavlov’s discovery that conditioning can take place
could argue by analogy with human experience to that was crucial in the history of behaviorism. As is
throw tentative light at least on the “inner” experience well-known, Pavlov discovered in the early years of the
being undergone by animals, especially those that were twentieth century that a naturally occurring reflex – the
close to humans on the phylogenetic scale.) The use of stimulus of the sight of food producing the response of
associationist language spilled over to some of the early secretion of digestive fluid in a hungry animal – could
work of behaviorists. have another stimulus associated with it (e.g., the ring-
As suggested above, another important influence ing of a bell, if the bell was rung at the same time the
was the work of the comparative psychologists (i.e., food was presented), so that eventually the so-called
those psychologists who were interested in animal psy- conditioned stimulus (the sounding of the bell) could
chology, and its relation – if any – to human psychol- itself, alone, produce the response of secretion. This
ogy). This domain of work became truly viable phenomenon of so-called stimulus substitution
following the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species became central in the work of one of the key founders
in 1859, for Darwin was taken to have established the of behaviorism, John B. Watson.
“genetic continuity” of humans and animals – he From the sources discussed above, two different
established mankind as part (no doubt in important forms of behaviorism emerged in the early decades of
ways novel, but a part nonetheless) of the animal king- the twentieth century. But it was a public address by
dom. This in turn entailed that human capacities could Watson, subsequently published in the Psychological
be found in more primitive forms in animals lower on Review (1913), that formally gave birth – and name –
the evolutionary scale (for the theory of evolution held to the general movement. His opening lines were forth-
that complex features did not spontaneously appear right in the extreme:
but gradually evolved from simpler forms), and thus
" Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objec-
the nature and functioning of these complex capacities
tive experimental branch of natural science. Its theo-
could be illuminated by close study of lower animals. In
retical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.
short, the evolutionary argument led to the insight that
Introspection forms no essential part of its methods,
an understanding of human psychology could be
nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon
gleaned from the study of animals. However, there
the readiness with which they lend themselves to inter-
was a related methodological principle that became
pretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in
known as “Lloyd Morgan’s canon” (1894). It did not
his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response,
take long for this to be called a “principle of parsimony,”
recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.
paralleling the one formulated by the medieval logician
(Watson 1913/1948, p. 457)
and known to posterity as “Ockham’s razor.” (Recently
this identification of Morgan’s canon with Ockham’s Watson treated human learning – acquisition of
razor has generated a great deal of controversy.) behaviors – in terms of Pavlovian conditioning,
440 B Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories

whereby a new stimulus substitutes for a natural stim- circumstances – was increased.) Thorndike’s important
ulus in producing a response. In a notorious book book Animal Intelligence (1898) was based upon his
Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928) he doctoral dissertation, and he adopted associationist
asserted to parents that their modes of child-rearing language throughout. His research made use of the
were entirely responsible for both the good and the bad so-called puzzle box – essentially a cage with an escape
features their children developed, the key being the mechanism – in which an animal was enclosed, but
regimens of conditioning that they had unwittingly from which it could see some “reward” such as food.
adopted. How did a child learn to cry or otherwise On first enclosure in the box, the animal would flail
misbehave at bedtime, for example? Probably because about and eventually hit the escape mechanism by
of some mechanism such as the following: a loud noise chance (and thereby gain access to the reward); Thorn-
is the natural stimulus that produces a startled response dike recorded the times taken to escape on subsequent
or fear; on some occasion after putting the infant into trials, finding that the animal learned to do so more
bed, a parent may have slammed the bedroom door at quickly – a result that was recorded graphically as
the same moment as turning out the light; the noise of a “learning curve.” On the basis of this work Thorndike
the slamming door is a natural stimulus that produces formulated the “law of effect” and the “law of exercise”
fear (exhibited in the form of loud crying), but the (see below).
turning out of the bedroom light, which occurred at Thorndike favored the use of cats; later B.F. Skinner
the same time, has been conditioned and subsequently favored the use of rats and pigeons. Among other things
substitutes for the natural stimulus – the result being he investigated various “schedules of reinforcement,”
that whenever the bedroom light is doused, the infant and found (for example), that the target behavior or
cries! Watson called such conditioned reflexes “home- operant need not be reinforced every time – indeed,
made fears.” It is apparent that Watson was intermittent reinforcement led to this behavior
a determinist – by controlling the environmental con- persisting for long periods in the absence of the delivery
ditions under which a child developed, and thus by of the reward. Famously, Skinner (1961) was even able
manipulating the conditioning that occurred, the to teach a pigeon to dance, by rewarding an accidental
nature of the child could be determined. In his book behavior (a movement in a desired direction) so that
Behaviorism (1924) he made a famous, extremely bold it became habitual, and then rewarding a further acci-
determinist claim: dental movement in the next desired direction, and so
on – the whole process of building up movements that
" Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
constituted a dance taking a remarkably short time.
own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guaran-
Skinner wrote a novel, Walden Two (1948), showing
tee to take any one at random and train him to become
how a human utopia could be built upon behaviorist
any type of specialist I might select (1924, p. 104).
principles, and he was a formidable controversialist in
Despite Watson’s optimism, his behaviorism was support of the use of scientific methods in psycholog-
limited in its potential by the fact that the mechanism ical research – the position he adopted on the issues
of stimulus-substitution conditioning was dependent here having been influenced by the logical positivist
upon there being a relevant natural stimulus–response philosophers.
connection upon which to build. The other form of Among other significant work, more than a decade
behaviorism that emerged in the early decades of the earlier E.C. Tolman (1932), working on “purposive
twentieth century was much more flexible. The pioneer behavior” with rats learning to run through a maze to
here was E.L. Thorndike, whose work was in essence get to a reward of food, produced evidence suggesting
built upon by B.F. Skinner among others; rather than that they developed a “cognitive map” of the maze
focusing on the stimulus that led to a responding which allowed them to navigate it when several of its
behavior (later called an operant by Skinner), Thorn- passages had been obstructed.
dike investigated how the consequences of a behavioral Work in the various behaviorist traditions
episode influenced the likelihood of it being repeated. flourished during the decades of the 1930s and the
(If the behavior led to a reinforcing outcome, the prob- 1940s, but a crisis was precipitated by the 1957 publi-
ability of it being repeated – in appropriate cation of a book by Skinner in which he attempted to
 Behaviorism and Behaviorist Learning Theories B 441

account for human verbal behavior in terms of his work on schedules of reinforcement also was impor-
behaviorist mechanisms. In 1959 Chomsky published, tant, as was his development of the “teaching machine”
in the journal Language, “A Review of B.F. Skinner’s and “programmed” textbooks wherein a learner’s cor- B
Verbal Behavior,” which argued at some length and in rect responses to questions about the items of knowl-
technical depth that the mechanism of reinforcement edge that had been presented were reinforced virtually
was unable to account for the complexities of human instantly by the learner being given feedback that the
language use, and that the key concepts of “stimulus,” responses were, indeed, correct; and the work of
“response,” and “reinforcement” were being expanded Tolman and others also was significant. But no doubt
in loose ways – a critique that is widely considered to the most famous contributions were Thorndike’s laws
have been one of the key turning points in behavior- of effect and exercise, which he put forward on the basis
ism’s fortunes: of his work with cats in his “puzzle boxes”; the first of
these was as follows:
" Careful study of this book . . . reveals however that
these astonishing claims are far from justified . . . the " Any act which in a given situation produces satisfaction
insights that have been achieved in the laboratories of becomes associated with that situation, so that when
the reinforcement theorist, though quite genuine, can the situation recurs the act is more likely than before to
be applied to complex human behavior only in the recur also. Conversely, any act which in a given situa-
most gross and superficial way, and that speculative tion produces discomfort becomes disassociated from
attempts to discuss linguistic behavior in these terms that situation, so that when the situation recurs the act
alone omit from consideration factors of fundamental is less likely than before to recur. (1905)
importance. (Chomsky 1959/1980, p. 48)
The law of exercise stated that the more often
For example, one of the striking features of a response is made in a particular situation, the more
the rapid learning of their native language by young strongly it becomes associated with it, and conversely,
children that Skinner’s framework could not explain prolonged disuse tends to weaken the association.
was their ability to understand many sentences in their Today, behaviorism lives on as a source for the
native language that had a grammatical form which development of therapies, and of behavior manage-
they had never before encountered (which ruled out ment techniques for autistic children, chronic schizo-
the possibility that their learning resulted from rein- phrenics, and others – and the principles of
forcement of prior correct responses). In the decades reinforcement of positive behavior and of successful
following Chomsky’s critique, the growth of cognitive learning are part of the armamentarium of most suc-
science has made it increasingly harder to overlook cessful teachers.
or discount the accumulating evidence for the existence
of information-processing mechanisms internal to Cross-References
behaving organisms. ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
▶ Approaches to Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Association Learning
Open Questions ▶ Associationism
The research programs of the behaviorists led to many ▶ Conditioning
contributions to the understanding of the complexities ▶ Habit Learning in Animals
associated with learning; and in addition, of course, ▶ Human Learning
kept the issue of the scientific nature of psychology on ▶ Law of Effect
the intellectual agenda of the field – where it remains ▶ Reinforcement Learning
a locus of contention today. Watson established that ▶ Verbal Behavior and Learning
many phenomena (such as young children’s likes and
dislikes, fears, and behavioral problems) could have References
been acquired as the result of classical stimulus- Chomsky, N. (1959/1980). A review of B. F. Skinner’s verbal behavior.
substitution conditioning (although this mechanism In N. Block (Ed.), Readings in philosophy of psychology (Vol. 1,
was not as ubiquitous as Watson supposed); Skinner’s pp. 48–63). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
442 B Belief Formation

Skinner, B. F. (1961). Cumulative record (Enlargedth ed.). New York: a person’s particular belief about something – that
Appleton. person’s attitudes and habits might also be relevant
Thorndike, E. L. (1898/1948). Animal intelligence. In W. Dennis
(Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). Some beliefs might be
(Ed.), Readings in the history of psychology (pp. 377–387).
New York: Appleton. inferred based on the actions and decisions of an indi-
Watson, J. B. (1913/1948). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. vidual, even when that individual would say he or she
In W. Dennis (Ed.), Readings in the history of psychology was unaware of having such a belief. Finally, beliefs can
(pp. 457–471). New York: Appleton. and do change over time and with experience. A belief
Watson, J. B. (1924/1966). Behaviorism. Chicago: University of
can no longer be simply defined as a discrete cognitive
Chicago Press.
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men.
state that can be represented with a simple declarative
New York: Century. proposition. Rather, cognitive psychologists and natu-
ralistic epistemologists suggest that an individual’s
beliefs comprise a complex and dynamic system that
consists of a set of subsystems that are loosely related
but that allow an individual to form new [tentative]
Belief Formation beliefs and take action in a wide variety of circumstances.

J. MICHAEL SPECTOR Theoretical Background

Learning and Performance Support Laboratory, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1922) made the remarkable
University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA observation in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus that
we picture facts to ourselves (remark #2.1). These
internal pictures might be called mental models or
Synonyms beliefs depending on one’s purpose or academic train-
Cognitive state; Epistemological state; Knowledge ing. Wittgenstein would have been more inclined to
claim; Mental model regard these internal pictures as beliefs from the point
of view of epistemology. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein
Definition was mainly concerned with beliefs that had simple,
In psychology, a belief is typically defined as an internal observable correlates; that is to say that he was
mental state (e.g., a mental model) or a disposition that concerned with beliefs that could be shown to be true
is often associated with a particular response that could or false with relative ease. However, Wittgenstein was
be in the form of a statement or an action (see, e.g., well aware of the interrelatedness of cognitive and
Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). This is a somewhat vague noncognitive factors when he wrote the Tractatus and
definition as it refers to states or dispositions and state- said (see remark #6.43) that the world waxes and wanes
ments or actions. Prior to the rise of cognitive psychol- as a whole and that the world of the happy person is not
ogy Neisser (1967) in the 1900s, a belief was more the same as that of the unhappy person. Quine and
simply associated with a statement that made Ullian (1978) likewise argue that it is an entire set of
a factual claim of some sort. Our understanding of beliefs that we bring to experience and not a simple
human reasoning is no longer so simple. Complicating discrete belief. When our belief system encounters an
the definition of ‘belief ’ are several related consider- anomaly, we must make alterations to the relevant
ations. First, a belief is a particular human characteris- prior beliefs or drop an entire set of beliefs. Typically,
tic that can rarely be considered in isolation. Other we are not so inclined to drop entire sets of beliefs. This
beliefs are typically relevant to a particular belief human characteristic might be called the conservation
under scrutiny (see, e.g., Quine and Ullian 1978). For of beliefs. Festinger (1957) makes it the foundation of
example, when considering an individual’s stated pref- cognitive dissonance theory.
erence for a political candidate (a representative belief), Cognitive psychologists and naturalistic epistemol-
it might be relevant to also consider that individual’s ogists have long been trying to work out the nature of
dispositions with regard to race, gender, taxes, and the relationships between cognitive and noncognitive
many other things. Moreover, it is not merely other factors on belief formation. Many of these relationships
beliefs that might be relevant to understanding have yet to be elaborated and explored. In any case, part
 Belief Formation B 443

of the foundation for belief formation and mental Important Scientific Research and
model development comes from naturalistic episte- Open Questions
mology. A second important foundation for belief for- When considering sets of beliefs, there is much that is B
mation is based on cognitive psychology and research not known. The interrelated effects of attitudes, beliefs,
on mental models. Seel (2003) provides a general foun- habits, mental models, moods, motivation, predispo-
dational framework that links the philosophy of science sitions, and volition on the formation of new beliefs
and theory construction with both cognitive psychol- and their persistence have not been fully explored.
ogy (mental model development) and epistemology Theoretical and conceptual frameworks that accom-
(the logic of external representations). Seel does modate all of these factors have yet to be constructed
include some noncognitive factors (e.g., the influence and validated, although some models now integrate
of culture) and he explicitly addresses the implications a few of these factors (Keller’s ARCS model, for exam-
for learning and instruction. ple). Implementing such frameworks in learning and
While there seems to be a great deal of convergence instruction has yet to occur, although there is a push
in the fields of cognitive psychology, epistemology and toward more adaptive and personalized learning. Fac-
the philosophy of science with regard to the develop- tors affecting the persistence of beliefs are especially in
ment of mental models and belief formation, there is need of further exploration. While it is now common to
also some discord within these related research com- find cognitive psychologists claiming that both cogni-
munities. One primary point of difference is the extent tive and noncognitive factors are relevant, there is still
of rationality as a principle of belief formation. Quine not much research on the influence and role of
and Ullian (1978) argue that humans naturally want to noncognitive factors on learning and instruction. It is
maintain a set of consistent beliefs. When confronted well-established that repetitive training with regard to
with evidence that a particular set of beliefs might be recurrent and rather straightforward procedures can facil-
mistaken, the typical reaction is to make changes to itate the establishment of persistent performance and
those beliefs in order to preserve consistency. In any associated beliefs. However, when the situation involves
case, the implication is that humans cannot tolerate complex problems and decisions, it is not always so clear
inconsistency in their beliefs. Likewise, Festinger what beliefs are relevant, how those beliefs are formed,
(1957) argues that cognitive dissonance arises when and how they might be made less subject to fading and
a person is confronted with conflicting beliefs or with forgetting once the situation has passed.
evidence that conflicts with an existing belief. The
person will then naturally resolve the conflict by chang- Cross-References
ing a belief or possibly by misinterpreting or ignoring ▶ Belief-Based Learning Models
the evidence that runs counter to established beliefs. In ▶ Dogmatism
any case, Festinger also believes that people naturally ▶ Dogmatism and Learning
abhor inconsistency in their beliefs. However, if one ▶ Model Facilitated Learning
expands the notion of a belief to include inferred beliefs ▶ Naturalistic Epistemology
based on the actions and dispositions of a person, one ▶ Philosophy of Learning
can find people saying one thing and doing something ▶ Situated Learning
that appears to conflict with a stated belief. While
humorists might say that this is the defining character- References
istic of a politician, the ability to say one thing with Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford:
apparent sincerity while doing something that appar- Stanford University Press.
ently contradicts that belief is an all too familiar and all Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behav-
too human characteristic (Spector 2000). In summary, ior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading: Addison-
the principle of rationality is more of a goal than Wesley.
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton.
a determining factor in belief formation. We would
Quine, W. V. O., & Ullian, J. S. (1978). The web of belief (2nd ed.).
like our beliefs to form consistent and coherent net- New York: McGraw-Hill.
works, but we may sometimes fall short of that goal for Seel, N. M. (2003). Model-centered learning and instruction. Tech-
any number of reasons. nology, Instruction, Cognition and Learning, 1, 59–85.
444 B Belief Learning

Spector, J. M. (2000). Towards a philosophy of instruction. Educa- it is not necessary to have a mental model of oppo-
tional Technology & Society, 3(3), 522–525. nents’ play (in fact, under reinforcement learning,
Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus logico-philosophicus. London:
agents need not realize that they are playing a game at
Routledge & Kegan Paul. Translated by C. K. Ogden.
all). Additional assumptions underlying belief-based
learning models are that agents receive enough infor-
mation to be able to carry out their belief updating (in
particular, they can observe opponents’ choices), and
Belief Learning they have the cognitive ability to compute the perfor-
mance of their actions, given their beliefs.
▶ Belief-Based Learning Models While belief-based learning places some require-
ments on agents’ abilities, as mentioned above, it
assumes that agents do not have other abilities (or at
least, do not use them). Agents are assumed to be
Belief System myopic, in that they do not anticipate how their cur-
rent behavior affects payoffs in future plays of the game.
▶ Dogmatism In particular, they do not engage in “strategic teach-
▶ Dogmatism and Learning ing”: deliberately choosing an action that gives a lower
current payoff, in the anticipation that it beneficially
changes opponent behavior – through opponents’
learning – in future plays of the game, thus raising the
agent’s long-run payoff. Agents are also assumed to be
Belief-Based Learning Models unsophisticated, in that they do not use information
about opponents’ payoffs or opponents’ information in
NICK FELTOVICH
order to forecast which strategies the opponent is likely
University of Aberdeen Business School,
to choose (or not to choose).
Aberdeen, UK

Theoretical Background
Synonyms Early research into belief-based learning models did not
Belief learning motivate them as models of the way agents learn, but
rather as a technique for finding solutions (primarily
Nash equilibria) of games. George Brown (1949) pro-
Definition posed a belief-based learning model called fictitious
The belief-based learning models are a class of models
play, which for the case of two-player simultaneous-
that intend to describe the way agents (such as
move games, is characterized by the following properties:
humans) learn over time in strategic situations
(games) that they play repeatedly. According to 1. Agents’ initial beliefs are characterized by
a belief-based learning model, agents form beliefs a nonnegative belief weight for each pure strategy
about the expected behavior of others, and choose available to the opponent.
actions based on how they would perform against 2. After a play of the game, beliefs are updated: the
opponents playing in this expected way. After playing belief weight corresponding to the pure strategy
the game, they update their beliefs based on the feed- chosen by the opponent is augmented by one.
back they receive. 3. Before a play of the game, the agent assesses the
An important aspect of belief-based learning is that probability of the opponent choosing a particular
agents understand they are playing a strategic game, pure strategy as the belief weight corresponding to
allowing them to have a mental model about the way that strategy, divided by the sum of belief weights
opponents play. This is in contrast to reinforcement- over all pure strategies (the strength of beliefs). These
based learning models, where agents choose and update probabilities then form the agent’s belief about the
based only on the payoffs received in the game, so that opponent’s mixed strategy.
 Belief-Based Learning Models B 445

4. For each play of the game, the agent chooses the strategies are identical to differences in the potential
pure strategy with the highest expected payoff, function from the same changes in strategies. Another
given his beliefs. If more than one pure strategy class is that of games with strategic complementarities, B
maximizes his expected payoff, he chooses ran- where the more likely an opponent is to choose
domly among the tied strategies. a particular strategy, the more attractive that strategy
becomes to an agent.
Note that if the opponent is playing a stationary
By the 1980s, researchers began to think of belief-
strategy (one that does not change over time), then the
based learning models as descriptions of the way agents
agent’s beliefs will converge to the opponent’s strategy.
actually learn. As a result, fictitious play came under
Fictitious play, like most belief-based learning
some criticism as being unrealistic, due to its assump-
models, typically conforms, at least weakly, to well-
tion that agents are capable of choosing strategies opti-
known principles of learning from psychology. Over
mally, given their beliefs. An alternative, called cautious
time, as beliefs about others’ behavior become more
fictitious play (also known as stochastic fictitious play),
accurate, agents’ decisions satisfy the Law of Effect (bet-
weakens this assumption by replacing Property #4
ter strategies become more likely). Also over time, the
above with 4a. For each play of the game, the agent
strength of beliefs increases, so that beliefs change
chooses the pure strategy with a probability that is
increasingly slowly; that is, learning is consistent with
positively related to its expected payoff, given his
the Power Law of Practice (learning slows as more
beliefs.
experience is gained).
Thus, instead of agents choosing optimally based
Early study of fictitious play revolved around the
on their beliefs, they are merely more likely to choose
conjecture that it would find a Nash equilibrium (a
better responses than worse ones (“better response”
collection of strategies – one for each agent – such
instead of best response), given their beliefs. Unlike
that each agent’s strategy maximizes his payoff against
fictitious play, cautious fictitious play typically cannot
the other strategies), in the sense that the historical
be used to find Nash equilibria, as its fixed points are
distributions of agents’ choices converge to a Nash
quantal response equilibria (a game-theoretic solution
equilibrium. In the case of pure-strategy Nash equilib-
concept that assumes agents make errors, and take into
rium, strong results have been obtained. For example,
account others’ errors when making their own choices)
pure-strategy Nash equilibria are absorbing states
instead of Nash equilibria. However, by incorporating
(once one is played, it will be played forever) for ficti-
bounded rationality, it promises a more realistic
tious play, and if fictitious play leads to a pure-strategy
description of how actual people learn.
profile being chosen all but a finite number of times, it
Another way of generalizing fictitious play involves
is a Nash equilibrium.
the manner in which beliefs are updated. Under ficti-
The case of mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium is
tious play, all past opponent choices are weighted
more complicated. Julia Robinson (1951) proved that
equally in forming beliefs, irrespective of when the
for the special case of two-player zero-sum games, the
choices were made: a choice in the most recent play of
historical distribution of agents’ choices under ficti-
the game counts just as much as a choice from the very
tious play converges to a Nash equilibrium of the
first play. Some variations of fictitious play (or cautious
game – even if the only equilibrium is one in mixed
fictitious play) allow for recent experience to count for
strategies – and a similar result for all two-player games
more than earlier experience, via a “discounting”
with two strategies for each player (2  2 games) soon
parameter f, with f 2 [0, 1]. In this case, Property
followed. However, Lloyd Shapley (1964) showed, via
#2 above is replaced by 2a. After a play of the game,
a counterexample using a 3  3 game, that no such
beliefs are updated: all belief weights are multiplied by
result held for general two-player games. Thereafter,
f, then the belief weight corresponding to the pure
researchers have sought to identify classes of games
strategy chosen by the opponent is augmented by one.
for which fictitious-play learning does converge to
If f = 1, all past opponent choices count equally, as
Nash equilibria. One such class is that of potential
in fictitious play. If f = 0, the agent “forgets” all
games, for which a “potential function” exists, such
opponent choices except for the most recent choice;
that differences in an agent’s payoff from changing
combined with choosing a best response to beliefs
446 B Belief-Based Learning Models

(Property #4), this yields the Cournot adjustment depend not only on the game being considered, but
model. Drew Fudenberg and David K. Levine (1998) also on what criteria of goodness of fit are used. Addi-
proposed a general belief-based model of learning that tionally, much of this work has subsequently been crit-
included the above variations on fictitious play – better icized on the basis that when the experimental data
response rather than best response, and discounting of comprise multiple participants, and there is heterogene-
past experience – along with an “inertia” parameter, ity across these participants in their learning, then tests
where with some fixed probability, an agent simply of reinforcement-based versus belief-based models will
makes the same choice as in the previous play. be biased in favor of the former, suggesting that belief-
based learning describes behavior better than most
Important Scientific Research and studies have concluded.
Open Questions More recent research has concentrated less on
In the late 1980s and 1990s, learning models gained differences between belief-based models and other
popularity among experimental economists as a way of learning models than on their similarities. The most
describing behavior by experimental participants that influential such work is that of Colin Camerer and
seemed inconsistent with standard game-theoretic pre- Teck-Hua Ho (1999), who showed that versions of
dictions. Some researchers used well-known belief- belief-based and reinforcement-based learning could
based models for this purpose, such as fictitious play be nested within a more general model which they
or the Cournot model, while others modified these called experience weighted attraction (EWA). In their
models to increase sophistication: for example, by model, an agent’s probability of choosing a particular
adding an assumption that when forming beliefs, pure strategy is an increasing function of that strategy’s
agents attribute zero probability to their opponents’ “attraction.” In a simple reinforcement-based model,
choosing a strictly dominated strategy (a strategy that attractions are nonnegative numbers which are
always performs worse than some other strategy). updated after each play of the game based on the payoff
By the late 1990s, researchers had begun using that was earned in that play; the new attraction for the
experiments as tests between learning models. Initially, strategy that was chosen is a weighted sum of the
these tests concentrated on different parameterizations previous attraction and the payoff, while the attractions
of the same general model (for example, fictitious play for the other strategies are unchanged. By contrast,
versus Cournot adjustment), but quickly, experimental EWA allows for the possibility that unchosen strategies’
economists started testing between types of learning attractions are also updated, by the use of a “simulated
model: most notably, between belief-based and rein- effect” parameter d, with d 2 [0,1]. The attraction for
forcement-based learning models. In some cases, exper- the chosen strategy is updated in the same way as under
iments were designed specifically in order to test the reinforcement, but now, the attractions for unchosen
assumptions of learning models; for example, different strategies are updated by d times the payoff they would
patterns of behavior have been found in an experimental have yielded if they had been chosen. If d = 0, EWA
game depending on whether participants had sufficient reduces to a reinforcement-based learning model. Less
information to be able to execute belief-based learning obviously, if d = 1, EWA reduces to a beliefs-based model
(that is, whether they were told only their own choices (including, for certain values of other parameters, ficti-
and payoffs, or additionally told about opponents’ deci- tious play or Cournot play). This was the key insight of
sions as well as the game’s payoff matrix). Such results Camerer and Ho: having beliefs and choosing strategies
suggest that agents learn differently when this informa- based on these beliefs is equivalent to a reinforcement-
tion is available, though it need not be evidence in favor based model in which all strategies’ attractions are aug-
of any of the common belief-based learning models. mented by the payoff they would have received,
Other researchers used data from one or more sets of irrespective of which strategy was actually chosen.
experiments in order to determine which learning model Other similarities between belief-based and
best characterized the way experimental participants reinforcement-based learning models involve their
learn. On the whole, this work failed to find overwhelm- dynamic properties. Ed Hopkins (2002) established
ing support for any one particular learning model; a connection between the dynamics of both cautious
rather, which model fits the data best has tended to fictitious play and reinforcement-based learning and the
 Beliefs About Language Learning B 447

replicator dynamics, a dynamic model used in evolution-

ary biology and evolutionary game theory. He also Beliefs
showed that under certain conditions, cautious fictitious ▶ Attitude Change Through Learning B
play and reinforcement-based learning have the ▶ Discourse and the Production of Knowledge
same asymptotic properties, though the former can
have an arbitrarily faster speed of convergence to the
asymptote.
One open area of research involving belief-based
learning models is simply the extension of work men- Beliefs About Knowledge
tioned above: when do belief-based models character-
ize learning well, and when do alternative models ▶ Epistemological Development and Learning
perform better? A second area, which also involves
generalizations of belief-based models such as EWA,
involves the reliability of these models across games.
If in one game, a particular model (including specific
Beliefs About Language
parameters) characterizes someone’s decisions best,
how well will this model predict the same person’s
Learning
decisions in a different game? More broadly, is there
EVA BERNAT
a connection between games and learning model
School of Education, Goodsell 109, The University of
parameters, such that given a new game, a researcher
New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
could predict which version of the learning model
would be expected to perform well? A third area con-
nects learning with the growing field of neuro-econom-
ics: does the brain operate in a different way when
Synonyms
Assumptions; Epistemologies; Metacognitive knowl-
agents are given sufficient feedback to execute belief-
edge; Perceptions; Suppositions
based learning than when they are not?

Definition
Cross-References Defining a latent construct such as beliefs is always
▶ Adaptive Game-Based Learning a challenge. The plethora of different definitions avail-
▶ Belief Formation able highlight its complex and multifaceted nature.
▶ Learning and Evolutionary Game Theory Scholars provide definitions that range from those
▶ Naturalistic Epistemology reflecting theoretical approaches in cognitive psychol-
▶ Reinforcement Learning ogy to those in line with socioconstructivist views. As
a result, learner beliefs have been defined, inter alia, as
References cognitive constructs, implicit theories, personal episte-
Brown, G.W. (1949). Some notes on computation of games solutions.
mologies, folkloristic conceptions of learning, and
RAND Corporation research memorandum P-78. “general assumptions that students hold about them-
Camerer, C., & Ho, T.-H. (1999). Experience-weighted attraction selves as learners, about factors influencing language
learning in normal form games. Econometrica, 67(4), 827–874. learning, and about the nature of language learning and
Fudenberg, D., & Levine, D. K. (1998). The theory of learning in teaching” (Victori and Lockhart 1995, p. 224).
games (economics learning and social evolution). Cambridge:
MIT Press.
Hopkins, E. (2002). Two competing models of how people learn in Theoretical Background
games. Econometrica, 70(6), 2141–2166. In recent decades, learner beliefs have been situated
Robinson, J. (1951). An iterative method of solving a game. The
predominantly within the study of epistemology.
Annals of Mathematics, 4(2), 296–301. Second Series.
Shapley, L. S. (1964). Some topics in two-person games. In M. Dresher, Epistemology deals with affairs of the intellect, and
L. S. Shapley, & A. W. Tucker (Eds.), Advances in game theory the deployment of intellect involves either mental acts
(pp. 1–28). Princeton: Princeton University Press. or states, or linguistic acts (public utterances),
448 B Beliefs About Language Learning

frequently both. Among mental states, beliefs are usu- and ultimate success. For example, second or foreign
ally singled out by epistemologists, while among lin- language students may hold strong beliefs about the
guistic acts, assertions are of central concern. Most nature of the language under study, its difficulty, the
intellectual endeavors try to arrive at some belief on process of its acquisition, the success of certain learning
a designated topic resulting in assertions, so epistemol- strategies and teaching methods, the existence of lan-
ogy naturally focuses on either beliefs or assertions. guage aptitude, and their own expectations about
Beliefs such as those about the nature of knowledge, achievement. Preconceived beliefs may directly influ-
beliefs about learning (including self-efficacy beliefs ence or even determine a learner’s attitude or motiva-
regarding own abilities in learning), and beliefs about tion, and precondition the learner’s success or lack of
language learning in particular, all consitute one’s belief success. Supportive and positive beliefs help to over-
system, and have been found to form the basic blocks of come problems and thus sustain motivation, while
epistemology (Goldman 1986). negative or unrealistic beliefs can lead to decreased
While traditionally beliefs have been linked with motivation, frustration, and anxiety. While many suc-
information about an object, attitudes to the evalua- cessful learners develop insightful beliefs about lan-
tion of that object conceptualized beliefs as more than guage-learning processes that have a facilitative effect
just cognitions, capable of arousing affect around the on learning, others can have “mistaken,” uninformed,
object of the belief and thus having a motivational or negative beliefs that may lead to a reliance on less
function. Clusters of beliefs form attitudes that are effective strategies, resulting in a negative attitude
functionally and cognitively connected to the value toward learning and autonomy, even classroom anxi-
system. Value, then, refers to a single proscriptive or ety. Students who believe, for example, that learning
prescriptive belief that transcends specific objects or a language primarily involves learning new vocabulary
situations, while attitude refers to an organization of will spend most of their energy on vocabulary acquisi-
several beliefs focused on a specific object or situation – tion, while older learners who believe in the superiority
for example, a foreign language. According to this view, of younger learners probably begin language learning
values are more central concepts than attitudes, are with fairly negative expectations of their own ultimate
determinants of attitudes, and are more resistant to success. In addition, an unsuccessful learning experi-
change. Together they constitute the value-attitude sys- ence may likely lead students to the conclusion that
tem, embedded in the wider belief system (Fishbein special abilities are required to learn a foreign language
and Ajzen 1975). and that they do not possess these necessary abilities.
The recognition of the role of learners’ epistemo- Such beliefs can also inhibit learners’ perceptiveness to
logical beliefs across various disciplines, including lan- the ideas and activities presented in the language class-
guage learning, contributed to a growing body of room, particularly when the approach is not consonant
evidence suggesting that they play a central role in with the learners’ experience.
learning experience and achievements, have Identification of these beliefs and reflection on their
a profound influence on learning behavior as well as potential impact on language learning and teaching in
learning outcomes, and act as very strong filters of general, as well as in more specific areas such as
reality. Interdisciplinary research shows how one’s learners’ expectations and strategies used, can inform
belief systems, social cognitions, and metacognitions syllabus design and teacher practice. Indeed, pedagogy
are a driving force in intellectual performance, and that has the capacity to provide the opportunities and
learners may be directly influenced by their perception conditions within which learner contributions are
of success in learning and levels of expectancy, with found to have a positive effect upon learning and may
realistically high expectations helping to build confi- be more fully engaged. Discovering students’ attitudes
dence, and low (or unrealistically high) expectations and beliefs is possible, as it is generally accepted that
leading to de-motivation and disappointment. language learners are capable of bringing this knowl-
In the language classroom context, the epistemo- edge to consciousness and articulating it. So far,
logical beliefs that students bring with them to the research studies have employed predominantly quanti-
learning situation have been recognized as tative research methods to investigate learner beliefs via
a significant contributory factor in the learning process self-report surveys, although qualitative methods
 Beliefs About Language Learning B 449

involving various forms of narrative enquiry (e.g., see vocabulary and pronunciation exercises, and often
discourse analysis) have become more prevelant in hold unrealistic expectations about the length of time
recent years (Kalaja and Barcelos 2003), and have it takes to learn a foreign language. Significant differ- B
shed new light on the nature, depth, and strength of ences between student and teacher beliefs might create
learner beliefs – aspects of a latent construct which can tension in the classroom, thus emphasizing the need for
be difficult to capture via surveys alone. studies to explore the most productive ways of mini-
mizing this gap. There is a need to investigate possible
Important Scientific Research and intervention measures and their effectiveness in chang-
Open Questions ing or restructuring learner beliefs in the classroom
The challenge for the field of research on language context, should they be found to be unproductive,
learner beliefs is threefold. The first is to continue to unrealistic, or hampering the language acquisition pro-
embrace various multidisciplinary approaches to cess. Beliefs have been found to be strongly held and
empirical studies in the field, taking advantage of devel- resistant to change, and there is evidence of
opments in cognitive and social research fields, among a progressive construction and crystallization of beliefs
others. Such integration could provide a more holistic about learning, and such beliefs are argued to influence
framework, while enabling the triangulation of data increasingly the more situationally specific learning
obtained via different methodological means in empir- behavior (Cantwell 1998), where this situation speci-
ical studies. While the current diversity of theoretical ficity could easily reflect a language-learning context.
perspectives has steadily begun to create a rich tapestry Whether learner beliefs can (and even ought to) be
of complimenting studies, there is a need for more changed in the classroom context is a currently
plurality in this area given the scope and depth of much under-researched area, reflected by the paucity
one’s beliefs (Bernat 2008). Combinations of of literature on the issue. Most often studies do not
approaches and methods utilizing both qualitative examine long-term changes in beliefs by readministering
with quantitative data could provide an even greater dependent measures over time; yet, a number of theories
insight into a multitude of potentially interacting socio- exist which could provide a theoretical framework for
cultural/contextual, affective/psychological, cognitive/ future studies exploring the possibilities of belief change
neurobiological, and ideological factors that have been and change continuity in the language-learning context.
found to determine – to a variable extent – learner beliefs However, some scholars caution that a better under-
about language learning. standing and a stronger foundation of learner beliefs is
The second challenge is to investigate the impact of needed, before any intervention measures are applied.
learner beliefs on their language-learning processes as Whether the field has already gained enough knowledge
well as outcomes. While much has been reported on the in this area in order to successfully intervene with theo-
nature and strength of learner beliefs, less has been said retically sound intervention methods is still, in the view
about their actual impact in the classroom and beyond. of some, a matter for debate and further research.
A question of great interest for future research will be to
determine at which point or in which contexts beliefs
Cross-References
start to be used as resources for self-regulation in lan-
▶ Belief Formation
guage learning. This could perhaps be done via elicita-
▶ Beliefs About Learning
tion techniques such as stimulated recall, particularly
▶ Metacognition and Learning
when cognitive dissonance (dissonance between beliefs
and actions) might have occurred.
The mismatch between teacher and learner beliefs References
presents a third challenge for the field. Future research Bernat, E. (2008). Beyond beliefs: Psycho-cognitive, sociocultural and
needs to investigate ways of dealing with this mismatch emergent ecological approaches to learner perceptions in foreign
language acquisition. Asian EFL Journal, 10(3), Article 1. Available
in the classroom, as the majority of literature reports
from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/September_08_eb.php
significant belief differences between teachers and their Cantwell, R. H. (1998). The development of beliefs about learning
learners. For example, students tend to hold a higher from mid-to-late adolescence. Educational Psychology, 18(1),
preference for learning grammar, translation, 471–495.
450 B Beliefs About Learning

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behaviour: In addition, research has been conducted on how to
An introduction to theory and research. Reading: Addison-Wesley. change students’ beliefs about knowledge and learning
Goldman, A. I. (1986). Epistemology and cognition. Cambridge: Har-
to more availing beliefs that presumably facilitate
vard University Press.
Kalaja, P., & Barcelos, A. M. F. (Eds.). (2003). Beliefs about SLA: learning (e.g., Kim and Keller 2010). “Availing” is the
New research approaches. Dordrecht: Kluwer. term first used in Muis (2004) to characterize some
Victori, M., & Lockhart, W. (1995). Enhancing metacognition in beliefs as implying more possibilities to enhance stu-
self-directed language learning. System, 23(2), 223–234. dents’ learning. For example, the belief that ability to
learn is not innate or fixed but it is developed over time
is an availing belief, which would influence a student’s
decision making regarding effort in a challenging task.
Beliefs About Learning This term has the same meaning as “sophisticated” and
“mature” beliefs in Schommer (1994) and “appropri-
CHANMIN KIM ate” beliefs in Schoenfeld (1988), as opposed to “naı̈ve
The Department of Educational Psychology & and inappropriate” beliefs.
Instructional Technology, The University of Georgia, In short, researchers who consider students’ beliefs
Athens, GA, USA about knowledge and learning directly or indirectly
related to learning outcomes through influencing cog-
nitive processes, motivation, attitudes, behavior, and
Synonyms efforts have studied the development of the beliefs and
Epistemic beliefs; Epistemological beliefs possible ways to improve the beliefs in a variety of
learning contexts. Meanwhile, most research on stu-
Definition dents’ beliefs about knowledge and learning has been in
Beliefs about learning refer to a person’s subjective light of epistemological beliefs. One of the most influ-
judgments about a relation between learning and his ential scholars in the field of epistemological belief
or her values or attributes (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). research, Schommer, has conceptualized and refined
For example, a person’s beliefs about learning calculus a framework of epistemological belief research (e.g.,
involve subjective judgments about the nature and see Schommer 1998). Schommer (1998) has argued
importance of calculus, that person’s interest in calcu- that tacit beliefs about knowledge and learning play
lus, and that person’s beliefs about his or her ability to a critical role in guiding how learners think and solve
learn calculus. problems. She proposed that a person’s epistemological
beliefs consist of multidimensional beliefs, which are to
Theoretical Background some degree independent of each other, and she vali-
Students’ beliefs about learning and knowledge have dated this notion with students in various learning
been researched to explain students’ responses to learn- contexts and at different grade levels. Her five dimen-
ing contexts (Hofer and Pintrich 1997). Some research sions of students’ beliefs about knowledge and learning
has focused on how beliefs develop over time while consist of: (1) the structure of knowledge, ranging from
other research has highlighted how beliefs influence isolated pieces to integrated concepts; (2) the source of
the cognitive processes involved in learning. Research knowledge, ranging from authority to reasoning;
has also investigated how beliefs mediate the factors of (3) the stability of knowledge, ranging from certain
attitudes toward learning (i.e., interest, willingness, knowledge to changing knowledge; (4) the speed of
etc.) and study habits (as exemplified by effort, persis- learning, ranging from quick learning to gradual learn-
tence, etc.), which are considered to indirectly impact ing; and (5) the ability to learn, ranging from fixed at
learning and achievement (e.g., Buehl et al. 2002; Hofer birth to improvable (e.g., see Schommer 1998).
2006; Pintrich and Schunk 2002). The research with Her five dimensions of epistemological beliefs along
regard to the relation of beliefs to attitudes and study with her measurement tool, the Epistemological Belief
habits is relatively newer and there are fewer studies than Questionnaire (EBQ), provide researchers with
one finds in research regarding the development of a foundation to study students’ beliefs about knowl-
beliefs and the relation of cognitive processes to beliefs. edge and learning. Nonetheless, the last two beliefs (i.e.,
 Beliefs About Learning B 451

beliefs about speed of learning and ability to learn) had availing beliefs about mathematics knowledge
seem to be directly related to learning rather than to acquisition in the classrooms where problem solving
knowledge, compared to the other three representing was highlighted. As they regarded this finding as B
beliefs about knowledge itself. Considering that episte- “reform-minded” (p. 8), they indicated that these
mological beliefs refer to beliefs about knowledge, the beliefs were developed as a result of the uniqueness of
inclusion of beliefs about ability to learn and speed of the classroom environment.
learning in the category of epistemological beliefs has Beliefs about learning have been recognized as an
been debated as these two beliefs are focused more important factor for students’ learning and achievement
specifically on learning rather than knowledge (Hofer by influencing both their attitudes toward learning,
and Pintrich 1997). motivation, and persistence. A further inquiry would
In addition to research on the multidimensionality be then on what kinds of efforts should be made to
of epistemological beliefs, there has been research on improve learning environments to positively influence
the domain generality specificity of beliefs (see Buehl the development of students’ beliefs about learning.
et al. 2002; Hofer 2006; Muis 2004). Most of the early
research on students’ epistemological beliefs were based Cross-References
on the assumption that the same beliefs would be ▶ Belief Formation
observed across disparate domains. However, ▶ Epistemic Beliefs About Learning
researchers have begun to question the domain general- ▶ Epistemology
ity of epistemological beliefs, proposing that students’ ▶ Epistemological Beliefs and Learning
epistemological beliefs need to be separately investigated ▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
within specific subject domains. In fact, several
researchers have found that a person’s epistemological
References
beliefs are different across domains. For example, Buehl
Buehl, M. M., Alexander, P. A., & Murphy, P. K. (2002). Beliefs
et al. (2002) found that there were prominent differ- about schooled knowledge: Domain general or domain specific?
ences in students’ epistemological beliefs about knowl- Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(3), 415–449.
edge and learning between history and mathematics. In Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, and behavior: An
addition, Hofer (2006) argued that epistemologies introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Franke, M. L., & Carey, D. A. (1997). Young children’s perceptions of
were not the same across domains owing to the unique
mathematics in problem-solving environments. Journal for
characteristics of academic disciplines, although she Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 8–25.
criticized several studies supporting domain specificity Hofer, B. K. (2006). Beliefs about knowledge and knowing: Integrat-
on methodological grounds. ing domain specificity and domain generality: A response to
Muis, Bendixen, and Haerle 2006. Educational Psychology Review,
Important Scientific Research and 18(1), 67–76.
Hofer, B., & Pintrich, P. (1997). The development of epistemological
Open Questions theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation
Muis (2004) indicated that beliefs about learning to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67, 88–140.
develop and change over time in light of Schommer’s Kim, C., & Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivation, volition, and belief
(1994) argument of recursive development of episte- change strategies to improve mathematics learning. Journal of
mological beliefs rather than sequential development. Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), 407–420.
Kloosterman, P., & Cougan, M. C. (1994). Students’ beliefs about
Support for this argument can be found in the research
learning school mathematics. Elementary School Journal, 94,
literature. For example, Kloosterman and Cougan 375–388.
(1994) interviewed K-6 elementary students about Muis, K. R. (2004). Personal epistemology and mathematics:
their beliefs about mathematics, including a question A critical review and synthesis of research. Review of Educational
about whether they believed that everybody could learn Research, 74(3), 317–377.
mathematics. The authors found that most students Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education:
Theory, research, and applications (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
showed availing beliefs about their ability to study
River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
mathematics, which was inferred from the success of Schoenfeld, A. H. (1988). When good teaching leads to bad results:
a 2-year project to improve teaching mathematics. The disasters of, “well-taught” mathematics classes. Educational
Franke and Carey (1997) also found that 1st graders Psychologist, 23(2), 145–166.
452 B Beliefs and Values

Schommer, M. (1994). Synthesizing epistemological belief research:

Tentative understandings and provocative confusions. Educa- Big Five Factor Model of
tional Psychology Review, 6(4), 293–319.
Schommer, M. (1998). The role of adults’ beliefs about knowledge in
Personality
school, work, and everyday life. In M. C. Smith & T. Pourchot The five-factor model of personality is a currently pop-
(Eds.), Adult learning and development: Perspectives from educa-
ular model of personality. It includes the factors extra-
tional psychology (pp. 127–143). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
version, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism,
and openness to experience.

Beliefs and Values

▶ Culture in Second Language Learning Big Five Personality and
Prejudice
BO EKEHAMMAR1, NAZAR AKRAMI2
Belonging 1
Department of Psychology, Stockholm University,
Stockholm, Sweden
▶ Identity and Learning 2
Department of Psychology, Uppsala University,
Uppsala, Sweden

Benefit Finding Synonyms

▶ Posttraumatic Growth Big five personality: Five-factor personality theory;
Discrimination; Personality trait theory; Prejudice:
Intolerance

Definitions
Best Practices The Big Five (five-factor) personality model (McCrae
In education: Strategies, activities, and/or approaches and Costa 2008) is probably the current most widely
that have been shown through research and evaluation accepted model of personality structure, encompassing
to be effective in teaching and learning. neuroticism (emotional instability), extraversion, open-
ness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness.
These factors reflect core personality because of their
substantial heritability coefficients and their early
expression in temperament in human infants and in
Best-Fit Techniques other animal species.
In the context of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) The term prejudice refers to prejudgment and
“best-fit” techniques refer to the matching of person- originates from the Latin praejudicium. An early defi-
ality type data produced by the 93 point questionnaire nition was proposed by Allport who suggested that
with the respondents’ own knowledge and awareness of prejudice is “an antipathy based upon a faulty and
their type. Data for the latter is collected by face to face inflexible generalization” (1954, p. 9). In line with
discussion with qualified MBTI personnel. Allport, more recent definitions suggest that prejudice
is composed of negative judgments, beliefs, and feelings
about people because of their social group member-
ship. Distinguished from prejudice, stereotypes refer to
Beta Power the cognitive component of prejudice and comprise
beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behav-
▶ Learning-Related Changes of b-Activity in Motor Areas iors of members of a particular social group.
 Big Five Personality and Prejudice B 453

Discrimination, however, means that people act or sympathy and concern for others. Correspondingly,
behave in accord with their prejudiced beliefs and ste- Openness comprises components that have to do with
reotypes toward out-group members. nonconformity and unconventionality and is positively B
related to liberal sociopolitical values. The characteristics
Theoretical Background of these factors would imply a negative relation with
Why are some people more prejudiced than others? prejudice. According to the model of McCrae and Costa
The answer to this question has been a point of dis- (2008), these factors reflect “basic tendencies,” posi-
agreement in psychological research. One camp tioned first in a causal chain. Also, McCrae and Costa
advocates the view that prejudice is best explained by denote observable behavior, such as prejudice
personality psychology whereas the other maintains displayed in discrimination, as “objective biography,”
that the answer can be found in social psychology. positioned at the end of this chain. Whereas Allport
The personality explanation holds factors within the (1954, p. 73) argued that prejudice is a personality
individual as the major causes of prejudice (e.g., factor by itself, our suggestion (e.g., Ekehammar and
Adorno et al. 1950; Allport 1954; Ekehammar and Akrami 2003) is that prejudice is an outcome of core
Akrami 2003). The social psychology approach, on personality like the Big Five factors and subfactors.
the other hand, links prejudice to factors in the outside
world. Thus, people’s group membership, self-catego- Important Scientific Research and
rization, social identity, social position, or contextual Open Questions
factors like social norms or social threat, are seen as the Indeed, there is empirical support for a concept of
major determinants of expressing prejudice (e.g., generalized prejudice as reflected in relatively strong
Guimond et al. 2003). As the title of this text correlations between prejudices toward various targets.
indicates, the present chapter puts forth evidence that Thus, in line with the classical works recent research has
personality really matters for explaining prejudice. disclosed that attitudes toward homosexuals, Blacks,
Theoretically, there are two major supporting lines women, and elderly people are correlated and that racism,
of argument for the personality–prejudice relationship. sexism, and antigay attitudes are highly correlated as well.
First, the personality approach to the study of prejudice Recently, Zick et al. (2008) reported high correlations
was developed around the notion that prejudice can among nine prejudice targets which they refer to as
be generalized from one target to another. Thus, if a syndrome of group-focused enmity. Taken together,
a person is anti-homosexuals, he or she is likely to be the high correlations obtained between different prej-
anti-immigrants, antiblacks, and so forth (e.g., Allport udice targets in past and more recent research lend
1954). Interestingly, such generalized prejudice appears support to the idea of prejudice as a unit of personality.
even in the absence of real out-groups. Thus, classical Recent studies employing factor analyses on four
works examined attitudes toward various groups and potential prejudice targets (immigrants, women, gays
found high correlations between fictitious groups and lesbians, and disabled people) arrived at a single
(e.g., Pireneans) and real social groups (e.g., Jews, generalized prejudice factor explaining 50–60% of the
Communists). This would suggest that there is a variance (e.g., Ekehammar and Akrami 2003).
within-individual component of prejudice that is inde- Although some researchers suggest that choosing
pendent of target and social context. other targets can give multifactor solutions (Duckitt
Second, the Big Five personality factors are indica- and Sibley 2007), the replicated one-factor solution
tors of dispositions that provide the individual with seems to hold for traditional prejudice targets.
domain-specific tendencies to behave in certain ways in Ekehammar and Akrami (2003) were probably the
the social world (McCrae and Sutin 2009). Although all first to examine the personality–prejudice issue by ana-
five factors might in some way be related to interpersonal lyzing the relation of the Big Five personality factors
relationships, the Agreeableness and Openness to with generalized prejudice using a variable-centered as
Experience (henceforth Openness) factors can be consid- well as a person-centered approach. They showed that
ered strong candidates for guiding our behavior toward two of the Big Five factors (Openness and Agreeable-
people around us. Agreeableness comprises components ness) displayed rather strong (r  0.45) negative
like tender-mindedness and nonhostility as well as zero-order correlations with generalized prejudice.
454 B Big Five Personality: Five-Factor Personality Theory

When using all Big Five factors for predicting general- Ekehammar, B., & Akrami, N. (2003). The relation between person-
ized prejudice in a linear multiple regression analysis, ality and prejudice: A variable- and a person-centred approach.
European Journal of Personality, 17, 449–464.
Ekehammar and Akrami arrived at a fairly high pre-
Ekehammar, B., & Akrami, N. (2007). Personality and prejudice:
dictive power (R = 0.56) with Agreeableness and Open- From Big Five personality factors to facets. Journal of Personality,
ness showing the largest regression weights. Quite a few 75, 899–926.
studies have since then disclosed similar results (see Guimond, S., Dambrun, M., Michinov, N., & Duarte, S. (2003). Does
meta-analysis of Sibley and Duckitt 2008). social dominance generate prejudice? Integrating individual and
contextual determinants of intergroup cognitions. Journal of
Because most trait models of personality are
Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 697–721.
hierarchical, there is always a question which level to McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of
choose for the study of personality and its relations to personality. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.),
other variables. Some researchers have made a strong Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed.,
case for suggesting the trait rather than the factor level pp. 159–180). New York: Guilford.
for predicting, and understanding, various external McCrae, R. R., & Sutin, A. R. (2009). Openness to experience.
In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual
behaviors and constructs. Using this idea, Ekehammar
differences in social behavior (pp. 257–273). New York: Guilford.
and Akrami (2007) were probably the first to use Big Sibley, C. G., & Duckitt, J. (2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-
Five facets (subfactors) in personality–prejudice analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology
research. Indeed, they found the Big Five facet scores Review, 12, 248–279.
to have significantly higher power when predicting Zick, A., Wolf, C., Küpper, B., Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Heitmeyer,
W. (2008). The syndrome of group-focused enmity: The inter-
prejudice than the Big Five factor scores. Also, the
relation of prejudice tested with multiple cross-sectional and
scores on the facets Tender-Mindedness (underlying panel data. Journal of Social Issues, 64, 363–383.
the Agreeableness factor) and Values (underlying the
Openness factor) were the most powerful single pre-
dictors of prejudice, outperforming corresponding fac-
tor scores as single predictors.
Finally, it is important to note that the theoretical
background and research findings presented here do not
Big Five Personality: Five-
imply that prejudice can be explained by personality Factor Personality Theory
alone. Prejudice is a multifaceted phenomenon that ▶ Big Five Personality and Prejudice
needs to be explained by multiple approaches. What
seems to be clear in more recent research, however, is
that personality and social psychological variables explain
distinct aspects of prejudice (Akrami et al. 2011).

Bilingualism and Learning

Cross-References
▶ Learner Characteristics HENRIK SAALBACH1, SEBASTIAN KEMPERT2
▶ Personality and Learning 1
Institute for Behavioral Sciences, Research on
▶ Personality Effects on Learning Learning and Instruction, ETH Zurich, Zurich,
Switzerland
References 2
Department of Educational Sciences, Goethe-
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
(1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper & Row.
Akrami, N., Ekehammar, B., & Bergh, R. (2011). Generalized preju-
dice: Common and specific components. Psychological Science,
22, 57–59. Definition
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading: Addison-
Bilinguals are individuals or groups of individuals who
Wesley.
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2007). Right-wing authoritarianism, have gained communicative skills, with various degrees
social dominance orientation and the dimensions of generalized of proficiency, in oral and/or written forms, in order to
prejudice. European Journal of Personality, 21, 113–130. interact with speakers of one or more languages.
 Bilingualism and Learning B 455

Theoretical Background highly proficient in L1 and L2 (so-called balanced bilin-

Bilingualism and learning offer a vast range of topics. guals) are likely to experience positive cognitive effects,
In the present article, we focus on the cognitive side of as compared to monolinguals, whereas individuals B
the issue. The relation between bilingualism and learn- with low proficiency in both languages (so-called
ing may also be mediated by sociocultural factors or semilinguals or weak bilinguals) are likely to face nega-
variables related to motivation, attitude, and identity. tive consequences, as compared to monolinguals. Thus,
Research on learning is typically based on the sim- in order to avoid negative cognitive consequences or to
plifying assumptions that learners are taught in one profit by positive cognitive consequences, learners’
language in which they are proficient and have one bilingual proficiency needs to exceed a minimum
conceptual system to store knowledge. Recent develop- threshold and to approach a higher threshold,
mental and cognitive research has shown that there is respectively.
an interaction between language and thought in most
cognitive domains, particularly in learning and devel- Important Scientific Research and
opment (for an overview, see Gentner and Goldin- Open Questions
Meadow 2003; see below). Taking into account this The learning benefits that bilingual children may expe-
finding for examining the relation between bilingual- rience have been well identified. It has been shown that
ism and learning, we need to ask whether and to what children who are proficient in more than one language
extent learning processes are affected when students (balanced bilinguals) and bilingual children who are
speak more than one language, when learners have to more proficient in one language than in the other (so-
frequently switch between different languages, when called dominant bilinguals) outperform their monolin-
their proficiency in the language of instruction is low, gual peers with respect to their ability to think and
and when the language of instruction is different from reflect about language – competencies that are gener-
the language of retrieval. Do these scenarios support or ally referred to as metalinguistic awareness. Interest-
impede the learning process? Potential answers to these ingly, advantages in terms of executive control
questions, as provided by research, emphasize the processes of bilinguals, as compared to monolinguals,
importance of language for examining the basic pro- have not only been reported in linguistic tasks but also
cesses that underlie school-related learning. in nonlinguistic domains. Bialystok and colleagues
The relation between bilingualism and learning can (2009) argue that due to the intensive practice of inhi-
be viewed in a number of quite different perspectives bition processes that go along with switching from one
focusing on different aspects, e.g., emphasizing either language to another, the advantage of bilingual chil-
cognitive costs or cognitive benefits. On the one hand, dren can be traced back to their improved ability to
there are reports highlighting the serious school prob- selectively attend to specific aspects of a situation, par-
lems encountered by students from immigrant fami- ticularly in ambiguous situations. This cognitive bene-
lies. On the other hand, bilingual teaching programs fit has shown to be relatively domain-independent,
become more and more popular, presumably because thus giving learners an advantage in various fields
these programs have generally been considered to be such as literacy, reading, and third language acquisition
a very efficient way of teaching since students improve as well as mathematics.
their foreign language skills as a side effect, without any Findings concerning the positive effects of bilin-
additional instructional effort. Furthermore, profi- gualism as well as the enthusiastic promotion of bilin-
ciency in two languages has been associated with ben- gual education programs contrast, however, with
efits in terms of thinking about language as well as in reports that highlight the serious school problems
terms of basic cognitive functions (e.g., Bialystok et al. encountered by students from immigrant families in
2009). An approach that accounts for different perspec- many developed countries. In fact, international com-
tives on the outcomes of bilingual learning has been parative studies on school achievement such as PISA
suggested by Cummins (2004). In his Threshold revealed that bilingual students from immigration fam-
Hypothesis, he claims that the quality of the cognitive ilies performed significantly worse than their native
consequences of bilingualism depends on the degree of peers in all three domains of assessment: reading,
proficiency in the two languages. Individuals who are mathematics, and science (e.g., OECD 2006).
456 B Bilingualism and Learning

Throughout their school career, the risk for these stu- Furthermore, it has been found that bilingual learning
dents to be retained is two to three times as high as that environments in various domains, including mathe-
of their “native” classmates. Can the problems faced by matics, chemistry, and history, are bound up with
students from immigrant families be linked to what significant costs when the information taught has to
Cummins called Semilingualism or Weak Bilingualism? be transferred from one language to the other. In par-
The potential mechanisms underlying the cognitive ticular, when new facts are learned in one language,
disadvantages, as proposed in Cummins’ model, have these facts are more efficiently retrieved in the language
not been as clearly defined as the advantages associated of instruction than in another language, no matter
with balanced and dominant bilingualism. Doubts whether it is L1 or L2 (e.g., Marian and Fausey 2006).
have been expressed whether the disadvantage is as Given these findings, it is important for bilingual
general as the advantage. Analyses of the PISA studies educational programs to take into account the possible
have shown that the striking differences between immi- costs and benefits of bilingual learning. There are
grant children and their “native” classmates cannot be roughly three common forms of bilingual education
attributed to general cognitive deficits, nor can they be (cf. Baker 2006): Submersion programs, transitional
entirely traced back to their socioeconomic or cultural programs, and immersion programs. Submersion pro-
backgrounds. Rather, mastering the instruction lan- grams try to compensate the possible costs of language-
guage is the greatest barrier for students from immi- based problems as they are primarily designed to
grant families (OECD 2006). Deficits in mastering the improve immigrant children’s proficiency in the
language of instruction have a cumulative effect in instructional language. The idea is to have minority
most subjects, thus resulting in impaired competencies language students learn the majority language by sim-
in all academic fields for students with poor language ple exposure to this language in the classroom. Typi-
skills. This suggests that language proficiency is an cally, no special support is provided, and minority
important determinant for academic success and that language children and majority language children are
teaching core subjects in a language in which students taught together. However, there are also programs that
are not proficient may be bound up with certain costs – provide native language support and give special sup-
which may be a problem not only for students from port to minority language students by means of “pull-
immigration families but also for students in immer- out” classes.
sion programs. However, language proficiency may not Transitional programs also aim to promote profi-
be the only potential source of costs associated with ciency in the majority language. Unlike Submersion,
bilingual learning environments. The promotion of bi- however, students in transitional programs are tempo-
or multilingual teaching implicitly assumes that the rarily allowed to use their native language. Here, the
knowledge we gain is represented in a system that is rationale is to gradually decrease native language use
independent of the specific language of instruction during classes until students are able to cope with the
and, thus, can be easily accessed no matter which lan- educational content in their second language. In other
guage the learner uses. This assumption, however, is far words, children are initially taught in their native lan-
from being empirically confirmed. It may well be that guage (e.g., the language in which they are proficient)
languages not only serve as a medium of input for to prevent them from underperforming with respect to
learning, but also as a medium of representation for their majority language peers. Thus, programs are
the knowledge thus acquired. As a consequence, costs based on the assumption that concepts acquired in
may occur when knowledge needs to be transferred one language are easily accessible in the other language.
from one representational system to another, that is, However, the necessity for teachers to speak more than
when the language of learning is different from the one language limits the variety of students’ native lan-
language that is used to apply what has been learned. guages. Hence, these programs are only suitable for
Evidence for this proposal comes from studies on the relatively homogenous language groups.
relation between language and thought, which show Finally, Immersion is a competence- and benefit-
that the representation of information people take up orientated form of bilingual education. The explicit
during their lifetime is affected by features of their goal of immersion programs is to reach high profi-
native language (Gentner and Goldin-Meadow 2003). ciency in two languages (balanced bilingualism),
 Biographical Learning B 457

including bi-literacy. A key difference from Submer- Gentner, D., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2003). Language in mind:
sion and transitional programs is that here, the decision Advances in the study of language and thought. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
to raise children bilingually tends to be a voluntary one
Marian, V., & Fausey, C. M. (2006). Language-dependent memory in B
and, as such, is opposed to the case of immigrant bilingual learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 1025–1047.
children who have to learn the majority language in OECD. (2006). Where immigrant students succeed. A comparative
order to take part, and function, in the society. One- review of performance and engagement in PISA 2003. Paris: OECD.
way Immersion is characterized by students from one
language group being taught in two languages. Chil-
dren are typically monolingual or start out from an
equal level of second language experience. Early Total
Immersion starts in Kindergarten, and the ratio of Bimodal Learning
using the two languages is balanced in most cases.
▶ Multimodal Learning
Middle and late Immersion start with one language
only and switch to a bilingual mode in grade two or
four, often via a step-by-step decrease of the initial
language. In Two-way Immersion programs, two lan-
guage groups, typically an equal number of majority Biographical Learning
language and minority language students, make up one
classroom. Language use is balanced, but during each METTE KROGH CHRISTENSEN
period of instruction, only one language is used. Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics,
How well these programs are suited to compensate University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark
for the special needs of disadvantaged bilingual stu-
dents and to promote the cognitive benefits associated
with balanced and dominant bilingualism is a question Synonyms
for future research. In any case, the relation between Agency; Life course; Lifelong learning
program characteristics and learning success may not
be onefold. Besides the design of the learning environ- Definition
ment, the social, economic, political, and cultural con- The term “biographical learning” is used to describe
texts play an important role. Furthermore, to evaluate the study of the relationships that exists between learn-
the outcomes of bilingual educational programs, it is ing and biography, the influence of biography on learn-
important to not only look at cognitive and basic ing processes and practices, and biography as a mode of
educational measures such as oracy, literacy, and learning (Tedder and Biesta 2007, p. 3). The word bio
numeracy but also at variables such as self-concept, means life, and it comes from the Greek word bios. The
drop-out rates, tolerance, and integration. word graphy means written or told, and it comes from
the Greek word grafia and grafein, which means
Cross-References a record, a note, or a memorandum. A biography is
▶ Language Acquisition and Development most often referred to as the story of a person’s life
▶ Literacy and Learning written or told by somebody else, for example, “The
▶ Psycholinguistics and Learning Education of John Dewey: A Biography” by Jay Martin.
In this way of understanding the word, a biography is
References a literary genre and a style of writing like the novel and
Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism the poem. Yet, the biographer (the subject) who is
(4th ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. writing the biography (the object) is likely to prefer
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2009). facts about a person’s life history instead of fiction even
Billingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10
if biographies may entail fictional elements. Biogra-
(3), 89–129.
Cummins, J. (2004). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children phers generally rely on a wide variety of documents
in the crossfire. Clevedon/Buffalo/Toronto/Sydney: Multilingual and viewpoints in the writing of a person’s biography.
Matters. By comparison, an autobiography (the word auto
458 B Biographical Learning

means self or same, and it comes from the Greek word 1995, p. 61; Alheit and Dausien 2002, p. 3), that is to say
autos) may be based entirely on the writer’s life and his the “hidden capacity” to lead one’s own life. According to
or her own memory of that life. Unlike a biography, an Alheit, the term “biographicity” means a person’s innate
autobiography (and a memoir) is a life history of capacity to redesign again and again, from scratch, the
a person written or told by that person himself or contours of his/her own life within the specific contexts in
herself, and thus intertwining the subject (the biogra- which he/she (has to) spend it, and in which he/she
pher) and the object (the biography). Some sociologists experiences these contexts as “shapeable” and designable
and psychologists have noted that autobiography (Alheit et al. 1995, p. 65). Therefore, biographical learn-
offers the author the ability to revisit history, ing differs from the broader concept of lifelong learning,
because the autobiography is a way of telling, retelling, which may be defined as a concept spanning an entire
and reinterpreting one’s own life history and lifetime in a process of transforming experience into
thereby re-creating a new biographical history. knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs,
According to some historians, the ability to both de- and the senses (Smilde 2008).
and reconstruct a life also applies to the biography
(Bale et al. 2004, p. 22). Theoretical Background
Biographical learning connotes the abovementioned The philosophies and assumptions underpinning bio-
senses of the words biography and autobiography. There graphical learning derive from and influence sociology,
does not yet seem to be an agreed-upon definition of pedagogy, and anthropology. Since John Dewey
biographical learning, yet the two influential authors in launched the concept of educative experience in his
the field of biographical learning, the German sociolo- book “Education and Experience” many interpreta-
gists and educationalists Peter Alheit and Bettina tions of experience have entered the discourse of learn-
Dausien, suggest the following definition: ing, including biographical learning. At the outset,
Dewey emphasized the continuity of experience, mean-
" If we conceive of biographical learning as a self-willed,
ing that every experience both takes up something from
“autopoietic” accomplishment on the part of active sub-
those which have gone before and modifies in some
jects, in which they reflexively “organise” their experi-
way the quality of those which come after. He also
ence in such a way that they also generate personal
pointed out that only when the experience is the object
coherence, identity, a meaning to their life history and
of reflection is it considered to be an educative experi-
a communicable, socially viable lifeworld perspective for
ence. The concept of biographical learning has central
guiding their actions, it becomes possible to compre-
points of resemblance to Dewey’s thoughts on experi-
hend education and learning both as individual identity
ence and progressive education, especially with regards
work and as the “formation” of collective processes and
to the intertwining of past and future experiences in
social relations (Alheit and Dausien 2002, p. 17).
a person’s biographical learning processes, and the
More simply expressed, biographical learning refers to point of view that the organization of biographically
the ways in which a person’s biography both structures oriented learning (processes) must be communitarian,
and is structured by that person’s learning processes. lifeworld-oriented, project-related, and interest-related
These learning processes are often characterized by (Alheit 1994, p. 293).
communicative situations, in which learners and teachers In the early 1970s, the life history approach in
(or other persons) meet in biographically oriented activ- education stressed the importance of the emancipatory
ities, dialogues, or learning environments. The starting aspect of including the (often contradictory) experi-
point of these processes are personal narratives (i.e., the ences and life histories of the learner in educational
contextualized and intensified story of a given experi- connexions (Elias and Merriam 1980). The aim of this
ence), life stories, and the transitional potential of re- experience-oriented and often critical pedagogy is to
interpretation of these narratives and stories. In this describe and argue in support of the individual life
way, biographical learning is about understanding history as a potential for the awakening and emanci-
changes in personal and social identity, as well as bodily pating qualities of the learning process. Oskar Negt and
identity, as a potential for growth and ownership of Paulo Freire, who were very influential and critical
one’s own life story and “biographicity” (Alheit et al. educationists in the 1970s, have inspired the viewpoint
 Biographical Learning B 459

that experience is an active, continuous, critical, and language is assumed to reach deeper layers in the
creative process and that experience as such is collec- social reality ways of functioning. When a person tells
tive, which means it is tied to social structures. about his or her life, it is done with the help of explan- B
The point is that by taking a biographical approach atory models that are legitimate in his or her
in adult education, it is possible to reveal distinctive culture (Christensen 2007). In this way, insights in
processes that on the one hand emerge from written or told life histories allow for an understanding
certain specific conditions and therefore are similar of a person’s way of structuring his or her life. They also
(e.g., discrimination as a cultural, social, or political provide a connected picture of the different practical-
phenomenon), but on the other hand differ from ities and limitations which structure a person’s
other processes (e.g., discrimination as a personal life. Biographical learning as a pedagogical method,
experience). This is a central argument for using by which a teacher encourages learners to develop
a biographical approach in pedagogical matters: the a personal, sensuous language about their experiences,
intimate and already existing interrelation between may support learners’ involvement in dialogues
individuality and society, for which the French sociol- and narrative activities, which form the basis for
ogist Pierre Bourdieu in particular stands. According to personal narratives surrounding concrete meaningful
Bourdieu, the interrelation between individuality and experiences from everyday life (Christensen 2007).
society exists in the “habitus,” that is, the individual’s The pivotal concern in the biographical approach is
embodied social history and perceptual dispositions subjectivity, represented in individual ways of doing
developed through engagement in social life and espe- and ways of thinking. According to Bourdieu (1998),
cially educational contexts (Bourdieu 1998, p. 25). subjectivity is embedded in the habitus: in the individ-
Following Bourdieu’s argument, it can be said that ual’s embodied life history and perceptual dispositions
learning and teaching is always a matter of how developed through engagement in social life. As such
biographicity and society meet in educational connex- subjectivity is a person’s capability and intention to
ions or in learning processes (Christensen 2005). understand and to experience and evaluate oneself in
Contemporary theories of subjectivity and individ- a life course perspective. Thus, the biography of
ualization argue that modern society is giving a new a learner can be seen as a faculty of experience, through
importance to the biographical perspective of the agent which he or she learns to deal with subject matters in
and to biographicity as the underlying structure relation to education. Following this point of view,
of meaning construction and learning. Subjectivity assimilation of educational aims has to be seen as
and the ongoing process of making identities are seen integrated with the self-identity, life history, and bio-
as dominant features of today’s society which actualizes graphical reflections of a learner.
a biographical approach to adult education and the
concept of biographical learning in understanding Important Scientific Research and
learning processes in modern society. Concurrently, Open Questions
the turn to biographical research methods in social A biographical approach in studying lifelong learning
sciences marks a trend toward the agent perspective in and learning careers is widespread in the literature on
order to reveal the smaller history as a representation teacher education, teacher development, and profes-
of the bigger history, because the biographical sional identity (e.g., Goodson 2003), mostly by the
approach lays stress on valuing knowledge of use of biographical research methods such as in-depth
a personal history in arriving at an understanding of life-history interviews. However, research into bio-
how people learn, what they learn, and the choices graphical learning as such is rather infrequent. How-
which people make. ever, there are a number of important studies. The
work of Alheit et al. (1995) and Alheit and Dausien
Biographical Learning as (2002) showed that in a risk society the biographical
a Pedagogical Method approach in adult education is all-important, because
In the biographical approach to education, the life biography itself has become a “laboratory” in which
history of the single learner plays a central role, because new constellations of ideas, knowledge, and self-
continuous holistic narratives told in everyday identity have to be anticipated and even experienced.
460 B BIOL - Bonding and Identification-Based Observational Learning

Also, findings from The Learning Lives (see www. Bale, J., Christensen, M. K., & Pfister, G. (2004). Writing lives in sport.
learninglives.org), a 3 year research project focusing Biographies, life-histories and methods. Aarhus: Aarhus University
Press.
on the interrelationships between learning, identity,
Biesta, G., & Tedder, M. (2007). Agency and learning in the lifecourse:
and agency in people’s lives suggest among other things Towards an ecological perspective. Studies in the Education of
that learning about one’s agent-related orientations Adults – Special Issue, 39(2), 132–149.
and learning how to reframe a particular agent-related Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical reason. On the theory of action. Cam-
“constellation” can be important in shaping our bridge: Polity.
Christensen, M. K. (2005). Experience as biographical learning:
responsiveness and hence in achieving agency. The
Inspirations for physical education. Moving Bodies, 1(3), 21–42.
authors argued that for such learning to occur, it is Christensen, M. K. (2007). Biographical learning as health promotion
important that actors can distance themselves from in physical educations? A Danish case study. European Physical
their actions in order to explore and evaluate them Education Review, 13, 5–24.
(Biesta and Tedder 2007; Tedder and Biesta 2007). Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (1980). Philosophical foundations of adult
Furthermore, the recent research into specific subject education. Huntington: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company.
Goodson, I. F. (2003). Professional knowledge, professional lives:
fields such as physical education (Christensen 2007),
Studies in education and change. Buckingham: Open University
music (Smilde 2008), and university sociology Press.
teaching (McLean and Abbas 2009) suggest that McLean, M., & Abbas, A. (2009). The ‘biographical turn’ in university
biographical learning viewed as a pedagogical method sociology teaching: A Bernsteinian analysis. Teaching in Higher
by which the learners’ life stories and narratives forms an Education, 14(5), 529–539.
Smilde, R. (2008). Lifelong learners in music; research into musi-
entrance to teaching and learning specific subject mat-
cians’ biographical learning. International Journal of Community
ters in educational connexions. Several questions remain Music, 1(2), 243–252.
open: Are narratives a necessary condition for biograph- Tedder, M., & Biesta, G. (2007). Learning from life and learning for
ical learning? What is the learning potential of different life: Exploring the opportunities for biographical learning in the
kinds of narratives? How and with which outcomes lives of adults. Working paper 7, Learning Lives Website, www.
are biographically oriented teaching methods employed learninglives.org. Learning Lives Website.

in formal educational settings? Is biographical learning

a European/Western phenomenon exclusively for
adult learners or does the concept have broader scope?
BIOL - Bonding and
Cross-References Identification-Based
▶ Adult Learning Styles
▶ Adult Learning Theory
Observational Learning
▶ Adult Learning/Andragogy ▶ Selective Attention in Social Learning of Vervet
▶ Adult Teaching and Learning Monkeys
▶ Autobiographical Memory
▶ Education of Teacher Educators
▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning
▶ Life-Long Learning
Biological Function of Learning
References ▶ Adaptation and Learning
Alheit, P. (1994). The “biographical question” as a challenge to
adult education. International Review of Education, 40(3–5),
283–298.
Alheit, P., & Dausien, B. (2002). The double face of lifelong learning:
Two analytical perspectives on a ‘silent revolution’. Studies in the
Education of Adults, 34(1), 3–22. Biological Groundings of
Alheit, P., Bron-Wojciechowska, A., Brugger, E., & Dominicé, P. Reinforcement Learning
(Eds.). (1995). The biographical approach in European adult edu-
cation. Wien: Verband Wiener Volksbildung. ▶ Basal Ganglia Learning
 Biological or Evolutionary Constraints on Learning B 461

most of the major learning theorists of the twentieth

Biological or Evolutionary century espoused some version of equipotentiality in
Constraints on Learning their advocacy of a general process approach to learn- B
ing. However, ignoring biological constraints on learn-
MICHAEL DOMJAN ing became increasingly difficult with the discovery of
University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA numerous additional examples in the 1960s (Domjan
1983; Hinde and Stevenson-Hinde 1973; Shettleworth
1972). As one might expect, these discoveries occurred
Synonyms when investigators examined learning in unusual spe-
Adaptive specializations in learning; Constraints on cies or situations. Keller and Marian Breland, for exam-
learning ple, attempted to condition a raccoon to put a coin into
a slot for food reinforcement, as a part of an entertain-
Definition ment display. As training progressed, the raccoon
A biological or evolutionary constraint on learning is became increasingly reluctant to let go of the coin and
a limitation on classical or instrumental conditioning let it drop into the slot. When required to put two coins
that is observed despite the use of procedures that into the slot, the raccoon rubbed the coins together
would be expected to produce successful learning. instead of releasing them into the slot. Attempts to
Such constraints on learning reflect the evolutionary train a pig to put a coin into a piggy bank met with
history of the organism and are usually contrasted with similar failure. The pig would root the coin on the
examples of unusually rapid learning with condition- ground rather than put it into the slot.
ing procedures that employ a different conditioned Another major constraint on learning was discov-
stimulus or reinforcer. ered by John Garcia in the course of his work on the
biological effects of x-irradiation. Garcia and his col-
Theoretical Background leagues found that foot-shock will readily condition an
Traditionally, investigators of basic learning phenomena aversion to an audiovisual cue but not a taste cue in
such as classical and instrumental conditioning sought to rats. In contrast, illness induced by irradiation or
identify universal rules of learning that apply irrespective a drug injection will condition an aversion to a taste
of the specific stimuli and responses the subjects are but not to an audiovisual stimulus. Constraints on
learning about. The assumption that learning processes learning were also found in avoidance conditioning.
are universal and independent of the specific stimuli and Bolles found that rats are more likely to learn to freeze,
responses involved is called the equipotentiality principle jump out of a box, or run in a wheel to avoid shock than
and is the basis for general process learning theory. The they are to rear or press a lever. In pigeons, key pecking
equipotentiality principle encouraged investigators to is much more difficult to condition as an instrumental
focus on a few well-developed laboratory paradigms shock-avoidance response than is pressing a treadle.
such as rats lever-pressing or running down a straight The constraints on learning discovered in the 1960s
alley for food or pigeons pecking a response key for were often contrasted with especially rapid learning
food. The assumption was that the results obtained using similar procedures. For example, although rats
using standard laboratory procedures and species have difficulty learning to press a response lever to
would be applicable to other species and other stimuli, avoid shock, they readily freeze if freezing is designated
responses, and reinforcers. as the avoidance response. Although pigeons have dif-
Problems with the principle of equipotentiality ficulty learning to peck to avoid shock, pecking is
became evident early in the study of instrumental con- quickly learned to obtain food. The failure of rats to
ditioning when E. L. Thorndike discovered that unlike learn an aversion to an audiovisual cue paired with
pulling a string or releasing a latch, grooming responses illness contrasts with very rapid learning of an aversion
such as scratching and yawning did not increase in to a taste that is paired with illness. In fact, taste aver-
frequency with food reinforcement. These observations sions can be learned in a single trial even if the illness
by Thorndike were put aside for more than 50 years, as follows the taste exposure by several hours. Because
462 B Biological or Evolutionary Constraints on Learning

biological constraints on learning are often discussed in Behavior systems theory assumes that evolution has
contrast to examples of highly rapid learning with shaped behavior into functionally organized units
similar training parameters, they are assumed to reflect that enable organisms to successfully accomplish bio-
an adaptive specialization that facilitates some logically important tasks such as feeding, defense, and
instances of learning and disrupts others. reproduction. Each behavior system consists of
Thorndike proposed the concept of belongingness to a hierarchy of response modes and modules, each of
explain the failure of grooming responses to be which determines the responses the organism is likely
reinforced with food. He suggested that an instrumen- to perform and stimuli it is likely to pay attention to.
tal response has to “belong” with the reinforcer for Learning procedures are superimposed on the behavior
instrumental learning to occur. The Brelands intro- system that is activated at the time of training. For
duced the concept of instinctive drift to explain the example, food deprivation and food reinforcement
failures of conditioning they observed, because the activate the feeding system. During food deprivation,
difficulties that raccoons and pigs had in releasing responses and stimulus relations that are compatible
coins into a slot to obtain food seemed to be due to with the feeding system will be easily learned, whereas
the intrusion of incompatible instinctive behaviors those that are incompatible with the feeding system will
related to feeding in these species. be especially difficult to learn.
Belongingness and instinctive drift were offered to Behavior systems theory avoids the circularity of
explain specific instances of constraints on learning. the concept of peparedness because the response
A more comprehensive approach was provided by modes and modules of a behavior system can be iden-
Seligman, who introduced the concept of preparedness tified and characterized independently of a particular
(Seligman and Hager 1972). According to this concept, classical or instrumental conditioning procedure. Fea-
learning phenomena can be ordered along tures of the feeding system, for example, can be char-
a continuum of preparedness, with instances of learn- acterized by observing an animal’s behavior while it is
ing that occur with relatively little training or input at food deprived and periodically receiving food. The
one end and instances of learning that occur very response modes and modules identified during such
slowly and only with a great deal of training at the investigations of the feeding system can then be used to
other end. Highly prepared forms of learning (e.g., predict how the animal will respond to a classical or
taste–illness associations) presumably reflect evolu- instrumental conditioning procedure that involves
tionary preparation for this type of learning. In con- food reinforcement.
trast, contraprepared forms of learning at the other end Behavior systems theory acknowledges that
of the continuum presumably reflect tasks that are response modes and modules have evolved because of
contrary to the evolutionary legacy of the organism. their adaptive functions. However, it focuses on the
The concept of preparedness provided a convenient outcomes of that evolutionary process rather than the
way to describe both constraints on learning and ecological context in which evolution occurs. Another
contrasting instances of highly rapid learning. How- approach, proposed by Domjan (2008), emphasizes
ever, the concept of preparedness turned out to be that evolutionary selection cannot be divorced from
merely descriptive rather than explanatory. The degree the ecological context in which the selection takes
of preparedness could only be identified by how rapidly place. Behavioral processes that are adaptive and con-
or slowly something was learned. This made prepared- tribute to reproductive success in one ecological niche
ness a circular explanation for constraints on learning, may not be as successful in another, and may even be
because a constraint could only be identified by a slow deleterious. These considerations encourage looking
learning rate. The inherent circularity of the concept of for biological influences on learning by examining
preparedness made it difficult to predict new instances how learning takes place in an organism’s natural
of constraints or adaptive specializations of learning in habitat.
the absence of measurements of learning rate. An organism’s natural habitat will limit the types
The next major development in efforts to under- of learning than are likely to take place. Consider, for
stand biological constraints on learning was behavior example, classical conditioning. We know that organ-
systems theory developed by Timberlake (2001). isms will associate a conditioned stimulus (CS) with
 Blended Learning B 463

food only if that CS is reliably encountered just before (Ed.), Learning theory and behavior. (Vol 1, J. Byrne (Ed.) Learn-
food. For this to occur in nature, the CS has to be ing and memory: A comprehensive reference (pp. 327–340)).
Oxford: Elsevier.
a natural precursor of food or a component of the
Hinde, R. A., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1973). Constraints on learning. B
causal chain of events that invariably leads to food. New York: Academic Press.
Evolutionary selection that improves an organism’s Seligman, M. E. P., & Hager, J. L. (1972). Biological boundaries of
ability to predict and ingest food is likely to favor the learning. New York: Appleton.
conditioning of stimuli that are natural precursors of Shettleworth, S. J. (1972). Constraints on learning. In D. S. Lehrman,
R. A. Hinde, & E. Shaw (Eds.), Advances in the study of behavior
food rather than the conditioning of arbitrary
(Vol. 4, pp. 1–68). New York: Academic.
unrelated events. These considerations suggest that Timberlake, W. (2001). Motivational modes in behavior systems. In
conditioning of natural precursors of food should R. R. Mowrer & S. B. Klein (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary
occur more quickly and be less sensitive to disruptions learning theories (pp. 155–209). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
than the conditioning of arbitrary cues. The most
extensive tests of these ideas have been carried out in
studies of sexual conditioning. Experiments have
shown that in comparison to arbitrary cues, naturalis-
tic conditioned stimuli become conditioned more rap- Biologically Inspired
idly, come to elicit a broader range of conditioned Computing
responses, and learning about naturalistic cues is resis-
tant to increases in the CS–US interval, the blocking ▶ Learning to Sing Like a Bird: Computational Devel-
effect, and extinction. opmental Mimicry

Important Scientific Research and

Open Questions
Biological constraints on learning have encouraged Bi-sensory Learning
investigators to accept that evolution has significantly
shaped and constrained what animals learn about and ▶ Audiovisual Learning
how learning occurs. This in turn has led to abandon-
ment of the principle of equipotentiality. However,
much remains to be discovered about the specific
ways in which evolutionary adaptation shapes learning
mechanisms. In particular, we need to examine in
Blended Instruction
greater detail how the particulars of an organism’s ▶ Integrated, Multidisciplinary, and Technology-
ecological niche determine the course of evolution in Enhanced Science Education
producing specialized forms of learning.

Cross-References
▶ Classical Conditioning
▶ Instrumental Conditioning Blended Learning
▶ Learning and Instinct
▶ Natural Learning DIRK IFENTHALER
Institut für Erziehungswissenschaft, Albert-Ludwigs-
References University Freiburg, Freiburg, BW, Germany
Domjan, M. (1983). Biological constraints on instrumental and clas-
sical conditioning: Implications for general process theory. In
G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation
(Vol. 17, pp. 215–277). NewYork: Academic.
Synonyms
Domjan, M. (2008). Adaptive specializations and generality of the Blended online learning; Flexible learning; Hybrid
laws of classical and instrumental conditioning. In R. Menzel learning; Mixed eLearning
464 B Blended Learning

Definition tools, authoring tools, as well as video- and audio-

Blended learning combines face-to-face with technol- streaming. Yet, this definition is criticized because any
ogy-based learning and instruction. The terms learning situation includes a variety of media what
“blended learning” and “hybrid learning” are used makes this explanation of blended learning redundant
interchangeably in instructional science. However, (Oliver and Trigwell 2005).
a blended learning scenario is also regarded as One more definition of blended learning is the
a combination of different computer-based technolo- combination of pedagogical approaches or learning
gies, a combination of different pedagogical approaches theories. However, a mix of pedagogic approaches
and theories, or a combination of instructional technol- prompt new questions for educational researchers:
ogy with specific tasks in order to facilitate desired skills What are the benefits of combining different pedagog-
and competencies. ical approaches? Is such a combination more effective
than using only one alternative approach? Does such
Theoretical Background a combination affect the learning objectives negatively?
The digital age and its rapid introduction of informa- Last, Kerres and de Witt (2003) introduce plausible
tion and communication technologies (ICT) opened reasons for blended learning environments. Blended
up new possibilities for learning and instruction. Par- learning environments provide pedagogical richness,
allel to the introduction of technology-based learning give flexible access to information, induce social inter-
environments, the term “blended learning” was intro- action and collaboration, enable a fast and economic
duced. However, a precise meaning of blended learning revision of learning content, provide alternative assess-
is still discussed (Graham and Dziuban 2008). Accord- ment possibilities, and are to a great extent cost-effec-
ingly, various definitions of blended learning can be tive. However, learners and instructors need to bring
found in educational science (Seel and Ifenthaler along specific skills and competencies to being able to
2009). successfully utilize blended learning environments.
The most accepted definition of blended learning is Still, the theoretical foundation of blended learning
a combination of traditional face-to-face with com- needs to be developed in future. Especially, cognitive,
puter-based learning and instruction (Kerres and de affective, and social aspects of learning need to be
Witt 2003). Traditional face-to-face learning and integrated in a well-defined theoretical basis of blended
instruction requires learners and teachers being at the learning.
same place at the same time in order to communicate
and exchange information. Using computer-based Important Scientific Research and
learning and instruction, learners and teacher do not Open Questions
have to meet at the same place and the same time to Blended learning is lively discussed in educational and
communicate and exchange information. Hence, infor- instructional science. Most importantly, a blended learn-
mation and communication technologies are used to ing environment is always dependent on its combined
facilitate learning and instruction. Meanwhile, not only components, e.g., face-to-face learning and instruction
desktop computers are used for blended learning sce- and technology-based learning and instruction. Accord-
narios. Newer technological developments allow the ingly, all components need to be optimally calibrated in
implementation of blended learning environments on order to facilitate learning and instruction at its best. Key
cellular phones, television sets, or games consoles. research on blended learning is conducted including the
Another definition of blended learning is the com- following perspectives: Focus on students, focus on
bination of tools, applications, and media in instructors, as well as focus on organizations and insti-
a computer-based or web-based learning environment. tutions (Graham and Dziuban 2008).
Here, the traditional face-to-face learning and instruc- Researchers investigate the relation of motivation
tion is disregarded and a mixture of various media and satisfaction of students induced by blended learn-
application is used to facilitate learning and instruction ing environments. Studies report high motivation and
in an optimal combination. Media applications include satisfaction of students in blended learning environ-
interactive texts, forums, chats, wikis, portfolios, ments. Other researchers have studied collaboration
podcasts, simulations, games, quizzes, assessment and the sense of community within blended learning
 Blocking B 465

environments. Rovai and Jordan (2004) found a higher References

sense of community existed within blended learning Graham, C. R., & Dziuban, C. (2008). Blended learning environments.
environments compared to face-to-face and full online In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll B
learning environments. Concerning instructors, (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and
technology (pp. 269–276). New York: Taylor & Francis.
research studies investigate models for supporting
Kaleta, R., Skibba, K., & Joosten, T. (2007). Discovering, designing,
instructors to implement blended learning environ- and delivering hybrid courses. In A. G. Picciano & C. Dziuban
ments and how satisfied instructors are. A problem (Eds.), Blended learning: Research perspectives (pp. 111–144).
found is the double role of being a face-to-face teacher Needham: Sloan Consortium.
and an online facilitator. This requires new skills and Kerres, M., & de Witt, C. (2003). A didactical framework for the
design of blended learning arrangements. Learning, Media and
competencies from instructors using blended learning
Technology, 28(2 & 3), 101–113.
environments. Another important research question Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can “blended learning” be
investigated includes the relation of workload of redeemed? E-Learning, 2(1), 17–26.
instructors and blended learning environments. Using Rovai, A. P., & Jordan, H. M. (2004). Blended learning and sense of
technology-based learning and instruction requires community: A comparative analysis with traditional and fully
more time and effort (Kaleta et al. 2007). As online graduate courses. International Review of Research in Open
and Distance Learning, 5(2), 1–3.
a consequence, specialized trainings for instructors
Seel, N. M., & Ifenthaler, D. (2009). Online lernen und lehren.
using blended learning environments are inevitable to München: Ernst Reinhardt Verlag.
optimize the implementation of technology-based ele-
ments into courses. Furthermore, a successful imple-
mentation of blended learning environments is highly
dependent on the organizational conditions. Little
research is available on the conditions needed for suc-
Blended Online Learning
cessfully introducing blended learning into institu- ▶ Blended Learning
tions. Here, new theories of practice are required to
give those responsible the necessary background for the
implementation of blended learning environments.
Open questions arise from the development of
future technologies. Will blended learning environ- Blended Research on Learning
ments change with regard to their combination of ▶ Mixed Methods Research on Learning
face-to-face and technology-based elements? Will dif-
ferent organizations, e.g., school, universities, compa-
nies, etc., use blended learning environments in
different ways? What skills and competencies will stu-
dents and instructors need to successfully learn and Blocking
teach in blended learning environments? What impact The decrease in conditioned responding that results
will future blended learning environments have on from reinforcing a novel stimulus in the presence of
traditional academic institutions? a trained stimulus instead of in the presence of another
novel stimulus. First reported by Leo Kamin in 1969,
Cross-References blocking challenged the view that contiguous stimulus
▶ Collaborative Learning pairings are sufficient for Pavlovian learning. It is one
▶ Computer-based Learning of a class of cue-competition phenomena that led to the
▶ Distance Learning view that conditioned responding results when
▶ Distributed Technologies a stimulus predicts an increase in reinforcer likelihood.
▶ e-Learning
▶ Learning Management Systems References
▶ Learning with and from Blogs Kamin, L. J. (1969). Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning.
▶ Online Learning In B. A. Campbell & R. M. Church (Eds.), Punishment and aversive
▶ Seamless Learning behavior (pp. 279–296). New York: Aappleton-Century-Crofts.
466 B Bloom’s Domain

characteristics are defined as knowledge, abilities and

Bloom’s Domain competences necessary for completing particular tasks.
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives They constitute specific preconditions and constraints
for given learning tasks. As in Carroll’s (1963) model of
school learning, generalized cognitive capabilities, such
as general intelligence and reading abilities, are consid-
ered as influential on a variety of learning tasks. Beyond
Bloom’s Model of School these general cognitive capabilities, Bloom refers to
Learning Glaser (1970) and discusses accordingly five categories
of cognitive entry characteristics: (1) task learning
NORBERT M. SEEL already acquired, (2) prerequisite learning or prior
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, knowledge, (3) cognitive styles, (4) task-specific abili-
Freiburg, Germany ties, and (5) general mediating abilities.
Affective entry characteristics include motivation,
enthusiasm for given learning tasks, as well as a positive
Synonyms self-concept with regard to achievement capabilities and
Conceptual model of school learning positive attitude toward schooling and learning.
Bloom argues that cognitive entry characteristics
Definition have the critical influence on accomplishment of single
Bloom’s model of school learning emphasizes the cycli- tasks, and therefore, on the learning outcomes in
cal character of instruction, the outcomes of one school general. More specifically, even the best instructional
learning task becoming the input to another. In quality is ineffective in the case of lacking the relevant
Bloom’s model all learning outcomes are determined task-specific entry characteristics. The quality of
by four dimensions: Students’ cognitive entry behav- instruction contains four constituents: Cues, reinforce-
iors, affective entry characteristics, the learning task(s), ment, participation, and feedback/correctives.
and the quality of instruction. The learning outcomes Cues refer to all information concerning the pre-
or results are specified as level and type of achievement, sentation and explanation of the learning task. Most of
or as rate of learning, or as affective outcomes. The them are verbal but occasionally they are also pictorial.
model relates to series of learning tasks. Bloom points out that this aspect of instructional qual-
ity corresponds with Carroll’s concept of quality of
Theoretical Background instruction and includes presentation, explanation,
In the 1970s, Bloom (1976) introduced a model of and sequencing of tasks in correspondence with the
school learning that transcends his former model of characteristics of individual learners.
learning for mastery (Bloom 1971) and focuses on Participation corresponds with the efforts in
characteristic group situations which are representative accomplishing a task or with the engagement in
for school learning. Bloom’s model aims at changes of a task. Regularly, participation is expressed in measures
the educational system in order to achieve a substantial of active learning time (similar to Carroll’s
improvement of the student’s outcomes and concept of actual time needed for learning). Bloom
performances. argues that participation or active learning can occur
In Bloom’s model, all learning outcomes are covertly (referring to internal thought processes) or
determined by four dimensions: Cognitive predisposi- overtly (i.e., as observable interactions with learning
tions (cognitive entry characteristics), affective entry material).
characteristics, the learning task(s), and the quality of Reinforcement refers to affective responses to stu-
instruction. More detailed, the model can be illustrated dents’ behavior and contains praise, blame, supportive
as in Fig. 1. or discouraging statements of the teacher. The effective
With regard to the characteristics of students, application of reinforcement depends on the individual
Bloom adopts the traditional distinction between cog- student, his/her advancements and the difficulty of the
nitive and affective components. Cognitive entry task to be mastered.
 Bloom’s Model of School Learning B 467

Students’ Instruction Outcomes

characteristics of learning

Cognitive entry
Level and type
of achievement
B
characteristics

Learning
task(s) Rate of learning

Affective entry Affective

characteristics outcomes
Quality of
Instruction
Cues

Reinforcement

Participation

Feedback/
correctives

Bloom’s Model of School Learning. Fig. 1 Bloom’s model of school learning

Feedback/correctives are included in the course of assumed that the effects of instruction have presumably
instruction as a kind of particular cues and reinforce- the strongest effects on particular attitudes.
ments in order to provide the learners with additive Learning tasks are at the center of Bloom’s model of
information for successful accomplishment of the school learning. Alternatively, learning tasks are also
learning tasks. In regular classroom instruction, the named learning units. A learning task or unit can
feedback often consists in formative tests; corrective contain one lesson up to ten lessons or also a book
procedures contain specific encouragements or chal- chapter. Learning tasks or units can be independent of
lenges for students to improve learning. Feedback each other or interrelated with each other, or they can
refers to the identification and notifying of that what be organized hierarchically. It is in dependence on the
the students has learned, whereas correctives are hints degree of their structuredness can learning tasks be
and activities aiming at the improvement of a student. related to prior steps in the learning process.
Reinforcement and feedback are closely related to each A particular strength of Bloom’s model is the
other in instructional practice. uncovering of the cumulative interdependence of
With regard to the outcomes of learning Bloom learning tasks in schooling. Each task precedes another
distinguishes between (a) level and type of achieve- one so that mastering a task becomes a precondition for
ment, (b) rate of learning, and (c) affective outcomes. mastering the following tasks. This feature of the model
The character of achievement is determined through facilitates the explanation of cumulative effects of
objectives and contents of the tasks. Interestingly, instruction on learning and constitutes a fundamental
Bloom argues in favor of a criterion-referenced testing basis for the analysis of long-term effects of instruc-
of learning outcomes. Rate of learning is defined in tional strategies.
terms of activity quantity within a unit of a time
period. Unfortunately, Bloom did not specify the con- Important Scientific Research and
cept rate of learning in more detail and it remains Open Questions
unclear whether it can be improved by instruction. Bloom’s model of school learning explains cumulative
Concerning the affective learning outcomes it can be learning in the classroom in dependence on learner
468 B Bloom’s Model of School Learning

characteristics and instructional quality, discussed between these two concepts or whether the active
in terms of learning tasks or units. However, due time of learning contains the efficiency of learning.
to some lack of clarification of interdependences In view of Bloom’s discussion of the problem results
between the various components of the model it can an immediate interpretation: When cognitive
be criticized for shortcomings (Harnischfeger and entry characteristics are completely given then the learn-
Wiley 1978). ing efficiency or rate of learning does not vary. There-
Bloom argues, for instance, that accomplishment of fore, it is possible that learning efficiency is determined
tasks presupposes specific cognitive entry characteris- only by the cognitive entry characteristics and the qual-
tics considered as dichotomous (i.e., noncontinuous) ity of instruction.
variables. He also maintains that all learners who pos- Despite these critical comments it is noteworthy
sess these specific entry conditions can master each that the contributions of Carroll and Bloom to the
learning task if they are sufficiently motivated and if theoretical underpinning of research on time and
the quality of instruction corresponds with their needs learning cannot be overemphasized as Goodman
for learning. Moreover, Bloom asserts that there is only (1990) says. Actually, the time concept, first introduced
a small variation of learning tempo as well as in the by Carroll, has been translated into a working model
level of achievement if the learners possess the appro- for classroom instruction by Bloom who explains how
priate entry conditions. This corresponds with Bloom’s student characteristics (cognitive and affective) and
idea of learning for mastery. Cognitive entry character- instructional variables interact with time and partici-
istics can change for a particular task due to changes of pation to produce effective learning for mastery. Time
the instructional method. As long as content and objec- is both an intervening and outcome variable inasmuch
tives do not change, a substantial change of the learning as it contributes to the quality of instruction as well as
task is not necessary. This results in an adaptation of to instructional effectiveness (Bloom 1974). Compara-
instruction to the needs and characteristics of learners. ble with Carroll’s approach, the working model of
This includes implicitly a dichotomy of the entry Bloom integrates a complex set of student, instruc-
conditions in accordance with task-specific conditions tional, and situational variables that interact in order
and conditions of particular instruction. to facilitate cognitive and affective learning outcomes.
In addition to cognitive preconditions, affective Within Bloom’s model it is the degree of student par-
entry characteristics play an important role in Bloom’s ticipation in learning which intervenes between
model inasmuch as they affect achievement and rate of instruction and learning outcomes and the rate of
learning. The structure of affective entry characteristics learning is viewed as an indicator of learning efficiency.
corresponds with the level of specificity of its relation- Optimal learning conditions, including sufficient time
ship with the learning task. The lowest level of speci- for accomplishing the learning task(s) as well as an
ficity is associated with affects related to subject matter adaptation to cognitive and affective characteristics,
of instruction; the next levels correspond with school- increase student achievement and reduce the amount
related affects and, finally, with achievement-related of time needed to achieve mastery. In Goodman’s
self-concept. Bloom maintains that these levels can be (1990) view, Bloom’s model can be considered a good
distinguished during the first years of schooling but example for the methodology of process–product
merge to a comprehensive characteristic over time. research which provides the empirical framework for
Bloom argues that students differ significantly with the study of cause and effect relationships within the
regard to the time they need for accomplishing learning instructional setting. The process–product paradigm
tasks. Harnischfeger and Wiley (1978) believe in two focuses on instructional dynamics at the school, class-
reasons for these differences of the needed learning time. room, and student levels in order to achieve effective
On the one side, students vary in the contingent of learning in the classroom.
time allowed for task learning, and therefore, in the
overall active time of learning within a particular Cross-References
time interval. On the other side, there is a different ▶ Academic Learning Time
efficiency of using time allowed for task learning. It ▶ Carroll’s Model of School Learning
remains unclear whether Bloom has distinguished ▶ Learning Tasks
 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives B 469

References Benjamin S. Bloom (1913–1999) and a group of edu-

Bloom, B. S. (1971). Learning for mastery. In B. S. Bloom, J. T. cational psychologists developed a hierarchy of educa-
Hastings, & G. F. Madaus (Eds.), Handbook on formative and tional objectives, which is generally referred to as B
summative evaluation of student learning (chap. 3). New York: Bloom’s Taxonomy, and which attempts to identify six
McGraw-Hill.
levels within the cognitive domain, from the simplest to
Bloom, B. S. (1974). Time and learning. The American Psychologist,
29, 682–688. the most complex behavior, which includes knowledge,
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
New York: McGraw-Hill. evaluation. Bloom’s Taxonomy refers to a classification
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model for school learning. Teachers College of the different learning objectives that educators set
Record, 64, 723–733.
for learners.
Glaser, R. (1970). Evaluation of instruction and changing educational
models. In Proceedings of the Symposium on Problems in the
Evaluation of Instruction, University of California, Los Angeles, Theoretical Background
December, 1967. Los Angeles: Center for the Study of Evaluation Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psy-
of Instructional Programs, University of California. chological Association, Benjamin S. Bloom took a lead
Goodman, L. (1990). Time and learning in the special education in formulating a classification of educational activities.
classroom. Albany: State University of New York Press.
The three domains of educational activities were iden-
Harnischfeger, A., & Wiley, D. E. (1978). Conceptual issues in models
of school learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(3), 215–231. tified as the cognitive domain, affective domain, and
psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain represents
the intellectual skills and knowledge processing. The
affective domain represents objectives that are
concerned with attitudes and feelings. The objectives
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning
in the psychomotor domain concern what students
Domains might do physically (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001;
▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives Bloom 1956; Krathwohl et al. 1964). The three domains
can be represented as below:
● Cognitive Domain: Acquisition of knowledge and
intellectual skills (Knowledge)
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning ● Affective Domain: Integration of beliefs and ideas
(Attitude)
Objectives ● Psychomotor Domain: Acquisition of manual and
physical skills (Skills)
AYTAC GOGUS
Center for Individual and Academic Development, Bloom’s Taxonomy refers to six levels, sub-domains
Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey within the cognitive domain, which are knowledge, com-
prehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evalua-
tion. The six levels are classified hierarchically from the
Synonyms simplest action to the high-order thinking actions (see
Bloom’s domain; Bloom’s taxonomy of learning Table 1). The two subdivisions of cognitive domain are
domains; Classification of levels of intellectual behavior lower cognitive (knowledge and comprehension) and
in learning; The classification of educational objectives; higher cognitive domains (application, analysis, syn-
The taxonomy of educational objectives thesis, and evaluation). Also, the last three levels of
higher cognitive domain (analysis, synthesis, and eval-
Definition uation) concentrate on critical-thinking skills. Table 1
Taxonomy means a scientific process of classifying outlines these levels and the associated sample verbs
things and arranging them into groups. Learning objec- used to write learning objectives and learning outcomes
tives are statements of what a learner is expected to (Bloom 1956; Clark 2009).
know, understand, and/or be able to demonstrate Bloom’s Taxonomy uses observed student behavior
after completion of a process of learning. In 1956, to infer the level of cognitive achievement. Bloom’s
470 B Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives. Table 1 Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives for the cognitive domain
Levels Sample verbs
Lower 1. Knowledge: Deals primarily with the ability Define, list, identify, show, describe, label, outline,
cognitive to memorize and recall specific facts. recall, state, match, outline, select, recognize, and
reproduce.
2. Comprehension: Involves the ability to Comprehend, convert, contrast, distinguish,
interpret, and demonstrate students’ basic defend, infer, explain, extend, generalize,
understanding of ideas. interpret, predict, translate, summarize.
Higher 3. Application: Involves the ability to apply Apply, solve, change, compute, construct,
cognitive concepts and principles to novel practical demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify,
situations. operate, predict, prepare, produce, use.
Critical 4. Analysis: Involves the ability to analyze Analyze, break down, compare, contrast, diagram,
thinking concepts and separate concepts or principles deconstruct, differentiate, infer, separate, select,
into components. arrange, discriminate.
5. Synthesis: Involves the ability to blend Integrate, categorize, combine, compile, design,
elements and parts to form a whole. modify, device, compose, rearrange, organize,
generate, create, adopt, revise.
6. Evaluation: Involves the ability to make Decide, defend, appraise, interpret, justify,
judgments of the value of a work. summarize, judge, convince, rank, evaluate,
critique, conclude, criticize, explain.

general approach is called mastery learning that offers ● Means for determining the congruence of educa-
the basis for the competency-based education model tional objectives, activities, and assessments in
(Bloom 1956). Mastery learning proposes that all stu- a unit, course, or curriculum
dents can learn when appropriate learning conditions ● Panorama of the range of educational possibilities
such as enough time and appropriate instruction are against which the limited breadth and depth of any
supplied in the classroom (Bloom 1956). According to particular educational course or curriculum could
Bloom (1956), enough time and appropriate instruc- be contrasted (p. 212)
tion are determined by the student’s cognitive entry
behaviors. In addition, the availability of prior knowl-
edge is a crucial factor that influences the learning
Important Scientific Research and
process. Bloom’s Taxonomy as a hierarchical frame-
Open Questions
Benjamin S. Bloom, as the editor, and four others, Max
work is used by educators to discuss comparisons in
D. Engelhart, Edward J. Furst, Walker H. Hill, and David
student achievement, improve standardized testing,
R. Krathwohl, comprised a Committee of College and
and assess the level of learning (Athanassiou et al.
University Examiners, who undertook the analysis of the
2003). According to Krathwohl (2002), Bloom saw the
cognitive domain. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Bloom’s Taxonomy as more than a measurement
The Classification of Educational Objectives Handbook I:
tool and believed that the Bloom’s Taxonomy could
Cognitive Domain, was published in 1956. David R.
serve as a
Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B. Masia
● Common language about learning goals to facilitate were coauthors of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
communication across persons, subject matter, and The Classification of Educational Objectives Handbook
grade levels II: Affective Domain, published in 1964. The committee
● Basis for determining for a particular course or members did not write a third handbook on the
curriculum the specific meaning of broad educa- psychomotor domain. Although no taxonomy of
tional goals, such as those found in the currently the psychomotor domain was compiled by Bloom
prevalent national, state, and local standards and his coworkers, several competing taxonomies for
 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives B 471

the psychomotor domain have been created over the Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) defined the new
years (Clark 2009). terms and subcategories of the cognitive dimension in
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a scheme for classifying the revised taxonomy as: B
educational goals, objectives, and standards. According
to Krathwohl (2002), Bloom’s Taxonomy provides an 1. Remembering – Retrieving relevant knowledge from
organizational structure and a common meaning to long-term memory
learning objectives classified in one of its categories, (a) Recognizing
thereby enhancing communication. The six levels of (b) Recalling
Bloom’s Taxonomy were arranged in a cumulative hier- 2. Understanding – Determining the meaning of
archical framework, that is, achievement of the follow- instructional messages, including oral, written,
ing, more complex skill or ability required achievement and graphic communication
of the prior one (Krathwohl 2002). Lorin W. Anderson (a) Interpreting
and David R. Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain (b) Exemplifying
in the learning taxonomy in order to reflect a more (c) Classifying
active form of thinking and made some changes such as (d) Summarizing
changing the names in the six categories from noun to (e) Inferring
verb forms, and slightly rearranging them (Anderson (f) Comparing
and Krathwohl 2001). In contrast to the single dimen- (g) Explaining
sion of the original taxonomy, the revised framework is 3. Applying – Carrying out or using a procedure in
two-dimensional. The two dimensions are cognitive a given situation
process and knowledge (Anderson and Krathwohl (a) Executing
2001). The cognitive process dimension contains six (b) Implementing
categories from cognitively simple to cognitively com- 4. Analyzing – Breaking material into its constituent
plex: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, parts and detecting how the parts relate to one
and create. The knowledge dimension contains four another and to an overall structure or purpose
categories from concrete to abstract: factual, concep- (a) Differentiating
tual, procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson and (b) Organizing
Krathwohl 2001). In the revised taxonomy, the cogni- (c) Attributing
tive process dimension has six levels that are arranged 5. Evaluating – Making judgments based on criteria
in a hierarchical structure, but not as rigidly as in the and standards
original taxonomy (Krathwohl 2002). In combination, (a) Checking
the knowledge and cognitive process dimensions form (b) Critiquing
a very useful table, the taxonomy table, as depicted in 6. Creating – Putting elements together to form
Table 2. Table 2 also shows the comparison of the original a novel, coherent whole or make an original
taxonomy with the revised taxonomy for cognitive product
domain (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001; Clark 2009). (a) Generating
Krathwohl (2002) emphasizes the benefits of the (b) Planning
taxonomy table as below: (c) Producing (Krathwohl 2002, p. 215)
" Using the table to classify objectives, activities, and Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) defined the new
assessments provides a clear, concise, visual represen- terms and subcategories of the knowledge dimension in
tation of a particular course or unit. Once completed, the revised taxonomy as:
the entries in the Taxonomy Table can be used to
examine relative emphasis, curriculum alignment, and 1. Factual Knowledge – The basic elements that stu-
missed educational opportunities. Based on this exam- dents must know to be acquainted with a discipline
ination, teachers can decide where and how to or solve problems in it
improve the planning of curriculum and the delivery (a) Knowledge of terminology
of instruction (Krathwohl 2002, p. 218). (b) Knowledge of specific details and elements
472 B Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives. Table 2 The comparison of the original taxonomy by the revised taxonomy
for cognitive domain and the taxonomy table (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001; Clark 2009)

Original Revised The Knowledge Dimension

Taxonomy Taxonomy
Factual Conceptual Procedural Meta-cognitive

Knowledge Remembering

Comprehension Understanding

Application Applying

Analysis Analyzing

Synthesis Evaluating

Knowledge Remembering

2. Conceptual Knowledge – The interrelationships Bloom’s Taxonomy has been used internationally
among the basic elements within a larger structure within the evaluation community and used widely for
that enable them to function together policy purposes, sparingly in schools of education,
(a) Knowledge of classifications and categories largely in support of curriculum development and
(b) Knowledge of principles and generalizations teaching strategies, and not at all by practicing teachers
(c) Knowledge of theories, models, and structures in K-12 learning environment (Athanassiou et al.
3. Procedural Knowledge – How to do something; 2003). In college teaching, Bloom’s Taxonomy
methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, has been used as a framework for discussing the dimen-
algorithms, techniques, and methods sions of effective teaching and effective design, imple-
(a) Knowledge of subject-specific skills and mentation of international experience-based learning
algorithms and assessment of higher order cognitive skills.
(b) Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and Athanassiou et al. (2003) investigated the use of Bloom’s
methods ideas to support student-centered classroom in college
(c) Knowledge of criteria for determining when to level and conducted a research study to measure the
use appropriate procedures effect of using Bloom’s Taxonomy as a feedback mecha-
4. Metacognitive Knowledge – Knowledge of cognition nism in an effort to build students’ critical-thinking
in general as well as awareness and knowledge of skills. Athanassiou et al. (2003) summarized the use of
one’s own cognition Bloom’s Taxonomy in management education:
(a) Strategic knowledge
(b) Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including ap- " A review of the management-education literature
propriate contextual and conditional knowledge indicates a growing awareness of the taxonomy’s
(c) Self-knowledge (Krathwohl 2002, p. 214) potential usefulness and richness among college and
 Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn B 473

university-level educators in curriculum design,

student assessment, and instruction evaluation. In Bootstrapping: How Not to
curriculum discussions, the taxonomy serves well as Learn B
a common language to describe increasing levels of
cognitive sophistication within the competency-based LANCE J. RIPS
curriculum. These discussions include both the curric- Psychology Department, Northwestern University,
ulum itself and student mastery of it.. . . Student mas- Evanston, IL, USA
tery in these learning settings can involve the more
traditional, faculty-centered assessment of student-
demonstrated learning; student self-assessment . . . or
Definition
possibly both. (p. 537)
(Quinean) Bootstrapping is a proposed method for
In addition, Athanassiou et al. (2003) state that the learning a new conceptual system from an old and
revised taxonomy focuses more closely on “planning incommensurable one. The bootstrapping process
curriculum, instruction, assessment, and the alignment includes the following characteristics (Carey 2009,
of these three” (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001, p. 263) p. 418):
since the revised taxonomy “eliminates synthesis as
1. Relations among symbols [in the new system] are
a dimension and adds the dimension of creation beyond
learned directly, in terms of each other.
that of evaluation” (p. 537). Athanassiou et al. (2003)
2. Symbols are initially at most only partly interpreted
emphasize that the use of the Bloom’s Taxonomy
in terms of antecedently available concepts.
empower students as self-responsible learners in the
3. Symbols serve as placeholders.
classroom.
4. Modeling processes – analogy, inductive inference,
thought experiments, limiting case analysis,
Cross-References
abduction – are used to provide conceptual
▶ Learning Objectives
underpinnings for the placeholders.
▶ Mastery Learning
5. These modeling processes combine and integrate
▶ Outcomes of Learning
separate representations from distinct domain-
specific conceptual systems.
References
6. These processes create explicit representations of
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learn-
ing, teaching, and assessing: a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of knowledge previously embodied in constraints on
educational objectives. In P. W. Airasian, K. A. Cruikshank, R. E. the computations defined over symbols in one or
Mayer, P. R. Pintrich, J. Raths, & M. C. Wittrock (Eds.), A more of the systems being integrated.
taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Athanassiou, N., McNett, J. M., & Harvey, C. (2003). Critical thinking
Theoretical Background
in the management classroom: Bloom’s taxonomy as a learning
Learning requires more than adding new information
tool. Journal of Management Education, 27(5), 533–555. to memory. It often requires adjusting old information
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the in light of the new. New facts may conflict, directly or
classification of educational goals; Handbook I: Cognitive indirectly, with old ones. People may be forced to
domain. In M. D. Engelhart, E. J. Furst, W. H. Hill, & D. R. modify old facts, delete them entirely, modify the new
Krathwohl (Eds.), Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classi-
facts, or refuse to believe them. They may find it
fication of educational goals; Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New
York: David McKay. unclear which of these strategies or combinations of
Clark, D. (2009). Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved them is best. Learning is belief change, and belief
from the Web on Dec 1, 2009: http://www.nwlink.com/ change is difficult, for both computational and theo-
~Donclark/hrd/bloom.html. retical reasons (see, e.g., Rott 2001). Similarly, learning
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of bloom’s taxonomy: an over-
often entails extrapolating – applying information
view. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212–218.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of
beyond the range of observed cases. But people can
educational objectives: the classification of educational goals extrapolate the same information in many incompati-
(Affective domain, Vol. Handbook II). New York: David McKay. ble ways, and by hypothesis, nothing in the data tells
474 B Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn

them which is correct. By contrast, not learning Suppose, though, that prior to learning a new
is a simple matter. In my own case, I have effortlessly domain, a student’s knowledge is a richer, more tightly
not learned many individual facts, such as whether organized structure. In principle, learning might be no
there are infinitely many twin prime numbers more difficult than in the case of loosely structured
or whether life exists in southern Indiana, to cite elements. As long as students can disassemble and
just two. reassemble the elements in the right way, they may be
The difficulties just mentioned apply to learning able to express the to-be-learned facts in their old
single facts, but most education research is concerned vocabulary. By analogy, if a person knows how to
with how students learn entire systems or domains of express the fact that the dancer dazzled the financier
knowledge, such as the rational numbers, Newtonian and has to learn the new fact that the financier dazzled
mechanics, computer programming, French history, or the dancer, then he or she already has the concepts
macroeconomics. Learning these domains poses needed to express the new information. What happens,
extraordinary problems, not only because they consist however, if students cannot formulate facts about the
of many individual facts, but also because of their new domain in the vocabulary of the old? This predic-
conceptual distance from students’ prior knowledge. ament would seem to make learning, not just hard, but
Students who have mastered the natural numbers impossible (as Fodor 1975 has argued). If students
(0, 1, 2, . . .) understand that for each such number, cannot formulate a hypothesis about what might be
exactly one number immediately follows. But this prin- true in the new domain, they cannot marshal evidence
ciple, which helps define the natural numbers, does not to confirm or disconfirm it. If they cannot formulate
apply to the rationals, leaving a conceptual gap between a hypothesis – either because their vocabulary is too
these number systems. Moreover, because some prin- impoverished or because their representational power
ciples from the old system carry over to the new, is too weak – where does the new information come
whereas others do not, interference between the sys- from? The appropriate analogy might be trying to learn
tems is likely (Hartnett and Gelman 1998). Develop- a sentence in a language one does not know – say,
mental psychologists have shown that children learn Tagalog – by looking up the words in a dictionary
even entry-level domains, such as the natural numbers, written entirely in Tagalog.
against a background of assumptions that are often
incorrect of the new information. This makes learning Important Scientific Research and
new domains seem like a hopeless endeavor. Open Questions
If a student already possesses the elementary con- Carey (2009) has advanced the thesis that children’s
cepts of a domain, then learning the domain may call learning sometimes takes place by moving from one
for rearranging these elements, promoting some ele- state of knowledge to an incommensurable state, and
ments and demoting others. Depending on the she has proposed a form of learning, Quinean
entrenchment and incoherence of the original assem- bootstrapping, that effects this change. This thesis can
bly, learning may be simple or vastly difficult. Learning be illustrated with Carey’s proposal about how 2- to
Newtonian physics, for example, may require students 4-year-old children learn the meanings of the terms for
to reorganize a relatively unstructured set of concepts, the first few natural numbers: from “one” to the end of
so that some concepts (e.g., the geometry of forces) their current list of numerals (e.g., “ten”). Figure 1
come to have a dominant position, whereas others diagrams the steps of this bootstrapping process, the
(e.g., actions of an agent) become less relevant. The most fully worked out of Carey’s examples. At the
difficulty that students have in understanding mechan- beginning (Step 1), children have two relevant kinds
ics testifies to the difficulties in achieving this reorga- of mental representations from their innate knowledge.
nization, despite the fact that learning may occur by The first are representations of individual objects, and
ordinary hypothesis testing or strengthening (diSessa the second, representations of sets of objects. The rep-
1993). For example, many college students apparently resentation of individuals is limited to only three
believe that if a ball rolls off a cliff, it will continue to objects; the representation of sets can handle more
have horizontal velocity for a short time but then begin than three items within a set, provided the items
to fall straight down. move as a group. Step 2 occurs during initial language
 Step 1 (pre-linguistic representation from innate sources): Step 5 (three-knower stage):
Representation g:
Representation a:
object1, object2, object3 in Working Memory (“Parallel Individuation”) “one” “two” “three” “four” “ten”

Representation b: “a” dual marker trial marker

{object1, object2,..., objectk} in Working Memory (“Set based Quantification”)

{object} {object1, object2} {object1, object2, object3} {object1, object2,....}

Step 2 (initial language learning): Step 6 (four-knower stage):

Representation c: (similar to the representation in Step 5)

“One” “two” “three” “ten” in Long-term Memory (“Count List”)

Representation d:
“a” “some”

{object} {object1, object2,....} in Long-term Memory (“Enriched Parallel

Individuation”)

Step 3 (one-knower stage): Step 7 (pre-bootstrap stage):

Representation e: Representation i:
“one” “two” “three” “ten” “one” “two” “three” “four” “ten”

“a” “some” “a” dual marker trial marker

{object} {object1, object2,....} in Long-term Memory {object} {object1, object2} {object1, object2, object3} {object1, object2,....}

Step 4 (two-knower stage): Step 8 (post-bootstrap, Cardinal-Principle-knower stage):

Representation f:
“one” “two” “three” “ten” Representation j:
“one” “two” “three” “four” “ten”

“a” dual marker

{object} {object1, object2} {object1, object2,....} in Long-term Memory {object} Cardinality(n + 1) = Cardinality(n) + 1

Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn. Fig. 1 Steps in children’s learning of the meanings of “one” through “ten,” according to the bootstrapping proposal of Carey (2009)
Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn
B
475

B
476 B Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn

learning at around age two, and it puts two like the letters in the alphabet, or looping around, like
more representations into play. One is the memorized the days of the week (Rips et al. 2008). All they can do is
list of number words, in order from “one” to, for produce a set of ten things by counting them out.
example, “ten.” The other is a mapping between the Moreover, a paradox exists about claims for radical
word “a” (as in “a book”) and a symbol for an individ- conceptual change, including bootstrapping. To the
ual. Similarly, there is a mapping between the word extent that it is possible to understand the change on
“some” and the symbol for a set. This is children’s a step-by-step basis, the less the new representations
representation of the singular/plural distinction, and seem genuinely incommensurable with the old ones
it exists in long-term memory as the meaning of “a” and the less evidence there is for conceptual change.
and “some.” Imagine pre-bootstrap children who are at Step 7 of
In the next few steps (Steps 3–6 in Fig. 1), children Fig. 1. While enumerating objects, they might notice
successively learn the meanings of “one” through the correspondence between saying a new numeral and
“three” or “four” by connecting these words with men- adding one element to a set. This is the key learning
tal representations of sets containing the corresponding process the children have to go through – the bootstrap
number of objects. First, the children think that “one” itself – which advances them to Step 8. But are the
means whatever “a” means and that the rest of the children not learning the new rule (next numeral in
number words mean whatever “some” means. So the count list corresponds to adding one to the set)
“one” gets connected to {object}, and all the rest of through their pre-bootstrap concepts? “Next numeral
the number words get connected to the symbol for an in the count list” is already there (back in Step 2). The
arbitrary-sized set. Over a period of about a year, they notion of “one more element” is not so clearly old, but
learn to differentiate this set. They connect “two” to Carey explains it by saying that the children can compare
{object1, object2}. But “three,” “four,” . . ., “ten” are still the sets in long-term memory to determine that one set
associated with an arbitrary set of more than two ele- contains one more than the last. That is, the children can
ments. Then they learn “three” and later “four” in the compare {object1} to {object1, object2} and can com-
same incremental way. Carey believes this process pare {object1, object2} to {object1, object2, object3} to
accompanies learning the quantifier system in lan- get the add-one-more ordering. Thus, all the elements in
guage; so in languages that have a dual marker denoting the children’s rule can apparently be pronounced in their
pairs of objects, children learn the dual marker and old conceptual vocabulary. That is just what Fodor
then learn that “two” means the same thing. (1975) would predict and what Carey (2009) denies:
Finally, in Steps 7 and 8, children notice the relation Children must formulate the hypothesis in their old terms
between the sequence of numerals in the count list before they can learn it. In evaluating bootstrapping, one
(Representation c in Fig. 1) and the sequence of sets must distinguish the claim that (a) children cannot learn
of objects (i.e., {object1}, {object1, object2}, {object1, the new representation in terms of their old representa-
object2, object3}, . . .). They learn this relation in enu- tions, from (b) they cannot learn the new representation
merating objects – for example, counting to “three” in any one of the old representations. The latter claim
while pointing sequentially to three horses in a picture might be true, while the former is false.
book. At long last, then, the children can infer that
advancing by one in the count list is coordinated with
Cross-References
adding one object to a set. They now have a rule that
▶ Belief Formation
gives them the meaning of any of the numerals on their
▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
count list: the meaning of the next term on the list is one
▶ Conceptual Change
plus the set size associated with the previous term.
▶ Learning Numerical Symbols
The learning episode in Fig. 1 extends children’s
ability to enumerate objects in response to verbal
References
requests. But post-bootstrap children still do not
Carey, S. (2009). The origin of concepts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
know many important facts about the positive integers. diSessa, A. A. (1993). Toward an epistemology of physics. Cognition
For example, they have not learned that the integers go and Instruction, 10, 105–225.
on infinitely instead of stopping at a largest item, Fodor, J. A. (1975). The language of thought. New York: Crowell.
 Boredom in Learning B 477

Hartnett, P. M., & Gelman, R. (1998). Early understandings of num- boredom has most commonly been a focus of research
bers: Paths or barriers to the construction of new understand- in the work productivity and instructional design
ings? Learning and Instruction, 8, 341–374.
Rips, L. J., Bloomfield, A., & Asmuth, J. (2008). From numerical
domains, with these investigations seeking to establish B
concepts to concepts of number. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, recommended guidelines that will support motivation
31, 623–642. to work or learn, and decrease feelings of boredom.
Rott, H. (2001). Change, choice, and inference: A study of belief revision
and nonmonotonic reasoning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Theoretical Background
Over time, the topic of boredom has attracted the atten-
tion of researchers across multiple disciplines, each with
unique goals. Due to these diverse contributions, bore-
dom has been conceptualized amorphously, its descrip-
Boredom in Learning
tion influenced by the primary background of the
researcher, the goal of the study, or the decade in
JENNIFER J. VOGEL-WALCUTT, JULIAN ABICH, SAE SCHATZ
which the research was conducted. Initial definitions of
Institute for Simulation and Training-3100
boredom were typically constructed in response to study
Technology, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
goals and current environmental needs. For example, in
FL, USA
the 1920s, researchers concentrated on improving effi-
ciency for factory output, thus investigating boredom to
better understand the impact of monotonous tasks on
Synonyms work productivity. This led researchers to define bore-
Apathy; Disinterest; Disengagement; Dissatisfaction;
dom as an experience of monotony. The concept became
Ennui; Meaninglessness; Monotony; Purposelessness;
more inclusive throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and early
Relentlessness; Under arousal; Weariness
1970s and began to incorporate affective responses and
arousal changes. Investigators generally adopted the sug-
Definition gestion that arousal may play a significant role in affect-
The construct of boredom can be divided into two ing feelings of boredom, but whether high or low arousal
main subsets, trait boredom and state boredom. Trait correlated with feelings of boredom remained unclear.
boredom, also known as boredom proneness, refers to Unfortunately, empirical work during these decades was
an individual’s inclination to experience feelings of bore- also influenced by unusual experimental methodologies
dom regardless of setting or condition. Individuals who and was limited in sample size and sample characteris-
are more boredom prone seem to have lower thresholds tics. Therefore, the validity and reliability of these stud-
for situations that may induce boredom. Substantial ies, and consequently developed measures, remain in
research has been conducted in this area, finding extro- question. Toward the end of the 1970s, researchers
version and sensation seeking correlate with this person- began to incorporate the study of environmentally
ality trait. Trait boredom is a significant concern because influenced feelings of boredom (later described as state
it can negatively affect individuals in a number of ways boredom) and began focusing on factors rooted in an
including increased work absenteeism and decreased individual’s personality (later defined as trait boredom).
attention and motivation to learn. Considering boredom as a personality trait, or the idea
The definition of state boredom, on the other hand, that feelings of boredom could be experienced indepen-
has been highly debated with no clear agreement in the dent of the current environment, became the focus of
literature to date. Across empirical research, state bore- research during this time.
dom tends to be operationally defined as the subjective
perception of negative affect, the objective assessment of Trait Boredom
low arousal, or a combination of the two. Descriptions Studying different personality traits and their associa-
outside these are few but include changes in speech tions with boredom was a growing area of research
patterns, association with certain types of body move- toward the end of the 1970s. For example, some inves-
ments, disproportion between challenge and competence, tigators found differences between extroverts and
and feelings of alienation and low assertiveness. State introverts. This idea gained significant support from
478 B Boredom in Learning

the literature (Vodanovich 2003) and, consequently, other contemporary researchers, posits that boredom
many assessment tools were developed (e.g., Boredom involves both negative emotions as well as negative
Proneness Scale, Boredom Susceptibility Scale, Job arousal. Based on his empirical research, Russell devel-
Boredom Scale, Leisure Boredom Scale) to identify oped the Circumplex Model, within which each emo-
those individuals. tion is placed in one of four quadrants on a Cartesian
Personality characteristics, or the inherent traits of plane. Boredom is positioned in the same quadrant as
the individual, influence how they interpret the world. other theoretically under-arousing, unpleasant emo-
Specifically, those with high levels of boredom prone- tions such as depression, sadness, and gloominess.
ness focus on or view life as largely boring. They easily Much contemporary research (D’Mello, Taylor and
experience boredom, even in generally stimulating sit- Graesser 2007; Posner et al. 2009) is based upon this
uations. Jurich (2004) suggests that boredom prone- theoretical definition. Thus, many researchers now
ness is an individual trait that influences a person’s suggest that (low) arousal and subjective (negative)
perception of a given situation. Boredom proneness emotion combined define state boredom. However,
varies on a continuum; individuals who score higher other researchers still maintain that boredom is better
will more likely find situations boring, compared to defined by only affect or arousal, and consequently,
those who rate lower on the continuum. a fully unified theory of state boredom has not yet
According to Hunter and Csikszentmihalyi (2003), been adopted by the research community.
adolescents generally fall into two groups: those with
chronic interest (i.e., low boredom proneness) and Learning and Boredom
those who experience widespread boredom (i.e., high Learning environments are a common place in which
boredom proneness). The first group experiences feelings of boredom arise. Researchers have found that
a high degree of durable positive self-concept, while boredom increases when the perceived skill of the indi-
those with high levels of trait boredom demonstrate vidual exceeds the level of task challenge, when little
more negativity and an unstable self-assessment. Fur- choice is provided to the learner during the learning
ther, boredom proneness has been correlated with pro- process, and when the learning style does not match the
crastination. Similarly, positive relationships between learners’ method for information processing. As
shyness and boredom have also been found suggesting a result, boredom can reduce learning by up to 25%
that those who are less likely to engage in a social (Craig et al. 2004), decrease students’ achievement
situation or participate in class are also plagued by scores, and reduce their grade point averages.
increased feelings of boredom. Boredom can be substantially detrimental to the
learning process, with as much as two-thirds of high-
State Boredom school students experiencing it, and 56% of students
Research on the construct of boredom, toward the spending time off the tasks while in the classroom
1980s, was expanded to include definitions of negative (Craig et al. 2004). In short, boredom disengages
affect, low arousal, or a combination of the two. Affect many learners from educational activities, and it seri-
is an automatic emotional response to stimuli that may ously decreases learners’ abilities to acquire knowledge.
be influenced by cognition or prior experience. Arousal Students who have feelings of boredom often lose
is an individual’s physiological response to stimuli. As interest in the material being covered, disrupt the
investigators refined the scientific definition of state pace of the class, and interrupt other learners. Ongoing
boredom, the apparatus used to measure it also research may be able to provide insight on this matter,
improved. Researchers began to rely less upon use of such as identifying the conditions under which bore-
subjective self-assessments and instead began incorpo- dom is most likely to occur, but today’s investigations
rating objective neurophysiological measures of bore- have yet to provide well-defined, measurable instruc-
dom to better assess the construct. tional assessments and matching strategies to improve
Such neurophysiological studies support the view- state boredom. In time, more valid and reliable assess-
point that boredom, like other emotions, exists on ment tools will likely lead to more effective boredom
a two-dimensional affective scale (Russell 1980; Chanel mitigation strategies. Having the ability to correctly
et al. 2008). For instance, Russell (1980), along with diagnose those affected by boredom will allow the
 Bottom-Up Learning and Top-Down Learning B 479

learning environment and manner in which informa- Jurich, D. (2004). Attribution of boredom: attentional factors and
tion is presented to be catered to those experiencing boredom proneness. (Doctoral Dissertation, New School
University, 2004).
feelings of either state or trait boredom.
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Person- B
ality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.
Important Scientific Research and Vodanovich, S. J. (2003). Psychometric measures of boredom:
Open Questions a review of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 137(6),
The overarching problem in the literature today is the 569–595.
lack of an agreed-upon definition of the construct of
state boredom. As a result, suitable assessment tools
and interventions are also lacking. A review of research
across disciplines and domains may aid researchers in Bottom-Up Learning and
developing a more solidified and empirically supported Top-Down Learning
definition. Once a research-supported definition is
established, improved diagnosis and recommendations RON SUN
for interventions should follow. Cognitive Science Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic
A second, but no less important, area of upcoming Institute, Troy, NY, USA
research involves the use of neurophysiological sensors to
more objectively and efficiently detect feelings of bore-
dom. Major advances in technology over the past few Synonyms
decades have given investigators the ability to measure Bottom-up learning is also known as implicit-to-
physiological changes in real-time and correlate those explicit explicitation; Top-down learning is also
changes with observed or reported emotions. As a result, known as explicit-to-implicit implicitation (or
research involving individuals’ physiological responses to assimilation)
stimuli can be combined with subjective psychological
interpretations of their emotions to better measure feel- Definition
ings of boredom. Empirical studies investigating the Bottom-up learning refers to learning implicit knowl-
neuro-physiological basis of boredom have generally edge first and then learning explicit knowledge on that
supported the two-dimensional viewpoint; however, basis (i.e., through “extracting” implicit knowledge).
continued research to confirm this finding is warranted. Top-down learning refers to learning explicit
knowledge first and then learning implicit knowledge
on that basis (i.e., assimilating explicit knowledge into
Cross-References
an implicit form).
▶ ARCS-Model of Motivation
▶ Assessment of Academic Motivation
▶ Interests and Learning
Theoretical Background
The idea of two systems in the human mind (implicit
▶ Learner Characteristics
and explicit) that are rather separate for representing or
▶ Motivation to Learn
learning different types of knowledge or skills can be
▶ Personality and Learning
traced back to early work in psychology, for example,
on classical and instrumental conditioning (without
References
subjective conscious awareness) and so on.
Chanel, G., Rebetez, C., Betrancourt, M., & Pun, T. (2008). Boredom,
engagement and anxiety as indicators for adaptation to difficulty
In particular, Arthur Reber demonstrated very early
in games. Proceedings of the Mindtrek Conference, October 7–9, on (in the 1970s and 1980s) that subjects could mem-
2008, Tampere, 13–17. orize letter strings that followed certain patterns and
Craig, S. D., Graesser, A. C., Sullins, J., & Gholson, B. (2004). Affect and after that discriminated valid from invalid novel strings
learning: an exploratory look into the role of affect in learning with without conscious awareness of the basis for their
AutoTutor. Journal of Educational Media, 29(3), 241–250.
judgments. Similar work has been carried out by
Hunter, J. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). The positive psychology of
interested adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(1), Donald Broadbent and others in other experimental
27–35. settings. Some general claims made about such implicit
480 B Bottom-Up Learning and Top-Down Learning

learning, which have been controversial, were that explicit knowledge emerges; explicit knowledge may
implicit learning can occur without conscious aware- in fact be learned through the mediation of already
ness, that such learning can occur automatically (i.e., acquired implicit knowledge (i.e., through extracting
without involving limited cognitive resources), and implicit knowledge in a sense); and (2) learning can
that such learning involves abstracting the underlying also occur through acquiring explicit knowledge first
structure of the stimuli. Empirical (psychological) and then, with practice, assimilating explicit knowledge
results show that while the notion of implicit learning into implicit forms.
is solid these specific claims often need qualifications to The significance of this distinction above lies in the
take into account the complex interactions between fact that bottom-up learning has been very much
implicit and explicit processes (Sun et al. 2005). a neglected topic (even its very existence was ignored
In the late 1990s, on the basis of the large body of in cognitive psychology for a long time until recently;
work on implicit learning, Ron Sun and others (see, Sun et al. 2001), while top-down learning has been
e.g., Sun et al. 2001, 2005) focused on the very process over-emphasized. Given the culturally created systems
of the interaction between implicit and explicit learn- of schooling, apprenticeship, and other forms of
ing, and proposed the notion that skill learning can go guided (or instructional) learning, top-down learning
from implicit learning and implicit knowledge to is quite prevalent in society. However, bottom-up
explicit learning and explicit knowledge, which was learning is more fundamental. It is more fundamental
termed bottom-up learning or implicit-to-explicit in two senses: the ontological sense and the ontogenetic
explicitation (see also, e.g., Stanley et al. 1989). This sense.
style of learning is distinct from the more commonly Ontologically, explicit conceptual knowledge needs
recognized way of skill learning going from explicit to be obtained in the first place before it can be
knowledge to implicit knowledge, that is, top-down imparted to people (e.g., to enable top-down learning).
learning or, as it has been termed before, assimilation Therefore, bottom-up learning, which creates new
or implicitation (or even “proceduralization”, which, explicit knowledge, is more fundamental. Only after
unfortunately, confounds the issue of implicit versus bottom-up learning (and/or other types of learning)
explicit learning with the issue of procedure versus created explicit conceptual knowledge, can top-down
declarative learning). learning be possible. Ontogenetically, there seem to
To account for the detailed (“computational”) process be some empirical indications that children learn
of bottom-up learning, a novel comprehensive model of sensory-motor skills (as well as knowledge concerning
the human mind (known as a “cognitive architecture” in concepts) implicitly first, and then acquire explicit
the cognitive science parlance) has been developed since knowledge on that basis (see Sun et al. 2001 for
then (named CLARION; see Sun 2002), which provides a review of the relevant psychological literature).
detailed mechanistic explanations of the processes of Therefore, bottom-up learning is also more important
bottom-up learning and top-down learning (based, ontogenetically (i.e., developmentally).
in part, on machine learning algorithms for reinforce- Of course, instead of bottom-up learning, it is pos-
ment learning and rule learning that have been devel- sible that one can learn explicit knowledge directly. One
oped rather recently; see Sun 2002 for details). reason why bottom-up learning has been emphasized
This model has since been used to account for a large here is because it has not been sufficiently emphasized
variety of empirical data related to implicit learning, in the past. Furthermore, a cognitive advantage that
bottom-up learning, and top-down learning. comes with bottom-up learning, as opposed to directly
learning explicit knowledge, is the reduction of “com-
Important Scientific Research and putational” cost of learning. For one thing, employing
Open Questions this two-stage approach may be a more efficient way of
A major claim from the research on bottom-up and learning explicit knowledge (in a “computational”
top-down learning is that learning can occur in either sense), because, guided by implicit knowledge, the
way (or both): (1) learning can occur through trial- search space for explicit knowledge is narrowed down
and-error implicitly, without explicit knowledge to and an online, incremental search can then be more
begin with; implicit skills may be acquired before easily performed (as has been demonstrated through
 Bounded Rationality B 481

modeling and simulation using CLARION; Sun 2002). interaction and integration of implicit and explicit pro-
This fact may, in part, explain why evolution has cho- cesses in general. The contribution of the research lies in
sen this approach (Sun 2002). There have been human some useful theories that may explain a wide range of B
data reported in the literature that indicate that it is human data in terms of bottom-up and top-down learn-
likely that humans do engage in bottom-up learning ing and in terms of the interaction and integration of the
(see, e.g., Stanley et al. 1989; Sun et al. 2001, 2005; Sallas two types of cognitive processes. The practical implica-
et al. 2007). Therefore, bottom-up learning is believed tions of bottom-up versus top-down learning in enhanc-
to be cognitively realistic. ing education, learning, and training may also be better
This research also has significant implications for understood as a result.
educational practice (Sun et al. 2007). Most educa-
tional settings focus on teaching conceptual, explicit Cross-References
knowledge rather than providing opportunities for ▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
gaining substantial experiential, that is, mostly ▶ Implicit Learning
implicit, knowledge first and then bottom-up learning ▶ Skill Learning
on that basis that goes from implicit knowledge to
explicit knowledge. While this may be advantageous References
for some subject areas, others may often involve com- Sallas, B., Mathews, R., Lane, S., & Sun, R. (2007). Developing rich
plex skills and knowledge (e.g., features of a convoluted and quickly accessed knowledge of an artificial grammar. Mem-
system or some ill-structured categories) that are better ory and Cognition, 35(8), 2118–2133.
Stanley, W., Mathews, R., Buss, R., & Kotler-Cope, S. (1989). Insight
learned (at least initially) through extensive experience. without awareness: On the interaction of verbalization, instruc-
In general, repeated practice, memorization of examples, tion and practice in a simulated process control task. Quarterly
laboratory exploration, and so on may help to promote Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1215(41A), 553–577.
implicit (and/or procedural) learning and consequently Sun, R. (2002). Duality of the mind. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
bottom-up learning on that basis, while classroom lec- Sun, R., Merrill, E., & Peterson, T. (2001). From implicit skills to
explicit knowledge: A bottom-up model of skill learning. Cogni-
tures and textbooks often promote learning of explicit,
tive Science, 25(2), 203–244.
conceptual knowledge first and top-down learning on Sun, R., Slusarz, P., & Terry, C. (2005). The interaction of the explicit
that basis. While we acknowledge the importance of and the implicit in skill learning: A dual-process approach.
explicit knowledge, the significance of implicit learn- Psychological Review, 112(1), 159–192.
ing/knowledge and bottom-up learning processes in Sun, R., Mathews, R., & Lane, S. (2007). Implicit and explicit processes in
education should not be downplayed either. the development of cognitive skills: A theoretical interpretation with
some practical implications for science education. In E. Vargios
Current research in this area investigates the inte-
(Ed.), Educational psychology research focus (pp. 1–26).
gration of implicit and explicit knowledge in complex Hauppauge: Nova.
skill learning through bottom-up and top-down learn-
ing. Psychological experiments with human partici-
pants are being conducted that explore different
ways for, and different effects of, the integration of
implicit and explicit knowledge through bottom-up Bottom-Up Learning Is Also
and top-down learning (e.g., Sallas et al. 2007). Known as Implicit-To-Explicit
They also explore different methods of facilitating bot- Explicitation
tom-up and top-down learning in order to enhance
skill acquisition. In relation to such research, “cognitive ▶ Bottom-Up Learning and Top-Down Learning
architectures” (e.g., CLARION, as mentioned before;
Sun 2002) are being further developed for capturing the
fine process details of bottom-up and top-down learning.
Through exploring a variety of empirical data, a unified Bounded Rationality
and comprehensive cognitive architecture may shed bet-
ter light on plausible mechanistic (“computational”) pro- The notion that, due to cognitive limitations in knowl-
cesses of bottom-up and top-down learning, as well as the edge and computational capacity, decision makers
482 B Bounded Rationality and Learning

cannot aim for optimal choices, but have to be content Bounded rationality, and its impact on human deci-
with good-enough solutions – that is, they have to sion-making, guided Simon’s research in many
“satisfice.” domains, including cognitive psychology, artificial
intelligence, and the use of information technology in
organizations.
Simon introduced the concept of bounded ratio-
nality in his analysis of organizational behavior (Simon
Bounded Rationality and 1947), although he was clear that his conclusions
Learning applied to the social sciences in general, including in
particular economics and psychology. His interest cen-
FERNAND GOBET1, PETER C. R. LANE2 tered on the following question: Can the kind of ratio-
1
School of Social Sciences, Centre for the Study of nality assumed in classic economics – unlimited access
Expertise, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK to the relevant information and unlimited resources to
2
School of Computer Science, University of carry out the computations necessary for maximizing
Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK utility – reflect the way executives make decisions in
business, government, and other organizations? Based
on a critical analysis of the extant literature, Simon
Synonyms concluded that this was not the case, for two main
Procedural rationality reasons. First, access to information is strictly limited,
and indeed involves a cost. Thus, lacking full informa-
Definition tion, executives and other decision makers cannot list
▶ Bounded rationality is a term proposed by Nobel all possible alternatives, compute their utility, and
Prize winner Herbert A. Simon (1916 – 2001) to choose the optimal solution, as required by unbounded
emphasize that a ▶ decision maker’s rational choice is rationality. Second, the human cognitive system is
affected by cognitive limitations, in particular limita- characterized by a number of rather strong limitations.
tions in knowledge and limitations in computational There is a limit of attention: the amount of information
capacity. Limitations in knowledge relate to what which can be perceived, read, or simply absorbed at any
a decision maker knows about their domain; how one time is restricted by constraints, such as the size of
long have they been learning, and from which sources? our visual field, the rate at which we can read, and the
Limitations in computational capacity refer to the abil- amount of information which can be communicated
ity to identify all relevant factors in a problem, work verbally. Further limits include the capacity of short-
out their consequences, and come to a conclusion in term memory, which limits the number of ideas we can
a reasonable period of time. Psychological explanations hold in mind at any one time, and also the rate with
for the latter include small span of attention, limited which information can be stored in long-term memory.
capacity of short-term memory, slow learning rates, Given these limits, attention can normally focus on
and slow rate of searching problem spaces. All these only one thing at a time, and the search for solutions
limitations are particularly problematic given the lim- to problems is carried out essentially serially. Thus, even
ited time available for most decisions. Learning is an assuming unlimited access to the information required
important way in which the impact of these limitations to make a decision, these cognitive limitations make it
can be alleviated, at least to some extent. impossible for humans to carry out the computations
necessary for making optimal decisions, except in very
Theoretical Background simple cases. Rather, executives and humans in general
The seeds of Simon’s conception can be found in display bounded rationality, that is, they make decisions
Administrative Behavior (Simon 1947), a book derived that are rational given the limited information and com-
from his PhD thesis, in which he showed that the putational resources available. They do not try to find an
type of unbounded or ▶ global rationality assumed elusive optimal solution, but they satisfice and stop their
by classic economics and statistical decision theory search once a good-enough decision has been met. In
could not account for behavior in organizations. this context, ▶ satisficing means that a solution to
 Bounded Rationality and Learning B 483

a problem is accepted once all criteria for comparing have not arisen in the past, or because of their impre-
alternatives are above a given threshold. These criteria cise and complex nature. Such problems are called
are set a priori but can then be revised as search pro- unstructured, and neither the elements nor their rela- B
gresses and aspiration levels are modified, either down- tionships are understood by the problem solver. Simon
ward or upward. readily accepts that real-life decisions cannot be neatly
In later writings (e.g., Simon 1997), Simon also used classified into these two categories, which really repre-
the terms substantial rationality and ▶ procedural ratio- sent the two extremes of a continuum. As a corollary,
nality, which closely correspond to global rationality many problems must be seen as semi-structured, that is,
and bounded rationality, respectively. Substantial some elements and relations are understood by the
rationality refers to the type of rationality used in problem solver, but others are not. Again, we can see
economics, where the emphasis is not only on maxi- the importance of bounded rationality in this classifi-
mizing utility but also on analyzing the situation rather cation. Programmed decisions can be made fairly easily
than the decision maker. With procedural rationality, because previous solutions, as well as the cues indicat-
the emphasis is reversed: the interest is about the pro- ing their appropriate application, have been stored in
cesses leading to a decision, and the focus is on the long-term memory; this luxury is not possible with
decision maker rather than on the situation. Thus, non-programmed decisions, and then a relatively slow
procedural rationality matches the type of rationality and serial problem solving behavior must be used.
studied in psychology. The thesis put forward by Simon is that bounded
Given this rather grim description of human cogni- rationality is inevitable due to the limits imposed on
tive abilities, where the emphasis seems to lie primarily human thinking by limits of attention, learning, and
on shortcomings, one is legitimately entitled to wonder memory capacity. As seen above, a major way to
how our species was able to produce such developments alleviate these limits is learning, that is, to use
as the invention of calculus and the discovery of DNA. long-term memory as an extension of short-term
Simon’s answer is that humans (partly) sidestep the memory. In extreme cases, learning will lead to
limits imposed by bounded rationality by storing previ- high levels of expertise. Rather than storing
ous solutions in long-term memory (through learning), a handful of items in short-term memory, one can
by using powerful heuristics (rules of thumb), and by store a large amount of information by using chunks
combining their forces in efficient and typically hierar- and schemata. Rather than carrying attention to
chical organizations, where decision-making control can a single action, one can carry out several actions in
be centralized or decentralized as a function of the parallel without using much attention, assuming that
demands of the internal and external environments. each action has been learned to the point that it has
They can also use the environment as an external mem- become automatized.
ory or even processor, for example, by order of sophis- Simon has developed the link between learning and
tication: a cue, such as a road sign, to remind one to bounded rationality in the chunking theory, which
carry out an action, paper on which to write notes, and assumes that learning involves the acquisition of large
computer memory. numbers of perceptual ▶ chunks and actions linked to
Two major types of decisions can be identified: these chunks. This large reservoir of prior experience
programmed decisions and non-programmed decisions. injects flexibility and efficiency into a system that
Programmed decisions are well-specified sequences of would otherwise be rigid. Simon estimated that
activities, those repetitive decisions that are routine and a typical human ▶ expert will have acquired between
well-learned and for which clear-cut procedures have 10,000 and 100,000 chunks over a training period of
been developed. Thus, it is not necessary to devise new 10 years. This knowledge, together with the presence
solutions where such decisions must be made. of efficient heuristics, reduces the need for search, as
Programmed decisions can be made only with structured previous searches have essentially been compiled in
problems, where the elements of the problem and their long-term memory. Efficient access and immediate
relations are well understood by the decision maker. By response give rise to the intuitive ease with which
contrast, non-programmed decisions cannot make use of domain experts rapidly diagnose and accurately
standard procedures, either because similar problems respond to problems in their area of expertise.
484 B Bracketing

Important Scientific Research and (Gobet et al. 2001) contains mechanisms explaining
Open Questions how this can happen.
The concept of bounded rationality is amply supported
by empirical evidence on probabilistic reasoning, logi- Cross-References
cal reasoning, and game playing, to cite just a few ▶ Chunking Mechanisms and Learning
domains outside organizational behavior. While fairly ▶ Development of Expertise
well accepted in organizational science and psychology, ▶ Learning in the CHREST Cognitive Architecture
Simon’s ideas are still disputed in economics, ▶ Schema
where (neo-)classical theories are still dominant. It
should also be recognized that the idea of rationality, References
in the sense of maximizing expected utility, can still be Anderson, J. R. (1990). The adaptive character of thought. Hillsdale:
found in fields such as psychology, most notably Lawrence Erlbaum.
in Anderson’s framework of rational analysis Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2010). Herbert Simon’s decision-making
approach: Investigation of cognitive processes in experts. Review
(Anderson 1990).
of General Psychology, 14, 354–364.
Recent research on bounded rationality has Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Cheng, P. C-H., Jones, G., Oliver,
followed several avenues. The extent to which heuris- I., Pine, J. M. (2001). Chunking mechanisms in human learning.
tics and algorithms help alleviate the constraints TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 236–243.
imposed by humans’ cognitive limitations has received Gigerenzer, G. (2000). Adaptive thinking: rationality in the real world.
New York: Oxford University Press.
particular attention (e.g., Gigerenzer 2000).
Rubinstein, A. (1998). Modeling bounded rationality. Cambridge, MA:
A counterintuitive result from this line of research is MIT Press.
that simple heuristics sometimes lead to decisions that Simon, H. A. (1947). Administrative behavior. New York: Macmillan.
are better than optimal decision algorithms, such as Simon, H. A. (1997). An empirically based microeconomics. Cam-
linear regression. Another line of research has led to the bridge: Cambridge University Press.
development of formal models – either mathematical
or computational – to account for the way decisions are
made (e.g., Rubinstein 1998).
As noted above, learning is one of the two main ways
humans have expanded their bounded rationality, and
Bracketing
there is also important research on this topic. Two lines ▶ Learning Through the Breach: Language
were directly started by Simon himself. The first line, on Socialization
expertise, tries to investigate the limits of human
cognition and to understand the training mechanisms
that allow experts to push these limits much further
than novices. Interestingly, while the assumption of full Brain-Based Visual Learning
rationality is at variance with research documenting the
development of expertise – differences in expertise are ▶ Visual Communication and Learning
meaningless in this framework, because even “novices”
should have unlimited computational resources and
access to information – bounded rationality offers
a natural theoretical account to understand expertise Brainstorming and Learning
and its development (Campitelli and Gobet 2010).
The second line has developed computer models of AYTAC GOGUS
the way humans acquire knowledge, and has focused Center for Individual and Academic Development,
on the acquisition of perceptual chunks. One of Sabanci University CIAD, Istanbul, Turkey
Simon’s key insights is that acquired knowledge
enables humans to take excellent and rapid decisions
by intuition, thus sidestepping the limits of their Synonyms
limited rationality. The computer model ▶ CHREST Consensus learning; Idea generation
 Brainstorming and Learning B 485

Definition problem) if they follow the above rules in

Brainstorming means using the brain to storm a brainstorming session.” (Baruah and Paulus 2008,
a creative solution for a problem. Brainstorming is p. 523). Members of interactive groups, who engage in B
a method of generating ideas and solving problems, verbal brainstorming, should be able to benefit from the
therefore there is a strong connection between brain- diverse perspectives and abilities of their group mem-
storming productivity and domain learning. Brain- bers by cognitively stimulating each other to generate
storming is a group activity in which all the members many ideas (Baruah and Paulus 2008; Osborn 1963).
of a group suggest ideas and then discuss them as According to Baruah and Paulus (2008), many research
a brainstorming session. Brainstorming is an approach concluded that
to active learning that allows learners to participate in
" Face-to-face groups actually perform more poorly
learning activities, to take the responsibility for their
when compared to the same number of persons work-
own learning, and to establish connections between
ing alone . . . This productivity loss appears to be due to
ideas by analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating.
the inability to express ideas (production blocking) as
they occur in a group setting. Apprehension about
Theoretical Background evaluation of ideas and social loafing may also contrib-
Alex Osborn (1953, rev. 1957, rev. 1963), an advertising
ute to the lowered group performance. Social compar-
executive, suggested brainstorming as a method for
ison processes may lead individuals in the group to
improving the creativity of groups. Osborn (1963)
develop low standards for performance and to move
designed a brainstorming technique with the following
their performance in the direction of low performers.
four specific brainstorming instructional components
(p. 524)
to prevent inappropriate and untimely evaluation of
ideas and stimulate more creative ideas: During group brainstorming, group members
should generate many ideas, think of uncommon
1. Criticism is ruled out. Adverse judgment of ideas
ideas, combine, evaluate and improve ideas, and
must be withheld until later.
avoid from untimely and unappropriate criticism.
2. “Free-wheeling” is welcomed. The wilder the idea, the
Learning may result from the brainstorming process,
better; it is easier to tame down than to think up.
as it provides a momentum to engage in constructing
3. Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of
ideas and self-explanations.
ideas, the more the likelihood of useful ideas
Social and cognitive factors that lead to increased
[generated].
production gains in group brainstorming are; increased
4. Combination and improvement are sought. In addi-
accountability, competition, upward comparison, and
tion to contributing ideas of their own, participants
social and cognitive stimulation (Baruah and Paulus
should suggest how ideas of others can be turned
2008; Dugosh and Paulus 2005). Baruah and Paulus
into better ideas; or how two or more ideas can be
(2008) suggest the use of facilitators that employ vari-
joined into still another idea (Osborn 1963, p. 156).
ous social and cognitive procedures to keep the brain-
According to Baruah and Paulus (2008), “the brain- stormers on task and encourage all participants to
storming technique was first popularized by Alex contribute the generation of ideas in groups, although
Osborn in 1957 as a method to generate new ideas by the efforts of a trained facilitator are costly.
asking group members to freely generate as many ideas Rossiter and Lilien (1994) present six new princi-
as they can on a given topic following four specific ples emerging from academic and industry researches
rules: (a) express any ideas that come to mind, (b) do on the generation of high-quality creative ideas by
not criticize any ideas, (c) generate as many ideas as you “brainstorming” as stated below:
can, and (d) combine and improve these ideas to come
up with newer and better ideas.” (p. 523). Osborn (a) Brainstorming instructions are essential and
(1963) claimed that “interactive groups (face-to-face should emphasize, paradoxically, number and not
groups that verbally exchange ideas) should perform quality of ideas.
better than the nominal groups (same number of indi- (b) A specific, difficult target should be set for the
vidual brainstormers who work alone on the same number of ideas.
486 B Brainstorming and Learning

(c) Individuals, not groups, should generate the initial 6. Revised ideas are rated or ranked by individuals
ideas. privately, with no discussion. Best idea or ideas cho-
(d) Groups should then be used to amalgamate and sen by pooled individual votes. (Rationale: demo-
refine the ideas. cratic voting increases commitment and pooled
(e) Individuals should provide the final ratings to individuals’ judgments usually provide more accu-
select the best ideas, which will increase commit- rate prediction.) (Rossiter and Lilien 1994, p. 67)
ment to the ideas selected.
According to Rossiter and Lilien (1994), creative
(f) The time required for successful brainstorming
idea production is fundamental to planning and man-
should be kept remarkably short (Rossiter and
agement and is vital to the generation of concepts for
Lilien 1994, p. 61).
new products and for the advertising of new and
Rossiter and Lilien (1994) state that, brainstorming established products. Using brainstorming technique
can more dependably produce high-quality creative is vital in many areas. A significant correlation between
results by following these six principles. Rossiter and idea generation productivity and learning from brain-
Lilien (1994) suggest using the I-G-I (Individual- storming is reported in experimental studies (Rossiter
Group-Individual) procedure for producing, refining, and Lilien 1994; Brown and Paulus 2002).
and evaluating creative ideas by following six steps:
1. Chairperson announces problem and gives brain- Important Scientific Research and
storming instructions to five to seven individuals Open Questions
seated around a table in the same room. (Rationale: Brown and Paulus (2002) have a study on making
this “silent groups” format preserves individuality group brainstorming more effective from an associate
but introduces a possible social facilitation effect memory perspective. Brown and Paulus (2002) state
from the presence of others.) that much literature on group brainstorming finds it to
2. Individuals, with no talking, write down or key into be less effective than individual brainstorming; however,
personal computers as many ideas as they can in the a cognitive perspective suggests that group brainstorming
specified time period, usually 15 min. (Rationale: can be an effective technique for generating creative ideas:
immediate recording of ideas helps to remove the " A cognitive perspective points to methods that can be
“production blocking” problem whereby mental
used so that group exchange of ideas enhances idea
rehearsal of initial ideas blocks the production of
generation. Groups of individuals with diverse sets of
further ideas.)
knowledge are most likely to benefit from the social
3. Chairperson records individuals’ ideas, in rotation,
exchange of ideas. Although face-to-face interaction is
one idea per person per rotation, on a group-visible
seen as a natural modality for group interaction, using
flip chart or electronic screen. (Rationale: the rota-
writing or computers can enhance the exchange of
tion procedure removes some of the anonymity of
ideas. The interaction should be structured to ensure
a “talk in any order” group while at the same time
careful attention to the shared ideas. Alternating
producing a list of ideas that are recorded without
between individual and group ideation is helpful
authorship.)
because it allows for careful reflection on and processing
4. Group clarifies and discusses ideas, combining or
of shared ideas. (Brown and Paulus 2002, p. 211)
refining them as it sees fit. Ideas are taken one at
a time, and each individual is asked for reasons of Brown and Paulus (2002) emphasize that computer
agreement or disagreement as well as to make con- simulations of an associative memory model of idea
structive suggestions for improvement. (Rationale: generation in groups suggest that groups have the
groups are efficient and usually superior for com- potential to generate ideas which are less likely to be
bining and refining ideas.) generated through individual brainstorming alone.
5. The revised ideas are then recorded by the chair- Brown and Paulus (2002) conclude that exchanging
person in a group-visible final list. (Rationale: ideas and retrieving information from one’s long-
memory reliance is again minimized and also term conceptual memory by means of writing or
a degree of democratic anonymity is reinstated.) using semantic network programs, alternating solitary
 Brainstorming and Learning B 487

and group brainstorming, and using heterogeneous when they do not . . . However, when the performance
groups appear to be useful approaches for enhancing of interactive brainstorming groups is compared to
group brainstorming. the pooled performance of the same number of indi- B
Empirical findings from brainstorming research viduals brainstorming alone (nominal groups), nominal
suggest that loss of coordination and motivation in groups outperform interactive groups in both the
a team can hamper the effectiveness of brainstorming, quantity and quality of ideas generated . . . Several
and also brainstorming in interdisciplinary team and social and procedural factors have been identified as
social interaction may not always facilitate the genera- potential causes for this productivity gap, including
tion of creative ideas (McGlynn et al. 2004). Moreover, evaluation apprehension . . ., social loafing and free-
McGlynn et al. (2004) argue that, the usefulness of riding . . ., production blocking . . ., and downward per-
brainstorming as a process facilitating creative ideas is formance matching . . . Most brainstorming research
limited to the earlier stages of task performance in has focused on social factors in the productivity gap
groups. McGlynn et al. (2004) state that “group brain- between interactive and nominal groups . . . However,
storming is usually considered a task of divergent researchers have recently begun to investigate
thinking, and the ideas produced in most research on cognitive factors as well, in particular the extent to
brainstorming are counted and scored for creativity but which idea exchange influences idea generation.
put to no further use” (p. 75). McGlynn et al. (2004) (p. 313)
have a study on brainstorming in which they embed it
Dugosh and Paulus (2005) provide evidence for
in a rule induction task and suggest that brainstorming
both social and cognitive factors in brainstorming:
initially requires divergent thinking and thereby
increasingly requires convergent thinking as evidence " The social aspect . . . there may be a mutual influence
accumulates across their trials. McGlynn et al. (2004) process during group brainstorming in which the pro-
conduct an experimental design with two groups: nom- ductivity of one brainstormer affects that of another. In
inal and interacting groups to find answers to the novel task situations, participants may be uncertain
following research questions: (1) How effective is about appropriate performance standards. This may
group brainstorming in producing ideas in lead them to imitate or socially compare themselves
a problem-solving context? (2) Does group brain- with co-performers . . . The cognitive aspect . . . sug-
storming affect task performance? As a result of their gests that exposure to ideas from others can stimulate
study, McGlynn et al. (2004) found out that “brain- associations that lead to the generation of additional
storming did not generally affect performance on the ideas . . . Ideas from others can stimulate concepts in
induction task . . . Group brainstorming was perceived long-term memory, which are connected by means of
as more effective than individual brainstorming by a semantic network. This can lead to an associational
both interacting and nominal group members, chain of ideas . . . Group members initially generate the
a finding that extends the illusion of group productiv- ideas whose associations are most accessible in mem-
ity in brainstorming to tasks of convergent thinking.” ory, then proceed to generate ideas whose associa-
(p. 75). McGlynn et al. (2004) conclude that, for face- tions are less accessible, until they run out of ideas. In
to-face groups generating hypotheses in the service of an interactive context, group members may provide
inductive problem-solving, brainstorming can have external cues that activate ideas that are low in acces-
some facilitating effects on task performance. sibility for a particular individual . . . The stimulating
Osborn (1963) believed that the effectiveness of impact of ideas from others depends on the extent to
group brainstorming for generating creative ideas in which people attend to these ideas and retain them in
organizations could be attributed to both cognitive and memory during the brainstorming session. (p. 314)
social processes. Based on this, Dugosh and Paulus
According to Dugosh and Paulus (2005), during
(2005) present that there are social and cognitive fac-
brainstorming session, attention to shared ideas of
tors influencing group brain storming:
a group is important for cognitive stimulation of addi-
" Many studies have verified that groups generate more tional creative ideas and for enhancing the impact of
ideas when they use Osborn’s brainstorming rules than the diverse perspectives being shared in a group.
488 B Breaches

Cross-References
▶ Active Learning Bruner, Jerome S (1915–)
▶ Problem Solving
NORBERT M. SEEL
References Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
Baruah, J., & Paulus, P. B. (2008). Effects of training on idea- Freiburg, Germany
generation in groups. Small Group Research, 39, 523–541.
Brown, V. R., & Paulus, P. B. (2002). Making group brainstorming more
effective: recommendations from an associative memory perspec- Life Dates
tive. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 208–212. Jerome Bruner was born in New York City on October 1,
Dugosh, K. L., & Paulus, P. B. (2005). Cognitive and social compar- 1915. He received his B.A. degree from Duke University
ison processes in brainstorming. Journal of Experimental Social
in 1937 and his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1947, where he
Psychology, 41, 313–320.
McGlynn, R. P., McGurk, D., Effland, V. S., Johll, N. J., & Harding, was a member of the faculty at the Department of
D. J. (2004). Brainstorming and task performance in groups Psychology from 1952 to 1972. Furthermore, he was
constrained by evidence. Organizational Behavior and Human the cofounder and director of the Center for Cognitive
Decision Processes, 93, 75–87. Studies at Harvard. In 1972, Bruner left Harvard to teach
Osborn, A. F. (1953, rev. 1957, 1963). Applied imagination: Principles
at the University of Oxford, where he remained until
and procedures of creative problem-solving. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons.
1979. Then he returned to Harvard as a visiting profes-
Rossiter, J. R., & Lilien, G. L. (1994). New “brainstorming” principles. sor, before joining the faculty of the new School for
Australian Journal of Management, 19(1), 61–72. Social Research in New York City 2 years later.
Jerome S. Bruner is one of the best known and
most influential psychologists of the twentieth century.
He was one of the key figures in the so-called cognitive
revolution – but the field that was influenced most by
Breaches his work is doubtlessly education, in which he was
engaged from the late 1950s on.
▶ Learning Through the Breach: Language
Socialization
Theoretical Background
" It was, we thought, an all-out effort to establish mean-
ing as the central concept of psychology . . . It focused
upon the symbolic activities that human beings
Breaks in Frames employed in constructing and in making sense not
only of the world, but of themselves. (Bruner 1990, p. 2)
▶ Learning Through the Breach: Language
Socialization With these words described Bruner the paradigm
shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology in the
late 1950s, which still giving substance to contempo-
rary psychology today. His theoretical framework is
based on the notion that learners actively construct
Broad Science Education new concepts and ideas by relating them to existing
knowledge structures. Therefore, Bruner is sometimes
▶ Integrated, Multidisciplinary, and Technology-
considered as a cofounder of constructivist learning
Enhanced Science Education
theories.
However, Bruner began in the 1940s (along with
Leo Postman) with research on perception from
a functional orientation, with a particular emphasis
Broadcast on the role of needs, motivations, and expectations.
In addition, Bruner investigated the role of strategies
▶ Streaming Media in human categorization and its effects on the cognitive
 Bruner, Jerome S (1915–) B 489

development of children (Bruner et al. 1956). Clearly, features designed to assist students in their cognitive
Bruner’s interest in the development of human cogni- growth (Bruner 1960). The first feature is the human
tion and modes of mental representations was widely predisposition to learn. Motivational, cultural, and per- B
influenced by Piaget. Indeed, Bruner agreed with most sonal factors contribute to this feature, as does the
of Piaget’s thinking about cognitive development and ability of parents and teachers to maintain and direct
semiotic functions – especially with regard to language. a child’s spontaneous explorations of the environment.
However, like Vygotsky he also stressed the importance Bruner argues that children are intrinsically motivated
of social setting in the acquisition of language and to learn. The second feature of effective instruction in
cognitive development. Bruner was one of the first Bruner’s theory of instruction has to do with the struc-
American psychologists who made Vygotsky popular ture of knowledge. Though it is possible to structure
in the United States. knowledge in a way which enables learners to immedi-
Bruner’s early research in the 1940s focused not ately comprehend the information, there are many
only on perception but also on the role of strategies in different ways to structure knowledge and learners
categorization as a means of human cognition. In con- also have many different preferences in how they struc-
trast to the dominating behavioristic paradigm of this ture knowledge. Nevertheless, understanding the struc-
time, Bruner considered children as active problem ture of a subject facilitates its understanding. In
solvers who are able to explore even difficult subjects Bruner’s view, categorization is a basic and effective
of interest. He believed that even young children are process for structuring knowledge effectively because
capable of grasping the structure of knowledge when it is easier to remember structured patterns of infor-
engaged in problem solving and discovery learning. mation than isolated parts. The third feature of effec-
Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning tive instruction is related to the different modes of
and its role for categorization. Like Cronbach (see mental representation. Whereas Piaget (1959) had dis-
entry), he also focused on learning in response to tinguished between seven so-called semiotic functions
instruction and teaching. (“imitation” or “symbolic play,” “delayed imitation,”
Indeed, Bruner’s interest in education and teaching “drawings,” “painting,” “modeling,” the use of “internal
was – along with his interest in the development of images,” and finally “verbal language” or the use of
human cognition – the pervasive feature of his scien- linguistic signs), Bruner distinguished between
tific work. He considered instruction as a major factor enactive, iconic, and symbolic modes of mental represen-
for assisting or shaping cognitive growth. His books tation. Basically, this distinction between three modes
The Process of Education (Bruner 1960) and Towards of representation can still be found in cognitive psy-
a Theory of Instruction (Bruner 1966) are widely recog- chology today (see the entry on ▶ Semiotics and Learn-
nized as educational classics of the twentieth century. ing). The fourth feature of effective instruction is the
Here, Bruner introduced his ideas of “readiness for effective sequencing of learning tasks and activities. As
learning” and the spiral curriculum, according to with the structure of knowledge, sequencing is not an
which basic ideas should be repeated again and again absolute but rather a relativistic feature because no one
until a complete understanding and mastery of a subject sequencing of tasks will fit every learner. Nevertheless,
is achieved. Basically, Bruner argued that any subject sequencing, or the lack of it, can facilitate or impair
could be taught at any stage of development in such learning. Generally, it seems reasonable to operate
a way that its cognitive abilities are met. He believed that along the dimensions of increasing complexity and
schooling and curricula should be designed to encour- difficulty of learning tasks. Additionally, the form and
age and reward intuitive and analytical thinking and pacing of reinforcement play an important role for
should aim at the development of intuitive skills and adjusting instruction to learners.
mental leaps in the process of problem solving. In this The implications of Bruner’s theory of instruction
context, Bruner also focused on the role of motivation for teaching and curricular development have been
for learning, and he argued that interest in a subject described by Farnham-Diggory (1972) in her compre-
matter is the best incentive for learning. hensive book Cognitive Processes in Education, which is
Based on these ideas, Bruner described a theory of still one of the best overviews of cognitive psychology
instruction that necessarily involves some major and its applications for education today.
490 B Bruner, Jerome S (1915–)

Contribution(s) to the Field of enabling the learner to analyze problems cognitively.

Learning By providing suitable learning tasks and materials, the
As Gardner (2001) remarks, Bruner has had a profound teacher enables the learners to solve problems and learn
influence on our understanding of education and further on their own in later life. According to Bruner,
instruction. Beyond the big picture of education that the main external factor which can influence discovery
he drew (Bruner 1996), however, his most important learning is the prestructuring of problem situations.
contribution to the field of learning was his emphasis Concretely, he calls for learning material that provokes,
on discovery learning. Inspired by John Dewey’s (1916) promotes, and supports active and independent infor-
Democracy and Education and Piaget’s (1954) philoso- mation processing, that enables the learner to organize
phy of education, Bruner argues that “practice in dis- knowledge structures through generalization (by
covering for oneself teaches one to acquire information constructing schemata), stabilizes attitudes and
in a way that makes that information more readily motives in support of discovery learning, and effects
viable in problem solving” (Bruner 1961, p. 26). This a transition from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. In
article can be considered as the starting point of the order to support the process of discovery and the
discovery learning movement of the 1960s and 1970s, necessary transfer of knowledge, Bruner recommended
which produced an abundance of empirical studies on special learning aids which can either be process- or
discovery learning in general and on guided discovery product-oriented depending on whether they aid the
learning in particular. Stated briefly, discovery learning learner in comprehending the problem, collecting nec-
is a method of learning that encourages students to ask essary information, forming a hypothesis, or searching
questions, formulate their own tentative answers, and for solution alternatives or whether they only place
derive general principles from practical examples or relevant information, useful previous knowledge,
experiences. Discovery learning occurs when students given relationships, or sub-solutions at the learner’s
use their own mental processes to discover a meaning disposal.
or how to do something for themselves. The past Today, discovery learning is an inquiry-based, con-
decades have seen the development of numerous structivist learning theory that refers to problem-
approaches and conceptions designed to systematically solving situations in which the learners have to discover
promote problem-solving behavior in the classroom. solutions to problems by referring to past experiences
They may be positioned on a scale ranging from inde- and existing knowledge ([Hammer 1997]; see also the
pendent discovery learning to guided discovery learn- entry on ▶ Discovery Learning). Since the 1960s when
ing and controlled-insightful learning. In accordance Bruner introduced the idea of discovery learning, an
with Bruner, educational psychologists argue that stu- abundance of studies on this inquiry-based theory of
dents acquire special procedures and strategies for learning has been carried out with heterogeneous
problem solving during discovery learning, that they results (see, e.g., Hermann 1969; Kirschner et al. 2006).
develop an intrinsic motivation for subsequent learn-
ing and problem-solving processes, and that they learn
Cross-References
in time to find the path of discovery on their own, thus
▶ Constructivist Learning
freeing themselves increasingly from their dependency
▶ Discovery Learning
on confirmation from the teacher. ▶ Guided Discovery Learning
Straka and Macke (1979) described the fundamen-
▶ History of the Science of Learning
tal characteristics of controlled-insightful learning and
▶ Problem-Based Learning
guided discovery learning and determined that
▶ Problem Solving
controlled-insightful learning consists in large part in
▶ Semiotics and Learning
an assimilation of new content into existing cognitive
structures. In contrast to controlled-insightful learn-
References
ing, the approach of guided discovery learning (as
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Har-
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mental processes of problem solving and the discovery Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review,
of new relations and principles. The focus is on 31(1), 21–32.
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Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA:

Belkapp Press. Burnout in Teaching and
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer-
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Learning B
Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. AYALA M. PINES
Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (1956). A study of thinking. Department of Business Administration, Ben-Gurion
New York: Wiley. University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
Farnham-Diggory, S. (1972). Cognitive processes in education:
A psychological preparation for teaching and curriculum develop- Synonyms
ment. New York: Harper & Row. Existential perspective on burnout; Learners, learning
Gardner, H. (2001). Jerome S. Bruner. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Fifty and burnout; Psychoanalytic perspective on burnout;
modern thinkers on education. From Piaget to the present. London: Stress and burnout; Teachers and burnout; The role of
Routledge.
discipline problems in teacher burnout
Hammer, D. (1997). Discovery learning and discovery teaching.
Cognition and Instruction, 15(4), 485–529.
Hermann, G. (1969). Learning by discovery: a critical review of Definition
studies. Journal of Experimental Education, 38(1), 58–72. Burnout characterizes people who entered their careers
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance with high hopes, ideals, and ego involvement. It is
during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of the end result of a process of attrition that is experi-
constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and
enced as a state of physical, emotional, and mental
inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86.
Piaget, J. (1954). To understand is to invent. New York: Grossman. exhaustion, lowered sense of accomplishment, and
Piaget, J. (1959). La naissance de l’intelligence chez l’enfant. Neuchâtel, depersonalization.
Suisse: Delachaux et Niestlé.
Straka, G. A., & Macke, G. (1979). Lehren und Lernen in der Schule. Theoretical Background
Stuttgart: Kohlhammer (Teaching and learning in school).
Since the introduction of burnout to the scientific
Internet Sources community in the mid-1970s, teacher burnout has
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2007/mar/27/academicexperts. received extensive and continuous research attention
higher educationprofile
(e.g., Montgomery and Rupp 2005). It has even been
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2H_swMUlOg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFYBY_YUH5I&feature=related argued that teachers are the largest homogenous occu-
pational group that is investigated in burnout research
(22% of all samples, according to Wilmar Schaufeli in
a 1998 talk). Much of this research documented the
existence of teacher burnout and attempted to identify
Building Experience job-related variables that cause it. The reason for the
emphasis on job-related variables has been the assump-
▶ Individual Learning
tion that burnout is related to organizational more
than to personal variables, as well as research showing
that teacher burnout is better explained by organiza-
tional than by personal predictors.
Bullying One example of an organizational variable identified
as causing teacher burnout is class size, or more accu-
▶ Learned Aggression in Humans rately, student–teacher ratio. A number of studies
showed that in large classes, teachers spend more time
restraining and disciplining their students and less time
educating and encouraging them. Other organizational
Buoyancy variables identified as causing teacher burnout were role
ambiguity, role conflict, overload, lack of voice in deci-
▶ Resilience and Learning sion making, and lack of feedback from colleagues and
492 B Burnout in Teaching and Learning

administration. In addition, studies documented such When educators’ need to feel respected and fulfilled at
causes of teacher burnout as difficulties in managing work is thwarted, burnout is likely. Wilmar Schaufeli,
disruptive children, incompetent administrators, lack using a social exchange model, suggested that teacher
of administrative support in dealing with discipline burnout is the result of a lack of reciprocity in relation-
problems, as well as poor salaries, lack of job mobility, ships with students, colleagues, and administrators.
involuntary transfers, public pressure, budget cuts, When teachers invest more in these relationships than
demanding parents, excessive paperwork, and excessive they receive in return, burnout is likely. On the basis of
testing. critical theory, Barry Farber suggested that burnout is
However, managing disruptive students, student not merely a psychological state, but the subjective
violence and apathy, and poor relationship between experience of a predominantly social problem, the
teacher and students were identified as the best predic- result of a dynamic interaction between an individual
tor of teacher burnout, followed by administrative teacher and a social world.
insensitivity and lack of support, bureaucratic incom- An alternative explanation was suggested by me
petence, and lack of voice in organizational decision (Pines 2002) based on the assumption that the root
making (e.g., Farber 1991). The reason for the critical cause of burnout lies in people’s need to believe that
role disruptive students play in teacher burnout seems their life is meaningful, that the things they do – and
clear: they make it impossible for teachers to teach. consequently they themselves – are important and sig-
Lack of interest in learning on the part of students lets nificant. Victor Frankl, in his “Man’s Search for Mean-
teachers know that they have failed as educators. These ing” wrote that “the striving to find meaning in one’s
“shuttered dreams of impeccable performance” are the life is the primary motivational force in man.” And
major cause of teacher burnout (Friedman 2000). Ernest Becker in “The Denial of Death,” argued that
“I’ve had it”, “I can’t take it anymore” are the most people’s need to believe that the things they do are
common phrases one hears from burned out educa- meaningful is their way of coping with the angst caused
tors. Teacher burnout was found to be related to by facing their mortality. In order to be able to deny
a number of physical and psychological symptoms. death, people need to feel heroic, to know that they
The most common symptoms are physical and emo- matter in the larger “cosmic” scheme of things. In
tional exhaustion and anxiety. Some teachers are con- previous eras, religion most often gave people the
stantly fearful and hypervigilant about their personal answer to their existential quest. Today, for many peo-
safety (Farber 1991). Research also demonstrated the ple, religion is no longer adequate. For them, the most
effect of burnout on teachers’ mental health, somatic frequently chosen alternative is work. People who
complaints (including insomnia, headaches, and ulcers choose this alternative try to derive from their work
as well as abdominal pain, nausea, difficulty in breath- a sense of meaning for their entire life.
ing, dizziness, loss of appetite, muscle tightening, cold The relevance of the existential perspective to the
sweats, back pains, and occupational injuries, e.g., case of teacher burnout is supported by research show-
Belcastro 1982). And burnout was found to be related ing teacher burnout to be related to such higher order
to a desire to leave teaching and to teacher turnover. needs as a need for self-actualization, which includes
Burnout effects teachers’ performance as well. the need for success, achievement, and working at one’s
Burned out teachers exert less effort than they once full potential. (e.g., Malanowski and Wood 1984). In
did, they are no longer motivated, patient or optimistic addition, the existential perspective has the advantage
and they look for ways to reduce their involvement of incorporating the other conceptualizations of the
with students (Farber 1991). Clearly, burnout is very dynamic underlying teacher burnout described earlier.
costly for teachers, students, schools, and society at What are the self-efficacy and sense of accomplishment
large. that Friedman wrote about, if not the feeling that your
A number of theoretical models and perspectives actions, and consequently you yourself, matter in the
have been offered in an attempt to explain teacher larger scheme of things? What is the lack of reciprocity
burnout. Isaac Friedman, for example, suggested that in relationships with students, colleagues, and admin-
self-efficacy and a sense of accomplishment are the istrators Schaufeli wrote about, if not a denial of the
critical psychological mechanisms underlying burnout. significance of your efforts? As Farber noted, burnout is
 Burnout in Teaching and Learning B 493

the subjective experience of failure in a socially defined and actualize occupational dreams and professional
hero system (to use Becker’s terminology). expectations passed on to them by their familial heri-
The existential perspective can also explain key tage. When the choice of a career involves such signif- B
findings in teacher burnout research. Why, for exam- icant issues, people enter it with very high hopes and
ple, is managing disruptive students so often the top- expectations, high ego involvement and passion. This is
ranking item in teacher stress surveys if not, as most why, when they feel that they failed, the result is devas-
teachers indeed note, because discipline problems tating, and a major cause of burnout.
impair their teaching effectiveness? In other words, A study that supported the existential perspective
disruptive students make it impossible for teachers to on teacher burnout included several samples of Israeli
derive a sense of significance from their work. The and American teachers as well as two comparison sam-
reason large classes are difficult for teachers is that in ples of nurses and police officers. The study explored
such classes, teachers spend too much time restraining the goals and expectations teachers had when they
and disciplining their students and not enough time entered a teaching career, the sense of significance
educating them – the activity that contributes most to they had in their work, the causes of their burnout,
their sense of significance. and the level of their burnout (Pines 2002).
Other organizational variables identified as causing The findings revealed a negative correlation between
teacher burnout can also be explained by the existential the sense of significance teachers derived from teaching
perspective: Administrative insensitivity, bureaucratic and their level of burnout: The greater the sense of
incompetence, lack of participation in organizational significance, the lower the level of burnout. In was fur-
decision making, and lack of organizational support ther found that teachers entered their profession with
also let teachers know that they are insignificant in the similar goals and expectations (to teach, educate, and
larger – organizational – scheme of things. Overload inspire) and that the primary causes of their burnout
causes burnout because teachers feel that they can’t do (discipline problems) were related to the frustration of
their work the way it should be done. Poor salaries and these goals and expectations. In addition, the Israeli
budget cuts imply to teachers that society doesn’t value teachers (because of the threats to the very survival of
their work. Excessive paperwork and excessive testing their nation, which enhanced their sense of significance)
make teachers feel that they are spending their time reported lower levels of burnout than their American
satisfying administrative demands, instead of teaching. counterparts. It was also found that religious teachers
If we accept the general premise that people today reported lower levels of burnout than their nonreligious
are trying to derive a sense of existential significance counterparts, thus demonstrating the effect of religious
from their work, the next question we need to address is belief as a buffer against burnout – in further support of
why they choose to do it via the particular career that the existential perspective. Finally, it was found that the
they have chosen. Why does one person try to achieve experience of teacher burnout was both similar to and
a sense meaning by being a teacher, another by being different from burnout of nurses and police officers
a nurse, and a third by being a police officer? The choice (e.g., while the highest item for all three groups was
of a career is a complex and multifaceted process. Many “tired,” the teachers were more tired than the police
attempts have been made to identify the factors that officers and less tired than the nurses). This suggests
influence this process. Most of these attempts included that people in the human services share some common
such factors as aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, characteristics in their burnout profile, while some char-
resources, limitations, requirements of success as well acteristics of the composite burnout score are profession
as opportunities. Psychoanalytic theory makes specific (Pines 2002).
a significant contribution to this body of research by Even if teaching appears to be a high burnout
adding the dimension of unconscious career choices. occupation, learning should be the antithesis of burn-
The unconscious determinants of any vocational out. Unfortunately, this is rarely the case when formal
choice reflect the individual’s personal and familial learning is concerned. The following example demon-
history. People choose an occupation that enables strates the reasons. Years ago, when I was just starting
them to replicate significant childhood experiences, my research on burnout, I needed a comparison sample
gratify needs that were ungratified in their childhood, for some of the professional groups I was studying
494 B Byte-Sized Learning

(such as teachers, nurses, and police officers), so I gave ▶ Anxiety, Stress, and Learning
the Burnout Measure to a group I expected to have very ▶ Coping with Stress
low level of burnout – UC Berkeley students. These ▶ Flow Experience and Learning
were students who ranked at the top 10% of their ▶ Humanistic Theory of Learning: Maslow
high school classes, they were studying in one of the ▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories
best institutions of higher learning in the world, in ▶ Motivation Enhancement
a beautiful campus, they were young, and it was spring- ▶ Motivation to Learn
time. To my great surprise, I discovered that they had ▶ Personality and Learning
very high levels of burnout. There were two primary ▶ Personality Effects on Learning
reasons for this sad state of affairs: (1) the students were ▶ Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning
not studying topics they were interested in, but ▶ Stress Management
required courses they had little interest in – which
prevented them from deriving a sense of significance
References
from their school work; (2) the competition for grades
Belcastro, P. A. (1982). Burnout and its relationship to teachers’
was fierce (since the students knew that very few will be somatic complaints and illness. Psychological Reports, 50,
accepted to graduate school, and acceptance was based 1045–1046.
on grades) – which prevented them from using their Farber, B. A. (1991). Crisis in education: Stress and burnout in the
classmates as a social support network. American teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Friedman, I. (2000). Burnout: Shattered dreams of impeccable
performance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(5), 595–606.
Important Scientific Research and Malanowski, J. R., & Wood, P. H. (1984). Burnout and self-
Open Questions actualization in public school teachers. The Journal of Psychology,
Unlike teacher burnout, very few studies addressed burn- 117, 23–26.
out in learning (and those few focused on the learning Montgomery, C., & Rupp, A. A. (2005). A meta-analysis for exploring
environment), so research on the causes, correlates, and the diverse causes and effects of stress in teachers. Canadian
Journal of Education, 28, 458–486.
consequences of burnout in learning is still needed.
Pines, A. M. (2002). Teacher burnout: A psychodynamic existential
What can be done to reduce or avoid burnout in perspective. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8,
teaching and in learning? 121–140.
In both cases, the recommendation is similar: every
effort should be made to increase the teacher’s or learner’s
sense of significance, because it is not stress that causes
burnout but the feeling that one’s effort is insignificant.
Byte-Sized Learning
Cross-References
▶ Achievement Motivation and Learning ▶ Microlearning
▶ Affective and Emotional Dispositions of/for
Learning
C
then estimate after taking the exam how well he or she
CAI did perform. If this student predicted that she would
score an 85 but actually scored a 90, she is fairly
▶ Courseware Learning
accurate but a bit underconfident. Alternatively, if
a student predicts that he will score a 95 and actually
scores a 60, he is grossly inaccurate and overconfident.
In the former case, the student’s perception of perfor-
CAIM - Computer-Aided mance corresponds well with actual performance,
[Assisted] Instruction in Music and therefore, she is well calibrated. In the latter
case, the student’s perception of performance corre-
▶ Technology in Music Instruction and Learning sponds poorly with actual performance and therefore
is poorly calibrated.
Although there are various methods of measuring
calibration, all measures of calibration provide a
Calibration quantitative assessment of the degree of discrepancy
between perceived performance and actual perfor-
LINDA BOL1, DOUGLAS J. HACKER2 mance (Hacker et al. 2008). The various methods can
1
Educational Foundations and Leadership, Old be grouped into two categories: difference scores and
Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA calibration curves. Difference scores involve calculating
2
Department of Educational Psychology, University of the difference between a person’s judged performance
Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA and his or her actual performance. Judged perfor-
mance can entail judgments made on a percentage of
likelihood scale or confidence scale; they can be made
Synonyms at a global level, in which a single judgment over mul-
Absolute accuracy; Confidence in retrieval; Prospective tiple items is made or at the item level and averaged
judgment; Retrospective judgment; Test postdiction; over multiple items; and judgments can be made
Test prediction before (predictions or prospective judgments) or after
(postdictions or retrospective judgments) performance.
Definition Often, the absolute value of the difference between judg-
Calibration is the degree to which a person’s percep- ment and performance is taken, in which case, values
tion of performance corresponds with his or her actual closer to zero indicate greater calibration accuracy,
performance (Keren 1991). The degree of correspon- with perfect calibration at zero. If the signed difference
dence is determined by a person’s judgment of his is calculated, a bias score is produced. Negative values
or her performance compared against an objectively are interpreted as underconfidence and positive values
determined measure of that performance (Hacker as overconfidence. In our example, the first student
et al. 2008). That judgment, which involves self- predicted an 85 and scored a 90, which means the
evaluation, defines calibration as a metacognitive mon- difference score would be
5, indicating slight
itoring process. To illustrate, consider the following underconfidence; and the second student predicted a
example. Before taking an exam, a student might esti- 95 and scored a 60, putting the difference at + 35,
mate how well he or she will perform on the exam, and indicating large overconfidence.

N. Seel (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6,

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
496 C Calibration

The other method used for measuring calibration is People may directly access their memories to evaluate
the calibration curve or graph (Keren 1991). Actual the status of their knowledge, they may make evalua-
performance is plotted on the y-axis, and judged perfor- tions based on inferences or heuristics about how much
mance is plotted on the x-axis. Perfect calibration is they believe they know about a general domain, they
represented by the 45 line, that is, judgments are exactly may make evaluations based on how self-efficacious
equal to performance. Points that fall below the 45 line they feel about their performance on a particular task,
are interpreted as overconfidence, and points that fall or all of these contributors may come into play. The
above the line are interpreted as underconfidence. accuracy of the calibration judgment will be deter-
Calibration curves are easily interpreted and provide mined by how well all those contributors to the judg-
a graphical means of representing the degree of corre- ment are able to predict performance on a criterion
spondence between perceptions of performance and task. In other words, calibration accuracy depends on
actual performance. the extent to which memories are accessed, the infer-
In the metacognitive literature, an important ences or heuristics are made, or the self-efficaciousness
distinction is made between calibration and discrim- felt conform to the knowledge that is tested on the
ination or resolution (Nelson 1996). Calibration is a criterion task.
measure of absolute accuracy, and discrimination is Accurate calibration is an essential component of
a measure of relative accuracy. Although both con- effective self-regulated learning. In an era of high stakes
structs involve metacognitive monitoring, they repre- tests and accountability, the ability to perform well on
sent different aspects of metacognitive monitoring and tests is essential. Students studying for a test need to be
are measured in different ways. Whereas, calibration accurate in their monitoring of their knowledge reten-
provides estimates of the degree to which a person’s tion if they hope to successfully control further study.
perception of performance corresponds with his or her Students who are overconfident (i.e., a positive bias in
actual performance, relative accuracy provides esti- calibration judgments) may have a false sense of how
mates of the degree to which a person’s judgments well they have mastered the material. They may believe
can predict the likelihood of correct performance of they are prepared when in fact they are at risk for
one item relative to another (Nelson 1996). Calibration failure. Or students could intentionally inflate their
provides estimates of overall memory retrieval, and overconfidence during test preparation as a self-
relative accuracy provides estimates of whether a per- handicapping strategy, excusing or attributing their
son can discriminate between what is known or not poor performance to external causes (Winne 2004).
known. Studies that have compared absolute and rela- Underconfidence (i.e., a negative bias in calibration
tive accuracy have found only small correlations between judgments) also can be detrimental to academic per-
the two, suggesting that the two types of accuracy are formance because students may fail to disengage from
tapping different aspects of metacognitive monitoring studying and misallocate study time if they assume the
(e.g., Hacker et al. 2011). material is not yet mastered. When students demon-
strate strong biases in their calibration judgments, they
Theoretical Background may not take the remedial steps necessary to improve
Calibration is a metacognitive monitoring process. or carefully evaluate their responses during or after an
Monitoring provides information at the metacogntive exam (Hacker et al. 2008). “Learning will be inversely
level about the status of one’s knowledge or strategies at proportional to the degree of calibration bias and
a cognitive level (Nelson 1996). Based on this informa- proportional to calibration accuracy” (Winne 2004,
tion, metacognitive control can be exerted to regulate p. 476).
one’s knowledge or strategies. More specifically, after
a person acquires and hopefully retains a specific chunk Important Scientific Research and
of knowledge, he or she may evaluate the status of that Open Questions
knowledge in memory, that is, to what degree does the There are some consistent findings in the literature
person believe the knowledge has been retained. There related to calibration accuracy. Many studies have indi-
may be many contributing variables to that evaluation. cated that calibration accuracy is linked to achievement
 Calibration C 497

level (e.g., Bol et al. 2005; Hacker et al. 2000). More insufficient for improving calibration accuracy. Reflec-
specifically, higher-achieving students tend to be tion and instruction on monitoring and calibration
more accurate but underconfident when compared to were found to be effective, particularly for higher-
their lower-achieving counterparts who are less accu- achieving students. External rewards or incentives
rate and overconfident. Calibration inaccuracy and were found to enhance postdiction accuracy among C
overconfidence among the lower-achieving students lower-achieving students. More recently, group calibra-
has been linked to theories of self-serving bias, attri- tion practice and the provision of guidelines have been
bution theory, self-handicapping strategies, and ego shown to improve calibration accuracy and achieve-
defense (Bol et al. 2005; Hacker et al. 2008). Lower- ment among high school students (Bol et al. 2009).
achieving students seem to anchor their calibration Attempts to further identify consistent patterns
judgments on optimistic yet inaccurate beliefs about of findings across calibration studies are compromised
their own abilities rather than prior performance in an by the lack of common definitions and standard mea-
effort to protect their sense of self-worth. sures. Some researchers refer to calibration as confi-
Another consistent finding is that predictions are dence or self-efficacy; whereas, others refer simply to
almost always less accurate than postdictions. This self-monitoring and not necessarily calibration. Varia-
phenomenon is known as the testing effect or the tions in how calibration has been measured exacerbate
upgrading of prediction accuracy (Pressley and Ghatala the problem (e.g., local or global judgments, confi-
1990). Upgrading makes intuitive sense because a dence ratings, absolute differences). A common termi-
person should be better able to judge how he or nology and standard measurement procedures would
she performed on a task at the completion of the advance this line of inquiry.
task due to familiarity and exposure. Consider the Several other important open questions remain.
context of test-taking. Once students have completed The first centers on ecological validity or the ability to
a test, their predictive judgments of performance generalize findings from laboratory-based studies to
turn from expectations of what may happen to studies conducted in more naturalistic settings such
postdictive judgments of what actually happened. as classrooms. A closely related issue is population
The test itself and students’ performance on it pro- validity or the ability to generalize results beyond col-
vide feedback that informs their postdictions (Hacker lege-age students. The vast majority of calibration
et al. 2000). studies have been conducted with college students, in
However, task difficulty also influences calibration laboratory settings, and employ inauthentic tasks. Fur-
accuracy. In fact, the upgrading of prediction accuracy ther research on effective interventions is warranted.
has been reduced when more complex tasks are required. Studies investigating the effectiveness of interventions
Juslin et al. (2000) have worked with the hard-easy for improving calibration accuracy and confirming
effect in which students tend to be more accurate but its link to achievement are needed. Past research has
underconfident on easy items and less accurate but suggested that the effectiveness of interventions may
overconfident on difficult items. This phenomenon is vary depending on prior achievement, implying that
related to achievement level. Lower-achieving students interventions might be tailored to better meet the
tend to be less accurate and overconfident than their needs of students at risk for failure. Initiating studies
higher-achieving peers on the more difficult items. on the psychological bases of judgments also will be
There is less variability in accuracy on easy items as a productive addition to the literature. What are the
a function of achievement level. significant contributing variables to calibration: Can
Attempts to improve calibration accuracy, or to people directly access memory and accurately judge
debias calibration judgments, in classroom settings the status of memories; are inferences based on
have been met with mixed success (Hacker et al. 2008). domain knowledge or self-efficacy responsible; or do
Repeated calibration practice, across trials, does not people rely on anchoring heuristics? Finally, researchers
seem to enhance accuracy, particularly among lower- might further explore how calibration judgments are
achieving students. Calibration tends to be stable, influenced by social variables. Two avenues for future
suggesting that feedback and practice alone are study include attributional retraining to promote more
498 C Calibration of Comprehension

accurate or realistic metacogntive judgments and cali-

bration practice in group settings. Calibration of Probability
Judgments
Cross-References
▶ Comprehension Monitoring ▶ Overconfidence
▶ Metacognition and Learning
▶ Metacomprehension
▶ Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning
▶ Self-Regulated Learning Capacity Limitations of Memory
▶ Self-Regulation and Motivational Strategies and Learning
References
Bol, L., Hacker, D. J., O’Shea, P., & Allen, D. (2005). The influence of
ANDREW MATTARELLA-MICKE, SIAN L. BEILOCK
overt practice, achievement level, and explanatory style on cali- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago,
bration accuracy and performance. The Journal of Experimental Chicago, IL, USA
Education, 73, 269–290.
Bol, L., Walck, C., Hacker, D. J., Dickerson, D., & Nunnery, J. (2009).
The effect of individual or group guidelines on the calibration
accuracy and achievement of high school biology students. Paper
Synonyms
presented at the annual meeting of American Educational Central bottleneck; Short-term memory; Working
Research Association, Denver, CO. memory
Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., & Keener, M. C. (2008). Metacognition in
education: A focus on calibration. In J. Dunlosky & R. Bjork Definition
(Eds.), Handbook of memory and metacognition (pp. 411–455).
While human capacity for information in the long
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., Horgan, D., & Rakow, E. A. (2000). Test
term is very large, the amount of information that can
prediction and performance in a classroom context. Journal of be actively maintained and manipulated in the short
Educational Psychology, 92, 160–170. term is quite small. Our ability to take information in,
Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., & Keener, M. C. (2011). Comparing absolute to explicitly hold it in mind, and to mentally manipulate
and relative accuracy in a classroom context. Paper presented at it in the short term is limited. Thus, capacity limitations
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Asso-
of memory and learning refer to constraints in our ability
ciation, New Orleans, LA.
Juslin, P., Winman, A., & Olsson, H. (2000). Naı̈ve empiricism and to maintain and process information held in the short
dogmatisim in confidence research: A critical examination of term that affect long-term understanding and retention.
the hard-easy effect. Psychological Review, 107, 384–396.
Keren, G. (1991). Calibration and probability judgments: Conceptual Theoretical Background
and methodological issues. Acta Psychologica, 77, 217–273. Modern study of memory limitations originated in
Nelson, T. O. (1996). Gamma is a measure of the accuracy of
the early 1950s with the work of George Miller (1956)
predicting performance on one item relative to another item,
not of the absolute performance on an individual item. Applied who suggested that short-term memory has a capacity
Cognitive Psychology, 10, 257–260. of 7  2 items. This classic short-term limit is often
Pressley, M., & Ghatala, E. S. (1990). Self-regulated learning: Moni- measured using the forward span, the task of simply
toring learning from text. Educational Psychologist, 25, 19–33. recalling a list of items immediately after they are
Winne, P. H. (2004). Students’ calibration of knowledge and learning
presented. Miller noted that this limit of 7  2 remains
processes: Implications for designing powerful software learning
environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 41,
constant even across large changes in the amount of
466–488. information an item represents. For example, while
an individual can only recall about seven letters from a
list, they also recall about seven words. To explain this
property of short-term memory, that the amount of
Calibration of Comprehension information in short-term memory (seven letters or
seven words of letters) depends on the type of informa-
▶ Comprehension Monitoring tion being stored, Miller introduced the idea of chunks.
 Capacity Limitations of Memory and Learning C 499

Chunks are the basic unit of short-term memory, as articulatory suppression). This is because, while
composed not of the smallest atom of information, but both tasks require the temporary maintenance of
instead of an interrelated collection of items (such short-term information, the spatial task relies on the
as a word). Because the interrelations between these visuospatial sketchpad and articulatory suppression
items are stored in long-term memory (e.g., knowledge recruits the phonological loop. On the other hand, C
about words), they do not take up further space in verbal tasks such as reading are impaired by articula-
short-term memory. In fact, because larger chunks tory suppression because both processes rely on the
take up an identical amount of space in short-term phonological loop.
memory, chunks act to extend short-term information Perhaps, the most important contribution of
capacity. Thus, Miller found that while short-term Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model was
memory is limited to 7  2 chunks, depending on the the explicit pairing of storage with processing via the
content they represent, the chunks themselves can store central executive. Although details of the central exec-
a huge amount of information. utive are left relatively unspecified, its role is to allocate
Though Miller’s highly influential work pioneered attention (i.e., determine what content is placed in the
modern research on the structure of memory, simple temporary stores) and mediate the active processing of
short-term capacity lacked sufficient detail to explain content stored in the slave systems. These characteris-
more complex tasks, such as learning and problem tics of the central executive account for basic expecta-
solving. In an effort to overcome this limitation, tions about memory performance – for example, that
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed working memory, short-term stores are not automatically overwritten by
a model of short-term capacity that focused, in new stimuli in the environment and that complex tasks
particular, on how memory is applied toward complex share a common processing resource, regardless of the
processing goals as opposed to recalling simple lists. In modality of their content.
the original framework, short-term processing is car- Research on the capacity limitations of memory
ried out by a system consisting of three components. and learning has advanced with particular emphasis
The first, active component of this system is the on the active processing perspective. One criticism
central executive. The central executive has no memory of early short-term memory approaches was that,
capacity itself, but instead manipulates content stored while individuals differ in their short-term capacity as
in the other two components of the system – the so- measured by forward span, these differences are only
called slave systems. The slave systems, the phonological weakly related to performance on more complex
loop and visuospatial sketchpad, are limited-capacity processing tasks. However, measures of capacity that
passive stores that hold content specific to a partic- involve both storage and processing, such as Daneman
ular modality. The phonological loop holds acoustic and Carpenter’s (1980) reading span exhibit highly
information, while the visuospatial sketchpad holds robust correlations with performance on complex tasks
visual information. A fourth component has also such as reading comprehension and vocabulary learning.
been added – a multimodal episodic buffer that serves Although initially thought to reflect domain-specific lan-
to bind information from the phonological loop, the guage capacities, reading span also correlates with mea-
visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into sures of “executive control,” such as the ability to filter
a unitary episodic representation. out irrelevant content, maintain task goals, and inhibit
The Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory prepotent responses. This has led to the claim that read-
is valuable because it yields specific predictions about ing span and other complex storage and processing tasks
the nature of online processing. In particular, because tap into a domain-general working memory capacity
the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are (Turner and Engle 1989). Differences in working mem-
dissociable stores, learning and performance scenarios ory capacity relate to performance in a number of com-
that draw on one store are unaffected by demands plex processing and learning activities such as encoding
placed on the second. For example, a spatial task such of new information, memory retrieval, reasoning, rule-
as mental rotation is relatively unaffected by reciting based and logic learning, mathematical performance,
“the” over and over again (a secondary task known following directions, and language comprehension.
500 C Capacity Limitations of Memory and Learning

Important Scientific Research and Thus, while working memory capacity is critical for
Open Questions many learning situations, under certain conditions,
Because working memory capacity has been identified increased capacity may not always be a good thing.
as a highly robust predictor of complex behavior, One final avenue of research has provided evidence
a great deal of capacity research is concerned with that the capacity of working memory may even vary
studying this construct – asking questions about its depending on context. Specifically, scenarios that are
fundamental structure, its specific role in complex highly stressful have been found to disrupt the normal
behavior, and about the conditions that may affect its operation of working memory and thus interfere with
normal operation. One such question is the extent to normal learning and performance. This has been
which working memory capacity represents a stable shown in a variety of stressful situations. For example,
property of the individual or is malleable based on when a math-anxious individual is placed in a math-
experience. While there is clear evidence that working related situation, their ability to allocate working mem-
memory capacity varies across development, how ory toward task-related processes is interfered with by
much of this variation is a function of intellectual their anxiety about the task. This results in worse per-
experience or is predetermined by neural development formance, particularly on those problems and situa-
is not well established. tions that place the most demands on working memory
One tool for resolving this debate resides in train- (Ashcraft and Kirk 2001). This negative relationship
ing studies that expose participants to a regimen of between anxiety and working memory capacity has
demanding working memory tasks. While early results been replicated in situations where high-stakes incen-
in this literature were criticized for their lack of appro- tives (like a standardized test) or negative stereotypes
priate controls, recent work has shown evidence of (e.g., for women, the stereotype that women are bad
effective capacity training under more rigorous condi- at math) lead to performance anxiety (see, Beilock
tions. However, the debate regarding whether or not 2008 for a review). These scenarios carry important
working memory capacity can be enhanced via train- real-world implications for the relationship between
ing is by no means settled. For instance, evidence situational factors and online capacity limitations in
from twin studies suggests that the development and learning and memory.
capacity of working memory does have a genetic com-
ponent. While this finding does not preclude the effi- Cross-References
cacy of training interventions, it does suggest that, ▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
in the normal population, biological predispositions ▶ Cognitive Load Theory
also play a role in determining capacity limitations of ▶ Individual Differences
the individual. ▶ Intelligence, Learning and Neural Plasticity
The positive association between working memory ▶ Short-Term Memory
capacity and academic performance has become a
pervasive finding in the psychology and education lit- References
eratures. Yet, the full maturation of this resource is Ashcraft, M. H., & Kirk, E. P. (2001). The relationships among
completed only after an individual reaches adulthood, working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 130(2), 224–237.
long after many critical learning milestones have
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. Bower
been surpassed. This has lead to the proposal that
(Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
working memory capacity might actually impede the research and theory (pp. 47–90). New York: Academic.
acquisition of some linguistic and creativity tasks Beilock, S. L. (2008). Math performance in stressful situations. Cur-
(Thompson-Schill et al. 2009). Higher levels of work- rent Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 339–343.
ing memory related to age or natural variation in adults Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in
working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and
can actually impede the learning of certain skills
Verbal Behavior, 19, 450–466.
that are best acquired without the guidance of explicit Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two:
rule-based reasoning processes – processes thought Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psycho-
to be at the heart of working memory capacity. logical Review, 63(2), 81–97.
 Carroll’s Model of School Learning C 501

Thompson-Schill, S. L., Ramscar, M., & Chrysikou, M. (2009). time actually spent for learning. Both variables, in turn,
Cognition without control: When a little frontal lobe goes are dependent on other internal and external variables,
a long way. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(5),
such as the learner’s general intelligence and the quality
259–263.
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working memory capacity of instruction.
task dependent? Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 127–154. C
Theoretical Background
In the 1960s, Carroll developed a conceptual model
of school learning in which the factor time plays
a central role (Carroll 1963). In this model, the achieve-
Care Ethics ment of a student or the degree of learning effectiveness
A theory of prosocial development based on work by is defined as a function of the actual time needed for
Noddings (1984) and Gilligan (1984) that focused on learning and the time actually spent for learning. The
establishing conditions in a particular setting likely to effect of both variables on the degree of learning effec-
encourage goodness. tiveness has been expressed in a functional equation:


Time actually spent for learning
References Degree of learning ¼ f
Actually spent time for learning
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. Both time variables refer only to active learning and
Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral are dependent on other variables, such as understand-
education. Berkeley: University of California Press. ing of the task requirements and the student’s aptitude
for a particular task. The understanding of task require-
ments is considered a function of quality of instruction
and the student’s ability to understand instruction that
in turn depends on the student’s general intelligence
Career Interests and verbal aptitudes. The individual task-specific apti-
▶ Stability and Change in Interest Development tude on its part is considered a function of basic apti-
tudes and the time saved by prior learning. All together,
Carroll’s model of school learning can be depicted as in
Fig. 1.
A central educational perspective in Carroll’s model
Carroll’s Model of School is the concept of quality of instruction. He distinguishes
Learning between the substance or content of a learning task and
its communication which plays the most important
NORBERT M. SEEL role for instructional quality. More specifically, quality
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, of instruction contains a clear description of the learn-
Freiburg, Germany ing task, its adequate presentation to the students, as
well as an appropriate sequencing of learning tasks and
a sufficient observance of the students’ characteristics.
Synonyms This distinction allows differentiating between apti-
Conceptual model of school learning tudes and capabilities that are immediately relevant
for learning and abilities which are necessary for under-
Definition standing instruction. In the case that the quality of
Carroll’s model of school learning specifies the distinc- instruction is high there is no high demand for under-
tive roles of generalized abilities and task-specific apti- standing the instruction. The time actually needed for
tudes in determining the effects of instruction on learning can be referred to task-specific aptitudes. In
learning. The degree of learning effectiveness is defined contrast only students with very good task-specific
as a function of the time needed for learning and the aptitudes can understand low-level quality instruction
502 C Carroll’s Model of School Learning

General aptitude
Task-specific
Time saved by aptitude
prior learning

General
intelligence Ability to Understanding
Actually
understand of task
needed time
instruction requirements Degree of
Verbal aptitudes
learning
effective-
ness
Quality of instruction Actually
Perseverance
spent time
Clear description of
task

Adequate presentation Admitted

of the task time for
learning
Adequate sequencing
of tasks Grouping and
individualiza-
Observance of student‘s Assigned
tion
needs and characteristics time for
learning

Carroll’s Model of School Learning. Fig. 1 Carroll’s model of school learning

whereas students with a lack of task-specific aptitudes allowed for learning, perseverance, and required time
need more time for learning. for learning. The time allowed for learning can be
In consequence, Carroll distinguishes between two smaller or bigger than the required time for learning.
kinds of cognitive abilities: The first one refers to com- However, the time actually spent for learning is also
munication and instruction and is general because it constrained by (a) the time a learner is motivated to
applies onto a multitude of learning tasks; the other spend for accomplishing a task, (b) the perseverance,
kind of cognitive abilities are specific with regard to (c) the time needed for accomplishing the task, and
a particular learning task. In addition to the afore- (d) the learner’s aptitudes. Consequently, a learners
mentioned factors, another learner-specific factor stops learning when the time allowed for learning
plays a significant role within Carroll’s model, namely is too short or the motivation for learning is not
perseverance. sufficient.
In addition to the learner-specific factors, the actu-
ally spent time for learning is constrained by the time Important Scientific Research and
allowed for task learning, i.e., the opportunity to learn. Open Questions
This is dependent on the teacher or the curriculum Carroll’s model of school learning was the fundamental
but also on grouping or individualization in order to basis for a number of follow-up attempts to identify
homogenize learning speed and the contents to be and structure the primary variables of effective school
learned. Instructional decisions determine also the learning. Nevertheless, it has been criticized due to
sequencing of learning tasks influencing the student’s some shortcomings. For example, Harnischfeger and
opportunities to learn. The degree of the teacher’s Wiley (1978) criticizes the model as individualistic
adjustment to particular needs and characteristics of inasmuch as it refers only to one learner and one
the learners by means if adequate sequences of learning learning task. It neither incorporates the classroom as
steps are provided is a central part of the quality of sum of individuals nor the sequencing of different
instruction. interrelated learning tasks nor the curriculum as an
In sum: The time actually spent for learning corre- entity. Rather, the quintessence of the model consists
sponds with the smallest of the three factors: time in the fact that the factors aptitude, opportunity for
 Case-Based Learning C 503

learning, and perseverance are expressed in terms of Harnischfeger, A., & Wiley, D. E. (1978). Conceptual issues in models
measured time. of school learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(3), 215–231.
Slavin, R. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (8th ed.,
A major aspect of Carroll’s argumentation is the
pp. 277–279). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.
precept that the teacher should focus on controllable Squires, D., Huitt, W., & Segars, J. (1983). Effective schools and
variables constituting the quality of instruction. classrooms: A research-based perspective. Alexandria: Association C
Accordingly, some follow-up models of school learning for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
addressed additional classroom and school-level vari-
ables. So, for example, Squires et al. (1983) relabeled
“perseverance” with “involvement” and they added
“coverage” (defined as overlap of the content taught
and content tested) and “success” (defined as degree of
Case-Based e-Learning
achievement in performing academic tasks). ▶ Case-Based Learning on the Web
Another alteration of Carroll’s model is the QAIT
model of Slavin (2006), in which Q denotes the quality
of instruction in Carroll’s sense. A refers to the appro-
priate levels of instruction by redefining student’s
aptitude and ability to understand instruction in Case-Based Learning
terms of teaching behavior variables. I is the abbrevia-
tion of “incentive” and replaces perseverance through a CLAUS ANDREAS FOSS ROSENSTAND
teacher behavior variable. Finally, T stands for time and Department of Communication and Psychology,
corresponds with Carroll’s original variable of oppor- Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
tunity to learn. It is not the place here to justify these
different approaches in more detail. It is sufficient to
show that Carroll’s model was influential enough to Synonyms
evoke follow-up and alternative conceptual models for CBL
school learning.
Most important is the observation that the variables Definition
“time spent” and “perseverance” of Carroll’s model Case-based learning (CBL) is a pedagogical concept,
have been replaced through the concept academic where work method, problem, and discipline are identi-
learning time conceived in general as a combination fied by the learner (or learners) through the learning
of content overlap, involvement, and success. Academic process. Case-based learning is oriented toward a case,
learning time revealed as an appropriate time variable which from different perspectives generates different
for research (Berliner 1978) due to the fact that it is and equally correct problems. Case-based learning is
directly influenced by classroom variables and is the about choosing, deciding priorities, and combining
result of many decisions about how much time is spent different disciplines, and as such is best practiced in
for learning in the classroom. a multidisciplinary context.

Cross-References Theoretical Background

▶ Academic Learning Time Back in the early 1990s, the term case-based learning
▶ Bloom’s Model of School Learning was often synonymous with case-based reasoning,
▶ Learning Tasks which means reasoning based on remembering previ-
ous experiences (e.g., Kolodner 1993). This understand-
ing of case-based learning was based on ▶ machine
References learning.
Berliner, D. (1978). Changing academic learning time: Clinical inter-
Today, case-based learning is usually emphasized as
ventions in four classrooms. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory
for Educational Research and Development. a special kind of problem-based learning. However,
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model for school learning. Teachers College the first clear definition, with a systematic distinction
Record, 64, 723–733. and inclusive relation to problem-based learning,
504 C Case-Based Learning

solution-based learning, and definition-based learning, Case-Based Learning. Table 1 Cross tabulation of four
was not made until 2008 (Kjærulff et al. 2008). This pedagogical concepts with three pedagogical
time, case-based learning was perceived as an answer to components
the challenge of developing a multidisciplinary study
Pedagogical
across three faculties at Aalborg University, Denmark, component Work
where problem-based learning had been practiced in all Pedagogical concept method Problem Discipline
study programs since the early 1970s.
Definition-Based + + +
Case-based learning takes the preconditions of Learning
problem-based learning a step further. In problem-
Solution-Based – + +
based learning, both work method and problem are
Learning
identified by the learner through the learning process.
In study programs where conventional problem-based Problem-Based – – +
Learning
learning is practiced, the blind spot is the inherent
perspective in the discipline and how they may influ- Case-Based Learning – – –
ence the studies. The pedagogical philosophy of prob-
lem-based learning asserts that a study project will
never be better than the problem investigated. How- In definition-based learning, the learner is provided
ever, it is implicit – though not stated – that this with work method, problem, and discipline. It is a routine
investigation must be within the discipline and related learning situation, where the learning process has a
paradigm of the study. permanent form. Definition-based learning is good
In modern society, common challenges have to for providing the learner with qualifications in situa-
be met with a multidisciplinary approach (Qvortup tions where the ability to produce solutions is essential.
2003). Different perspectives on the same phenomena, In solution-based learning, the learner is provided
or case, result in different problems. Or more accu- with both problem and discipline. However, the learner
rately: The truth is inherent in the perspective, and all has to identify the work method through the learning
perspectives might be equally correct (Rosenstand process. It is a problem-solving learning situation, where
2008). There is not one privileged and valuable truth. the learning process has a solid but not permanent
In practice – both in science, industry, and life in form. When the learner has identified a work method,
general – all cases benefit from being approached the learning situation shifts to a routine learning situ-
from multiple perspectives. In a society where knowl- ation, where the work method is identified and provided
edge is essential and highly valuable, more knowledge is by the learner. The learner might discover that the work
produced by addressing a case from different disci- method is not too wise and turn back to a problem-
plines. Thus, it is essential that pedagogical concepts solving situation conducting solution-based learning
which address multidisciplinarity are introduced and once more. In this way, definition-based learning is
used as part of modern study programs – Case-Based included in solution-based learning, at least as a pre-
Learning is such a concept. condition for producing a solution. Solution-based
In order to address the blind spot of problem-based learning is good for providing the learner with compe-
learning, discipline is added to work method and prob- tences in situations where the ability to choose solution
lem as a pedagogical component that the learner has to methods is essential.
identify through the learning process. A simple cross In problem-based learning only the discipline is
tabulation of pedagogical concepts with pedagogical provided to the learner. As the paradigm behind the
components results in Table 1, including solution- study often is inherent in the study culture, it is
and definition-based learning. rarely questioned as the correct perspective. The learner
A plus (“+”) in Table 1 marks that the learner is has to identify work method and problem through
provided with a pedagogical component as part of the the learning process. It is a problem-oriented learning
learning process, and a minus (“–”) marks that the situation, where the learning process has a loose
learner has to identify the pedagogical component but not unpredictable form. This is often termed
through the learning process. a problem-oriented pedagogy, where the learner has
 Case-Based Learning C 505

to orientate himself toward a problem. When the methods that are either too simple or too complex. In
learner has identified a problem, the situation shifts this case, the learner, and the group of which he is
to a solution-based learning situation, where the prob- usually a part, will turn back to an innovative learning
lem is identified and provided by the learner. The situation, where the discipline has to be renegotiated in
learner might find out that the problem is not suffi- order to include new – and perhaps exclude old, per- C
ciently fertile, because the identification of the work spectives. This requires an open and flexible study
method is either too simple, or too complex, in relation culture. As exemplified, case-based learning includes
to the problem – or the identified work method in problem-based learning, which again includes solu-
relation to the problem results in a trivial outcome tion- and definition-based learning. Below, brackets
when shifting to the routine learning situation. In this are used to illustrate how a pedagogical concept
case, the learner can turn back to a problem-oriented includes another pedagogical concept:
situation conducting problem-based learning. In this
● Case-based learning (Problem-based learning
way, problem-based learning includes solution- and
(Solution-based learning (Definition-based
definition-based learning. Problem-based learning is
learning)))
good for providing the learner with creativity in situa-
tions where the ability to produce new solution methods Case-based learning is good for providing the
is essential. learner with culture, where the ability to set up a new
In case-based learning, the learner has to identify framework – a new perspective – is essential. Case-based
work method, problem, and discipline – none of the learning adds an extra dimension to the education of
pedagogical components are provided to the learner. the learner because in order to participate in the
It is an innovative learning situation where the learning required open learning culture, he has to accept that
process has an unpredictable form; in this sense, case- other perspectives than his own can be equally correct,
based learning is a medium in which all the pedagog- even if the different perspectives seem incompatible.
ical components can take different forms. A discipline Table 2 sums up the characteristics of the four
has to be identified through a process in which differ- pedagogical concepts.
ent disciplines and their inherent perspectives are The relationship between the knowledge forms
chosen, prioritized, and combined in an interdisciplin- qualification, competences, creativity, and culture is
ary process, where the different perspectives benefit built on ▶ Greagory Bateson’s “four levels of learning”
from a negotiation in a multidisciplinary context. (Qvortup 2003).
Only geniuses can do this alone – and not always
with all the relevant perspectives. Actually, we do not Important Scientific Research and
know which discipline will prove fertile until we know Open Questions
and understand the very essence of a case, and this Only very few study programs have practiced case-
includes the shift through a problem-oriented, prob- based learning as defined in this entry. As such, it is
lem-solving, and routine learning situation, where a new theory of learning that has yet to be discussed in
problem-, solution-, and definition-based learning is the literature. However, there is comprehensive scien-
conducted, respectively. The identified discipline might tific research in the closely related field of ▶ problem-
turn out to generate or require problems and/or work based learning.

Case-Based Learning. Table 2 Major characteristics of the four pedagogical concepts

Pedagogical concept Learning situation Learning process Knowledge form

Definition-Based Learning Routine Permanent form Qualification
Solution-Based Learning Problem solving Solid form Competences
Problem-Based Learning Problem orientation Loose form Creativity
Case-Based Learning Innovation Unpredictable form Culture
506 C Case-Based Learning on the Web

Different organizational study forms have yet to situation – Multidisciplinarity as pedagogical precondition for
be developed and experimented with. How is motiva- innovation]. In J. Stolt & C. Vintergaard (Eds.), Tværfaglighed
& Entrepreneurship [Multidisciplinarity & Entrepreneurship].
tion and talent combined in an interdisciplinary
Copenhagen: IDEA København og Øresund Entrepreneurship
learning culture, where students have to take an inter- Academy.
est in areas other than the one that has their initial Qvortup, L. (2003). The hyper complex society. New York: Peter Lang.
interest?
Where and when is case-based learning a wise
approach? It has been tried out at university level in
different courses, semesters even, with some success; Case-Based Learning on the
but it has not been tried out as the overall pedagogical Web
concept for an entire bachelor or candidate program.
Should such an experiment be conducted, it would LOWELL DEAN TONG, CHRISTIAN BURKE, ANN N. PONCELET
be necessary to include several study programs simul- School of Medicine, University of California San
taneously in order to ensure the multidisciplinary Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
preconditions.
Other open questions are: If case-based learning is
conducted, how much weight should this approach Synonyms
carry compared to the other pedagogical approaches Case-based e-learning
in higher education? Will it apply in certain cases
only? When? Could public schools and colleges bene- Definition
fit from case-based learning? How? And how does Case-based learning on the web (CBLW) occupies the
case-based learning apply to an industrial context intersection of case-based learning and online learning.
as a pedagogical approach that supports innovative There is scant research on CBLW specifically; what
processes? exists is mainly in the field of health sciences education,
and medical education in particular. CBLW prepares
Cross-References the learner for authentic and situational performance,
▶ Bateson, Gregory (1904–1980): Anthropology of rather than presenting canonical technical learning
Learning through a straightforward instructional demonstration
▶ Complex Problem Solving video on the web. CBLW is also distinct from case
▶ Cooperative Learning studies of online learning as a pedagogical method.
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling In the medical education literature, CBLW is typi-
▶ Cross-Disciplinary Learning cally implemented through a free-standing educational
▶ Culture of Learning module, or a set of modules, which the learner accesses
▶ Guided Discovery Learning and engages with, via the web through a computer or
▶ Machine Learning of Natural Language similar device, and which is based on a specific and
▶ Problem Solving highly realistic scenario. It typically uses audio and
▶ Problem-Based Learning video components, in addition to text, illustrations,
and other media, and can include assessment of the
learner as well as assessment of the web-based curricu-
References
lum itself. The student may be allowed to experience
Kjærulff, U. B., Rosenstand, C. A. F., Stage, J., & Vetner, M. (2008).
Case-based learning (CBL) – A new pedagogical approach to the module in a free-flowing path, choosing to navigate
multidisciplinary studies. In F. Fink (Ed.), 36th SEFI Annual in any direction, or forced to be linear, with a “one-
Conference 2008 – Quality Assessment, Employability and Innova- way” direction, or even through the use of a selective
tion. Denmark: Sense Publisher. (CD media and Google release mechanism, whereby a student must verify
Scholar).
completion of one section, with perhaps a quiz, before
Kolodner, J. L. (Ed.). (1993). Case-based learning. Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers. being allowed to move to the next section. It usually
Rosenstand, C. (2008). Innovation som situation – Flerfaglighed som is designed to push the learner to engage with the
pædagogisk forudsætning for innovation [Innovation as material, making reasoned decisions along the way,
 Case-Based Learning on the Web C 507

applying previously learned general principles to the design and collaboration system. It is now used wher-
case at hand, and creating new general hypotheses ever people collaborate to produce media-rich projects
from the case. especially in video cases, interactive media, and
E-learning. It is a design method used in the creative
Theoretical Background arts to shape the content from the learner’s perspective. C
CBLW combines the features of simulation-based It is similar to the architect’s small-scale model of
learning (case-based), with ready access (online learn- a building but adds the dimension of time or flow.
ing). Furthermore, CBLW can standardize learning in A storyboard is both a method for collaborators to
content and quality, facilitate active learning by the communicate about the design and experience its
student, avoid the cost of staging multiple or repeated function, as well as the platform which learners will
simulations, and can allow asynchronous learning for access, navigate, and use. Conceptual storyboards illus-
learners dispersed amongst temporally or geographi- trate on paper what is imagined as the actual computer
cally distributed learning environments, such as med- screen images, combined with exactly how the learner
ical students who are assigned to clinical experiences at interacts with the material: starting, pausing, navigat-
different times and clinical locations. Because it can ing. Each frame or page of the conceptual storyboard
capture and record learner responses, CBLW can assess is visual in nature. Production storyboards document
the learner’s level of competency around elements of the flow of the module and can be either in the form
the case. CBLW need not exclude real-time exchange of pictograms or text, analogous to a program book,
with instructors or fellow learners; there can be desig- table of contents, or sitemap. This leads to effective
nated times for synchronous participation and learn- CBLW, where the student actually experiences the prob-
ing, such as required completion of a CBLW activity lems illustrated by the case, rather than learns about the
prior to a scheduled online discussion. Asynchronous problems of the case (Fig. 1).
or elective use of a CBLW allows for on-demand learn- CBLW is more dynamic than a textbook and allows
ing, either just-in-time learning, or as needed out of for ongoing content updates, providing students with
curiosity, for a repeated experience, or reference. up to date content. This format allows the inclusion of
CBLW may become more essential to formal learn- images, video, audio, and animation. Multimedia helps
ing as virtual learning environments become more target different learning styles and can be tailored to
commonplace in conventional schools and “evening content. Expanded references are instantly available
schools,” and with the rise of new, accredited schools using web links. The web is flexible and becoming
designed to be completely virtual. This modality easier to use with more tools such as Wikis, blogs,
represents a bridge of five unique areas of expertise: and web sites which only require an HTML coder.
(1) educational pedagogy, (2) content and skill exper- The web is searchable and can readily archive learning
tise, e.g., clinical reasoning, (3) video production, objects such as cased-based modules. There are a grow-
(4) case construction, and (5) web technology. Collab- ing number of existing platforms, software building
oration amongst those who together have expertise in blocks, and digital technologies that make the design
all five critical areas is essential for high-quality CBLW. of E-learning tools faster and less costly.
CBLW must be based upon a solid foundation of
curriculum development, and well-established educa- Important Scientific Research and
tion principles must be applied, for example, active Open Questions
learning, activation of prior knowledge, constructiv- There is a paucity of scientific research on CBLW. There
ism, and feedback. is far more research on E-learning in general, emerging
How CBLW differs from conventional learning from reviews of health education studies (Chumley-
methods, such as a lecture or classroom small group, Jones et al. 2002; Ruiz et al. 2006; Cook 2007; Wong
is exemplified by the utility and near necessity of et al. 2010). Their reviews and summaries, based on
storyboards in the curricular design process. The studies that include some CBLW, point out that curric-
storyboarding process, as practiced today, was devel- ula must be well-designed curricula regardless of mode;
oped at Walt Disney studio during the 1930s. The that E-learning is not intrinsically superior in either
Disney approach developed storyboarding as a visual learning outcome or learner satisfaction; that it can be
508 C Case-Based Learning on the Web

ME Quiz
WELCO
1 4
2 5
3 6

Introduction Case Assessment Evaluation

& Framework (video)

Case-Based Learning on the Web. Fig. 1 Example of a simplified version of storyboarding

cost-saving; and that since the internet is here to stay, learning with peers is lost, and only partly realized if
so is E-learning, including its CBLW variant. Wong the module is used to engage with other students. That
proposes a set of questions related to technology accep- the learning is on the web, as opposed to a classroom
tance and achieving interactive dialogue for educators or typical workplace, increases the possibility of the
to address to maximize effectiveness and perceived learner to be distracted simultaneously by other web-
usefulness. The five questions are: How useful will the based and electronic activities, such as e-mail, web-
prospective learners perceive the Internet technology surfing, music, and other entertainment. On the other
to be? How easy will the prospective learners find hand, the web can also provide access to instant and
this technology to use? How well does this format fit unlimited sources of learner-centered reference mate-
in with what learners are used to and expect? How rials, which may enhance case-specific learning. The
will high-quality human–human (learner–tutor and effect on learning by the increased availability of all
learner–learner) interaction and feedback be achieved? these types of distraction, and subsequent decrease in
How will high-quality human–technical interaction singular focus on the case-based module, is unknown.
and feedback be achieved? The future of the web, including its capacities and
One of the few studies of CBLW specifically is also how it is accessed, will lead to intriguing possibilities
from the medical education literature (Nathoo et al. for the design and use of CBLW. Mobile web access
2005), and its findings include higher levels of stu- via increasingly portable equipment, web-based social
dent engagement and relationships with faculty and learning platforms and culture, and the development
accountability to the learner peer group compared to of artificial intelligence web applications will greatly
the classroom problem-based learning tutorial format. expand the scope of how and for what educators and
CBLW also provided benefits of self-selected student learners can use case simulations on the web. For
pace and more realistic student experiences. Nathoo example, in the health-care education and practice
et al. suggest the need for developing new metrics for arenas, the emergence of the electronic medical record,
measuring level of student collaboration outside the artificial intelligence–derived real-time guidance and
classroom, and evaluation systems that test higher projected health outcomes based on gaming theory,
levels of abstraction, beyond simple recall of factual instant access to patient study results, and virtual com-
information, and that measure authentic challenges munication with patients and other members of the
and competencies that medical practitioners face. health-care team may converge with simulation-based
Applying research on E-learning to CBLW sug- learning. CBLW may someday even transform into
gests that there are important limitations. It is not a personalized, real-time learning that is no longer
replacement for learning through real case-based prac- simulated, but instead a form of web-enabled aug-
tice such as piloting an airplane or working with mented reality.
a patient, but is effective as preparation for real prac-
tice. The actual mentor–learner relationship is lost, Cross-References
though this is mitigated in those cases when the mod- ▶ Active Learning
ule is used for synchronous or asynchronous learn- ▶ Assessment in Learning
ing with the teacher. Similarly, the social context of ▶ Asynchronous Learning
 Categorical Learning C 509

▶ Audiovisual Learning
▶ Blended Learning Categorical Learning
▶ Case-Based Learning
▶ Computer-Based Learning SHAWN ELL1, MONICA ZILIOLI2
1
▶ Distributed Learning Environments Department of Psychology, Graduate School of C
▶ e-Learning and Digital Learning Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono,
▶ Evaluation of Student Progress in Learning ME, USA
2
▶ Learning by Doing Department of Psychology, University of Maine,
▶ Learning from Video Orono, ME, USA
▶ Online Learning
▶ Problem-Based Learning
▶ Simulation-Based Learning Synonyms
▶ Technology-Based Learning Categorization; Category learning; Classification
▶ Twenty-First-Century Skills
▶ Video-Based Learning Definition
▶ Virtual Learning Environments From bacteria categorizing a molecule as nutrient or
poison to humans categorizing individuals as friend
References or foe, categorical learning is a process that is vital
Chumley-Jones, H. S., Dobbie, A., & Alford, C. L. (2002). Web- for the existence of any organism. More formally,
based learning: Sound educational method or hype? A categorical (or category) learning is the process of
review of the evaluation literature. Academic Medicine, 77(10), establishing a memory trace that improves the effi-
S86–S93. ciency of assigning novel objects to contrasting
Cook, D. A. (2007). Web-based learning: Pros, Cons and controver-
groups. In addition to facilitating the categorization
sies. Clinical Medicine, 7, 37–42.
Huang, C. (2005). Designing high-quality interactive multimedia of objects, categorical knowledge also facilitates a vari-
learning modules. Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics, ety of cognitive processes.
29(2–3), 223–233. In defining categorical learning, it is useful to
Nathoo, A. N., Goldhoff, P., & Quattrochi, J. (2005). Evaluation of an consider what it is not. One important distinction is
interactive case-based online network (ICON) in a problem
between categories and concepts. A category is a col-
based learning environment. Advances in Health Sciences Educa-
tion, 10(3), 215–230.
lection of related objects (from a single or multiple
Ruiz, J. G., Mintzer, M. J., & Leipzig, R. M. (2006). The impact of stimulus modalities). A concept, in contrast, is a col-
E-learning in medical education. Academic Medicine, 81(3), lection of related ideas. Another important distinction
207–212. is between novel and well-learned categories. The rules
Wong, G., Greenhalgh, T., & Pawson, R. (2010). Internet-based med- that govern the learning of novel categories and the
ical education: A realist review of what works, for whom and in
access of information from well-learned categories are
what circumstances. BMC Medical Education, 10, 12–22.
likely quite different. For instance, patients with neu-
rological damage resulting in the loss of a well-learned
category (e.g., tools as in one type of category-specific
visual agnosia) do not lose the ability to learn novel
Case-Based Reasoning categories. Also, patients with neurological damage
resulting in a categorical learning impairment (e.g.,
▶ Analogical Reasoning patients with Parkinson’s disease) do not lose well-
▶ Schema-Based Reasoning learned categories.

Theoretical Background
Since antiquity, categorical learning has been thought
Categorical Analysis to be a central ability underlying cognition. Not sur-
prisingly, categorical learning has been one of the most
▶ Categorical Representation thoroughly studied areas of ▶ cognitive psychology.
510 C Categorical Learning

Theories of categorical learning, however, did not that every exemplar is stored in memory. Given
obtain prominence until the seminal work of Bruner current knowledge of the neural substrates of memory
et al. (1956) at the dawn of the cognitive revolution. formation, this assumption is implausible as a general
The work of Bruner and colleagues can be traced feature of categorical learning.
back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle and postu- At the same time exemplar theory was gaining
lates that categories are represented by their defining prominence, decision-bound theory (based upon gen-
attributes. Defining attributes are the set of singly eral recognition theory, Ashby and Townsend 1986)
necessary and jointly sufficient features for category was also being developed. Decision-bound theory is a
membership. Although, this so-called classical theory multivariate generalization of signal-detection theory.
continues to be highly influential, its shortcomings are It is assumed that, on each trial, the perceived stimulus
widely accepted. For instance, there are many catego- can be represented as a point in a multidimensional
ries for which it is difficult, if not impossible, to list psychological space and that each participant parti-
the necessary and sufficient features (e.g., games). In tions the perceptual space into response regions by
addition, classical theory incorrectly predicts that all constructing a decision bound. The participant deter-
category ▶ exemplars are equally representative cate- mines which region the perceived stimulus is in, and
gory members. then makes the corresponding response. An important
Prototype theory was proposed as an alternative contribution of decision-bound theory is that it sepa-
to classical theory (Rosch and Mervis 1975). rates perceptual and decisional influences on categori-
According to prototype theory, the category ▶ repre- cal learning. Thus, selective attention, for example, can
sentation consists of the most typical member of the affect the perceptual representation of the stimulus as
category (i.e., the ▶ prototype) and the categorization well as how stimulus dimensions are weighted in mak-
of novel exemplars is based upon similarity to the ing categorization decisions.
prototypes of contrasting categories. Prototype theory, Decision bounds can take many different forms
unlike classical theory, predicts that category mem- and, therefore, can mimic other theories of categorical
bership is graded and, as a result, captures the well- learning. One class of decision-bound models assumes
documented finding that some category members that independent decisions are made about all (or
are more typical than others. Although economical, some subset) of the stimulus dimensions. Such models
the assumption that the category representation is are closely related to classical theory and have led to
restricted to only the most prototypical member is the development of so-called rule-based theories of
rather limiting. For instance, information about vari- categorical learning. According to rule-based theories,
ability and correlational structure within a category has logical expressions are used to evaluate category mem-
been lost. bership (e.g., if the stimulus has a value on dimension
Exemplar theory, in contrast, provides a richer cat- X greater than some decision criterion, it belongs
egory representation by assuming that the categoriza- in category A; otherwise it belongs in category B).
tion of novel exemplars is based upon similarity to Thus, rather than a list of defining attributes, the cat-
the stored representations of all previously experi- egory representation is simply the decision criterion.
enced instances of the contrasting categories (Nosofsky Another class of decision-bound models assumes that
1986). The high resolution of the category representa- the decision boundary is midway between the catego-
tion enables exemplar theory not only to predict ries. Such models are generally equivalent to proto-
the phenomena accounted for by prototype theory, type models because the same categorization response
but also to predict effects that are dependent upon would be predicted regardless of whether distance to
within-category variance and correlation such as the the category boundary or distance to the category pro-
influence of category members that are far from the totypes is used to make a decision. Although decision-
prototype. An additional contribution of exemplar bound theory can mimic other theories of categorical
theory was to formally incorporate a mechanism for learning, the fundamental category representation is
selectively weighting some stimulus dimensions over restricted to the decision boundary thereby limiting
others (i.e., ▶ selective attention). One enduring criti- decision-bound theory as a general theory of categor-
cism of exemplar theory is based on the assumption ical learning.
 Categorical Learning C 511

Although these divergent theoretical perspectives Prototype-distortion tasks are those in which the cate-
have been hotly debated for more than 50 years, it is gory members are generated by randomly perturbing
difficult for any theory to claim victory. Arguably, the category prototype. Prototype-distortion tasks typ-
exemplar theory has been the most popular of the ically instruct participants to distinguish between cat-
categorization theories. It is important to note, how- egory members and nonmembers (i.e., A-not A tasks), C
ever, that mathematical models derived from prototype but it is not uncommon to use two contrasting catego-
and decision-bound theory have often been shown ries (i.e., A-B tasks). Numerous behavioral dissocia-
to outperform, or perform equivalently to, models tions between these tasks support the utility of this
derived from exemplar theory. For instance, when pro- task-based taxonomy. It is important to note, however,
totype models make the more realistic assumption that that although different categorical learning systems
a category has multiple prototypes (rather than a single may be better suited to learn a particular task, there
prototype) many of the aforementioned criticisms of can be considerable individual differences in how par-
prototype theory are resolved. ticipants learn these tasks.
It is important to stress that all of these theories Cognitive neuroscience research utilizing neuroim-
make an important contribution. Indeed, many aging and neuropsychological methdologies indicate
researchers have embraced the idea that the “correct” that categorical learning in these three types of tasks
theory, or ▶ system, varies depending upon the partic- relies upon different neural circuits. Rule-based tasks
ular categorization task. This is not too surprising given have been shown to depend upon lateral prefrontal
that most studies advocating a particular theoretical cortex and anterior regions of the ▶ basal ganglia.
perspective tend to investigate the same type of cate- Information-integration tasks have been shown to
gorization task. For example, exemplar theory has depend upon a neural circuit linking high-level, sen-
enjoyed considerable success in accounting for data sory cortical areas (e.g., inferotemporal cortex in
from categorical learning tasks where memorization is the case of visual stimuli) to high-level motor areas
plausible given the small number of category exem- (e.g., premotor areas) via posterior regions of the
plars. Similarly, decision-bound theory has enjoyed basal ganglia and the thalamus. A-not A prototype-
considerable success in accounting for data from cate- distortion tasks depend upon extrastriate visual corti-
gorical learning tasks where memorization is implau- cal regions whereas A-B prototype-distortion tasks also
sible given the large number of category exemplars. depend upon prefrontal and parietal cortices.
The idea that distinct learning systems contribute
to categorical learning has been suggested by many Important Scientific Research and
researchers over the last 30 years (e.g., Ashby et al. Open Questions
1998). Multiple systems theorists generally agree that Multiple systems theorists are faced with at least two
one system is rule-based. Differences between alterna- critical challenges. The first centers on characterizing
tive theories center on how best to characterize the categorical learning systems. In pursuit of this task,
other system(s), in particular, issues related to the researchers must carefully define criteria for determin-
nature of the category representation (e.g., exemplar ing whether a putative system is, in fact, a separate
vs. prototype). system or run the risk of system proliferation. Impor-
The argument for multiple categorical learning tantly, characterizing systems not only requires specifi-
systems has been fueled, in large part, by the fields of cation of the cognitive processes, but also the neural
behavioral and ▶ cognitive neuroscience. Such substrates. As systems are characterized, the challenge
research has generally focused on three types of cate- of understanding how they interact becomes para-
gorical learning tasks. Rule-based tasks are those in mount. Current theories assume that categorical learn-
which the categories can be learned by an explicit ing systems operate in parallel and compete with each
reasoning process using logical rules. Information- other, but there is little data to rule out other types of
integration tasks are those in which logical rules have interactions (e.g., cooperation). Even if competition is
limited success and, instead, accuracy is maximized by the correct assumption, there is very little data to guide
combining information from two or more stimulus theorizing on how competition is resolved on a trial-
dimensions prior to making a categorization response. by-trial basis.
512 C Categorical Learning in Pigeons

Historically, cognitive psychology has been insular ▶ Explicit Versus Implicit Learning
in its study of psychology and the study of categorical ▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning
learning has been no exception. Recent research has
embraced classic findings from other disciplines within
References
psychology and is beginning to incorporate these ideas
Ashby, F., Alfonso-Reese, L., Turken, A., & Waldron, E. (1998).
into theorizing on categorical learning. For instance, A neuropsychological theory of multiple systems in category
categorical learning is influenced by an individual’s learning. Psychological Review, 105(3), 442–481.
motivation for performing the task and how these Ashby, F., & Townsend, J. (1986). Varieties of perceptual indepen-
motivations match the task incentives. In addition, it dence. Psychological Review, 93(2), 154–179.
is now apparent that the ▶ social stressors we encoun- Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of
thinking. New York: Wiley.
ter in our daily lives can have a profound influence on
Markman, A., & Ross, B. (2003). Category use and category learning.
categorical learning. Whether social stressors impair or Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 592–613.
enhance categorical learning depends upon the type Nosofsky, R. M. (1986). Attention, similarity, and the identification-
of categorization task. Currently, there is no mecha- categorization relationship. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
nism within purely cognitive theories of categorical General, 115, 39–57.
Rosch, E., & Mervis, C. B. (1975). Family resemblances: Studies in
learning, or cognitive neuroscience theories, to ade-
the internal structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology, 7,
quately explain these data. 573–605.
A thorough understanding of categorical learning
requires an appreciation of differences in training
methodology. The vast majority of studies that have
guided theory development can be classified as
supervised learning studies in which a trial consists of
stimulus presentation, categorization response, and
Categorical Learning in Pigeons
corrective feedback. In contrast, unsupervised learning
FABIAN A. SOTO, EDWARD A. WASSERMAN
studies omit corrective feedback. Another popular
Department of Psychology, Delta Center, University of
methodology requires the participant to use the
Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
value of the stimulus on a subset of the dimensions
and the correct category label to infer the value of the
stimulus on a missing dimension. These methodologies
have been used in isolation or hybridized in various
Synonyms
Concept learning in pigeons; Pigeon classification
ways. Importantly, however, the choice of methodology
behavior
can have a profound impact on the category represen-
tation (Markman and Ross 2003). For example, the
category representation resulting from unsupervised Definition
training is restricted to be rule-based. In addition, Categorical Learning in Pigeons refers to the process by
supervised training enhances the representation of which these animals come to treat different stimuli
between-category differences whereas inference train- equivalently, as members of a single class. Evidence of
ing enhances the representation of within-category this learning would require affirmative answers to these
similarities. Together, these training methodologies three questions: can pigeons respond differently to
constitute a powerful set of tools to study categorical members of different classes of stimuli, can pigeons
learning. respond similarly to members of the same class of
stimuli, and can pigeons transfer these behavioral ten-
Cross-References dencies to novel instances of the relevant categories?
▶ Categorical Learning in Pigeons Pigeons can indeed categorize stimuli in these ways
▶ Categorical Representation when class membership is defined by a variety of
▶ Concept Learning criteria, including perceptual resemblance, common
▶ Explicit and Procedural-Learning Based Systems of associations with an event, and abstract properties of
Perceptual Category Learning stimulus collections.
 Categorical Learning in Pigeons C 513

Theoretical Background Palmer in Critchfield et al. 2002). Within this latter

From the earliest experiments on category learning framework, concepts as mental structures are consid-
in pigeons, this area of behavioral research has centered ered to be explanatory principles which can be used to
on the question: Do pigeons use anything akin to account for the observed behavior. Following a long
human concepts to learn categorization tasks? Answer- tradition in the application of Morgan’s canon of par- C
ing this question has involved contending with several simony to the explanation of animal behavior, many
challenging issues, which has shaped the field into a researchers reject the presence of concepts in pigeons
unique approach to the study of categorical and con- because the behavior that is used to infer concepts
ceptual behavior. may be explicable through “lower-level” mechanisms
The prime issue is that there is little consensus in (Mackintosh 2000).
the human and animal literatures as to what constitutes Because animals are assumed to have little or no
a concept. Indeed, some definitions of concepts are so prior experience with the kinds of categories that are
directly tied to a fully operational human linguistic taught to them in categorization experiments, the
system that they deny the possibility of animal concepts research focus concerns the conditions that foster
ipso facto. Other definitions assume that abstract con- category or concept learning, in contrast with an
cepts arise from a particular cognitive architecture; important part of research in human concepts which
indeed, some researchers envision concepts to be dis- focuses on studying how people represent and use
crete symbols through which the rules of language and already acquired knowledge (Critchfield et al. 2002).
propositional thought can operate. For such defini- In sum, research on pigeons and other animals not
tions, a test for the presence of concepts in animals only constitutes a subfield of a much larger research
may be needlessly stringent, given that it is also a test realm in categorization and conceptualization, but it
for other properties of these cognitive architectures. entails an altogether different approach to the study of
Most of the empirical research in pigeon categori- these topics.
zation has arisen from an entirely different approach to Although the question of whether pigeons use
the definitional issue. This approach involves trying to something similar to human concepts to solve catego-
identify the kinds of behaviors and cognitive processes rization tasks is still open to debate, research in the
to which we refer when we talk about concepts, instead area has generated an important body of knowledge
of trying to grasp the essence of concepts through about the categorization abilities of these animals (for
an abstract definition (Critchfield et al. 2002). Thus, a review, see Lazareva and Wasserman 2008). This
research is centered on conceptual behavior and concep- research is roughly organized in three areas, depending
tual processing, both deemed to be natural phenomena on the criteria that are used by researchers to group
which require a scientific explanation. together members of a class: perceptual, associative,
This operational strategy involves focusing on spe- and abstract category learning.
cific behavioral tests which are indicative of conceptu- In perceptual categorization, pigeons classify stim-
alization as well as identifying the prior conditions uli on the basis of their perceptual similarity. Almost all
that allow animals to pass these tests. Several tests of of this research has focused on visual stimuli and nat-
conceptualization have been proposed, in some cases uralistic classes defined by human language, such as
suggesting a system of types of concepts or categories “people,” “flowers,” “cars,” and “chairs.” Pigeons can
with different levels of abstractness (Herrnstein 1990). correctly classify photographs of these objects and
For example, the transfer of responding to novel transfer this classification learning to novel instances
instances of a class is taken to be the hallmark of of the categories. Accuracy to novel stimuli in transfer
“open-ended” category learning, allowing organisms tests is often reliably lower than to familiar stimuli,
to go beyond the memorization of individual stimuli. suggesting that stimulus properties which are diagnos-
In this way, the units of analysis in the study of animal tic of the categories are not alone in controlling perfor-
conceptual behavior are determined empirically, in mance; idiosyncratic properties of the particular
contrast to the tradition of research in human concep- training stimuli may also control performance. One
tualization where the units of analysis are identified factor which increases accuracy to novel transfer stim-
a priori through lexical concepts (see the article by uli is the size of the training set. A larger number of
514 C Categorical Learning in Pigeons

training exemplars leads to slower learning, but it also same equivalence class start sharing a common repre-
leads to higher levels of generalization to novel stimuli. sentation. Now, those stimuli become more difficult to
There is important evidence indicating that pigeons discriminate from each other than would otherwise
can spontaneously detect the perceptual cohesiveness have been the case.
of natural categories even if they are not required to do In abstract categorization learning, pigeons come
so in order to earn reinforcement. Thus, when pigeons to sort stimuli into classes on the basis of abstract
learn that members of one category are associated with relations among stimulus elements. Perhaps the sim-
a response, they more robustly generalize this response plest form of discrimination of abstract stimulus fea-
to other members of the same category than to mem- tures is relational learning. Here, pigeons learn to
bers of different categories. Also, pigeons seem to respond to stimuli on the basis of their relative position
exploit this perceptual cohesiveness during categoriza- in a physical dimension (“larger than” or “brighter
tion training, as suggested by their quicker learning of than”) instead of their absolute value along that
tasks in which all members of the same category are dimension. Although traditional demonstrations of
assigned to the same response than their learning of relational learning in pigeons can be explained as
tasks in which the stimuli are randomly assigned to the arising from the interaction of absolute associative
discriminative responses. values, recent evidence has questioned the generality
The behavioral mechanisms of category learning in of that explanation.
pigeons are flexible enough to allow the concurrent Pigeons have also shown the ability to discriminate
classification of the same stimuli into their basic per- collections of items on the basis of their variability, that
ceptual classes and into superordinate classes created by is, the degree to which the items composing an array
the union of two natural categories (e.g., the class of repeat or vary from each other (Wasserman et al. 2004).
“man-made objects,” created by “chairs” and “cars”). So, after training to discriminate arrays of 16 items on
There is also evidence indicating that these behavioral the basis of whether all of the items are identical or
mechanisms can involve pigeons’ reliance on category- nonidentical, pigeons can be tested with novel arrays
relevant features of the stimuli which additively com- involving mixtures of identical and nonidentical items.
bine to support a particular response: for example, Here, the likelihood of pigeons’ responding “noniden-
wheels, a body, and a roof prompt the recognition of tical” to the mixtures increases with the variability in
a car. Finally, there is growing agreement that these the test array. Still other evidence suggests that such
behavioral phenomena are largely governed by the variability discrimination may lie at the root of the twin
same principles that are at work in associative learning concepts of “same” and “different.”
and stimulus generalization, although until recently Finally, there is evidence showing that pigeons can
there has been little effort to support this claim either also learn to match stimulus collections on the basis
theoretically or empirically. of the second-order relations between them. Thus,
In associative category learning, pigeons group pigeons learn that after being shown a 16-item sample
stimuli on the basis of their association with a common display with a particular relation among its elements
response or some other event, in much the same way (either all of the elements are identical or all of the
that we come to call shoes, pants, and hats items of elements are nonidentical), they must choose another
“clothing.” After training of such common associa- display exhibiting the same relation among elements
tions, if pigeons learn to give a new response to some (either identical or nonidentical). Such relational
stimuli from the original training set, then this new matching-to-sample may represent a form of analogy.
response may generalize to all of the other members of Across all of these different categorization tasks,
the class. Such generalization is taken as evidence of a common factor which increases the likelihood of
pigeons’ ability to acquire an equivalence class, where generalization to novel exemplars of the category is
stimuli are treated equally, not on the basis of their the number of trained stimuli. Larger training sets
perceptual resemblance, but on the basis of their com- lead to better evidence of abstract learning. One inter-
mon training contingencies. There is also evidence pretation of this result is that experience with several
suggesting that after being associated with the same exemplars from each category is necessary for detecting
experimental outcome, stimuli belonging to the the abstract properties of the stimuli. Without such
 Categorical Representation C 515

rich experience, the pigeons might pay attention to Herrnstein, R. J. (1990). Levels of stimulus control: A functional
more concrete perceptual features, which are irrele- approach. Cognition, 37, 133–166.
Lazareva, O. F., & Wasserman, E. A. (2008). Categories and concepts
vant to task solution. Another possibility is that a
in animals. In J. H. Byrne (Ed.), Learning and Memory:
large number of training stimuli simply increases the A Comprehensive Reference (pp. 197–226). Oxford: Academic.
likelihood of a test stimulus being perceptually similar Mackintosh, N. J. (2000). Abstraction and discrimination. In C
to one or more of the training stimuli. Considerable C. M. Heyes & L. Huber (Eds.), The Evolution of Cognition
work has explored these two possibilities. (pp. 123–141). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Wasserman, E. A., Young, M. E., & Cook, R. G. (2004). Variability
discrimination in humans and animals: Implications for adap-
Important Scientific Research and tive action. The American Psychologist, 59, 879–890.
Open Questions
In the past, considerable research and discussion have
focused on determining whether pigeons and other
nonhuman animals use something like human con-
cepts in mastering categorization tasks. This anthropo- Categorical Perception
centric line of research paid little attention to the
Categorical perception is defined as an “abrupt percep-
possibility that different types of conceptual processing
tual change at the boundary” (Harnad 2005), which
exist in nature. However, empirical results have forced
can be seen in situations where the perceived change in
researchers to consider just such a possibility. Future
some attributes (e.g., color) does not occur gradually
research is likely to focus more on determining what
but as instances of different categories.
kinds of conceptual processes pigeons and other
animals exhibit and to disclosing similarities and dif-
ferences in these processes across diverse species.
References
Harnad, S. (2005). Distributed processes, distributed cognizers
Expanding the scope of research toward studying
and collaborative cognition. Pragmatics and Cognition, 13(3),
more categorization tasks and more species is likely to 501–514.
be crucial to gain a better understanding of the evolu-
tion of conceptual processes.
Current research in the area of pigeon categoriza-
tion is quickly shifting from studies aimed at discover-
ing pigeons’ categorization abilities to studies aimed at Categorical Representation
pinpointing the mechanisms underlying these abilities.
Recent research has prompted several accounts of ARASH SHABAN-NEJAD
pigeons’ categorization behavior, some of them formal- McGill Clinical & Health Informatics, Department of
ized in quantitative models. Future research and theory Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health,
will likely move beyond behavioral comparisons across McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
species and toward deeper comparisons involving the
mechanisms of categorization.
Synonyms
Cross-References Categorization; Categorical analysis
▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
▶ Association Learning Definition
▶ Categorical Learning The origin of the term “categories” is the Greek word
▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology “ΚatZgοrίai” (Katēgoriai), which refers to the manu-
▶ Similarity Learning script written by Aristotle, wherein he defined ten
fundamental modes (categories) of being (things),
References namely substance, quantity, quality, relative (relation),
Critchfield, T. S., Galizio, M., & Zentall, T. R. (Eds.). (2002). Catego- somewhere (location), sometime (when), being-in-
rization and concept learning [Special issue]. Journal of a-position, having (state), acting, or being affected
the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 78, 237–607. (Ackrill 1975). The word “representation,” as defined
516 C Categorical Representation

by the Oxford English Dictionary, means “the action or e.g., man, horse, tree, small, big. Then new concepts
fact of expressing or denoting [a thing] symbolically.” can be learned through a set of descriptive information
Categorical representation can be described as the pro- (e.g., logical expressions) based on the basic concepts
cess of expressing things in different modes and layers and attributes, e.g., Centaur (man-horse) or Pony
of abstraction based on similarities and differences in (small horse). ▶ Iconic representation and feature dis-
their attributes and relations. Categorical representa- crimination, which lead us toward categorical repre-
tion has been a subject of study in knowledge represen- sentation, contribute to learning by acquaintance, and
tation, mathematics, cognitive science, linguistics, ▶ symbolic representation, which uses category names
philosophy, psychology, art, and so forth. Members of as the atomic symbols, is used for descriptive learning
a category have common attributes and together repre- (Harnad 1987). Together, categorical representation
sent perceptual or conceptual knowledge about a par- and iconic/symbolic representations (Harnad 1996)
ticular domain of interest. enable us to describe and model the real world in
terms of categories and their members, their relation-
Theoretical Background ships, and their attributes.
The human brain has the ability to organize the details A categorical representation of a domain can be
of perceived objects within a series of categories based performed by defining categories at different hierarchi-
on their common features. Similarly, the objects in the cal levels, depending on the level of granularity, using
real world can be processed (i.e., compared, evaluated, different mediums such as Hierarchies, Sets, Lists, and
and remembered) by the brain, based on known attri- so forth. In Artificial Intelligence (AI), ontologies are
butes and past experiences. This allows people to incre- employed based on this ability of humans to find
mentally acquire new knowledge (e.g., discriminating things familiar by using the categorizations in their
between life-threatening situations versus safe ones) brains. Ontologies, as hierarchical organizations of cat-
and communicate with each other through the shared egories from general to specific, are meant to provide
conceptualization of the subject. Therefore, the process a semantic and conceptual basis for sharing knowledge
of categorization is important for decision making. about a domain of interest by defining concepts,
Categorical representations of different types of expres- properties, and axioms. In an educational sense, this
sions (e.g., facial, phonetic, emotional, and mental conceptual model enables humans to apply their expe-
expressions) to distinguish between different concep- riences of the past to similar future situations. For
tual and perceptual behaviors in the human brain have example, the experience of riding a bicycle can be
been widely studied in the literature. Categorization applied to riding different bicycles with different
also plays a crucial rule in human cognitive develop- brands, models, colors, and sizes. Since categories are
ment and is essential to several learning activities, highly dependent on a human’s knowledge about the
including language acquisition, grammar learning, real world, they will evolve (be recategorized) as our
and speech perception. knowledge increases.
Two types of categorization, namely perceptual
(based on perceptual similarities between entities) Important Scientific Research and
and conceptual (based on the functions and interac- Open Questions
tions between entities), can be commonly defined in The idea of categorization is central to many disci-
the human brain, even from the early stages of infancy plines in AI, machine learning, cognitive science, knowl-
(Berg-Cross 2006). Unlike perceptual categorization, edge representation, and so on. Through technological
which is more focused on the appearance of entities, advances, different formalisms and methods can be used
the conceptual model is based on experience-driven to support categorical representations. An example is
patterns and needs a greater degree of maturity in the employing neural networks for iconic and categorical
human’s mental model. As stated by Harnad (1987), representations of different cognitive systems. In lin-
the basic categories are generated through ▶ categori- guistics, the associations between labels (terminologies)
cal perception and specified through a learning process and perceptual categories are considered key factors for
(▶ learning by acquaintance). In this way, one classifies language acquisition studies, perceptual learning, and
the perceived objects (things) and then names them, developing “generative grammars.”
 Categorization C 517

Research on categorical representation has been ▶ Explicit and Procedural-Learning Based Systems of
faced with several challenging questions on the nature Perceptual Category Learning
and semantics of categories and types of representa- ▶ Hierarchical-Network Model for Memory and
tions. Categories are derived based on different data Learning
sources (e.g., cognitive, behavioral, and environmental ▶ Knowledge Integration C
data). Categorization is defined in cognitive science ▶ Knowledge Organization
as “the process of dividing the world into categories, ▶ Knowledge Representation
and usually involves constructing concepts that provide ▶ Mental Representations
mental representations of those categories” (Thagard ▶ Ontology and Semantic Web
and Toombs 2005), and can be done for both observ- ▶ Representation, Presentation and Conceptual
able concepts (e.g., humans, limbs) and nonobservable Schemas
concepts (e.g., genes, disease agents, a process such ▶ Similarity Learning
as injection). In the case of categorizations for ▶ Vocabulary Learning
nonobservables, the process also involves creating con- ▶ Word Learning and Lexical Development Across the
cepts for the unambiguous rationalization of the real Lifespan
world (Thagard and Toombs 2005). More formal cate-
gorization is also referred to as “any systematic differ- References
ential interaction between an autonomous, adaptive Ackrill, J. L. (1975). Aristotle: Categories and de interpretatione
sensorimotor system and its world” (Harnad 2005). (Clarendon Aristotle Series). USA: Oxford University Press.
Berg-Cross, G. (2006). Developing knowledge for intelligent agents:
In this definition, the term “systematic” has been used Exploring parallels in ontological analysis and epigenetic robot-
to exclude arbitrary interactions (e.g., the effects of ics. NIST PerMIS conferences 2006.
the wind blowing on the sand) and an “autonomous, Harnad, S. (1987). Category induction and representation. In
adaptive sensorimotor system” means a dynamic sys- S. Harnad (Ed.), Categorical perception: The groundwork of cog-
tem that interacts and changes in time through nition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 18.
Harnad, S. (1996). The origin of words: A psychophysical hypothesis.
adaptive changes in the states of the system. “Differen-
In B. Velichkovsky & D. Rumbaugh (Eds.), Communicating
tial” implies that the categorization process generates meaning: Evolution and development of language (pp. 27–44).
a different kind of output from a different kind of input New Jersey: Erlbaum.
(Harnad 2005). Harnad, S. (2005). To cognize is to categorize: Cognition is categori-
The categorical perspective in knowledge represen- zation. In H. Cohen & C. Lefebvre (Eds.), Handbook of categori-
tation intends to express universal notions (truths). zation in cognitive science (pp. 19–43). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Thagard, P., & Toombs, E. (2005). Atoms, categorization and con-
Category theory, with its universal grammar, provides
ceptual change. In H. Cohen & C. Lefebvre (Eds.), Handbook of
an advanced abstract mathematical model that is used categorization in cognitive science (pp. 243–254). Amsterdam:
to represent and analyze the behavior of interacting Elsevier.
objects within categories. The basic notations in cate-
gory theory consist of a class of objects and a class of
morphisms (relations between the objects), an identity
and a composite morphism. The declarative approach Categorization
offered by category theory represents and describes
objects only in terms of their relationships and inter- The ability to group objects or events according to
actions with other objects, without the necessity of a common attribute (or by category). In categorization,
knowing about the internal structure of objects. stimuli are grouped based on complex features,
multimodal properties, or behavioral relevance. Sen-
Cross-References sory similarity alone does not necessarily place stimuli
▶ Categorical Learning in the same category.
▶ Categorical Learning in Pigeons
▶ Classification Learning Cross-References
▶ Classification of Learning Objects ▶ Categorical Learning
▶ Conceptual Clustering ▶ Categorical Representation
518 C Categorization of Variation in Movement

▶ Concept Learning involvement and detachment. In turn, this idea can be

▶ Explicit and Procedural-Learning-Based Systems of part of an elaborated theory of catharsis that has never
Perceptual Category Learning been tested.
▶ Generalization Versus Discrimination Aristotle originated a theory of catharsis in the
theater.
" The function of tragedy is to accomplish a clarification
(or illumination) through catharsis of pity and fear.
Categorization of Variation in (Nussbaum’s translation 1986, p. 391)
Movement The idea of catharsis is currently in disrepute
because Freud rejected it, even though his first book
▶ Impaired Multidimensional Motor Sequence
reported its success (1895). Experimental psychologists
Learning
also think they have disproved it, because they have
shown that acting out anger usually does not get rid of
it. Currently it is the fashion to refer to catharsis as
a simplistic hydraulic theory, as if there were only one
Category Learning theory rather than many (Scheff 1979, 2007).
However, Aristotle did not propose that audiences
▶ Categorical Learning shout in anger or run away in fear. He was referring
▶ Identification Learning to the effect of simply watching a tragedy, just as
▶ Semantic Memory in Profound Amnesia Wordsworth wrote that poetry is emotion recollected
in tranquility.
The crucial thing, according to theories of esthetic
distance, is that although the audience identifies with
the players, and feels their emotions, at the same time
Catharsis Theory realizes that they are safe in the theater (Goddard 1951;
Evans 1960). At this distance, moving rapidly in and
THOMAS J. SCHEFF out of their own feelings, emotions that might be
Department of Sociology, University of California at painful if one was completely lost in them become
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA pleasurable. This movement provides a feeling of con-
trol: if the pain gets too great, one can stop. In a tragedy,
one can have a “good” rather than a bad cry, and
Synonyms experience good fear rather than the painful kind.
Purifying of the emotions; Release of emotional tension Phrased slightly differently, theater must generate
emotions in the audience, but not to the point of
Definition getting lost in them (underdistanced). If it does not
A catharsis is an emotional release which is linked to generate emotions, it is overdistanced. The third way
a need to release unconscious conflicts. For example, is being both emotionally involved and detached at the
rather than vent feelings inappropriately the individual same time, esthetic distance. The audience is to identify
may release these feelings through physical activity or with the characters to the point of feeling their emo-
another relieving activity. tions, but at the same time remembering that they are
not the characters.
Theoretical Background The idea that we may experience ourselves from
Bergson (1911), among others, noted what might be a distance is a key feature in the social psychology
an important aspect of pleasurable laughter, the need of Cooley and Mead. In their approaches, the self is
for detachment: “we do not laugh unless we are constituted by a distancing process. Cooley pointed
a bit detached.” This notion can be viewed as part of to what he called the looking glass self (1922), an
a larger one, the possibility of a combination of accepted part of modern sociology. As he put it: “We
 Catharsis Theory C 519

live in the minds of others without knowing it.” The For purpose of discussion, suppose that grief
last two lines became particularly important because involves bodily preparation to cry. Sobbing with tears
Mead and his followers did not follow them up, as would require, at the least, muscular contractions in
indicated below. Cooley was referring to the reflex- order to sob, activation of the tear glands, and some
ive self-consciousness of our experience, how we adrenaline to energize these preparations. The more C
continually monitor our self from the point of view rapidly these preparations are carried through, the
of others. less feeling of sadness. If one cried copiously and
G. H. Mead developed Cooley’s idea in a different instantly, little sadness would be experienced. Sadness
way. He called it “taking the role of the other.” Mead requires delay, just as sexual pleasure can be heightened
pointed out that ordinary discourse is so ambiguous by foreplay. Crying, under certain conditions discussed
that we must be constantly moving in and out of the below, might be the orgasm for grief.
mind of the other person, guessing at the meaning of Embarrassment/shame provides another example.
their discourse by seeing it not only from our own When my students tell the class their most embarrassing
point of view, but also from theirs. Unlike Cooley, moment, many of them are convulsed with laughter
Mead and his followers failed to note how unconscious telling the story. Laughter seems to be the orgasm of
this process becomes. And neither Cooley nor Mead shame. However, it is often difficult to attain enough
realized the relevance of their work to the distancing of distance, especially if one was deeply humiliated. Many
emotions. repetitions of just talk about the incident may be needed
My students experience roller coasters as pleasur- before one can find humor in it.
able, but only if they are sure that the ride is safe. It also needs to be said that just as there is a good cry
They allow themselves to feel fear because they are and a bad one, there is also a good laugh and a bad one.
able, at the same time, to feel safe, rather than becom- A good laugh turns out to be when one is laughing at
ing completely caught up. Levine (1997) refers to this one’s self (“silly me”) or the universe, but not at other
process as pendulating, moving very rapidly in and out people. Laughing at others, as Billig has pointed out
of emotions that would otherwise be painful. We move (2005), usually is ridicule, driven by anger: no help to
so fast that we usually do not realize it. These states can either party. There is also faked laughing, which does
occur not only in the theater but whenever we feel safe not engage any part of the cathartic system, but is more
enough to replay intense emotional experiences, such like a voluntary speech act.
as describing them to another person we trust, or, Esthetic distance is experiencing strong emotions in
occasionally, reliving them alone. a safe environment: theater, film, books, songs, or tell-
ing one’s experience to an empathic person, or even to
Important Scientific Research and one’s self. I once had an intense fear experience in this
Open Questions mode. After an excruciatingly dangerous moment,
Aristotle linked catharsis to clarification or illumina- when I was safe, I realized that I was still tensed up
tion, but he did not explain the connection. In which because of the danger I had encountered. Not knowing
way does catharsis lead to these desirable outcomes? In what to do, I began repeating the phrase “I am afraid.”
order to understand what is taking place in catharsis, After many repetitions my body took over, shaking and
emotions need to be defined. John Dewey (1894/1895) sweating till my clothes were drenched. It was not
proposed that felt emotions are certain bodily prepa- painful, and I felt completely relaxed when it was
rations to act that have been delayed. Since Dewey’s over. Perhaps it was the nearest that I ever came to an
article dealt only with emotions in general, and not illumination. Shaking and sweating would seem to
specific emotions, it had very little influence. It signal the catharsis of fear.
becomes relevant only if we apply it to specific emo- Like many people, when angry I may lash out. But
tions, like grief or shame, anger or fear. These emotions I have had several anger experiences of a quite different
occur when the body is mobilized to act in certain kind. I told the culprit “I am angry at you because. . . . .”
ways, states of bodily arousal in order to complete in an ordinary voice. Since this approach is so undra-
certain acts. What are these acts, and how can they matic, I have had to repeat my complaint several times.
be completed? Then two things happened: the other person started
520 C Causal Attribution

apologizing, and I felt hot. I realized that it was not the

room that had gotten warm, but my body. Catharsis in Causal Induction
this case does not involve the acting out of anger, the ▶ Causal Learning
mistake of the systematic studies of anger “catharsis.” It
is rather an internal process: heat seems to metabolize
the adrenaline for bodily preparation to fight. Body
heat signals the internal orgasm of anger.
These comments on catharsis were brief. For fur- Causal Inference
ther discussion, see my book (1979), article, Catharsis
and Other Heresies (2007), or my video on emotions, ▶ Causal Learning
backed up by two Swedish rock stars (Scheff 2009). ▶ Human Causal Learning

Cross-References
▶ Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC)
▶ Aristotle on Pleasure and Learning Causal Learning
▶ Dewey, John
▶ Psychodynamics of Team Learning AARON P. BLAISDELL1, RALPH R. MILLER2
1
Department of Psychology, University of California,
References Los Angeles, CA, USA
Bergson, H. (1911). Laughter: An essay on the meaning of the comic. 2
SUNY-Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, USA
New York: C. Brereton.
Billig, M. (2005). Laughter and ridicule: towards a social critique of
humor. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cooley, C. H. (1922). Human nature and the social order. New York: Synonyms
Scribner’s Sons. Causal induction; Causal inference; Causal reasoning;
Dewey, J. (1894/1895). The theory of emotion. Psychological Review, Contingency learning
1, 553–569, and II, (2), (1895): 13–32.
Freud, S., & Breuer, J. (1895/1966). Studies on hysteria.
New York: Avon. Definition
Goddard, H. (1951). The meaning of Shakespeare. Chicago, IL: Learning the cause–effect relationships or determining
University of Chicago Press. the causal status among a set of two or more events.
Levine, P. A. (1997). Waking the tiger: healing trauma. Berkeley, CA: Learning causal relationships can be characterized as
North Atlantic Books.
a bottom-up process whereby events that share contin-
Mead, G. H. (1936). Mind, self, and society. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
gencies become causally related, and/or a top-down
Nussbaum, M. (1986). The fragility of goodness. Cambridge: Cam- process whereby cause–effect relationships may be
bridge University Press. inferred from observation and empirically tested for
Scheff, T. (1979). Catharsis in healing, ritual, and drama. Berkeley, its accuracy.
CA: University of California Press. Re-issued in 2001 by
iUniverse.
Scheff, T. (2007). Catharsis and other heresies: a theory of Theoretical Background
emotion. Journal of Social, Evolutionary and Cultural Psychology, Causal learning has its roots in philosophy. Aristotle
1(3), 98–113. proposed four causes: material (what something is
Scheff, T. (2009). Social science of emotions. http://www.youtube.com/ made of), formal (i.e., structural, how something is
watch?v=DM_MxBizcQk1513cath111march1-10
made, its structure and form), efficient (or moving;
necessary for the effect’s existence), and final (i.e.,
functional, the purpose, an egg is the cause of
a chicken). The British Empiricists (Hume, Lock,
Causal Attribution J. S. Mill, et al.) suggested that cause–effect relation-
ships cannot be observed, but are merely inferred
▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation through statistical regularities between events, often
 Causal Learning C 521

captured in associative properties (see e.g., Hume or desirable outcomes) or prevent the goal from
1739). Nativists, such as Kant (1781), argued that the happening (for aversive or undesirable outcomes)
human mind has a priori knowledge of the construct of (Dickinson 2001). In this framework, instrumental
causality. The concept of causation is applied to our actions are suggested to be mediated by causal knowl-
knowledge (both a priori and acquired through expe- edge. Much of the work to support this framework C
rience) to allow us to label events as causal when they comes from research investigating the parallels between
appear so to us. associative learning phenomena in nonhuman animals
Investigation of causal learning in psychology fol- and similar phenomena in human contingency learn-
lows from these philosophical roots. Treatment of ing experiments. The degree to which effects in human
concepts involving causal learning and induction fall contingency learning mirror those found in animal
into three groups: Perception, Associative learning, conditioning experiments establishes the latter as a
and Reasoning. model for the former. This approach has been largely
Belgian psychologist Albert Michotte argued that successful in establishing a connection between these
causality is determined directly through perception. two research paradigms, and few would dispute that
He demonstrated this by describing our perception of this similarity is meaningful. Where the debate centers
causality in how billiard balls move and interact on a is on the interpretation of this similarity between ani-
billiard table. When one billiard ball strikes a second, mal conditioning experiments and human contingency
the first ball transfers its motion to the second. learning experiments. Proponents of the associationist
Michotte (1963) referred to this perception of transfer approach argue that the similarity reflects the role
of movement from one colliding object to the next of the simple, algorithmic-level learning mechanisms
as “ampliation of the movement,” what is now generi- of Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning in causal
cally referred to as the “launching effect.” This gestalt learning in both nonhuman animals and humans. An
approach treats causal knowledge as being derived alternative perspective is that the similarities between
directly from perception rather than acquired through these two research paradigms reflect the operations of
experience of contingency relations between causally rational top-down psychological principles of causal
connected events. Thus, Michotte’s framework – reasoning and induction at least in humans and per-
which still dominates the field of causal perception – haps in nonhuman animals as well.
shares more with Kant’s nativist framework than An alternative theoretical approach to causal learn-
with Hume’s empiricism. ing and reasoning involves the application of rational
The associative learning approach to causal learn- statistical models (also called normative or functional
ing is a direct descendent of the associationist phi- models) to human causality. This approach has also
losophy of David Hume. Proponents of an associative been extended to work with nonhuman animals in
learning approach to causal learning and induction recent years (Penn and Povinelli 2007). According to
argue that the laws of associative learning, such as the normative approach, causal knowledge is acquired
contiguity, contingency, and temporal priority, provide by computing the covariation between candidate
a sufficient account for how humans and other animals causes and effects. The delta-p model is one popular
acquire understanding of cause–effect relationships. generic form of the computation rule for the contin-
Pavlovian conditioning involves pairing an anteced- gency between cause and effect (see Fig. 1; after Allan
ent event (called a conditioned stimulus or CS) with 1980). The indicated conditional probabilities can be
a subsequent, usually motivating, event (called the pieced together into a causal model. A causal model is
unconditioned stimulus or US), thereby establishing a representation containing both a structural frame-
a CS–US association. The CS–US association may be work consisting of links between causes and effects,
represented causally, with the CS as the cause of the US. and the strength of the relationship of each link, also
Instrumental learning, in which changes in behavior referred to as causal power (Cheng 1997). Rational
are driven by their consequences, may also serve as models typically focus on delineating the rules that
a model of causal learning. This case is particularly govern causal structure learning or how causal power
strong for goal-directed learned behavior in which the is computed. An implicit assumption in these models
action is made as if to produce the goal (for appetitive is that causal relationships reflect either a force that
522 C Causal Learning

turning a dichotomous event on or off (e.g., flicking

No
Effect
Effect a light switch), increasing or decreasing a continuous
event’s value (e.g., turning up or down a thermostat
setting), or increasing or decreasing the likelihood of
Cause a b a probabilistic event (e.g., smiling or frowning when
asking someone for a date). Knowledge derived from
No interventions, often characterized as a top-down pro-
c d
Cause cess, can be contrasted with the bottom-up processes
of deriving knowledge from observations in the
Dp = p(effect / cause) – p(effect /no cause) absence of intervention (e.g., via associative learning).
Evidence suggests that causal induction from interven-
Causal Learning. Fig. 1 22 contingency table showing
tions develops early in human development, and may
relationships between Cause (present = cells a and b; or
be lacking in nonhuman species, though the compara-
absent = cells c and d) and Effect (present = cells a and c; or
tive question is only beginning to receive attention.
absent = cells b and d). At the bottom of the figure is the
Interventions may be effective in judging causal rela-
equation for calculating delta p, the change in judged
tionships because they permit the generation of many
contingency between cause and effect. This equation takes
cell b and cell d events (see Fig. 1).
into account the difference between the probability of the
effect given the presence of the cause (cells a and b) and
the probability of the effect given the absence of the cause
Important Scientific Research and
(cells c and d)
Open Questions
While a consensus is starting to emerge regarding the
complementary roles of bottom-up (e.g., associative)
allows a cause to generate or prevent its effects, or a and top-down (e.g., rational) models of causal learn-
physical mechanism that ties effects to their causes – ing and induction, this is by no means a ubiquitous
though these forces or mechanisms are rarely specified view (Shanks et al. 1996). One or the other approach
in descriptions or parameters of the models. While may yet win out favor over the other. In fact, rational
there has been a tension in the literature on whether (propositional) processes have recently been proposed
associative or rational models provide better theoreti- as an alternative account for bottom-up associative
cal tools to investigate causal learning, a consensus view processes. Nevertheless, the nature of the relationship
has recently emerged that the two classes of models between associative and rational accounts is still an
are more complementary than exclusionary and they open question. Another important area of future
reside at different levels of analysis as characterized inquiry concerns brain–behavior relationships in
by Marr (1982). Associative models are thought to causal learning and inference. Imaging methods are
operate at the algorithmic level of explanation (though starting to identify neural structures active during
most associative models, such as the Rescorla-Wagner, causal inference in humans. But more experimental
1972, model are presented in computational form), approaches that dissect the contribution of neural sys-
while rational models reside at the computational tems to causal processes are still needed to move
level of analysis. beyond hypothesis generation and into establishing
There has been a recent extension of rational the brains mechanistic role in causal learning and
models that focuses on the role of agency in causal inference.
learning and judgments. The basic premise is that an
agent can manipulate, or observe another’s manipula- Cross-References
tion of, an outcome. This manipulation is termed an ▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence
intervention and can directly affect that event’s causal ▶ Associative Learning
status. If intervening on the event results in changes in ▶ Bottom-up- and Top-down Learning
other events (e.g., watering the lawn results in green ▶ Bounded Rationality and Learning
grass), then the manipulated event is deemed a cause of ▶ Contingency in Learning
the other, resulting events. Manipulations can include ▶ Human Causal Learning
 Causal Learning and Illusions of Control C 523

▶ Human Contingency Learning effect for a given cause and to attribute the most prob-
▶ Inductive Reasoning able cause for the events in their environment. Learning
▶ Inferential Learning and Reasoning causal relationships between the events in our environ-
▶ Normative Reasoning and Learning ment and between our own behavior and those events
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning is critical for survival. From learning what causes fire C
▶ Psychology of Learning (Overview Entry) (so that we could either produce or prevent the occur-
▶ Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning Processes rence of fire at will) to learning what causes rain, what
causes cancer, or what caused that particular silly acci-
References dent that we had with the car a few days ago, both the
Allan, L. G. (1980). A note on measurement of contingency between history of humankind and our individual history are
two binary variables in judgment tasks. Bulletin of the full of examples in which causal learning is crucial. But,
Psychonomic Society, 15, 147–149. as can be said for other forms of learning as well, causal
Cheng, P. C. (1997). From covariation to causation: A causal power learning is not free of errors. Systematic biases and
theory. Psychological Review, 104, 367–405.
errors are known to occur under certain conditions.
Dickinson, A. (2001). The 28th Bartlett memorial lecture causal
learning: An associative analysis. The Quarterly Journal of Exper-
One of such common biases is the illusion of control.
imental Psychology, 54B, 3–25. The illusion of control can be defined as the belief that
Hume, D. (1964). In L. A. Selby-Bigge (Ed.), Treatise of human nature. one’s behavior is the cause of a desired event that is
London: Oxford University Press (first published 1739). actually independent of it. Illusions of control are an
Kant, I. (1965). Critique of pure reason. London: Macmillan. (Original important factor in the development of superstitions.
work published 1781).
Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human
For instance, the superstitious belief that by dancing
representation and processing of visual information. San Francisco: one can produce rain, is normally accompanied by the
W. H. Freeman. illusion of controlling rain.
Michotte, M. (1963). The perception of causality (trans: Miles, T. R. &
Miles, E.). New York: Basic Books. Theoretical Background
Penn, D. C., & Povinelli, D. J. (2007). Causal cognition in human and
The origins of research on causal learning can be traced
nonhuman animals: A comparative, critical review. Annual
Review of Psychology, 58, 97–118.
back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle and it has ever
Shanks, D. R., Holyoak, K. J., & Medin, D. L. (1996). Causal learning since interested philosophers, experimental psycholo-
(The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 34). San Diego: gists, cognitive scientists and, in general, all scientists
Academic. interested in how humans learn and acquire knowl-
edge. Nowadays, causal learning is generally studied
in the experimental psychology tradition and is nor-
mally considered to be a central aspect of cognition.
However, as it is the confluence of causal learning and
Causal Learning and Illusions the illusion of control research what we are addressing
of Control in this entry, it is interesting to note that this general
cognitive perspective has not been applied to the study
HELENA MATUTE, MIGUEL A. VADILLO of the illusion of control until very recently. The illu-
Departamento de Fundamentos y Métodos de la sion of control has traditionally been regarded as one of
Psicologı́a, Universidad de Deusto, Bilbao, Spain those cases in which the cognitive system fails to work
in an adaptive manner. As such, the study of the illu-
sion of control has been more often linked to Clinical,
Synonyms Health, and Social Psychology than to the Cognitive
Contingency learning; Illusions of causality; Supersti- and Learning Sciences. Today, however, the study of the
tious behavior illusion of control is recovering its place as part of the
Learning Sciences and is being regarded as the normal
Definition consequence of the way the learning system works.
▶ Causal learning is the process by which people and In a typical laboratory experiment on the illusion
animals gradually learn to predict the most probable of control, a given outcome (e.g., getting points in
524 C Causal Learning and Illusions of Control

a computer game) is programmed to occur at certain specifically, a particular case of causal learning), general
intervals, or according to a predetermined sequence, learning theories that can account for causal learning
and the experimental participants are instructed to try can in principle be applied to the illusion of control
to obtain it. The usual result is that, when asked at the as well. These include theories of ▶ associative learn-
end of the experiment about the extent to which they ing, ▶ connectionist learning, ▶ Bayesian learning, or
believe to have controlled the outcome, participants ▶ inferential learning. Despite their differential pro-
normally believe their control to be significantly greater posals, what is common to all these learning theories
than the value of zero which has been programmed by is that all of them would assume that the illusion of
the experimenter (e.g., Alloy and Abramson 1979). The control is the outcome of a much more general cogni-
current use of ▶ web-based control for experiments on tive mechanism. Many theories that explain causal
human learning allows demonstrating that these effects learning as the formation of associations between
occur not only in the laboratory but also in the more causes and effects, or as statistical reasoning or even
noisy and uncontrolled arena of the Internet. This as an inferential process, would agree to predict an
suggests that the illusion of control is a robust phe- illusion of control when both the candidate cause and
nomenon that develops easily in natural settings. the to-be-explained effect occur frequently and do
Ever since the seminal laboratory studies on the coincide frequently by chance. Not surprisingly, these
illusion of control, Ellen Langer (1975) showed that are the conditions where the illusion of control is most
the personal implication of the participant was an often observed.
important factor in producing the illusion. Therefore, An important additional prediction of the learning
a traditional interpretation has been that emotional approach is that, if the illusion is the result of a normal
and motivational factors, such as a need for control process of causal learning, then it should occur regard-
and a need to protect self-esteem, were at the basis of less of whether the potential cause is the participant’s
the effect. Moreover, an association between the illu- own behavior or an external cause. This is not what
sion of control and an absence of depression has been the Social and Clinical Psychology theories of the illu-
repeatedly reported, which has also lead to the sugges- sion would predict. According to these latter views, the
tion that either the illusion protects from depression, illusion occurs to protect self-esteem and whenever
or depression protects from the illusion (Alloy and the potential cause is external there is no need to
Abramson 1979; Taylor and Brown 1988). In line with protect self-esteem. The amount of evidence in the
this, the illusion of control has been described as the area of learning that shows that causal illusions occur
inverse of the learned ▶ helplessness effect that occurs when the potential cause is an external event suggests
when people realize that desired events are uncontrol- that personal involvement is not needed to produce
lable (e.g., Langer 1975; Matute 1996). These findings these illusions. Personal and motivational factors
have also been taken sometimes as supportive of the could perhaps enhance the illusions, but they are not
motivational, self-esteem explanation, though, as we necessary. Both the illusion of causality that occurs
will see, they do not necessarily support this view over when the potential cause is external and the illusion of
the learning approach. control that occurs when the potential cause is the
Even though it seems clear that the illusion of participant’s behavior are enhanced under the same
control can provide beneficial effects on self-esteem as conditions that are predicted to be critical by the many
well as a protection from depression and helplessness, theories of causal learning. Indeed, many ▶ machine
these prophylactic effects, however comfortable they learning algorithms designed to learn according to
may feel, do not provide an explanation for the illusion. the theories of natural learning will necessarily suffer
This is so because, in the first place, protection of self- illusions of causality (and of control) when exposed
esteem could well be a side effect of the illusion rather to those conditions. Such conditions are many, but
than its cause. Secondly, and most important, because perhaps the most relevant can be summarized as
the self-esteem hypothesis does not attempt to explain follows: (a) a high frequency of occurrence of
how our cognitive system produces the illusion: it a desired uncontrollable outcome (or a low frequency
simply postpones the question. Being the illusion of when the outcome is aversive); (b) a high frequency of
control the product of a learning system (and more the potential cause (i.e., our own behavior when we
 Causal Learning and Illusions of Control C 525

speak of an illusion of control; any other cause when linked during causal learning will, from time to time,
we speak, more generally, of an illusion of causality); turn out to be causally unrelated. This would be a
and (c) a high number of coincidences of the poten- collateral effect of the causal learning system working
tial cause and the outcome (Alloy and Abramson in a way which will most often be adaptive and
1979; Matute 1996; Matute et al. 2010). It is interest- correct, but sometimes vulnerable (Matute 1996). C
ing to note that the high frequency of the potential In consequence, as we already noted, many artificial
cause is equivalent with a high personal involvement and machine learning algorithms that model learning
when the potential cause is the participant’s behav- according to the predictions of current theories of
ior. It is possibly for this reason that many of those ▶ human causal learning do also suffer the illusion.
results have often seemed to support the self-esteem This does not mean that the algorithms are programmed
explanation. to do so. However, the illusion is a consequence of
their causal learning dynamics. As of natural selection,
Important Scientific Research and a system that detects causal relations that sometimes
Open Questions result illusory might be more adaptive than an alterna-
One of the challenges related to this topic is to find out tive system with such a high threshold for the detection
what the role of personal involvement really is. Does of causal relations that often fails to detect relations that
it really increase the illusion? If so, why? How? Is it do exist (e.g., McKay and Dennett 2009).
because our perceptual and learning abilities are mod- In addition, the illusion of control itself could be
ified when we evaluate the efficacy of our own behav- adaptive on its own (Langer 1975; Matute 1996; McKay
ior? Could it be that we learn causal relationships in the and Dennett 2009; Taylor and Brown 1988). If the
same way regardless of whether it is our own behavior illusion makes us remain active in our trying to obtain
or an external cause what plays the role of the cue, but desired events, such as rain or fire or health, then,
that we then make a different judgment as a function whenever we are uncertain about whether a relation-
of whether the potential cause is our own behavior? ship is really causal, it should be adaptive to maintain
Many questions related to these ones are becoming the illusion that our behavior is being useful so that
really exciting topics of debate right now. The percep- we persist in trying to obtain the desired outcome.
tion of action, of will, of authorship. . . How do we As a source for behavioral persistence, the illusion of
attribute a given outcome to our own behavior or to control could be at the basis of human change and
other sources? How do we decide that we are responsi- adaptation. The alternative option, which would con-
ble for a certain action? Does this depend on the con- sist in realizing that there is no control over important
sequences of the action? These and other related outcomes and that therefore it makes no sense to
questions concentrate a great deal of the research keep on trying, would produce ▶ helplessness, which
being conducted at present (and possibly in the follow- includes behavioral cessation in addition to depression
ing years) on the illusions and perceptions of causality and other problems. In this sense, it appears that
and of personal control. maintaining a high level of activity is possibly an adap-
Another important issue is whether these effects are tive strategy. Sometimes, however, ceasing dancing for
adaptive and should be promoted, or, by contrast, rain, and even going through a transient depression
should be regarded as maladaptive effects to be after realizing that we cannot cause rain, can be adap-
“corrected” in therapy. This question can be under- tive too. It could cause our efforts to be redirected so
stood in various ways. If we look at the evolution of that we can discover better ways to bring water to
our species, we must admit that if superstitions and our land. As we already noted somewhere else (Matute
illusions of control have survived up to our days, this et al. 2010), applying what we know about the illusion
necessarily must mean either that they are adaptive of control to reduce the impact of superstition in
on their own right or that they are an innocuous our society should contribute to a better world. In
collateral effect of an otherwise adaptive learning pro- one way or another, there must be an optimal level
cess. A possible consequence of the normal functioning of the illusion of control (not too low, not too high)
of the learning system could be that those potential which enhances persistence while still allowing room
causes and effects that occur together and become for change.
526 C Causal Perception

Cross-References
▶ Associative Learning Cause-Effect Learning Versus
▶ Bayesian Learning Effect-Cause Learning
▶ Causal Learning
▶ Predictive Versus Diagnostic Causal Learning
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning
▶ Human Causal Learning
▶ Inferential Learning and Reasoning
▶ Learned Helplessness
▶ Machine Learning CBL
▶ Web-Based Control for Experiments on Human
▶ Case-Based Learning
Learning

References
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgements of con- Central Bottleneck
tingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder
but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, ▶ Capacity Limitations of Memory and Learning
441–485.
Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 32, 311–328.
Matute, H. (1996). Illusion of control: Detecting response-outcome
independence in analytic but not in naturalistic conditions. CER - Conditioned Emotional
Psychological Science, 7, 289–293.
Matute, H., Yarritu, I., & Vadillo, M. A. (2010). Illusions of causality
Response
at the heart of pseudoscience. British Journal of Psychology.
▶ Conditioned Suppression
doi:10.1348/000712610X532210.
McKay, R. T., & Dennett, D. C. (2009). The evolution of misbelief.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 493–561.
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social
psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulle-
tin, 103, 193–210.
Chameleon Effect
▶ Mimicry in Social Interaction: Its Effect on Learning

Causal Perception Change in Behavior

▶ Human Causal Learning
▶ Inhibition and Learning

Causal Reasoning Change in Learning

Organizations
▶ Causal Learning
▶ Organizational Change and Learning

Causation of Behavior Change of Concepts

▶ Attribution Theory of Motivation ▶ Conceptual Change
 Change of Values Through Learning in Organizations C 527

SKK change practice

Change of Values Through
Learning in Organizations
WICHAI UTSAHAJIT Employee Team Environmental C
School of Human Resource Development, National perception development improvement
Institute of Development Administration (NIDA),
Bangkapi, Bangkok, Thailand
Sustainable : hands-on : stretch goal : assertive

Synonyms Change of Values Through Learning in Organizations.

Value learning Fig. 1 Change activities and core values

Definition
According to Robbins and Judge (2010) values repre- customer, community, and corporate. Moreover,
sent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct employees are encouraged to believe in three critical
or end-state of existence is personally or socially pref- values: commitment, consistency, and communication.
erable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or A learning camp which incorporates the concept of
end-state of existence.” Values lay the foundation for constructionism is implemented. Constructionism is
our understanding of people’s attitudes and motivation defined by the organization as a learning method
and influence our perceptions and behavior. Hence, it where learners determine what they want to learn and
can be said that one’s values are determined by one’s how they want to go about it. Learners create new
belief and one’s values determine one’s attitudes which knowledge by building on to their old or current
at the end determine one’s behavior. knowledge. They reflect and share. They learn the con-
tent but, most importantly, they learn how to learn.
Theoretical Background Moreover, the company implements a team-learning
In the study Implementing Change Practice through activity where learners are grouped to work on selected
Learning and Development: A Case Study of Kaeng projects under the guidance of facilitators.
Khoi Cement Plant (SKK), Siam Cement Group, Team Development activities focus on creating a
Thailand (Utsahajit 2009), the company begins its sense of excellence, trust, and collaboration among
change primarily because of external pressure. As the employees. The organization strongly believes changes
business competition becomes more severe and a few become successful challenges when employees embrace
international big players in cement industry have excellent quality, communicate truthfully among one
shown their interest in expanding their current busi- another, and are willing to do everything possible to
ness and investing new businesses in Thailand, the achieve mutual goals. Team Building is one example of
Siam Cement Group has decided to commit in an Team Development activities where both indoor and
extensive change practice to level up their organiza- outdoor learning activities are effectively implemented.
tional performance. Environmental Improvement activities focus on
Change practice can be grouped into three catego- bringing changes into solid, visualized evidence. The
ries (as shown in Fig. 1), namely, Employee Perception, activities entail improvement both in terms of physical
Team Development, and Environmental Improvement. environment and of work atmosphere.
Employee Perception activities focus on aligning Additionally, change practice cannot be made
employees’ perception toward changes in organization. successful without well-designed support strategies.
The activities devote to continuously learning together Goodstein and Burke (2000) suggested methods of
through hands-on experience, both mentally and phys- implementing a change include individual change
ically, creating the readiness for change in employees strategy (e.g., setting up a comprehensive training pro-
by promoting the attitude of accepting changes as gram), technostructural strategy (e.g., modifying the
challenges and pathways to success in three levels: structure, individuals’ jobs, and/or work procedures),
528 C Change of Values Through Learning in Organizations

data-based strategy (e.g., conducting a companywide change must be positive and they must recognize that
survey to assess organizational culture for the purpose change is good, essential and attainable, first and fore-
of using the data to pinpoint required changes), and most. Then when they are open to change and feel
organization development strategy (e.g., collecting ready, people can be put into work group and team
information from organizational members about their building process can begin. They are, therefore, in
views regarding what needs to be changed and acting a stage of readiness to learn and develop. People behave
accordingly). All of these strategies are evident in the and act with trust. They feel comfortable admitting
change practice at Kaeng Khoi Cement Plant. For their ignorance, reflecting and sharing their knowl-
individual change strategy, the company develops a edge and feeling. Finally, the third component of the
comprehensive learning and development scheme change practice can be realized. Improvements are then
using various activities. For technostructural strategy, felt and seen around the plant. Figure 2 shows how
the company restructures the organizational hierarchy employees’ behaviors develop.
to be flatter and less centralized. For data-based strategy, From Fig. 2, as employees’ perceptions toward
the company deploys the organization-wide communi- change become appropriate and healthy, they feel
cation campaign and provides various communication more confident and ready for change. Then they are
channels for information to flow upwardly, down- developed individually and collectively through a
wardly, and laterally. Finally, for organization develop- series of team-learning activities. They become aware
ment strategy, the company undergoes many activities of themselves and others, trust other group members,
to ensure the involvement of people in voicing their and willing to share with and learn from one another.
opinions and valuable ideas regarding change practice. Finally project-based activities are assigned to the
Change practice at Kang Khoi Cement Plant is employees at the right time. Successful results are
a planned program involving the whole system and obtained and each team member feels good about the
relying on many experience-based learning activities, outcomes. This, in return, solidifies the right attitude of
and the focus is on group behavior and team develop- employees toward change, increases their confidence
ment. The company believes that before change can and readiness for change, raises the awareness of the
take place people in the organization have to first importance of working in teams to achieve the ultimate
perceive change. Their value and attitude toward goal, and promotes a trusting learning atmosphere.

Employee Team Environmental

perception development improvement

Employees’ beliefs/ Employees’ awareness Employees’ pride on

values/attitude toward of self and others their work and concrete
change Employees’ feeling of trust successful results
Employees’ confidence and willing to share, learn, Employees’ feeling of
and readiness for and develop self efficacy through a
change series of reinforcement

Change of Values Through Learning in Organizations. Fig. 2 Employees’ behavioral transition

 Chaotic Dynamics C 529

Important Scientific Research and ▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning

Open Questions ▶ Metacognition and Learning
Learning is at the heart of Kaeng Khoi Cement Plant’s ▶ Transfer of Learning
change practice. The Plant has made learning become ▶ Values and Lifelong Learning
a way of life in their systems. Whether an organization ▶ Workplace Learning C
adopts a formal and systematic approach, or is com-
mitted to the ongoing and long-term process of References
individual growth and development via a systematic Goodstein, L. D., & Burke, W. W. (2000). Creating successful organi-
approach, learning is the essential precondition for any zation change. In W. L. French, C. H. Bell Jr., & R. A. Zawacki
change in performance at work (Megginson et al. (Eds.), Organization development and transformation: Managing
1999). When learning is based on and follows from effective change (5th ed., pp. 388–397). Boston, MA: Irwin
McGraw-Hill.
experience, it is obvious that learning will be influenced
Koffman, J. P., Liamsiriwattana, T., & Boivin, N. (2006). Practical
by a person’s exposures to different situation. Learning Buddhism: The legacy of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. Bangkok: Amarin.
outcomes leading to increased capabilities will, there- Megginson, D., Banfield, P., & Joy-Matthews, J. (1999). Human
fore, reflect the nature, variability, and intensity of resource development (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.
what people are required to do and the opportunities Robbins, S., & Judge, T. (2010). Essentials of organizational behavior
(10th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
to experience new and different situations. Learning
Utsahajit, W. (2009). Implementing change practice through learning
through variety of activities at Kaeng Khoi Cement and development: A case study of kaeng khoi cement plant, siam
Plant provides employees with the ability of how to cement group, Thailand. Thai Journal of Development Adminis-
learn and how to apply what they learn to actual tration, 49(2), 109–124.
situations.
Learning provides employees the right tool for
dealing with changes in the organization. Only learning
can keep up with change. Learning at or for work
facilitates the required behavioral change. It creates, Changeability
adapts, enlarges, and deepens knowledge. Without
▶ Flexibility in Problem Solving: Analysis and
new knowledge or adapted knowledge, it is not possible
Improvement
to change. People become competent and able to meet
the demands of change through learning. They look at
change as challenging and achievable when they feel
comfortable and are equipped with knowledge and
learning to learn skills. Changed Conditions for
In the book titled Practical Buddhism: The Legacy
of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (2006), Buddhadasa Bhikkhu
Learning
used the term “learning inside” to refer to the true ▶ Socio-technological Change of Learning Conditions
learning that aimed to look into oneself to understand
the true meaning of life and the noble truth in order to
form the right set of belief about one’s life. The right set
of belief then determines one’s values and directs one’s
behavior. Only true learning will bring about appro- Changing Mental Models
priate and sustainable change.
▶ Learning-Dependent Progression of Mental Models
Cross-References
▶ Action Learning
▶ Active Learning
▶ Behavioral Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied Chaotic Dynamics
Behavior Analysis and Learning
▶ Learning to Learn ▶ Multiagent Q-Learning Dynamics
530 C Character

information. It involves reasoning about individual

Character differences in the knowledge and motives of potential
▶ Personality Effects on Learning informants, and using this information to assess an
informant’s credibility and act upon the information
that is learned.

Theoretical Background
Character Education The capacity to obtain knowledge from others, rather
than exclusively relying upon what is observed or
A theory of prosocial development focused on the experienced directly, offers important opportunities
teaching of virtue through modeling, direct instruc- for learning. This capacity has long been recognized
tion, and practice. in developmental psychology and has been a major
focus of ▶ sociocultural theory. For decades, cognitive
Cross-References developmental psychologists have searched for the
▶ Moral Learning earliest evidence of children’s ability to make use of
▶ Video Games for Prosocial Learning information they obtain from others. Research in this
area has shown that by age 1, children are capable of
using the emotional responses of caregivers to guide
their judgments about which objects or people are to
Child Development be avoided.
More recently, there has been greater interest in
▶ Infant Learning and Development what happens in the years following infancy. During
this time, children’s language production and com-
prehension skills improve, giving them increased
opportunities to learn from others, and they begin to
develop cognitive skills that allow them to evaluate
Child-Centered Teaching what they have learned more effectively. A central
▶ Learner-Centered Teaching assumption of this research is that because information
that is obtained from others is not always accurate, it is
important for children to critically assess what others
tell them, and that without such an ability they are
vulnerable to being misinformed and manipulated.
Children’s Critical Assessment The primary focus of recent work in this area con-
of the Reliability of Others cerns how children evaluate the credibility of specific
informants. Much of this work has involved showing
GAIL D. HEYMAN children pairs of potential informants who differ on
Department of Psychology, University of California, a key dimension, and measuring which informant chil-
San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA dren prefer. A standard paradigm involves a training
phase in which young children are presented with
familiar objects such as a ball and a cup, and then
Synonyms observe one informant providing accurate names for
Credibility judgments; Evaluation of testimony; the objects and another informant providing inaccu-
Selective trust; Skepticism rate names. Then, during a test phase, the two infor-
mants identify a series of novel objects using different
Definition novel labels such as “mido” and “loma.” Participants
Children’s critical assessment of the reliability of others are asked which name is most likely to be accurate and
refers to the ability of children to evaluate the extent which informant would be most likely to provide
to which specific individuals are reliable sources of accurate information in the future. Results indicate
 Children’s Critical Assessment of the Reliability of Others C 531

that 3–4-year-olds consider informants with a history relating to scientific or supernatural explanations of
of being accurate to be more reliable than those with the natural world. Findings suggest that children are
a history of being inaccurate (Harris 2007). capable of applying different systems of beliefs to
different contexts, and that they often make creative
Important Scientific Research and attempts to merge different frameworks of beliefs in an C
Open Questions effort to main coherence and consistency. For example,
One reason researchers have sought to determine Legare and Gelman (2008) found that South African
how children learn to think critically about the reliabil- children often explained AIDS in ways that integrated
ity of others is that this understanding is thought to be their beliefs about witchcraft with scientific explana-
closely linked to developing conceptions of mental tions about the nature of the disease.
life. Recent research has provided evidence of such It will be important for future researchers to inves-
an association, including direct links between source tigate how children think critically about the informa-
evaluation and tests of mental state understanding tion they obtain from others in real-world contexts that
(Vanderbilt et al. in press). Further evidence comes have significant implications for their well-being, such
from demonstrations that before children reach age 5, as when deciding whether to disclose personal infor-
they are sensitive to a wide range of cues that can serve mation to individuals they meet online. Another key
as indicators of an informant’s knowledge. For exam- area for future research is to understand how children’s
ple, they consider the extent to which informants ability and willingness to engage in critical thinking is
have access to relevant information, and expect indi- influenced by their desires and emotions. Finally, more
viduals who create objects to be more reliable infor- research is needed concerning the types of experiences
mants about the objects than are other individuals (see that foster critical thinking most effectively. This work
Heyman 2008). should lead to insights into how to help children max-
By age 4, children have some understanding that imize the benefits of learning from others, while min-
people are not always motivated to convey what imizing the risks.
they know accurately. However, this does not mean
that they are generally successful at recognizing and
acting upon such motives. For example, 4-year-olds Cross-References
will often accept and act upon the advice of individuals ▶ Belief Formation
who they have repeatedly observed trying to deceive ▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
others (Vanderbilt et al. in press). Even 6-year-olds ▶ Scaffolding Learning
have difficulty anticipating the potential effects of ▶ Social-Cognitive Influences on Learning
motives that relate to social desirability (Heyman ▶ Socio-Cultural Learning
2008), and understanding the ways in which judg- ▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning
ments can be biased due to personal relationships
(Mills and Keil 2008). References
There has been considerable interest in the effec- Frazier, B. N., Gelman, S. A., & Wellman, H. M. (2009). Preschoolers’
tiveness of children’s efforts to seek out information search for explanatory information within adult-child conversa-
from others. This work has shown that when children tion. Child Development, 80, 1592–1611.
as young as age 4 are actively seeking explanations they Harris, P. L. (2007). Trust. Developmental Science, 10, 135–138.
Heyman, G. D. (2008). Children’s critical thinking when learning
are often able to evaluate the adequacy of the responses from others. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17,
they obtain, and may repeat their questions or devise 344–347.
their own explanations if the answers they receive are Legare, C. H., & Gelman, S. A. (2008). Bewitchment, biology,
not satisfactory (Frazier et al. 2009). However, children or both: the co-existence of natural and supernatural explana-
of this age often have substantial difficulty with gener- tory frameworks across development. Cognitive Science, 32,
607–642.
ating effective questions.
Mills, C. M., & Keil, F. C. (2008). Children’s developing notions of
Another emerging research area concerns children’s (im)partiality. Cognition, 107, 528–551.
use of information obtained from others to construct Vanderbilt, K. E., Liu, D., & Heyman, G. D. (in press). The develop-
more elaborated systems of beliefs, including those ment of distrust. Child Development.
532 C Children’s Learning from Television

educational content are low, but when the resource

Children’s Learning from demands for processing the narrative content are low
Television as well.
In addition, the model argues that comprehension
SHALOM M. FISCH is affected by distance – the degree to which the educa-
MediaKidz Research and Consulting, Teaneck, NJ, USA tional content is tangential to the narrative (in which
case, the two must compete for working memory
resources) or integral to it (in which case, the two
Synonyms complement each other, so competition is reduced).
Educational television; Education-entertainment; Comprehension of educational content typically would
Infotainment; Instructional television be stronger when the educational content is integral to
the narrative than when it is tangential to it.
Definition Social behavior. Theories regarding television’s
Educational television refers to television program- influence on children’s social behavior often have
ming that is intended to promote children’s learning concerned the effects of television violence on chil-
of academic and/or prosocial content, either in or out- dren’s aggressive behavior, but many of these models
side the classroom. Alternate labels for such program- are equally applicable to prosocial behavior – and,
ming include instructional television, curriculum-based indeed, to social behavior outside the context of televi-
programming, educational/informational program- sion as well. Various mechanisms have been proposed
ming, infotainment, edutainment, and entertainment- to account for such learning, such as acquiring new
education. Often, the alternate terms are used to behaviors via observation and imitation of live models,
connote somewhat different classes of television pro- or influencing the selection of behaviors from chil-
gramming; for example, instructional television often dren’s existing repertoires of behavior.
refers to television programs produced for school use, A point of intersection among all of these theo-
whereas infotainment carries the connotation of “lite” retical approaches may lie in Bandura’s (1986) social
educational content for consumption on broadcast cognitive theory, in which the path from watching tele-
television. vision to viewers’ behavior proceeds through four
discrete stages, each of which is subject to its own
Theoretical Background influences: (1) attentional processes that determine
Several theoretical approaches have been proposed to what is selectively observed by the viewer (due to, e.g.,
explain aspects of children’s interaction with educa- salience or viewer preferences), (2) retention processes
tional television and its effects. These include models through which modeled information is represented in
to describe cognitive mechanisms that underlie com- memory in symbolic form, (3) production processes
prehension, children’s acquisition of social behavior, in which the viewer translates stored abstract represen-
and the long-term impact of educational television. tations into actions, and (4) motivational processes,
Comprehension. Growing out of a tradition in infor- which can determine whether learned behaviors will
mation processing theory and cognitive psychology, be performed, depending upon their functional value
Fisch’s (2004) capacity model views television programs or potential risk in a given situation. Thus, for a child
as complex audiovisual stimuli that require viewers to to imitate cooperative behavior from television, the
integrate a range of visual and auditory information in child would have to attend to the character’s behavior,
real time. Educational television programs pose even create and store a schematic representation of the
greater processing demands, because these programs behavior (or activate a preexisting analogous schema
typically present narrative (i.e., story) content and in memory), subsequently translate that schematic rep-
educational content simultaneously, so that the two resentation into physical action when faced with an
must compete for the limited resources available in appropriate situation, and be motivated to do so. Fail-
working memory. Thus, the model predicts that com- ure at any of these stages could result in the viewer not
prehension of educational content will be stronger, not displaying the behavior in a real-life situation or labo-
only when the resource demands for processing the ratory assessment.
 Children’s Learning from Television C 533

Long-term effects. Huston et al.’s (2001) early learn- instruction 3 years later, when they subsequently
ing model focuses on the long-term effects of educa- entered first or second grade. Moreover, in the lon-
tional media, and how such media might interact with gest-term study to date, even high school students
all of the other influences in children’s lives. Under this who had watched more educational television – and
model, three facets of early development are proposed Sesame Street in particular – as preschoolers had sig- C
as pathways by which long-term effects can result: nificantly higher grades in English, Mathematics, and
(1) learning preacademic skills, particularly related Science in junior high or high school. They also used
to language and literacy, (2) developing motivation books more often, showed higher academic self-
and interest, and (3) acquiring behavioral patterns of esteem, and placed a higher value on academic
attentiveness, concentration, nonaggressiveness, and performance. (See Fisch and Truglio 2001 for a review
absence of restlessness or distractibility. These factors of these and other studies.)
contribute to early success in school, which then plays Beyond this powerful evidence for the educational
a significant role in determining children’s long-term effectiveness of Sesame Street, numerous other studies
academic trajectories (e.g., placement in higher ability show that Sesame Street is not alone in helping children
groups, more attention from teachers, greater motiva- learn. Summative studies on other educational series
tion to do well). In addition, these early successes may for preschool and school-age children have shown that
also affect the types of activities in which children educational television can enhance children’s knowl-
choose to engage; for example, good readers may edge, skills, and attitudes in a wide variety of subject
choose to read more on their own. Each of these out- areas. These include effects of series such as Between the
comes can then result in further success over time. In Lions and The Electric Company on children’s language
this way, the model posits a cascading effect in which and literacy skills; Square One TV and Cyberchase on
early exposure to educational television leads to early children’s use of mathematics and problem solving;
academic success, which in turn, contributes to a long- 3-2-1 Contact and Bill Nye the Science Guy on children’s
term trajectory of success that can endure for years. understanding of science and technology; children’s
news programs on knowledge of current events; and
Important Scientific Research and preschool series such as Blue’s Clues and Barney and
Open Questions Friends on more general school readiness. Many other
Academic effects. Decades of research have demon- examples exist as well. (See Fisch 2004 for a review.)
strated clearly that both preschool and school-age chil- Prosocial effects. Parallel to the academic effects of
dren learn from educational television series. Perhaps educational television, numerous studies have found
the most prominent – and certainly the most exten- that viewing prosocial television programs produces
sively researched – example of an educationally effec- significant positive changes in children’s social behav-
tive television series is Sesame Street. A number of ior. Such effects have been documented as increases in
major summative research studies have examined several domains: “friendliness” and positive interac-
both immediate and long-term effects of Sesame Street tions in general, altruism and cooperation, self-control
on its viewers. Together, these studies demonstrate that and delay of gratification, and reduction of stereotypes.
extended viewing of Sesame Street produces significant Most of this research has been conducted with pre-
immediate effects on a wide range of academic skills school children, so the bulk of the evidence to date
among preschool children (e.g., knowledge of the relates to this age group. However, some research on
alphabet, vocabulary size, letter–word knowledge, stereotypes has been conducted with older children as
math skills, sorting and classification, knowledge of well. (See Mares and Woodard 2001 for a review.)
shapes and body parts, relational terms, time spent Nevertheless, the impact of televised prosocial mes-
reading and in educational activities, telling connected sages is likely to be mediated by lessons learned from
stories when pretending to read). In addition, several family and peers, as well as children’s own life experi-
longitudinal studies have found long-term effects as ences. In some cases, these experiences may work hand-
well; for example, preschool viewers of Sesame Street in-hand with the prosocial lessons shown on-screen. In
were found to be more likely to read storybooks other cases, however, the messages from these various
on their own and less likely to require remedial reading sources may conflict with each other. For example,
534 C Choice Reaction Time and Learning

research on race relations segments from Sesame Street References

found that preschool children recalled the fun things Anderson, D. R., & Pempek, T. A. (2005). Television and very young
that young African-American and White characters children. American Behavioral Scientist, 48, 505–522.
did together on screen. However, they also recognized Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social
cogniive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
that their own parents would be less positive about
Fisch, S. M. (2004). Children’s learning from educational television:
their having playmates of other ethnicities (Truglio Sesame Street and beyond. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
et al. 2001). Fisch, S. M., & Truglio, R. T. (Eds.). (2001). “G” is for “growing”:
Emerging issues: Learning among very young chil- Thirty years of research on children and Sesame Street. Mahwah:
dren. For decades, virtually all of the studies regarding Lawrence Erlbaum.
Huston, A. C., Anderson, D. R., Wright, J. C., Linebarger, D. L., &
learning from educational television were conducted
Schmitt, K. L. (2001). Sesame Street viewers as adolescents: The
with children aged 3 years and above. In recent years, recontact study. In S. M. Fisch & R. T. Truglio (Eds.), “G” is for
however, research has begun to explore learning “growing”: Thirty years of research on children and Sesame Street
among children under 3 years, spurred on by two (pp. 131–144). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
primary developments: (a) a proliferation of commer- Mares, M. L., & Woodard, E. H. (2001). Prosocial effects on children’s
cial videos, and even entire digital channels, aimed at social interactions. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Hand-
book of children and the media (pp. 183–205). Thousand Oaks:
toddlers (e.g., Baby Einstein), and (b) a 1999 position
Sage.
statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics that Truglio, R. T., Lovelace, V. O., Seguı́, I., & Scheiner, S. (2001). The
recommended against any television viewing for chil- varied role of formative research: Case studies from 30 years. In
dren under 2 years. In the wake of these events, several S. M. Fisch & R. T. Truglio (Eds.), “G” is for “growing”: Thirty
studies have evaluated young children’s ability either to years of research on children and Sesame Street (pp. 61–79).
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
learn from television, via either imitating actions seen
on video or finding an object in a room after watching
a video of the object being hidden. Together, these
studies suggest that, below the age of two, some level
of learning from video can occur, but learning is much
stronger from live models than from models on video
Choice Reaction Time and
(see Anderson and Pempek 2005 for a review). How- Learning
ever, considerably more research will be needed to
determine whether this is due to inherent limitations REBECCA C. TRUEMAN, SIMON P. BROOKS,
in toddlers’ ability to learn from television, or whether STEPHEN B. DUNNETT
videos might be designed differently to better elicit Brain Repair Group, Cardiff University,
learning among young children. Cardiff, Wales, UK
Nevertheless, whatever the case may be among
toddlers, it is clear that older children can and do
learn from educational television. Well-designed, age- Synonyms
appropriate television can be a powerful tool for infor- 2-Choice reaction time task; 4-Choice reaction time
mal education, to benefit a broad and diverse audience task; 5-Choice serial reaction time task
of children.
Definition
Cross-References “Reaction time. n. The time elapsed between the onset
▶ Audiovisual Learning of a stimulus and a response to it. . . Simple reaction
▶ Games-Based Learning time applies when there is only one possible stimulus
▶ Human–Computer Interaction and Learning requiring only one type of response; choice reaction
▶ Informal Learning time (CRT) when there are two or more possible stim-
▶ Interactive Videos uli requiring different responses” (Coleman 2001).
▶ Multimedia Learning Choice reaction time (CRT) tasks are widely used
▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments to explore the physiological and psychological fac-
▶ Video-Based Learning tors underlying “stimulus–response” (S–R) behavior,
 Choice Reaction Time and Learning C 535

through the rapid identification and differential hold true and was affected by the specific design of CRT
responding to multiple stimuli. The dependent vari- task used.
ables are the reaction time and accuracy in making Over the last century, not only have CRT tests
a correct choice to different, paired or multiple stimuli, evolved to probe very specific psychological phenom-
which may be presented in either simultaneous or ena that underlie human and animal behavior, but they C
sequential mode. This contrasts with simple reaction have been utilized to examine psychomotor and atten-
time tasks where a single response is made to a single tional function following different manipulations of
stimulus, with no decision or choice required of the normal physiological state. Such manipulations
the subject. Originally designed for people, CRT tasks have included dehydration, stress, and hypoglycaemia,
are now widely used in animal research as probes of as well as examining the psychomotor effects of drugs
focused and spatial attention, vigilance, neglect, and and toxic substances. CRT tests are also widely used to
psychomotor learning, and are used primarily as probe neurological conditions including depression,
probes of forebrain function. The present entry will schizophrenia, Huntington’s disease, attention deficit
focus on the use of these tests in rodents. hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson’s disease and brain
injury, and related treatment strategies, including phar-
Theoretical Background macological and cell-based interventions. In order to
CRT tasks were first developed by Franciscus Cornelis probe the defining deficits of such disorders, CRT tasks
Donders in the nineteenth century to assess psycho- have been developed to assess very precise behavioral
motor function (For review; Smith 1968). Three tasks phenomena and the anatomical pathways and regions
were originally developed to dissect the different psy- of the brain that subserve them.
chological processes involved in responding to a In its most common form, CRT tasks present stim-
specific stimulus in a choice paradigm, based on uli in a series, and the number of stimuli utilized can be
a predefined rule. The first was a simple reaction anything from two choices upward, as can the number
time task – where the participant had to make a of possible responses. In the most basic paradigm, there
response to the appearance of one stimulus. The second are two stimuli and two responses. However, it is pos-
was what we now term a go/no-go task (sometimes sible to have more stimuli than responses or visa versa.
referred to as a recognition reaction time task) – A further adaptation to the CRT paradigm are serial
where two different stimuli were presented indepen- reaction time tasks. In a serial reaction time task trials
dently and the participant had to respond in a set are not presented as discrete trials, but instead admin-
manner to one stimulus but refrain from responding istered as a continuous stream of stimuli, e.g., brief
to the second stimulus. The final was the development pulses of light presented in different locations, and
of a 2-choice reaction time task – where two separate the subjects are required to respond to the correct
stimuli were presented independently, with a different stimulus location by pushing a response button, touch-
response required for each. By comparing the reaction ing a touch-screen, or (for rodents) nose poking into
times achieved on these three tasks, Donders developed a hole, or pressing a lever as rapidly as possible. The
a mathematical procedure termed the subtraction number of locations used can be varied and randomly
method, which worked out the time taken to categorize presented, thus introducing a spatial aspect to what is
a stimulus and select an appropriate response. Follow- essentially a vigilance task, in which participants have
ing Donders work, research focused on theories of to monitor the light array continuously for the appear-
CRT performance using modifications of the two ance of the stimuli, and respond appropriately. This
CRT task; hypothesizing on how stimuli were inter- type of serial reaction time task can further be adapted
nally represented and categorized, and how correct to include sequences, either overt in a sequence learn-
responses were selected in order to perform such tasks ing task, or covert where predictable sequences are
(For review; Smith 1968). One example of this is Hick’s embedded within apparently randomized stimulus
law to determine the speed of CRT when an increasing presentations. This covert use of sequences is designed
number of stimuli are used. Hick (1952) stated that to probe implicit learning in tasks such as the rodent
CRT increased logarithmically with the number of serial implicit learning task (SILT). Another variation
choices of stimuli. However, this law did not always to the basic 2-CRT task, which is also used to examine
536 C Choice Reaction Time and Learning

attention, is the continuous performance task. During with the food magazine. These errors indicate patho-
this task, subjects must respond to just one target logical processes related to specific neural substrates
stimulus within a stream of different stimuli, and all (For review: Robbins 2002).
the other irrelevant stimuli must be ignored. This reac- A different type of CRT is the 2-CRT task for
tion time task is particularly sensitive to perseverative rodents, commonly known as the “Carli” task, which
and disinhibitory changes. was also developed to probe lateralized responding by
Unlike in humans, where the rules for responding rats in the 9-hole operant box (Carli et al. 1985). This
are explicitly explained to the participant before task has been used to assess motor function, sensory
performing the test, animals have to be first trained neglect, and the ability to initiate movements in uni-
on the particular S-R associations to be tested. There- lateral lesion models of neurological disorders. The
fore, in this category of tests, not only is CRTexamined, task is often used to assess unilaterally applied thera-
but also associative learning and habit formation. peutic interventions such as cell or neuroprotective
In rodents, CRT tasks run in the 9-hole box operant gene therapies in lesion models of neurological disor-
chamber or standard 2-lever “Skinner box” operant ders, including the excitotoxic model of Huntington’s
chambers depending on the design employed. In rats disease, the dopamine depletion model of Parkinson’s
and mice, the most utilized of these tasks is the 5-choice disease, or unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion
serial reaction time task. This task is performed in the as a model of ischemic stroke. In this task, only the
9-hole operant chamber, as developed by Robbins central three holes of the 9-hole box are used. Rodents
and colleagues (For review: Robbins 2002). The animal are trained to make a sustained nose poke into the
must respond to light stimuli presented randomly center hole for a variable duration prior to a brief
across a horizontal 5-hole array, with each correct presentation of the stimulus light in either the left or
response resulting in the presentation of a reward. right hole, to which the animal must respond. The
This test paradigm is regularly employed to assess the dependent variables on this task are reaction time
effects of drugs, or lesions on attentional performance (time to withdraw from the center hole), which is
of animals, and increasingly transgenic animals are a measure of the time required to detect the stimulus
being probed with this and other CRT tasks. The and initiate a motor response, and movement time
5-choice serial reaction time task provides measures (time to move from center hole to response hole)
of reaction time, number of correct, premature, missed as a measure of motor function, as well as task accuracy.
(errors of omission), and incorrect responses (errors There are two versions of the task (“SAME” and
of commission). When using this task, a number of “OPPOSITE”), which require the animal to respond
probes can be introduced to assess attentional function, either in the hole where the light was presented, or in
including randomizing the stimulus lengths, random the unlit hole, respectively. With the two versions of the
intertrial intervals (time between trials) and bursts of task, it is possible to determine whether the deficits
white noise. Alternative versions of the task have been present in a unilateral animal model are due to sensory
designed in which different numbers of stimuli are neglect or deficits in the ability to initiate movement.
used. It is also possible to examine the effects of other Different theoretical explanations of the functional
manipulations, such as brain lesions to uncover the processes underlying correct task performance –
neural basis of attentional processing. In both animal sensory, sensorimotor, or motor – make quite different
and human studies, analysis of the error types provides predictions about the side on which a deficit will be
a detailed description of the functional neuropathology observed in the two tasks in animals with unilateral
of the individual, so whereas a reduction in accuracy lesions. The conventional “Carli” task has been further
may be demonstrated in a particular animal group, adapted to analyze discrimination between different
analysis of the error terms can provide a detailed choice response holes separately in ipsilateral (same
description of why those errors are occurring, for side as the brain lesion) and contralateral (opposite
example, the animal may be simply making the wrong side to brain lesion) space, which then allows analysis
choice, responding prematurely, perseverating in the of whether lateralized deficits are related to egocen-
previously correct hole, or may even become fixated tric (mapped by internal cues) or allocentric space
 Choreographies of School Learning C 537

(mapped by external cues) (Brasted et al. 1997). The

“Carli” task, has demonstrated reliability as a test of Choreographies of School
psychomotor function, and offers the researcher the Learning
opportunity of dissecting motor from cognitive aspects
of psychomotor function, which is a facility that few FRANZ BAERISWYL C
other tests offer. University of Fribourg, Regina Mundi, Fribourg,
Taken together, the CRT tasks are powerful and Switzerland
sensitive tools for uncovering psychological phe-
nomena that are not detectable by other method-
ological approaches, and over the last 30 years of Synonyms
application to animal research have proved invaluable Choreographies of teaching; Didactics; Instructional
in uncovering the neuronal and chemical substrates of design
forebrain function.
Definition
Important Scientific Research and The word choreography is derived from the Greek
Open Questions word choreia and the French – graphie. Choreia
Within animal studies, the CRT tasks have been used to means “dance” and graphein, “to write, to describe.”
assess the neural origins of attention, initiation and Choreography is “the art of symbolically representing
control of movement, motor learning, and habit for- dancing.”
mation. This work contributes important insights Choreographies of school learning are a metaphor
into our understanding of the functioning of the to identify the complexity of the real interactions in
normal brain as well as the processes underlying the classroom. The choreography consists of a certain
specific deficits within neurological disorders, and sequence of dance steps, which correspond to the learn-
their treatment. ing steps. However, the dancer, here the learner, has
a whole palette of free artistic elements, which she or he
Cross-References may insert and apply herself or himself.
▶ Abilities and Learning: Psychomotor Abilities The learner himself or herself must shape and
▶ Associative Learning understand the deep structure of the learning contents
▶ Attentional Learning and Habituation (music). This way, the metaphor emphasizes the
▶ Implicit Learning dynamic, which appears in complex patterns. Behav-
▶ Operant Behavior iorism taught us that single variables have linear effects.
Therefore, teaching research has tried to isolate and
References define characteristic features for good lessons (Hattie
Brasted, P. J., Humby, T., Dunnett, S. B., & Robbins, T. W. (1997). 2009; Seidel 2003). Today we know that quite many
Unilateral lesions of the dorsal striatum in rats disrupt characteristics generate complicated patterns through
responding in egocentric space. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, their interaction and that these have more learning
8919–8926. effects than other patterns (Fischler et al. 2002). Teach-
Carli, M., Evenden, J. L., & Robbins, T. W. (1985). Depletion of
ing patterns are based on scripts, which the teacher
unilateral striatal dopamine impairs initiation of contralateral
actions and not sensory attention. Nature, 313, 679–682.
develops. A script is a kind of screenplay. Choreogra-
Coleman, A. M. (2001). Dictionary of psychology (p. 618). Oxford: phies define the interaction and action repertoire for
Oxford University Press. teachers and for students. They influence internal and
Hick, W. E. (1952). On the rate of gain of information. Quarterly control processes during apprenticeship and learning.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 4, 11–26. Teaching quality is based on an orchestration of didac-
Robbins, T. W. (2002). The 5-Chioce serial reaction time task:
tic approaches and basic didactic forms.
behavioural pharmacology and functional neurochemistry. Psy-
chopharmacology, 163, 362–380. As an expert, the teacher knows her role, because
Smith, E. E. (1968). Choice Reaction Time: an analysis of the major she has a solid professional knowledge base. Thus he
theoretical positions. Psychological Bulletin, 69(2), 77–110. can classify his students on a continuum between
538 C Choreographies of School Learning

novice and expert and adapts his lessons accordingly. that for every important learning area, sequences of
Like a sports coach, she likewise has to know the the process can be described. The order of sequences
epistemological obstacles to advance in the learning can be normatively fixed. The right organization of this
process. Besides his elaborated knowledge of the deep structure shall be the determining sign for quality
subject, he must know the developmental steps of of learning. A BM describes the learning sequences
learning, the meta-cognitive knowledge about the epis- in regard to certain learning goals in a certain domain.
temology of knowledge and the teaching skills. What is It consists of those concatenations of operations or
the crucial point to be able to progress? The teacher, as groups of operation, which are somehow necessary
a choreographer, is coaching the process from the nov- for every learner and cannot be replaced by anything
ice to the expert. else (Oser 1993). Such learning scripts as concatena-
tions of operations can be viewed in two ways: They can
Theoretical Background be described as phenomena; for instance, when chil-
Oser (Oser and Patry 1990; Oser et al. 1997; Oser and dren construct a concept they proceed in such and
Baeriswyl 2001; Oser 2006) developed the theory of such a way. Or, one can ask how teachers and children
choreographies of teaching. His main hypothesis is subjectively imagine such scripts. Both approaches
that the “very sequence of (school) learning is based complement one another (Oser and Baeriswyl 2001).
on a choreography that binds, on the one side, freedom Twelve BM were developed altogether (Oser and
of method, choice of social form and situated impro- Patry 1990):
visation with, on the other side, the relatively rigor of
1a. Learning through personal experience
the steps that are absolutely necessary in inner learning
1b. Discovery learning
activity (Entwistle 2000; Charness et al. 2005; Hattie
2. Development as an aim of education
2009). Such an hypothesis requires a double operatio-
3. Problem solving
nalization: Firstly, in view of the relationship between
4a. Meaning building
the basis-models and the visible structure, and sec-
4b. Concept building
ondly, in view of the rule-bound character already
5. Contemplative learning
referred to on one hand and freedom to stimulate on
6. Learning of strategies
the other” (Oser and Baeriswyl 2001, p. 1043).
7. Routines and skills
The concept of basis models (BM) is, first of all,
8. Motility
based on the differentiation between surface structure
9. Social learning
and deep structure of teaching and, secondly, based on
10. Construction of values and value identity
the assumptions that the learning process precedes
11. Hypertext learning
goals and is domain specific. If the learning goal is
12. Learning to negotiate
to build up certain values or attitudes, for example,
in law or economics, the learning process must be Each one of these models contains a defined deep
choreographed differently, than if the goal is to build structure of certain elements, which are chained
up conceptual knowledge. The surface structure together.
includes all teaching methods (lectures, project learn- For example, model 1a consists of the following
ing, case studies, problem-based learning, anchored elements:
instruction, etc.), all social forms of learning (e.g.,
1. Anticipating and planning possible actions
individual work, partner work, group work), all
2. Performance of the action
media, and media-based teaching forms. The surface
3. Constructing the meaning for the activity
or visible structure of lessons is directly observable.
4. Generalizing the experience
The surface structure of a lesson is not a major indica-
5. Reflecting similar experiences
tor of learning and teaching quality.
The deep structure refers to the learning process as A situated learning unit contains several basis
a psychological process. It constitutes a construct and is models, which are intercalated.
therefore not directly observable. Oser has assumed Figure 1 shows an example of such an intercalation.
 Choreographies of School Learning C 539

Basismodell 4b Bauch-Schremmer (1993) examined the learning

success with a systematic use of the learning steps
and with free arrangement of the learning steps. In
Basismodell 3
English lessons the learning result was equal in both
1 2 3 4 5
conditions. In the Technology lessons at High-School C
Choreographies of School Learning. Fig. 1 Insertion of level, the strict use of a given learning step sequence was
basis model 4b, “concept building” into basis model 2, more successful.
“problem solving” (Oser et al. 1997) Wagner (1999) examined the learning effect of the
BM 4 (concept building). In one subject the BM lessons
were more successful than the usual lessons. In another
Important Scientific Research and subject the results could not be replicated. Wagner
Open Questions (1999) has examined the lessons with BM for High-
The research about BM concentrates on the effects of School level systematically and concludes:
BM-oriented teaching in contrast to regular instruction Compared to customary lessons
(Bauch-Schremmer 1993; Haenni 1996). It relies, on
● BM lessons lead to equally well teaching.
one hand, on the evidence of the configuration of single
● BM lessons lead to a clearer structuring of the
basic elements of a BM (Oser and Patry 1990; Oser et al.
lessons.
1997) and, on the other hand, on the flexible and visible
● There are indications of a possible positive influ-
structure of the different elements of the BM.
ence of BM lessons for the benefit of metacognitive
In several investigations Oser et al. (1997) wanted to
abilities.
find out whether experienced teachers recognize the
● The sequence of the learning steps cannot be guided
theoretically defined steps of the sequences of single
exactly the way the BM theory describes it.
basis models better than novices, or student teachers.
● Teachers can be overstrained with the differentia-
They had to arrange the given step sequences properly.
tion of many BM and the use of specific goals.
The findings are that novices are further away from
the theoretical structure than experts, and experienced With the choreographies of school learning Oser
teachers ordered the basis model 4 (concept finding) has emphasized the importance of comprehensive and
like the theoretical order. deep processing and has pointed out the relative impact
The BM (1) learning through personal experience, of methods and social forms. The newest meta-analysis
(2) development as an aim of education, (3) problem on efficiency of instruction in school (Seidel and
solving, and (4) learning strategies were similarly well Shavelson 2007) confirms these findings. The elabora-
ordered by novices and teachers, but the theoretical tion of essential BM makes it possible to demonstrate
orders were not recognized. the goal-oriented and situation-oriented moments in
In another investigation (Oser et al. 1997), lessons every instruction, as represented in the situated learn-
were observed and analyzed in regard to how often and ing (Resnick 1991; Lave and Wenger 1991) and prob-
which BM was represented. The analysis of 40 lessons lem-based learning. These and further developments in
in different schools and levels show that the BM, “con- didactics emphasize the impact which self-monitoring
cept building” is represented by far the most often. The and one’s self-responsibility has on deep processing
BM 1 “learning through personal experience” can only be and the process of learning.
observed in 12% of teaching time. In third place is The theory of the BM helps teachers to direct their
“learning of strategies.” These findings show that the focus on the learning process, since the use of new
results of choreographies of teaching are quite one- methods and media does not guarantee a better learning
sided. However, these results also correspond with the result. The central question remains: What must the
newer investigations on method variety in High learners do, in order to reach a deep and lasting under-
Schools: Approximately 80% of teaching methods con- standing? The theory of BM describes learning as
sists of conversation with the teacher or the “question– an action, where every action has a way and a goal.
answer” method. Learning requires specific planning which is not only
540 C Choreographies of Teaching

the responsibility of the teacher, but the learner has to Oser, F. K., & Baeriswyl, F. J. (2001). Choreographies of teaching:
recognize it as a principle. The goal is that every student Bridging instruction to learning. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Hand-
book of research on teaching (4th ed.). Washington: American
understands his or her learning as a planned act for
Educational Research Association.
which he takes the necessary responsibility. The strict Oser, F., & Patry, J.-L. (1990). Choreographien unterrichtlichen
sequencing and chaining of learning steps, as theorized, Lernens. Basismodelle des Unterrichts. Berichte zur Erziehungs-
is probably not really necessary. The elements are impor- wissenschaft, Nr. 89. Pädagogisches Institut der Universität
tant, and should be present (see also Bereiter and Freiburg (Schweiz).
Oser, F., Patry, J.-L., Elsässer, T., Sarasin, S., & Wagner, B. (1997).
Scardamalia 2006). But the human mind has sufficient
Choreographien unterrichtlichen Lernens. Schlussbericht an
flexibility and does not require a strictly followed den Schweizerischen Nationalfonds zur Förderung der
sequence of learning steps in order to learn successfully. wissenschaftlichen Forschung. Projekt 1113-042353.94/1. Bern.
Resnick, L. B. (1991). Shared cognition: Thinking as social practice.
In L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levin, & S. D. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on
Cross-References socially shared cognition (pp. 1–20). Washington, DC: American
▶ Didactics (Didactic Models) and Learning Psychological Association.
▶ Learning Strategies Seidel, T. (2003). Lehr-Lernskripts im Unterricht. Münster: Waxmann.
▶ Teaching Methods Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. (2007). Teaching effectiveness research in
the past decade: The role of theory and research design in
disentangling meta-analysis results. Review of Educational
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Charness, N., Tuffiash, M., Krampe, R., Reingold, E. & Vasyukova, E.
(2005). The Role of Deliberate Practice in Chess Expertise.
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Entwistle, N. (2000). Promoting deep learning through teaching and
assessment: conceptual frameworks and educational contexts. CHREST
Paper presented at the TLRP Conference, Leicester, UK.
Retrieved March 17, 2011, from http://www.tlrp.org/acadpub/ A cognitive architecture, developed by Fernand Gobet
Entwistle2000.pdf and Peter Lane, emphasizing a close interaction
Fischler, H., Schröder, H.-J., Tonhäuser, C., & Zedler, P. (2002).
between perception, learning, and memory. It proposes
Unterrichtsskripts und Lehrerexpertise: Bedingungen ihrer
Modifikation. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 45, 157–172.
that human cognition is constrained by a number of
Haenni, S. (1996). Das Motilitätsmodell. Dissertation am limitations, such as span of attention and capacity of
Pädagogischen Institut der Universität Freiburg/Schweiz. short-memory. Learning, which to some extent miti-
Teildruck. Freiburg. gates the limits imposed by bounded rationality, is
Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible Learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta- done through the acquisition of chunks and templates.
analyses relating to achievement. New York: Routledge.
CHREST stands for Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. STructures.
Oser, F. (1993). Sichtstruktur und Basismodelle des Unterrichts:
Über den Zusammenhang von Lehren und Lernen unter dem
Gesichtspunkt psychologischer Lernverläufe. Unterlagen zum
gleichnamigen Vortrag auf der 49. Tagung der AEPF in Wien.
Oser, F. (2006). Das Lob der Unvollendetheit: Hans Aebli’s Glaube an Chunks
operative Veränderung. In M. Baer, M. Fuchs, P. Füglister,
K. Reusser, & H. Wyss, (Eds.), Didaktik auf psychologischer A meaningful unit of information built from smaller
Grundlage. Von Hans Aeblis kognitionspsychologischer Didaktik pieces of information. Chunks consist of several items
zur modernen Lehr – und Lernforschung. Bern: h.e.p. of information that have been learned and stored as
 Chunking Mechanisms and Learning C 541

a unit in long-term memory such as BMW, KGB, and occurs during perception. Here, we talk about percep-
USA. George Miller proposed that short-term memory tual chunking.
can hold 7 þ/
2 chunks.
Theoretical Background
Cross-References Chunking as a mechanism was initially proposed by C
De Groot (1946/1978) in his study of chess experts’
▶ Video-Based Learning
perception, memory, and problem solving, to explain
their ability to recall briefly presented positions with
References a high level of precision. It was also a central ingredient
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: of Miller’s (1956) classical article about the limits on
Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psycho- human information-processing capacity. Miller pro-
logical Review, 63(2), 81–97. posed that chunks are the correct measure for the
information in the human cognitive system, and that
7  2 chunks can be held in short-term memory. Chase
and Simon (1973) proposed a general theory of pro-
cesses underpinning chunking. It is interesting to note
Chunking
that the approaches of De Groot as well as Chase
▶ Deductive Learning and Simon emphasize the implicit nature of chunks,
▶ Restructuring in Learning which are seen as the product of automatic learning
processing sometimes called perceptual chunking.
Miller’s view emphasizes a type of strategic, goal-
oriented chunking, where chunking is essentially re-
coding of the information in a more efficient way. For
Chunking Mechanisms and example, the 9-digit binary number 101000111 can be
Learning re-coded as the 3-digit decimal number 327, making it
easier to process and memorize for humans. The pres-
FERNAND GOBET1, PETER C. R. LANE2 ence of chunks explains how humans, in spite of
1
Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, strict cognitive limitations in memory capacity, atten-
Centre for the Study of Expertise, Brunel University, tion, and learning rate, can cope efficiently with the
Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK demands of the environment. Chunking has been
2
School of Computer Science, University of established as one of the key mechanisms of human
Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK cognition and plays an important role in showing
how internal cognitive processes are linked to the exter-
nal environment.
Definition There is considerable empirical evidence supporting
A ▶ chunk is a meaningful unit of information built the notion of a chunk, for example, in our ability to
from smaller pieces of information, and ▶ chunking is perceive words, sentences, or even paragraphs as single
the process of creating a new chunk. Thus, a chunk can units, bypassing their representation as collections of
be seen as a collection of elements that have strong letters or phonemes; this explains, for example, how
associations with one another, but weak associations skilled readers may be insensitive to word repetition or
with elements belonging to other chunks. Chunks, deletion. Particularly strong evidence is found in those
which can be of different sizes, are used by memory studies that use information about the timing of
systems and more generally by the cognitive system. responses to infer the presence of chunks. The use of
Within this broad definition, two further meanings response times assumes that the output of elements
can be differentiated. First, chunking can be seen as within a chunk will be faster than the output of elements
a deliberate, conscious process. Here, we talk about across different chunks. This is because the elements
goal-oriented chunking. Second, chunking can be seen within a chunk belong to the same structure, as well as
as a more automatic and continuous process that sharing a number of relations. There is good empirical
542 C Chunking Mechanisms and Learning

evidence confirming that subjects’ pauses are shorter 8

within chunks than between chunks. For example,
7
timing information shows that when the alphabet is
recited back, letters are grouped in clusters, and clusters 6
grouped in superclusters. When trained to learn alpha-
5
bets using scrambled letter orders, subjects also recall
letters in a burst of activity followed by a pause and, 4
therefore, show evidence for clusters.
3
The strongest empirical evidence for chunks is
based on their inference from several converging 2
methods. For example, studies on chess have shown 1
that chunks identified by latencies in recall or place-
a b c d e f g h
ment of chess pieces correlate highly with chunks
identified by the number of relations shared between
successively placed pieces. By analyzing the patterns
picked out by chess players within a position for
various natural relations (including proximity, color,
and relations of attack or defense), it is evident
that within-chunk relations are much stronger than
f1
between-chunk relations. This pattern was found
whether the subjects were asked to place pieces on
Chunking Mechanisms and Learning. Fig. 1 Top panel:
the board from memory (using timings to separate
examples of chunks in a chess position. Bottom panel: one
the groups), or to copy a board (using the presence of
of the chunks elicits a possible move (retreating the white
glances between the two boards to separate the
bishop)
groups). Further empirical evidence for chunking
has been uncovered in a number of other areas includ-
ing artificial grammar learning, problem solving, and
animal research. useful information, provide clues about what kind of
The ▶ chunking theory, developed by Chase and action should be taken.
Simon (1973) was an important attempt to formalize There is also evidence that people, in particular
the mechanisms linked to chunking. It postulated that experts in a domain, use higher-level representations
attention is serial and short-term memory is limited to than chunks. For example, data from chess research
about seven items (Miller’s magical number). When indicate that sometimes the entire position, up to
individuals acquire information about a domain with 32 pieces, is handled as a single unit by grandmasters.
practice and study, they acquire an increasingly larger In addition, evidence from expertise research indi-
number of chunks, which themselves tend to become cates that information can sometimes be encoded in
larger, up to a limit of four or five items. While learning long-term memory faster than the 10 s proposed by
is assumed to be slow (10 s per chunk), recognition of chunking theory. Together, these results led to
the information stored in a chunk occurs in a matter of a revision of the chunking theory with the ▶ template
hundreds of milliseconds. Another important assump- theory (Gobet and Simon 1996). The template theory
tion is that chunks are linked to possible information. proposes that frequently used chunks become “tem-
For example, in chess, the domain in which the theory plates,” a type of ▶ schema. A template consists of
was first applied, a chunk could provide information a core, which contains constant information, and
about potentially useful moves (see Fig. 1). Chunks slots, where variable information can be stored. The
help in a recall task, because groups of pieces rather presence of templates considerably expands experts’
than individual pieces can be stored in short-term memory capability.
memory. They also help in a problem-solving task, A methodological difficulty with research on
because some of the chunks, being linked to potentially chunking has been to precisely identify the boundaries
 Chunking Mechanisms and Learning C 543

between chunks. For example, the most direct expla- A first implication of chunk-based theories is that
nation for observing a set of actions as a chunk is for acquiring a new chunk has a time cost, and therefore
the actions to be represented internally as a single unit, time at the task is essential, be it in mathematics or
i.e., a chunk, and so retrieved and output together. dancing. As documented by research into ▶ deliberate
However, it is also possible for a subject to plan practice, practice must be tailored to the goal of C
output actions ahead, and so either break long improving performance. Chunk-based theories give
sequences into subparts (e.g., to take a breath when attention a central role – see for example the CHREST
reciting the alphabet) or else compose short sequences model – and such theories are therefore suitable models
into what appear as longer ones (e.g., where a second of deliberate practice. In particular, conceptual knowl-
chunk begins naturally from where the first one fin- edge is built on perceptual skills, which in turn must
ished). Distinguishing between these types is only be anchored on concrete examples. Thus, curricula
possible with the aid of a computational model, where should provide means to acquire perceptual chunks in
the precise items of information known by the subject a given domain.
at a given point in time can be ascertained (Gobet et al. There are different useful ways to direct attention
2001). The advantage of using computer models is and to encourage the acquisition of perceptual chunks:
discussed in more detail in the entry on ▶ Learning in to segment the curriculum into natural components, of
the CHREST Cognitive Architecture, a model based on the right size and difficulty; to present these compo-
the template theory. nents with an optimal ordering and suitable feedback;
Chunk-based theories, such as the chunking and and to highlight the important features of a problem.
template theories, not only provide a powerful explana- If perceptual chunking is an important way of
tion of learning and expert behavior, but also offer useful storing knowledge, then a clear consequence is that
information as to how learning occurs in the classroom transfer will be difficult. Unfortunately for learners,
and how it could be improved (Gobet 2005). We briefly this prediction is correct, both for school knowledge
discuss some of the implications for education (further and more specific skills such as sports and arts. More
principles are listed in Table 1). than 100 years of research have established that trans-
fer is possible from one domain to another only when
the components of the skills required in each domain
Chunking Mechanisms and Learning. Table 1 overlap. Thus, it might be helpful to augment the
Educational principles derived from chunk-based theories teaching of specific knowledge with the teaching of
(After Gobet 2005) metaheuristics – including strategies about how to
● Teach from the simple to the complex learn, how to direct one’s attention, and how to mon-
itor and regulate one’s limited cognitive resources.
● Teach from the known to the unknown
As noted above, an important idea in Chase and
● The elements to be learned should be clearly identified Simon’s (1973) theory is that perceptual chunks can
● Use an “improving spiral,” where you come back to the be used as conditions to actions, thus leading to the
same concepts and ideas and add increasingly more acquisition of productions. Then, an important aspect
complex new information of education is to balance the acquisition of the condi-
● Focus on a limited number of types of standard tion and action parts of productions. Another impor-
problem situations, and teach the various methods in tant aspect of education is to favor the acquisition of
these situations thoroughly
templates (schemata). Templates are created when the
● Repetition is necessary. Go over the same material context offers both constant and variable information.
several times, using varying points of view and a wide As a consequence, and as is well established in the
range of examples
educational literature, it is essential to have variability
● At the beginning, do not encourage students to carry during learning if templates are to be created.
out their own analysis of well-known problem situations,
Finally, chunk-based theories are fairly open to the
as they do not possess the key concepts yet
possibility of large individual differences in people’s
● Encourage students to find a balance between rote
cognitive abilities. In particular, while they postulate
learning and understanding
fixed parameters for short-term memory capacity and
544 C Chunking Theory

learning rates, it is plausible that these parameters Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Templates in chess memory:
vary between individuals. In addition, differences in A mechanism for recalling several boards. Cognitive Psychology,
31, 1–40.
knowledge will lead to individual differences in per-
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two:
formance. A clear prediction of chunk-based theories Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psycho-
is that individual differences play a large role in the logical Review, 63, 81–97.
early stages of learning, as is typical of classroom
instruction, but tend to be less important after large
amounts of knowledge have been acquired through
practice and study. Chunking Theory
Important Scientific Research and Theory developed by Chase and Simon in 1973,
Open Questions explaining how experts circumvent the limitations of
Chunk-based theories have spurred vigorous research cognitive processes through the acquisition of domain-
in several aspects of learning and expertise. A first specific knowledge, in particular, small meaningful
aspect is the acquisition of language, where recent units of interconnected elements (chunks).
research has shown that chunking plays an important
role in the development of vocabulary and syntactic
structures. A second aspect is related to the neurobio-
logical basis of chunking. Recent results indicate that Circumscribed Interests
perceptual chunks are stored in the temporal lobe,
and in particular the parahippocampal gyrus and fusi- Circumscribed interests are a child’s narrow preoccu-
form gyrus. pations or ritualistic activity that is unusually intense in
Other issues being currently researched include the terms of their focus. Circumscribed interests often are
effect of order in learning, and in particular how characterized by difficulty removing the individual
curricula can be designed so that they optimize the from engagement with the interest, high intensity of
transmission of knowledge. A possible avenue for focus, and long duration of fascination and engage-
future research is the design of computer tutors that ment with the interest. Circumscribed interests have
use chunking principles for teaching various materials, been embedded in activities as a basis for promoting
optimizing instruction for the abilities and level of each a child’s participation and use of other behaviors (e.g.,
student by providing personalized curricula, providing social interaction).
judicious feedback, and teaching strategies. Cross-References
▶ Interest-Based Child Participation in Everyday
Cross-References Learning Activities
▶ Bounded Rationality and Learning
▶ Deliberate Practice
▶ Development of Expertise
▶ Learning in the CHREST Cognitive Architecture Civilization, Archaic
▶ Schema
▶ Culture in Second Language Learning
References
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive
Psychology, 4, 55–81.
De Groot, A. D. (1978). Thought and choice in chess (first Dutch edition
in 1946). The Hague: Mouton.
Classical Conditioning
Gobet, F. (2005). Chunking models of expertise: Implications for
The procedure where an initially neutral stimulus, such
education. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 183–204.
Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Cheng, P. C.-H., Jones, G., as a tone, is repeatedly paired with a biologically sig-
Oliver, I., & Pine, J. M. (2001). Chunking mechanisms in nificant stimulus, such as food. As a consequence, the
human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 236–243. tone elicits a response that anticipates the food.
 Classification of Learning Objects C 545

Cross-References “instructional objects,” “content objects,” “knowledge

▶ Associative Learning of Pictures and Words objects,” etc. In literature, an important definition is
▶ Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning the one given by the IEEE that defines a learning object
▶ Human Contingency Learning as “any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning learning, education or training” (Learning Technology C
Standards Committee – Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers 2002).
This definition, much too general according to
some authors, has found in Wiley (Wiley 2000) one
Classification of the early references to the reusability as ontological
criteria: “A Learning Object is any digital resource that
▶ Categorical Learning can be reused to support the learning.” Probably the
▶ Concept Learning most complete definition is the one recently given by
▶ Supervised Learning Chiappe (Chiappe et al. 2007): “A digital self-contained
and reusable entity, with a clear educational purpose,
with at least three internal and editable components:
content, learning activities and elements of context.
The learning objects must have an external structure
Classification of Educational of information to facilitate their identification, storage
Resources and retrieval: the metadata.”
▶ Classification of Learning Objects
Theoretical Background
The Learning Objects can have a different internal
structure and fulfill various didactic aims but they
commonly share the following characteristics:
Classification of Learning ● Didactic aim. The LOs are didactic objects and not
Objects only portions of content (Fini and Vanni 2004).
● Small size. The LOs must reflect a clearly defined
VITO NICOLA CONVERTINI, GIANNI BRUNO content suitable to a flexible didactic planning
Department of Informatics, University of Bari, (Mills 2002; Quin e Hobbs 2000).
Bari, Italy ● Reusable. The LOs must have assembly conditions
to allow their reuse with no further repairing inter-
ventions need (Fini and Vanni 2004).
Synonyms ● Self-consistency. Any LO should need to rely on the
Classification of educational resources; Taxonomy of content of other LOs to express a concept or to
educational resources; Taxonomy of learning objects provide formative resources.
Some authors add “traceableness” and “portability”
Definition to the main characteristics of the LO.
Classification is a process of management of knowledge The debate about the characteristics of the LO has
to arrange the entities of a domain into a repository. implied many attempts of classification of the existing
The repositories follow rules and rational procedures types of LOs. The classification is mainly based upon:
for the presentation of the entities.
1. Formalized criteria
The term Learning Objects (LOs), by Wayne Odgins,
2. Human-usable systems
dates back to 1994 and since then several definitions
have been proposed which are different in semantics The former implies the use of taxonomies, the latter
and aims. A term is not universally accepted for the adoption of classifying schemes depending upon
the description of an entity. Common terms are the design and the designer.
546 C Classification of Learning Objects

Three taxonomies are particularly interesting on the didactics aspects related to the LO.The LOs are
within the classification based upon formalized grouped into:
criteria.
● Receptive: The learner is simply the beneficiary of
The first is Wiley’s taxonomy (Wiley 2000), called
the contents. Usually the learner’s activity exploits
“Preliminary Taxonomy of Learning Object Types.” It
LOs of little size.
focuses above all on the structural aspect of the LO. It
● Internally interactive: There is interaction between
counts five kinds of LOs having eight characteristics:
user and computer. The LCMS or the models cre-
● Fundamental (i.e., a video of a hand typing on ated by the teacher guide the learner.
a keyboard) ● Cooperative: Containing brainstorming or prob-
● Combined–closed (i.e., a video of a hand typing on lem-solving sessions which require communicative
a keyboard with a background sound) activities among the students.
● Combined–open (i.e., a web page containing an
The two taxonomies considered so far are respec-
image and a file containing an animation with an
tively based on the relationships among the types and
interactive text)
the characteristics (the former), and the interaction
● Generative-presentation (i.e., a java applet able to
with the user (the latter) (Table 2).
generate an html page lay-out, or to show an
The Osel taxonomy (IJKLO 2006) implies the join-
editor with a correspondent code or to ask ques-
ing of the two taxonomies, whose result is the creation
tions to the learner)
of 15 different classes. Among these many cannot be
● Generative-instructional (i.e., an interface that
considered valid by the research group.
teaches how to play an instrument)
The types of LOs considered admissible in the OSEL
Whereas the characteristics are: Taxonomy are nine:
● Number of elements combined: The number of the
● B-simple: It is the derivation of the classifying
single elements (as video clips, images, etc.) which
combination of fundamental (Wiley) and recep-
constitute the LO.
tive (Redeker). It represents a noninteractive LO,
● Type of objects contained: The kinds of LOs that
made up of a single content constituted by a
can set up a new LO.
single element, or a simple media. Group activities
● Reusable component objects: It indicates if it is
are not allowed. For instance: a JPEG image or
possible to have access to the different components
a text.
of LOs in order to reuse them in other learning
● B-passive: The classifying combination of com-
contexts.
bined–closed (Wiley) and receptive (Redeker). It
● Common function: The basic use of an LO.
represents a noninteractive LO having a single con-
● Extra-object dependence: It indicates if the LO
tent made up of at least two internal elements
needs other information about other LOs (i.e., the
combined between them. Group activities are not
place on the web).
allowed. For instance: a JPEG image with textual
● Type of logic contained in object: It describes the
description.
function of the algorithms and the proceedings
● B-active: The classifying combination of combined–
contained in the LO.
open (Wiley) and receptive (Redeker). A
● Potential for inter-contextual reuse: It indicates the
noninteractive LO constituted by a single content
number of learning contexts in which the LO can be
made up of many internal and external elements
used, i.e., its potential to be reused.
combined among them. Group activities are not
● Potential for intra-contextual reuse: It highlights
allowed. For instance: a textual description connected
the times an LO can be reused within the same
to many JPEG images, among which at least one is on
area or domain (Table 1).
an http out of the platform.
The “Educational Taxonomy for Learning Objects” ● T-simple: The classifying combination of basic
by Redeker (Redeker 2003) is the second taxonomy on (Wiley) and internal interactive (Redeker). An
which the OSEL taxonomy is based. It focuses above all interactive LO constituted by at least two contents
 Classification of Learning Objects C 547

Classification of Learning Objects. Table 1 Relationships among types and characteristics in Wiley’s classification
Fundamental Combined– Combined– Generative- Generative-
Learning object learning closed learning open learning presentation instructional learning
characteristic object object object learning object object
Number of elements One Few Many Few – many Few – many C
combined
Type of objects Single Single, All Single, Single, combined–
contained combined–closed combined–closed closed, generative-
presentation
Reusable (Not No Yes Yes/no Yes/No
component objects applicable)
Common function Exhibit, Pre-designed Pre-designed Exhibit, display Computer generated
display instruction or instruction and/ instruction and/or
practice or practice practice
Extra-object No No Yes Yes/No No
dependence
Type of logic (Not None, or answer None, or Domain-specific Domain-independent
contained in object applicable) sheet-based item domain-specific presentation presentation,
scoring instructional strategies instructional and
and assessment assessment strategies
strategies
Potential for inter- High Medium Low High High
contextual reuse
Potential for intra- Low Low Medium High High
contextual reuse

Classification of Learning Objects. Table 2 Join of Wiley’s and Redeker’s taxonomies

Preliminary taxonomy of the types of LOs (Wiley)
Fundamental Combined–closed Combined–open
Educational taxonomy (Redeker) Receptive Receptive–basic Receptive–closed Receptive–open
B-simple B-passive B-Active
Internally interactive Interactive–basic Interactive–closed Interactive–open
T-simple T-passive T-active
Cooperative Cooperative–basic Cooperative–closed Cooperative–open
W-simple W-passive W-active

made up of a single element. Group activities are ● T-active: The classifying combination of combined–
not allowed. open (Wiley) and internal interactive (Redeker).
● T-passive: The classifying combination of com- An interactive LO constituted by many internal
bined–closed (Wiley) and internal interactive and external contents having many elements
(Redeker). An interactive LO made up of at least combined among them. Group activities are not
two internal contents made up of at least two ele- allowed.
ments combined between them. Group activities ● W-simple: The classifying combination of basic
are not allowed. (Wiley) and cooperative (Redeker). An interactive
548 C Classification of Levels of Intellectual Behavior in Learning

LO having at least two internal contents made up of References

a single element. Group activities are allowed. Boffoli, N., Bruno, G., & Caivano, D. (2008). Un modello per mitigare
● W-passive: The classifying combination of com- i rischi della volatilità nei progetti (V congresso nazionale Società
bined–closed (Wiley) and cooperative (Redeker). italiana di e-Learning). Trento: Sie-L.
Chiappe, A., Segovia, Y., & Rincón, Y. (2007). Toward an instructional
An interactive LO constituted by at least two inter-
design model based on learning objects. Educational Technology
nal elements combined between them. Group activ- Research and Development, 55(6), 671–681.
ities are allowed. Fini, A., & Vanni, L. (2004). Learning object e metadati. Trento:
● W-active: The classifying combination of com- Edizioni Erickson.
bined–open (Wiley) and cooperative (Redeker). Learning Technology Standards Committee – Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers. (2002). Draft standard for
An interactive LO constituted by many internal
learning object metadata. IEEE standard 1484.12.1. Retrieved
and external elements combined among them. 12 Oct 2009, from www.ieee.org; http://ltsc.ieee.org/wg12/files/
Group activities are allowed. LOM_1484_12_1_v1_Final_Draft.pdf.
Redeker, G. (2003). An educational taxonomy for learning objects. In
The classifications based upon human-usable sys- IEEE (Ed.), IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learn-
tems run on schemes depending upon the design ing Technologies, (p. 250). Athens.
and the approach, which can be top-down or bottom- Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design
up, or on the content typology mostly classified. Repos- theory. A definition, a metaphor and a taxonomy. Retrieved 12 Oct
itory of digital contents, as Oercommons, Lemill, 2009, from the instructional use of learning objects: http://www.
reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc.
iCommons, have very different structures.
Oercommons classifies according to subjects (top
level), educational levels, and resource types criteria;
Lemill currently emphasizes the tags, classifying
according to educational level (in detail), subject and Classification of Levels of
language; iCommons classifies resources according to Intellectual Behavior in
country, subject (very simple) and type. Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
Open Question
The classification of LOs out of the context of use
is important for the implementation of adaptable
learning paths oriented to the creation or the compen- Classroom Discipline
sation of competences in the academic or business
environment. ▶ Classroom Management and Motivation
Some models oriented toward the mitigation of the
volatility of the plans, as the VALUABLE model (Boffoli
et al. 2008), adopt tables of decision for the selection of
LO sets for the acquisition of competences. It is obvious Classroom Management and
how the rigorous definition of the taxonomy adopted Motivation
affects the efficacy of the model.
As concerns the classification based upon human- PAMELA L. ARNOLD1, JOHN A. NUNNERY2
1
usable systems the research is focusing on the criteria The Center for Educational Partnerships, Darden
that improve the efficiency of both the know-item College of Education, Old Dominion University,
seeking and the exhaustive seeking. The colon classifi- Norfolk, VA, USA
2
cation and the faceted classification which is derived Darden College of Education, Old Dominion
from it are the most interesting schemes. University, Norfolk, VA, USA

Cross-References
▶ Cognitive Models of Learning Synonyms
▶ Courseware Learning Classroom discipline
 Classroom Management and Motivation C 549

Definition behaviors in which students engage (Na et al. 2010;

Classroom management is an overarching term that Turner & Patrick 2008). Motivation in this sense is
refers to how a teacher structures the physical, instruc- dynamic and situational, tied to how students change
tional, and social arrangements in the classroom to in response to their learning environments, and how
create an environment that is conducive to learning. learning environments change in response to students’ C
Jones and Jones (2010) offer a definition of class- actions. When motivation is considered in this fash-
room management that posits that effective teachers ion, classroom management strategies designed to
collaborate with students to minimize unproductive enhance students’ motivation to engage are not stat-
behaviors; intervene appropriately when unproductive ically “effective” but depend a great deal on how the
behaviors occur; and the management system students, with their own backgrounds, engage in the
employed overall maximizes student engagement in classroom context. “Strategies are not inherently ‘suc-
ongoing, substantive, academic learning activities. cessful’ and ‘unsuccessful’ but are defined by the inter-
Motivation is an essential construct to consider in personal norms of the situation and by their cultural
terms of factors that influence students’ engagement fit with the organization of teaching and learning”
with curriculum and academic challenges (Anderman (Turner & Patrick 2008, p. 121).
& Leake 2005). Understanding motivation as a key Other theorists see motivation as a process by
process in teaching is important for teachers if they which human beings allocate working memory
are to effectively develop a motivational context that (Brooks & Shell 2006). From this perspective, motiva-
promotes engagement in the classroom environment tion is defined in terms of how an individual selects
and increases the possibilities for student learning the memory chunks they have available for use to
(Anderman & Leake 2005; Brooks & Shell 2006). activate in pursuit of a given learning goal or task.
Motivation has been defined as an internal process Motivation is redefined “in terms of the mental
by which behavior is instantiated, guided, and processes that a teacher must affect within a student
maintained (Brooks & Shell 2006). Some have defined before teacher-initiated learning has a chance to take
motivation through the lens of expectancy theories, place” (Brooks & Shell 2006, p. 26). This definition
which view motivation as a function of the degree to draws attention to the need for classroom environ-
which a student believes they can possibly be successful ments to be designed to encourage learners to utilize
with a given task and how much they value the rewards sufficient working memory resources for learning
associated with the task. Jones and Jones (2010) add to occur.
a third variable which they identify as “classroom cli-
mate.” Classroom climate is defined as the quality of Theoretical Background
relationships in the task setting. This definition sug- There is a high level of agreement among scholars in
gests student motivation is drawn from the interplay the field that motivation is a poorly explicated con-
of a student’s expectation that they can complete cept, made extremely difficult to understand in an
a given task successfully, the value they find in the integrated, ecologically valid manner due to the pro-
task, and the extent to which the environment is liferation of numerous theories focusing on differing
supportive of their basic personal physical and psy- isolated aspects of motivation, all utilizing different
chological needs. Socio-cognitive theorists highlight constructs, models, and organizers (Anderman &
the ways that motivation to participate changes as Leake 2005; Keller 2008; Na et al. 2010). This prolifer-
individual appraisals of the learning context respond ation of competing theories makes application of
to opportunities made available to students or educational psychology insights on motivation to
requirements made of them by other individuals in teaching and classroom management in the field con-
the classroom setting (Na et al. 2010; Turner & Patrick fusing and problematic for practitioners. Traditional
2008). Through this lens, motivation is defined as a set theoretical perspectives on motivation focus on how
of dynamic constructs that is produced from the ongo- motives explain human behavior, with behaviorist,
ing interaction between students’ socially situated humanistic, and cognitive perspectives providing the
construals and the circumstances of the learning envi- foundational models (Na et al. 2010). Behavioral per-
ronment, influencing the subsequent sets of learning spectives focus on empirical observations of outward
550 C Classroom Management and Motivation

behaviors instantiated in response to environmental classroom environmental influences, including teacher

stimuli, while humanisitic perspectives focus on moti- enthusiasm, quality of instruction, clarity of expec-
vation as a component of the internal dynamics of tations, and availability of resources, that influence
needs fulfillment. Cognitive approaches view motiva- goal-directed effort which can increase the likelihood
tion from the perspective of internal thought processes of enhanced achievement and performance among
and their interaction with the external context. More learners within the context of their innate individual
recently, dynamic theories have posited that motiva- abilities. Anderman and Leake (2005) offer an integra-
tion is not a fixed phenomenon, but the result of tive framework that incorporates an array of socio-
continuously changing motivational states – for exam- cognitive theories to assist practitioners in the
ple, one’s sense of self-efficacy – that have regulatory application of motivational principles established in
effects (Na et al. 2010). Socio-cognitive approaches the psychology literature to teaching and classroom
view the social and the cognitive as inextricably management. This framework is based on three funda-
intertwined with complex causal relationships that are mental needs of learners: the need for autonomy, the
not easily determined; from this vantage point complex need for belonging, and the need for competence. In
behavior such as motivation is seen to be as much as this framework, constructs of intrinsic and extrinsic
a function of situations and contexts as it is a function motivation; locus of control; internal and external
of the individual (Turner & Patrick 2008). Some theo- attribution; self-regulation; task values and expec-
rists view motivation as neurologically stored, thus tancy are all housed under the category of autonomy,
occupying chunk spaces in working memory. Moti- with the suggestion that internal sense of control and
vation is embedded in the allocations individuals self-determination enhances motivation. From this
make of their working memory chunks to a given perspective, classroom management practices that
task; in order for learning to occur, an individual enhance motivation include those that release respon-
must dedicate working memory resources to the task sibility to the learners; encourage students to feel
at hand (Brooks & Shell 2006). Several scholars have a sense of individual empowerment; facilitate connec-
attempted to develop integrated models that incor- tions to students’ lives and personal interests; empha-
porate aspects of multiple theoretical frameworks. size intrinsic rewards; allow choice; and help students
For example, Keller (2008) offers an integrative, develop behavioral and cognitive self-regulation
concatenated theory of motivation to help explain the (Anderman & Leake 2005; Jones & Jones 2010). Fur-
relationships among motivation, volition, and perfor- thermore, motivation, particularly among novice
mance as they relate to learning. Keller posits that learners who do not have huge bodies of prior knowl-
an individual’s motivational needs and corresponding edge on which to draw, requires conscious and explicit
strategy selection are based in attention, relevance, self-regulation strategies to initiate and sustain engage-
confidence, and satisfaction. Internal volitional self- ment in a learning task (Brooks & Shell 2006). These
regulatory processes with external supports help strategies promote motivation to engage in learning
learners move from goal selection to action and persis- and thus improve the likelihood that learning occurs.
tence to task and complete the motivation cycle from However, because they are conscious and explicit, they
initial interest to intitial engagement to sustained consume some of the working memory that would
engagement (Keller 2008). otherwise be available for learning, and if overdone
The outcome of this extensive theoretical construc- can impede learning (Brooks & Shell 2006). Theorists
tion and attendant research around motivation has that focus on motivation from this perspective view
been the development of a variety of frameworks for it as imperative that the classroom environment struc-
teaching practice that consider the motivational con- ture ways to balance the contrasting needs of novice
text of learning environments (Na et al. 2010). Recom- learners for explicit instruction in and development of
mendations for practice in the area of classroom self-regulatory strategies with the need to make sure
environmental design and management to enhance such tools do not cause excessive distraction (Brooks &
motivation have been offered from a variety of perspec- Shell 2006). Classroom management strategies that
tives. Keller (2008) suggests that there are a variety of may be helpful in terms of assisting learners in their
 Classroom Management and Motivation C 551

ability to regulate motivation include structuring learning tasks, which in turn enhances the likelihood
opportunities for students to identify and provide that they will initiate and sustain engagement in
their own consequences for behavior; teaching students learning (Anderman & Leake 2005). A success cycle
goal-orientated self-talk strategies; subdividing and is established whereby successful learning leads to
teaching students how to subdivide task into smaller enhanced self-efficacy, which can therefore lead to C
chunks; and teaching students to adopt attributional increased motivation to engage in learning tasks and
control strategies that help them view engagement and therefore more opportunities for successful learning
potential success as within their own personal control (Brooks & Shell 2006). Classroom management prac-
(Brooks & Shell 2006). tices for enhancing these aspects of the motivational
The need for belonging serves as a second category context in a classroom environment include helping
under which to discuss constructs relating to motiva- students set attainable goals; teaching students to
tion (Anderman & Leake 2005). People have a psycho- adaptively attribute their successes and challenges
logical need for belonging or attachment to other with given tasks; providing students with realistic
human beings. From this perspective, motivation and immediate feedback that enhances self-efficacy;
is seen to be enhanced in classroom environments and providing learning opportunities and materials
where the classroom management plan has taken matched to students’ learning styles and strengths
into account specific approaches to building teacher– (Anderman & Leake 2005; Jones & Jones 2010).
student and peer relationships that are mutually
respectful and help learners feel connected to others Important Scientific Research and
in the environment (Anderman & Leake 2005; Jones & Open Questions
Jones 2010). These may include such approaches as There is a wide body of research on the relationships
holding regular class meetings; offering students ways among varying discrete concepts relating to motiva-
to express their opinions and feelings to each other tion, such as interest, goal orientation, self-efficacy,
and privately with the teacher; explicitly teaching and outcome expectancy, attributional orientations,
practicing the social skills necessary for successful cognitive engagement, intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
learning and social interactions in the classroom; tion, locus of control, task value, and self-efficacy
and implementing systems of behavioral manage- (Anderman & Leake 2005; Keller 2008; Na et al.
ment that focus on engaging students in identifying 2010). However, there has been little systematic
prosocial behaviors for effective learning and reflect- research done that has yielded a comprehensive under-
ing on the outcomes of their own behavioral choices standing of how teachers can foster the development of
(Jones & Jones 2010). Attention to the recognition of motivation among particular students in specific class-
unintended bias, differential expectations, and plan- room environments (Na et al. 2010; Turner & Patrick
ning to ensure equal participation and inclusion also 2008). Turner and Patrick (2008) suggest that in order
support the development of a relational motivational to develop a research agenda that yields findings that
context that promotes engagement in learning tasks are useful to practitioners, the focus of research on
among students (Anderman & Leake 2005; Jones & motivation should be turned toward analysis of stu-
Jones 2010). dents’ participation in groups, in the context of how
Finally, competence is a category under which various groups construe tasks differently. Additionally,
many of the theoretical constructs relating to moti- while much research has focused on ways to increase
vation might be grouped, including those related to learner success through self-regulation, comparatively
expectancy beliefs, goal setting, attributions, self- little has been done with an explicit focus on the regu-
concept, and self-efficacy (Anderman & Leake 2005). lation of motivation (Brooks & Shell 2006). The class-
All human beings have some underlying need to room management structures teachers put in place may
feel that they can be capable and successful with promote or discourage the development among stu-
the tasks they undertake. Research has shown that dents of various self-regulatory tools for managing
when students feel competent, they feel more certain motivation; this is an area in which additional empir-
that they can be successful with a wider range of ical research is needed.
552 C Classroom Teaching and Learning

Cross-References
▶ Learning Motivation of Disadvantaged Students “Clever Hans”: Involuntary and
▶ Motivation Enhancement Unconscious Cueing
▶ Motivation, Volition and Performance
▶ Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation NORBERT M. SEEL
▶ School Motivation Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
▶ Self-Regulation and Motivation Strategies Freiburg, Germany
▶ Understanding Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

References Synonyms
Anderman, L. H., & Leake, V. S. (2005). The ABCs of motivation: An
Impulsive cueing; Instinctive cueing
alternative framework for teaching preservice teachers about
motivation. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Definition
Issues and Ideas, 78(5), 192. Cueing has different definitions in different contexts.
Brooks, D. W., & Shell, D. F. (2006). Working memory, motivation, Here, the definition is limited to the context of
and teacher-initiated learning. Journal of Science Education and
responding to externally provided stimuli. Cueing is
Technology, 15(1), 17–30.
Jones, V., & Jones, L. (2010). Comprehensive classroom management: another name for “foldback,” which is a process used
Creating communities of support and solving problems (9th ed.). to return a signal to a performer instantly. Cueing is
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. achieved via prompts, signals, hints or, more generally,
Keller, J. (2008). An integrative theory of motivation, volition, and cues, which include anything that is connected in some
performance. Technology, Instruction, Cognition & Learning, 6(2),
way to information to be processed and which prompts
79–104.
Na, L., Kang-hao, H., & Chun-hao, C. (2010). A cognitive-situative
its retrieval. This entry refers to the story of “Clever
approach to understand motivation: Implications to technology- Hans,” which can serve as a splendid example of invol-
supported education. US-China Education Review, 7(5), 26–33. untary and unconscious cueing.
Turner, J. C., & Patrick, H. (2008). How does motivation develop and
why does it change? Reframing motivation research. Educational
Psychologist, 43(3), 119–131.
Theoretical Background
Involuntary and unconscious cueing can be illustrated
by referring to the story of Clever Hans from the end
of the nineteenth century. Clever Hans was an Arab
stallion from Russia. His owner, Wilhelm von Osten,
Classroom Teaching and a retired schoolmaster, was convinced that animals
Learning possess an intelligence comparable to that of humans.
After many unsuccessful attempts to teach animals, he
▶ Didactics, Didactic Models and Learning found in Hans a partner for life. Von Osten taught
the horse to respond to questions requiring mathemat-
ical calculations by tapping his hoof. If Hans was
asked, for instance, what the sum of 3 plus 2 is, the
horse would tap his hoof five times. It appeared that the
Classroom-Based Knowledge horse was responding to human language and was
Construction capable of grasping mathematical concepts. In a short
time, Hans was able to work out reasonably complex
▶ Rapid Collaborative Knowledge Improvement
calculations, including some square roots. The horse
could also tell time and name people, but in the liter-
ature the focus is usually on his mathematical skills.
In the 1890s, von Osten began to showing his intel-
Classwide Peer Tutoring ligent horse to the public. Clever Hans and his owner
enjoyed worldwide acclaim, but the scientific commu-
▶ Reciprocal Learning nity remained skeptical. Clever Hans had been tested by
 “Clever Hans”: Involuntary and Unconscious Cueing C 553

many people. He mastered each test successfully and ability to answer diminished even further. The second
the observers could not see any trickery. As a conse- major finding was that Hans could only answer cor-
quence, it was claimed that Hans had the intellectual rectly if the questioner also knew the answer to the
ability of a 14-year-old boy (Fig. 1). question. When the questioner did not know the answer
Clever Hans became a real sensation and people to the question, Hans could not find the answer. C
flocked to see his demonstrations when Professor Carl Based on these observations, the “Hans Commis-
Stumpf completed a first scientific testing in 1904 and sion” concluded that Hans was not using intelligence
certified Hans’s ability as genuine (Freund 1904). Other to work out the answers but was responding to visual
scientists, however, remained skeptical. Therefore, cues provided by the questioner or other present
Oskar Pfungst retested Hans in 1907, applying a more persons. Although the people interacting with Hans
rigorous test setting (Pfungst 1911/1998). A group of were not conscious of providing him with cues, the
13 scientists was assembled, known as the “Hans Com- horse was simply responding to muscle tensions, facial
mission.” Pfungst had the idea to separate Hans from expressions, and other involuntary cues produced in
his owner as well as from any other person. While one interacting with Hans. No evidence of cheating was
member of the team wrote down the numbers and left found.
the room, everyone else moved behind the blackboard. Thus, people were cueing Hans unconsciously by
Thus, only the horse could know what was inscribed tensing their muscles until he produced the correct
on the blackboard. Now Clever Hans failed every test. answer. The horse really was clever because he could
Pfungst concluded that when the correct answer was perceive and “interpret” very subtle muscle move-
not known to anyone present in the room, the horse ments. Although Hans could not process human lan-
did not know it either. More specifically, the test dem- guage as his owner maintained, he had an ability of
onstrated effects of involuntary and unconsciousness some kind to respond to involuntary and unconscious
cueing. It became apparent that Hans needed some cues in his environment. People can unconsciously
visual contact with the questioner in order to answer communicate information through subtle move-
correctly. The further away the questioner was, the less ments of muscles, and some animals can perceive
accurate Hans became, and when he was blinkered his these unconscious and involuntary cues.

“Clever Hans”: Involuntary and Unconscious Cueing. Fig. 1 Clever Hans in a test situation
554 C Climate of Learning

Important Scientific Research and References

Open Questions Bateman, B., et al. (2004). The effects of a double blind, placebo
The experiments with Clever Hans revealed to psychol- controlled, artificial food colourings and benzoate preservative
ogists that a person’s or an animal’s behavior in a challenge on hyperactivity in a general population sample of
preschool children. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 89, 506–511.
situation can be influenced by subtle and unintentional
Conners, C. K., Goyette, C. H., Southwick, D. A., Lees, J. M., &
cueing. This effect is now known as the “Clever Hans Andrulonis, P. A. (1976). Food additives and hyperkinesis:
effect” and has implications in all interactive situations, A controlled double-blind experiment. Pediatrics, 58(2),
such as test situations where unconscious cueing from 154–166.
testers can introduce a bias to testing and affect its Freund, F. (1904). Der “kluge” Hans. Ein Beitrag zur Aufklärung.
Berlin: Boll & Pickardt.
reliability. In scientific tests and research, the “Clever
Krall, K. (1912). Denkende Tiere. Beiträge zur Tierseelenkunde auf
Hans effect” can only be controlled by means of Grund eigener Versuche. Der kluge Haus und meine Pferde
▶ double-blind experiments, and tests in which neither Muhamed und Zarif. Leipzig: Engelmann.
the experimenter nor the subject is aware of the treat- Pfungst, O. (1911/1998). Clever Hans: The horse of Mr. von Osten.
ments or tests being given (see, for example, Bateman London: Routledge, Thoemmes Press.
et al. 2004; Conners et al. 1976). Randi, J. (1995). An encyclopedia of claims, frauds, and hoaxes of the
occult and supernatural. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Involuntary and unconscious cueing has not only
Sebeok, T. A., & Umiker-Sebeok, D. J. (1980). Speaking of apes:
been observed in the case of Clever Hans. For example, A critical anthology of two-way communication with man. New
James Randi (1995), known as a professional magician York: Plenum.
(“The Amazing Randi”), author, lecturer, amateur
archaeologist, and astronomer, refers to the story of
J.B. Rhine, who declared that the horse Lady Wonder
was psychic because she could answer questions by
knocking over alphabet blocks. In Rhine’s opinion, Climate of Learning
there was no trickery involved. He concluded
that the only tenable hypothesis for the horse’s ERIN SEIF, BETTY TABLEMAN, JOHN S. CARLSON
abilities was that the horse was telepathic. Rhine’s Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
first test of Lady Wonder was in 1927. However,
2 years later, the horse had lost its telepathic abilities.
Rhine’s reasoning is an example of the false dilemma Synonyms
fallacy. Atmosphere of learning; Learning environment;
Nevertheless, until today, unconscious cueing sup- Teaching environment
ports many people’s strong belief in the psychic abilities
of animals. Animals are thought to show evidence of Definition
possessing intellectual abilities, such as linguistic abil- The term climate often is associated with weather and
ities (Sebeok and Umiker-Sebeok 1980), and humans is defined as the meterological conditions of a particu-
are thought to be capable of subliminal information lar area or region. In the context of learning sciences,
processing when they are sensitive to the involuntary climate of learning refers to the social, emotional,
and unconscious cueing of others. and physical conditions under which one acquires
knowledge. The climate that surrounds learning is pre-
Cross-References dominantly thought of within a classroom context but
▶ Animal Learning and Intelligence is also present wherever learning takes place, as in
▶ Attention and Implicit Learning tutoring, mentoring, coaching, and on the job training.
▶ Context Conditioning Factors associated with the tone and atmosphere of
▶ Cued Recall a learning setting can significantly influence learning
▶ Cueing processes. Ideally, teachers create learning environ-
▶ Implicit Attentional Learning ments that meet the developmental needs of their stu-
▶ Intelligent Communication in Social Animals dents through positive student–teacher relationships,
 Climate of Learning C 555

enthusiastic and quality instruction, and high expec- be the father of observational learning, believes there
tations for learning-related behavior and academic are four processes necessary for observational learning:
achievement. The climate of learning is a specific com- attention (children are attracted to high status,
ponent of school climate and school culture, which are same-sex models), retention (committing a behavior
a much broader set of factors that may influence stu- to memory), production (imitating the behavior), and C
dent achievement. motivation (the child must be motivated to replicate
the behavior). Bandura’s well-known 1964 Bobo doll
Theoretical Background study demonstrated the effects of observational learn-
In 1924, a group of researchers conducted a study on ing in young children.
the relationship between light intensity and employee Several learning theories exist, and have a direct
productivity at Hawthorne Works, a Western Electric effect on the climate of learning. B.F. Skinner, consid-
plant near Chicago, Illinois. Researchers increased and ered the father of behaviorism, demonstrated that
decreased light intensity and changed other factors of behaviors that are rewarded increase in frequency,
the workday, but the results were inconclusive. After while those that are punished decrease in frequency.
9 years of research and interviews with employees, Teachers shape the learning climate in accordance
investigators discovered that when workers felt valued with the theory or theories they find most compelling.
and understood, their productivity increased. This Cognitive learning theory focuses on how humans
finding is known as the “Hawthorne Effect,” and perceive, store, and remember information. Construc-
it illuminated the social and emotional influence of tivist learning, also known as discovery learning,
climate on human productivity and motivation encourages students to discover concepts and princi-
(Sonnenfeld 1985). ples through personal exploration and activation of
Consistent with the findings in the Hawthorne prior knowledge. Experiential learning, also referred
Study, learning cannot be separated from the social, to as service learning, emphasizes learning through
emotional, and physical factors that surround it. direct experiences. The Montessori approach to learn-
According to Dr. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological ing places special emphasis on individual development
perspective on human development, “Human beings levels, and encourages children to be self-directed,
create the environments that shape the course of cooperative learners. Students pursue their own aca-
human development (2004, p. 28).” Learning and devel- demic interests and complete work at their own pace.
opment occurs within an interconnected set of sys-
temic levels. The microsystem consists of people and Important Scientific Research and
places with whom the child has the most contact, such Open Questions
as family members at home, and teachers and staff at Since the National Commission on Excellence in
school. In the microsystem, learning experiences are Education published “A Nation at Risk” in 1983, the
bidirectional; both the learner and the teacher shape American Public has become more aware of school
the climate of learning. The intermediate level consists performance and student achievement. As a result of
of indirect influences on the child such as parental this report, more attention was placed on standard-
work environment (e.g., income level, parental work ized test scores that emphasize mathematical and lin-
schedules), and community services. The outermost guistic aptitude to measure student achievement.
level, the macrosystem, consists of global contexts Recently, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has
such as the state and federal economic systems, increased the emphasis on standardized testing and
prevailing cultural norms, and societal laws. Each sys- student achievement to a greater degree. As a result,
temic level is interconnected, and all play a role in most of the time, energy, and resources in schools
shaping development. are channeled toward teaching to the test. Social
Acccording to social learning theory, people learn and emotional facets of education are often usurped
by interacting with others. Learners acquire skills, strat- by the pursuit of greater academic achievement.
egies, and beliefs by observing and modeling others However, research indicates that the climate of learn-
in their environment. Albert Bandura, considered to ing is an important variable that can have direct
556 C Climate of Learning

implications on student achievement. Solid classroom evidence base for social and emotional learning from
management techniques, clear and high expectations, preschool to high school (CASEL 2010). CASEL has
and positive, respectful interactions between students developed curriculum materials for schools across the
and teachers are components of the learning climate. country. The following are the core beliefs of CASEL,
Though they are social and emotional in nature, they obtained from the CASEL Web site:
have a direct impact on student achievement. When
● Adults have a responsibility to help children to
classroom management techniques that minimize dis-
become knowledgeable, responsible, healthy, car-
ruptions to learning are utilized, students spend more
ing, and contributing members of society.
time engaged academically and perform better
● Rigorous science provides an essential foundation
(Freiberg et al. 2009).
for effective educational policies and practices;
Parents send their children to school with the
a core aspect of rigorous science is to ground
expectation that their students will become lifelong
development and testing in real-life settings and
learners and happy, well-adjusted members of society
conditions.
(Cohen 2006). Cohen’s research indicated that parents
● Effective, integrated SEL programming is the most
are more concerned about their children’s social and
promising educational reform to promote the
emotional functioning as adults, as opposed to their
academic success, engaged citizenship, healthy
academic functioning. However, in the American edu-
actions, and well-being of children.
cation curriculum, little emphasis is placed on teaching
● Cross-disciplinary collaboration produces the
students social, emotional, and ethical skills. Yet,
richest insights, biggest impacts, and best outcomes
a strong social, emotional, and ethical curriculum is
in work on behalf of children.
necessary to produce citizens who will actively partic-
● We strive for excellence in all our work. We have
ipate in a democracy. Cohen argues that the lack of
high expectations for ourselves, and we encourage
such a curriculum is not only an injustice to American
and expect the best from others.
schoolchildren, but also a violation of their human
● CASEL leadership, staff, and collaborators must
rights (2006). Even the Founding Fathers indicated
model social and emotional competence and ethical
that all citizens are entitled to “The pursuit of hap-
behavior.
piness.” Children deserve a holistic education that
addresses their academic, social, emotional, and phys- Learning is a lifelong, holistic endeavor and is nei-
ical needs. ther limited to a classroom, nor the first 18 years of life.
Knowles also noted the discrepancy between how Athletes learn from coaches and teammates on the
children are taught and what they need to learn. In athletic field. The resident learns from the practicing
order for children to become healthy adults, they physician. The journeyman teaches and guides the
must become self-directed learners (Knowles 1970). apprentice. A Girl Scout learns financial literacy skills
Traditional pedagogical methods often view students from her dedicated leader. A university student logs on
as sponges, soaking up knowledge with little input to his computer, fulfilling requirements for an online
or experience to draw from and creating dependency course. Wherever learning takes place, a learning cli-
on the teacher. The climate of learning is a crucial mate exists. The social, emotional, and physical impact
element in the maturation process and encouraging of the learning climate profoundly shapes the learning
self-direction. Students must feel respected, accepted, experience.
supported, and physically comfortable in order to Online learning environments are growing in pop-
reach their fullest potential (Knowles 1970). ularity, and accommodate a wide range of lifestyles.
The movement to incorporate social and emotional Many universities, secondary schools, and home
education into school curriculums is growing. In 1994, schooling associations are taking advantage of online
Daniel Goleman, author of ▶ Emotional Intelligence, learning communities. This new learning environment
cofounded CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, creates the need for a solid research base on the social
and Emotional Learning) along with Eileen Rockefeller and emotional effects of online learning climates. Do
Growald. CASEL is a nonprofit organization dedicated blogs and discussion boards provide the same oppor-
to advancing scholarly research and broadening the tunities for comprehension and retention of material as
 Coaching and Mentoring C 557

more traditional, face-to-face classroom discussions?

Is human interaction necessary to form a learning cli- Clustering
mate? How will online learning climates continue to ▶ Social Influence and the Emergence of Cultural
impact education? Norms
C
Cross-References
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning
▶ Conditions of Learning Coaching and Mentoring
▶ Learning Space
▶ School Climate and Learning H. CHAD LANE
▶ Synthetic Learning Environment Institute for Creative Technologies, University of
Southern California, Marina Del Rey, Los Angeles,
References CA, USA
Bronfenbrenner, U. (Ed.). (2004). Making human beings human:
Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
Synonyms
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL). (2010, January 7). CASEL Mission and Vision.
Apprenticeship; Guided problem solving; Tutoring
Retrieved from http://www.casel.org/about/plan.php.
Cohen, J. (2006). Social, emotional, ethical, and academic education:
Definition
Creating a climate for learning, participation in democracy, and Coaching and mentoring are related concepts that both
well-being. Harvard Educational Review, 76, 201–237. fall under the general category of developmental inter-
Freiberg, H. J., Huzinec, C. A., & Templeton, S. M. (2009). Classroom actions (D’Abate et al. 2003) and involve the provision
management – a pathway to student achievement: a study of of guidance by an expert to a novice who is seeking to
fourteen inner-city elementary schools. The Elementary School
acquire specific skills or knowledge. The terms are used
Journal, 110, 63–80.
Knowles, M. (1970). The modern practice of adult education from
commonly in organizational settings, but are also appli-
pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood Cliffs: Cambridge University cable more broadly to academic and physical skill con-
Press. texts. Guidance from a coach or mentor is delivered in
Sonnenfeld, J. (1985). Shedding light on the Hawthorne studies. goal-directed ways, such as to help the learner complete
Journal of Occupational Behavior, 6, 111–130. a task or gain understanding about a specific concept
or perspective. Mentoring is generally understood as
a relationship-oriented activity that occurs over longer
periods of time and includes career- and psychosocial-
related support for the learner. The roots of the term
Clinical Placement mentor lie in Greek mythology where it describes “a
▶ Learning in Practice and by Experience relationship between a younger adult and an older,
more experienced adult [who] helps the younger indi-
vidual learn to navigate the adult world and the world
of work” (Kram 1985, p. 2). Coaching is typically
thought of as a skill that good mentors possess. It is
Closed-Loop Process more focused and involves scaffolding a learner (or
protégé) through the steps of a specific task. According
Process using information about its outcomes as input.
to Allan Collins (2006), coaching “consists of observing
students while they carry out a task and offering hints,
challenges, scaffolding, feedback, modeling, reminders,
and new tasks aimed at bringing their performance
Clue closer to expert performance. Coaching is related to
specific events or problems that arise as the student
▶ Cue Summation and Learning attempts to accomplish the task.” (p. 51)
558 C Coaching and Mentoring

Theoretical Background about how to proceed), and (3) engage in coached

Modern conceptions of coaching and mentoring have problem solving, a step-by-step monitoring and support
their roots in apprenticeship, the form of teaching and process based on the ideas of coaching during practice
learning dominant throughout most of history (Collins in an apprenticeship (Merrill et al. 1992). Key decisions
2006, p. 47). In an apprenticeship, a master teaches that a tutor (or coach) must make involve the selection
a novice his/her art and/or skill in situ with the focus of appropriate problems, when to intervene, what hints
on practical skill development for real-world tasks. For and/or feedback to give, what questions to ask, and
example, carpenters and bakers very commonly passed how quickly (or slowly) to fade the support over time.
along their skills and knowledge via apprenticeships in In organizational psychology and business litera-
their actual working environments. This is in contrast ture, there is limited agreement on the specific activities
to modern schools, where the goal is usually to teach involved in coaching, mentoring, or more generally,
abstract forms of knowledge for the purposes of reuse developmental interactions. For example, a literature
across varied contexts. The three key components to an review on developmental interactions revealed that
apprenticeship are modeling, coaching, and practice. only 30% of characteristics linked to traditional
Modeling is mostly passive for the apprentice: he repeat- mentoring were used consistently (D’Abate et al.
edly observes and studies the master executing the skill 2003, p. 377). However, there is widespread agreement
while possibly receiving didactic instruction and expla- that in addition to coaching, conceptualizations of
nations along the way. Next, the apprentice attempts mentoring tends to include activities focused on
to execute the skill through practice. This must be career- and psychosocial-related issues (Allen et al.
supported by guidance from the master since the 2004, p. 128). While the goal of a coaching interaction
apprentice will most likely not be able to complete the is usually concrete and focused on skill development,
task on his or her own in the early stages. As the appren- mentoring is more about long-term outcomes and
tice continues practicing, the need for coaching dimin- individual development. Mentoring strategies fre-
ishes, and the master fades the support until the point quently reach well beyond the cognitive growth of the
that the apprentice is able to execute the task indepen- learner. For example, expert mentors routinely engage
dently. Deciding when to deliver and fade this support in relationship-building activities such as providing
is at the heart of coaching and may include such support for the effective management of family and
pedagogical interventions as hints, feedback, ques- work lives. Other techniques include the assignment
tions, suggestions, corrections, new tasks, explanations, of challenging tasks, exposure to new people or career
reflection, and more (Collins 2006; Merrill et al. 1992). paths, and protection of their protégé in the work
In an effort to modernize the notion of apprentice- environment (Kram 1985). Studies that seek to dem-
ship to account for skills such as reading and mathe- onstrate the efficacy of mentoring programs tend to
matics, Allan Collins and John Seely Brown have promote learning and career development and focus
elaborated on the idea of cognitive apprenticeship. on objective and subjective outcomes. Objective out-
Here, the focus is on cognitive skills and is differenti- comes include markers of career-related growth, like
ated from traditional apprenticeship by (1) taking promotions and compensation. Subjective assessment
problems not from the workplace, but rather selected usually involves psychometric measures of satisfaction,
based on the skills necessary to solve them, and (2) plac- commitment, turnover, and other affective measures
ing emphasis not on context-specific skills, but rather (Allen et al. 2004).
on generalization and reuse in different settings
(Collins 2006, pp. 48–49). Not surprisingly, coaching Important Scientific Research and
shares many functional similarities with tutoring, Open Questions
a term usually reserved for use in academic and other For the acquisition of cognitive skills, professional one-
formal schooling contexts. Analysis of the best expert to-one human tutoring is generally believed to be the
human tutors and intelligent tutoring systems reveal best known method of teaching available in the world
that they (1) allow students to do as much of the work since it produces learning gains of roughly two stan-
as possible, (2) frequently intervene after an impasse dard deviations above the mean when compared
(a time when the student becomes “stuck” and unsure to classroom learning (Bloom 1984). Researchers of
 Cognition About Cognition C 559

intelligent tutoring systems are often driven to achieve References

this with computer tutors. To date, the best intelligent Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., & Lentz, E. (2004). Career
tutors are able to achieve a one standard deviation benefits associated with mentoring for proteges: A meta-analysis.
improvement over classroom learning. Mentoring The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 127–136.
Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of
studies have also generally supported the belief that
group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educa-
C
mentoring has a positive effect on career development tional Researcher, 13(6), 4–16.
including positive impacts on objective measures, Collins, A. (2006). Cognitive apprenticeship. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.),
including compensation and promotion, as well as sub- The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 47–60).
jective measures commitment, satisfaction, and expec- New York: Cambridge University Press.
D’Abate, C. P., Eddy, E. R., & Tannenbaum, S. I. (2003). What’s
tations for advancement (Allen et al. 2004).
in a name? A literature-based approach to understanding
Important empirical questions remain unanswered mentoring, coaching, and other constructs that describe devel-
about both coaching and mentoring. Consistent pat- opmental interactions. Human Resource Development Review,
terns do emerge from the study of expert coaches and 2(4), 360–384.
tutors, such as providing immediate feedback and Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in
intervening on impasses, but the question of why spe- organizational life. Glenview: Scott, Foresman.
Merrill, D. C., Reiser, B. J., Ranney, M., & Trafton, J. G. (1992).
cific interventions promote learning, and how individ-
Effective tutoring techniques: A comparison of human tutors
ual differences factor into success or failure, remain and intelligent tutoring systems. The Journal of the Learning
critical areas for investigation. Also, although fading Sciences, 2(3), 277–305.
of support in a coaching session is nearly universal in
expert coaching, tutoring, and mentoring, the rate of
this fading (how quickly the scaffolding is removed),
and the dimensions along which it is best to fade (e.g.,
timing vs. content), remain as important open ques- Code-Cognition Approach
tions that deserve study. In the mentoring literature,
there are similar open questions regarding the ideal ▶ Cognitive-Code Learning
timing for interventions in career development. Long-
term studies are needed that compare mentored vs.
non-mentored employees, and uncover why different
interventions succeed or fail to promote objective and
subjective measures of development in the workplace.
Cognition
Finally, significant open questions remain on the role How information, either in the external environment,
of learner emotions during coaching and mentoring or internally generated, is processed. Cognition can
that require further research. For example, empirical refer to memory, attention, emotion, perception, and
studies to date have produced mixed results with other similar processes that involve knowledge and
respect to connections between motivational develop- understanding of the world.
mental interactions and career advancement (Allen
et al. 2004, pp. 133–134).
Cross-References
▶ Early Maladaptive Schemas: The Moderating Effects
Cross-References
of Optimism
▶ Cognitive Apprenticeship Learning
▶ Infant Learning and Memory
▶ Deliberate Practice
▶ Problem Solving
▶ Feedback in Instructional Contexts
▶ Feedback Strategies
▶ Guidance Fading Effect
▶ Guided Learning
▶ Human–Computer Interaction and Learning Cognition About Cognition
▶ Intelligent Tutorials and Effects on Learning
▶ Scaffolding Learning ▶ Metacognitive Processes in Change and Therapy
560 C Cognition in Invertebrates

dementia. In the gray area between healthy aging and

Cognition in Invertebrates dementia are individuals who are diagnosed with “mild
▶ Learning in Invertebrates cognitive impairment,” suffering from a decline in cog-
nitive function that is greater than what is expected to
occur with healthy aging, but not sufficient to impair
daily activities. Although not all do, many persons who
are diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment go on to
Cognitive Abilities and Skill develop Alzheimer’s disease later in life.
Research over the last several decades has empha-
▶ Ability Determinants of Complex Skill Acquisition sized that dementia is not an inevitable result of
growing older; many adults age successfully and show
only mild cognitive disruption. Much of the current
research on cognitive aging, then, is aimed at elucidat-
ing what factors – both biological and environmental –
Cognitive Ability separate those individuals who experience healthy
▶ Intelligence, Learning, and Neural Plasticity aging from those who experience some form of patho-
logical aging. This chapter will examine what cognitive
functions change during normal, healthy aging, and
which remain relatively unaffected by advancing age.

Cognitive Aging Theoretical Background

Some cognitive abilities are more susceptible to aging
BRENDAN D. MURRAY, ELIZABETH A. KENSINGER than others. Detailed memory for personal events, the
Department of Psychology, Boston College McGuinn ability to focus attention on relevant information, and
Hall, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA the speed with which that information is processed are
all particularly sensitive to cognitive aging and often
show the most deterioration. Other domains, such as
Synonyms memory for factual knowledge and the processing
Lifespan development; Mental aging of emotional material, are often relatively protected
against the deleterious effects of aging. Although the
Definition different cognitive domains will be listed separately
As humans grow older, and particularly as they pro- here, one should bear in mind that they are not inde-
gress beyond the seventh decade of their life, there is pendent of one another; for example, deficits in
typically an accompanying change in cognitive ability, processing speed surely engender deficits in attention,
often referred to as cognitive aging. As brains age, so do and vice versa, and both of these can lead to deficiencies
cognitive abilities such as memory, sensation, and in memory.
attention decline. Cognitive aging can follow different
trajectories, ranging from healthy aging to pathological Domains that Show Age-Related
aging. Many older people experience healthy aging, in Decline
which cognitive faculties are relatively well preserved
and activities of daily living are not impaired. Others Memory for Personal Events
may experience some form of pathological aging, in Memory for personal events – the who, what, when,
which cognitive deterioration may significantly inter- and where of our lives; also referred to as “episodic”
fere with a person’s ability to perform daily functions memory – typically shows some decline in healthy
without assistance (“dementia”). Though “dementia” aging, and more severe decline in this domain is a
can result from many different underlying disorders, well-known hallmark of dementia. Research on mem-
the most prevalent cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s ory changes with aging has indicated that older
disease, accounting for about two thirds of all cases of adults have difficulty both at encoding new episodic
 Cognitive Aging C 561

information into memory and also at later retrieving Processing Speed

that information. For example, when meeting someone One distinctive trait of aging is that older adults are
for the first time, older adults may have difficulty slower than young adults. Older adults not only phys-
encoding that their new acquaintance’s name is “Ted.” ically move slower than young adults, their cognitive
When they see Ted some time later, they may recognize ability is also slowed. On almost all timed laboratory C
him, but be unable to recall his name. tasks, older adults have slower reaction times than
One proposed explanation for such impairment is young adults. Luchies and colleagues (2002) have
that older adults have difficulty in employing strategies shown that this slowing of reaction speed becomes
to associate one piece of information to another rapidly more pronounced after about 70 years of age.
(as suggested by Fergus Craik 1986). Younger adults, They have shown that the difference in speed between
for example, may think to themselves, “His hair is red, older and younger adults also becomes more evident as
and his name is Ted,” while older adults do not spon- task complexity increases. This has lead to the conclu-
taneously utilize such strategies. This inability to bind sion that there are likely three factors that lead to older
together novel pieces of information can also explain adults’ apparent slowing: (1) slowing of motor perfor-
why older adults tend to show little impairment in mance due to degeneration in the nervous system,
recognizing information as familiar, but experience (2) slowing of communication between neurons in
greater difficulty when asked to recollect specific detail the brain, leading to slower processing of information,
(e.g., “Yes, I recognize that man, but I can’t recall his and (3) increased deliberation and caution when
name or where we met.”). weighing different possible outcomes.
It is not just on tasks that measure reaction time
Attention to Relevant Information that processing speed affects older adults’ performance.
Older adults tend to report difficulty in attending Even on tasks that do not have a time constraint, older
to relevant information, and disregarding information adults tend to perform worse than young adults if there
that is not related to their goals. For example, if out to are many pieces of information that must be kept in
dinner, older adults may find it more difficult than mind at once. For example, older adults show greater
young adults to focus on a conversation with a dinner difficulty than young adults in solving mathematical
partner while ignoring the conversation at a neighbor- word problems, when those word problems are read
ing table. The frontal lobe of the brain is known to aloud to them. Importantly, when speed of processing
orchestrate such activities as ignoring irrelevant infor- is controlled for – when those same word problems are
mation, and older adults typically perform worse than written out and people are given as much time as they
young adults on neuropsychological tests that measure need to solve them, for example – many of the age
frontal lobe function. On one such test, the Wisconsin differences on such tasks are no longer observed.
Card Sorting Test, participants must match cards This indicates that older adults are not deficient in
depicting objects that vary in shape, number, and their math skill, for example, but rather are deficient
color to other cards based on a rule that is secretly in being able to maintain and update the multiple
chosen by the experimenter. Participants must learn pieces of information that are relevant to solving the
the rule by matching cards and receiving feedback on word problem.
whether they have matched correctly or incorrectly.
As the test progresses, the experimenter changes the Domains that Show Relative
rule, and the participant must adapt and learn the Age-Related Preservation
new rule. Compared to young adults, older adults
show impairment in two aspects of the task: the ability Knowledge for Facts
to maintain a rule once it is learned (a deficiency of Although aging is typified by impaired memory for
▶ working memory), and the inability to abandon episodic details, memory for factual knowledge is rela-
a learned rule once it has changed (an error of ▶ per- tively preserved across the lifespan. Healthy older
severation). Both of these errors arise, at least in part, adults tend to perform better than younger adults on
from a relative inability to attend selectively to infor- tests of ▶ semantic knowledge, such as assessments of
mation that is relevant to the goal. vocabulary, grammar, and general world knowledge
562 C Cognitive Aging

(e.g., “Who was the 35th President?”). ▶ Procedural that engenders all cognitive deficits, domain-specific
knowledge is also spared with aging; skills that have theorists believe that age-related decline is specific
been used throughout the lifetime, such as job-related to individual cognitive areas. For example, Naveh-
skills or musical training, are usually retained into Benjamin (2000) has suggested that older adults are
older age. These types of retained knowledge are con- specifically impaired in their ability to form associa-
sidered to be the basis for ▶ crystallized intelligence tions between pieces of novel information. Such a
and expertise. hypothesis is supported by older adults’ relatively
well-preserved recognition of information that is
Emotion Regulation familiar, coupled with their frequent inability to recol-
The ability to regulate one’s reactions to emotional lect the context in which they learned that information.
stimuli – calming oneself after seeing a snake, for As noted earlier, older adults may easily recognize
example – is preserved as people age. Some researchers a new acquaintance, but they may fail to recollect his
suggest that this ability actually improves with age, name or to recall where they met him.
with older adults being able to direct attention away Much research has also been done to investigate
from negative experiences and to maintain positive how older adults can compensate for these cognitive
experiences more effectively than younger adults. deficits. Yaakov Stern and colleagues (1994) have
Older adults also tend to select more emotionally ful- posited the notion of “cognitive reserve,” where
filling activities to participate in than young people do, environmental factors like advanced education and
perhaps because older adults are more likely than healthy lifestyles can be protective factors against
young adults to prioritize social and emotional well- neurodegeneration and cognitive function. It has also
being (Carstensen et al. 1999). been suggested that healthy older adults recruit addi-
tional brain regions than young adults, to compensate
Important Scientific Research and for neural declines in other regions. Roberto Cabeza
Open Questions and others (2002) have used ▶ neuroimaging methods
One of the open debates about cognitive aging is to show that younger adults often recruit brain struc-
whether age-related cognitive deficits are domain- tures on one side or another for various cognitive tasks
general or domain-specific. Domain-general theorists (for example, recruiting the left, but not right, ▶ hip-
suggest that there is one specific deficit that underlies pocampus when learning new information); healthy
all of the age-related impairments. For example, Lynn older adults, however, will often recruit structures
Hasher and Rose Zacks (1988) have suggested that bilaterally (for example, recruiting the hippocampus
older adults’ cognitive impairments arise from a on both sides when learning new information).
deficiency in inhibitory ability. Inhibition theory
hypothesizes that older adults are less good than
young adults at inhibiting thoughts and actions, and
Cross-References
▶ Emotional Regulation
therefore have more difficulty appropriately deploying
▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
attention (and ignoring extraneous information).
▶ Individual Differences in Learning
Older adults are therefore constantly juggling more
▶ Memory Dynamics
information, which leads to memory and processing
▶ Verbal Learning and Aging
speed deficiencies. Other researchers have suggested
that sensory deficiencies – such as loss of hearing and
vision – underlie older adults’ impairment; if informa- References
tion is harder to process, then it becomes harder to Cabeza, R., Anderson, N. D., Locantore, J. K., & McIntosh, A. R.
select, maintain, update, and remember that informa- (2002). Aging gracefully: Compensatory brain activity in high-
tion. Processing speed, as described earlier, is another performing older adults. NeuroImage, 17, 1394–1402.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking
domain-general explanation.
time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American
By contrast, other researchers believe that cognitive Psychologist, 54, 165–181.
decline differentially affects specific aspects of cogni- Craik, F. I. M. (1986). A functional account of age differences
tion. Rather than the existence of a common thread in memory. In F. Klix & H. Hagendorf (Eds.), Human
 Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies C 563

memory and cognitive capabilities, mechanisms and performance Learning strategies are to be placed at a medium
(pp. 409–422). New York: Elsevier. level of granularity. They differ from learning styles,
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension,
that is, general approaches to learning, a widely used
and aging: A review and a new view. The Psychology of Learning
and Motivation, 22, 193–225. distinction being that between deep level and surface
Luchies, C. W., Schiffman, J., Richards, L. G., Thompson, M. R., level approaches to learning. A learning technique or C
Bazuin, D., & DeYoung, A. J. (2002). Effects of age, step direction, tactic, such as underlining a keyword definition while
and reaction condition on the ability to step quickly. The Journals of studying a text, constitutes a smaller unit of thought or
Gerontology, Series A, 57, M246–M249.
behavior than a learning strategy. Hence, learning strat-
Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2000). Adult age differences in memory per-
formance: Tests of an associative deficit hypothesis. Journal of egies can be understood as collections of learning tech-
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, niques orchestrated by the learner.
1170–1187. Learning strategies are central to models of self-
Stern, Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, T. K., Tang, M. X., Wilder, D., & regulated learning and some researchers equate skilled
Mayeux, R. (1994). Influence of education and occupation on the execution of learning strategies with self-regulated
incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. The Journal of the American
learning. Self-regulated or strategic learners are assumed
Medical Association, 271, 1004–1010.
to have knowledge of various learning strategies, employ
appropriate strategies in order to attain their learning
goals, and flexibly adapt their choice of strategies to the
task and context they face.
Cognitive and Affective
Learning Strategies Theoretical Background
The role of the learner’s deliberate thought processes and
ISABEL BRAUN, JOHANNES GURLITT, MATTHIAS NÜCKLES strategic behaviors in bringing about learning outcomes
Department of Educational Science, University of began to be investigated in the 1960s as a result of the
Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany fundamental paradigm shift in cognitive and educa-
tional psychology. As the behaviorist view of learning
as a strengthening of responses to stimuli by means
Synonyms of rewards became replaced by the cognitive view of
Learning skills; Self-regulated learning strategies; Self- learning as information processing, researchers turned
regulatory processes; Study skills; Study strategies their attention to basic cognitive learning strategies,
particularly mnemonic strategies. But it was not until
Definition the emergence of the constructivist paradigm in psy-
A college student who prepares for an exam by sum- chology and education that researchers focused on com-
marizing the textbook chapters assigned by the course plex learning strategies. At the heart of constructivism is
instructor, drawing a map of key concepts, monitoring the view of learning as active information processing:
his understanding while drawing the map, setting goals The learner actively selects and organizes to-be-learned
on a daily basis, and checking his progress against the information in working memory and integrates new
goals uses a repertoire of learning strategies. When an information with information stored in long-term
elementary school student practices a poem by repeat- memory. This view of the learner as a sense maker
ing the lines over and over again, researchers also refer entails the assumption that the learner employs cogni-
to this behavior as a learning strategy. The term learn- tive learning strategies that are more complex than, for
ing strategy denotes thoughts and behaviors the learner example, mnemonic strategies (Mayer 1996).
employs with the intention of acquiring knowledge and There are a number of taxonomies or systems for
improving task performance (Weinstein and Mayer categorizing learning strategies. The broad distinc-
1986). In line with this definition, learning strategies tion between primary strategies (aimed at cognitive
can be cognitive and affective. Cognitive learning strat- processing) and support (or affective) strategies is
egies exert a direct influence on knowledge acquisition, widely recognized and accommodates the finding that
whereas affective learning strategies facilitate learning learners who have a repertoire of cognitive learning
via, for example, motivation and volition. strategies may not succeed in achieving certain learning
564 C Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies

outcomes. Both skill (the ability to select appropriate Support strategies or affective learning strategies
cognitive learning strategies and execute them success- exert an indirect influence on cognitive processing.
fully) and will (the motivational and volitional require- When learners employ affective learning strategies
ments for effective strategy use) are necessary. they aim at setting a positive mood for learning,
In their well-known taxonomy of learning strate- arranging the environment to be suitable for studying,
gies, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) distinguished six managing internal and external resources such as con-
types of cognitive learning strategies: rehearsal strate- centration and time, and coping with anxiety and other
gies for basic and complex learning tasks, elaboration emotions about learning. The focus of research on
strategies for basic and complex learning tasks, and affective learning strategies has not been, however, on
organizational strategies for basic and complex learn- the strategies just described but on strategies targeting
ing tasks. Hence, Weinstein and Mayer considered motivation and volition. Motivational learning strate-
both the specific functions of learning strategies with gies include, for example, goal setting strategies and
regard to information processing as well as differences strategies for sustaining academic self-efficacy. The
in the complexity of learning tasks. Rehearsal strate- learner employs volitional learning strategies to
gies, such as mentally reciting keyword definitions, form intentions and maintain commitment toward
serve the cognitive functions of selection (transfer of learning goals, particularly in the face of competing
new information into working memory) and acquisi- non-academic tasks and activities. The focus on moti-
tion (transfer into long-term memory). The cognitive vational and volitional learning strategies might stem
functions of elaboration strategies are construction from research providing insights into the major diffi-
and integration. According to Weinstein and Mayer, culties experienced by self-regulated learners. One of
the learner constructs connections between pieces these difficulties is procrastination. It has been concep-
of new information or integrates new information tualized as a failure to exert volitional control over one’s
with prior knowledge when generating elaborations, own learning, meaning procrastinators fail to employ
such as mental images or analogies. Today, most appropriate strategies for managing their commitment
researchers define only the latter process, that is, the toward learning goals.
construction of connections between new information
and prior knowledge, as elaboration. Organizational Important Scientific Research and
strategies, the remaining type of cognitive learning Open Questions
strategies in the Weinstein and Mayer taxonomy, are Empirical research on cognitive and affective learning
directed at the construction of internal connections strategies has centered on the development of strategic
within new information. Outlining a textbook chapter learning and on the training of learning strategies.
is an example of an organizational strategy. In addition Research indicates that strategy use increases with age
to cognitive learning strategies, Weinstein and Mayer and that the development of strategic learning follows
included affective strategies and comprehension moni- a trajectory from rudimentary, sporadic strategy use to
toring strategies in their taxonomy of learning strategies. appropriate, consistent strategy use. When trained or
Self-monitoring of comprehension during learn- prompted young children benefit from and can acquire
ing constitutes a metacognitive learning strategy. cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies even
Metacognitive learning strategies also include planning before they enter the elementary grades. In the second-
and reflection. Models of self-regulated learning stress ary grades, learners enlarge their repertoire of learning
the importance of metacognitive activities during strategies and eventually have sophisticated cognitive
learning and there is ample evidence that these and metacognitive learning strategies at their disposal
activities indeed contribute to learning. However, cog- (e.g., Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons 1990). However,
nitive and metacognitive learning strategies are very several deficiencies regarding the acquisition and use
much intertwined as metacognitive strategies operate of learning strategies have been identified and some
on domain knowledge. Therefore, the effectiveness of of them have been linked to developmental processes.
employing metacognitive learning strategies when they Young children have been demonstrated to have a
do not form part of a well-orchestrated repertoire of mediation deficiency (Flavell et al. 1966), which refers
cognitive learning strategies has to be considered small. to executing a cognitive or metacognitive learning
 Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies C 565

strategy in an inadequate or incomplete way and problem solving, or foreign language learning. One
hence failing to benefit from it. Learners who show of the best known direct interventions is reciprocal
a mediation deficiency are at a cognitive developmental teaching (Palinscar and Brown 1984). Reciprocal teach-
level that does not permit them to construct the cogni- ing was designed to facilitate the acquisition and trans-
tive “mediators” required for adequate and full execu- fer of reading comprehension strategies in the regular C
tion of the learning strategy. In other cases, learners classroom. During reciprocal teaching, students read
show production deficiencies (Flavell et al. 1966): a text passage by passage and take turns in executing
Although they may spontaneously produce appropri- a sequence of cognitive and metacognitive learning
ate cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies, strategies: asking questions, summarizing, seeking clar-
they typically fail to do so. In yet other cases, learners ification, and making predictions. The teacher models
at the secondary and college levels fail to benefit and scaffolds the use of each strategy, fading his/her
from their use of cognitive and metacognitive learn- support as students gain proficiency in executing the
ing strategies although they spontaneously produce strategies. The effectiveness of reciprocal teaching has
appropriate strategies. It has been suggested that been established in field and laboratory studies. Recip-
utilization deficiencies (Miller 1994) underlie the rocal teaching produces short-term and long-term
failure to benefit from the use of cognitive and effects on measures of comprehension, strategy knowl-
metacognitive learning strategies once the learner has edge and skills, and transfer to novel tasks.
completed the developmental trajectory for a specific The implementation of learning journals as an
strategy. Which factors contribute to the occurrence adjunct to classroom instruction at the secondary level
of utilization deficiencies is not yet completely under- or as a supplement to traditional college coursework
stood. Among the causal mechanisms discussed are forms an example of an indirect learning strategy inter-
high cognitive load during initial strategy use, insuffi- vention. The learning journal constitutes a specific writ-
cient metacognitive self-regulation, low perceived ing task that requires students to organize, elaborate,
self-efficacy and cognitive developmental factors, and reflect on learning contents, typically over an
particularly working-memory capacity limitations dur- extended period of time (Nückles et al. 2009). It has
ing childhood. been demonstrated to produce learning gains and to
At the most general level, learning strategy inter- promote the acquisition of cognitive and metacognitive
ventions differ in how they promote effective strategy learning strategies. For the potential benefits of learn-
use. Learning strategies can be trained directly through ing journals to unfold, however, instructional support
explicit instruction on the cognitive, metacognitive, appears necessary. Such support can be provided, for
and affective components of strategic learning. But example, through strategy prompts embedded in the
they can also be trained indirectly in learning environ- writing instruction. The ineffectiveness of learning
ments that facilitate or require strategic learning. Some journals written without instructional support, which
researchers argue that it may be most productive to emerged in early studies, seemed to confirm concerns
combine elements of direct and indirect interventions about indirect learning strategy interventions that had
to promote the acquisition of learning strategies. How- been raised since the early decades of research on learn-
ever, the appropriate balance of explicit instruction and ing strategies (e.g., Weinstein and Mayer 1986). How-
implicit facilitation has yet to be established through ever, powerful evidence of the effectiveness of guided
empirical studies. journal writing has weakened these concerns.
Numerous studies on direct interventions are At the conceptual level, a central issue of debate
reported in the learning strategies literature. Altogether, among researchers is the nature of strategic learning.
these studies show that direct interventions are effective Underlying the taxonomy of learning strategies, the
when they are carried out over an extended period of developmental model and the training approaches
time, provide the learner with information about when outlined above is the assumption that skill and will,
to use which learning strategy, and include instruction that is, relatively stable learner characteristics, underlie
on metacognitive strategies, that is, planning, self- the use of learning strategies. Several researchers have
monitoring, and control strategies. Most direct argued, however, that the nature of strategic learning
interventions target reading, writing, mathematical has to be conceptualized differently. Two alternative
566 C Cognitive and Noncognitive Processes

but reconcilable conceptualizations for strategic learn-

ing have been proposed. First, drawing on empirical Cognitive and Noncognitive
studies showing small if any relationships between Processes
learners’ self-reported, habitual strategy use and achieve-
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling
ment measures, researchers have suggested to conceptu-
alize the use of learning strategies as situational and not
as dispositional. Accordingly, learning strategies would
have to be understood as strategic actions that are spe-
cific to the respective task and context faced by the Cognitive Anthropology
learner. Second, based largely on the same evidence,
other researchers have advanced the notion of prefer- ▶ Anthropology of Learning and Cognition
ences (and not competence or aptitude) underlying the
use of learning strategies. Recent efforts to resolve con-
ceptual and methodological issues on self-regulated
learning, particularly the refinement of on-line trace
methodologies, might help to bring about more clarity
Cognitive Apprenticeship
on the nature of strategic learning in the future. ▶ Situated Learning

Cross-References
▶ Elaboration Effects on Learning
▶ Elaboration Strategies and Human Resources
Development Cognitive Apprenticeship
▶ Learning Styles Learning
▶ Metacognition and Learning
▶ Self-Regulated Learning JOANNA K. GARNER
▶ Self-Regulation and Motivation Strategies Berks College Department of Psychology,
The Pennsylvania State University, Reading, PA, USA
References
Flavell, J. H., Beach, D. R., & Chinsky, J. M. (1966). Spontaneous
verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child
Development, 37(2), 283–299. Synonyms
Mayer, R. E. (1996). Learning strategies for making sense out of Reciprocal teaching; Scaffolding; Situated cognition;
expository text: The SOI model for guiding three cognitive Situated learning
processes in knowledge construction. Educational Psychology
Review, 8(4), 357–371.
Miller, P. H. (1994). Individual differences in children’s strategic Definition
behaviors: Utilization deficiencies. Learning and Individual Cognitive apprenticeship learning is situated within
Differences, 6(3), 285–307. social constructivist approaches to instruction. It pri-
Nückles, M., Hübner, S., & Renkl, A. (2009). Enhancing self-regulated oritizes the use of authentic tasks and situations, and
learning by writing learning protocols. Learning and Instruction,
the role of interactions between more and less skilled
19, 259–271.
Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of
individuals in order to foster the development of
comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activ- metacognitive strategies and domain-specific problem-
ities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117–175. solving skills. A focus on cognitive rather than physical
Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning skill development and the use of planned rather than
strategies. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research in entirely naturalistic opportunities for skill development
teaching (Vol. 3, pp. 315–327). New York: Macmillan.
and practice differentiate cognitive apprenticeship from
Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences
in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to more traditional models of craft apprenticeship.
self-efficacy and strategy use. Journal of Educational Psychology, A key process goal of cognitive apprenticeships is
82(1), 51–59. to make otherwise tacit cognitive and metacognitive
 Cognitive Apprenticeship Learning C 567

processes explicitly available during the performance of the type of contextually embedded practice of authen-
complex tasks. This is done via the instructor serving tic skills that supports the development of expertise
as an expert and coach who models and verbalizes and, instead, limits the development of content mas-
their thought process as well as supporting increasingly tery and undermines intrinsic motivation. Apprentice-
independent and reflective practice of these same pro- ships offer opportunities for the learner to engage in C
cesses by the learner. Specifically, according to Collins meaningful and contextualized practice of transferable
et al. (1987), the instructor uses the timely implemen- knowledge and skills (Collins et al. 1987). Accordingly,
tation of three instructional methods designed to facil- not only is domain knowledge viewed as epistemolog-
itate the acquisition of skills (modeling, coaching, and ically inseparable from the context in which it will be
scaffolding), two methods designed to improve the used, but on a practical level, it must be acquired within
clarity of observation and self-observation (articula- contextualized instructional experiences in order to
tion and reflection), and one method designed to pro- be available during problems requiring generalization
mote learner autonomy (exploration). These methods and transfer.
are grounded in social learning theory because learners Cognitive apprenticeship differs from traditional
observe, enact, and respond to feedback. Cognitive instruction in two key ways. First, its social construc-
apprenticeship techniques make use of scaffolding, tivist foundation incorporates a view of meaning as
which allows students to perform at a higher level something that is negotiated and developed among
than they would otherwise be able to if acting alone individuals who reside within a community. Dialogic
because of the instructor’s accuracy in monitoring and interactions between teachers and students are thus
diagnosing each student’s current ability level. These essential to the learning process. All are expected to
methods broadly align with research on the contextu- be actively engaged in discovering, articulating, model-
ally situated nature of expertise, in part because encul- ing, and refining conceptions of the content as well
turation into an expert community is adopted as an as the conditions under which that content can be
implicit instructional goal. Finally, these methods draw meaningfully used and how such conclusions came
upon stage-based descriptions of skill acquisition in about. Second, cognitive apprenticeship learning
which the goal is for the learner to be able to execute involves the practice of authentic tasks instead of iso-
their skills automatically and in a wide variety of appro- lated component skills. The role of the teacher thus
priate contexts. becomes one of coach and facilitator, whose job is to
assist students as they interact with complex and mean-
Theoretical Background ingful problems – first through modeling, then scaf-
Within a professional domain, experts display the folding, then prompted reflection. Thus, learners move
ability to identify and solve problems because they toward more expert-like performance because they
possess a substantial body of interconnected con- have the chance to observe, discuss, and receive feed-
ceptual knowledge and accessible procedural heuris- back on their use of strategies. They acquire flexible,
tics or decision-making strategies (Collins et al. task-oriented problem-solving strategies, and become
1987). Experts also have a wealth of cognitive and more articulate about their strategy use because of an
metacognitive knowledge and strategies at their dis- increased ability to reflect meaningfully on the learning
posal, but the seemingly effortless execution of these process itself.
strategies often renders the complex constituents of Cognitive apprenticeship is possible because of sev-
these processes invisible to the novice learner (Mayer eral key psychological concepts. One, articulated by
1991). Proponents of cognitive apprenticeship learning Bandura (1977) through his social learning theory, is
have argued that traditional schooling reduces the the idea that humans have a tremendous capacity to
opportunity to observe and emulate authentic problem learn through the actions and verbalizations of another
solving, isolates the presentation and use of informa- person. Bandura called this person a model, and thus,
tion from the contexts in which it will be relevant, and the term “modeling” was adopted to refer to cognitive
masks expert-like thought processes from novice and behavioral displays meant to teach another
learners (Brown et al. 1989). Thus, it does not foster person. In cognitive apprenticeship, the teacher serves
568 C Cognitive Apprenticeship Learning

as the initial model, but as students progress, they are 1. Modeling: In modeling, the expert carries out a task
encouraged to adopt this role for one another. A second or solves a problem. This is done in such a way that
key concept is the process of scaffolding (Vygotsky students can observe the required steps, but also can
1978). In scaffolding, a more skilled person provides listen to the control processes and decisions that the
assistance to allow a less skilled individual the oppor- expert uses along the way.
tunity to perform at a level that he or she could not do 2. Coaching: In coaching, students are provided with
alone. The facilitator ensures the maintenance of a zone prompts, feedback, and other reminders pertinent
of proximal development, a conceptual space through to the successful completion of a specific task.
which the learner progresses as skills are developed. 3. Scaffolding: In scaffolding, teachers provide physi-
Scaffolding processes include verbal and physical cal and verbal prompts and support but only to the
prompts such as questions during expository text read- degree that the teacher completes parts of the task
ing, or cue cards for presented during composition which the students cannot autonomously attempt.
processes. Scaffolding also includes the joint comple- As skill levels increase, supports are removed
tion of task components which cannot be achieved through the process of fading.
independently. In combining these concepts of model- 4. Articulation: In articulation, teachers prompt stu-
ing and scaffolding, cognitive apprenticeship calls dents to explicitly state their approaches and strat-
upon the teacher to simultaneously model expert-like egies, and to characterize their beliefs about the
skills and provide appropriate scaffolds during each domain or skill.
stage of the learning process. A third important concept 5. Reflection: In reflection, a reflection on process is
is the important role played by metacognitive strategies permitted via analysis of recent performance. This
in domain expertise. In addition to declarative, pro- can take place via verbal review or by reviewing
cedural, and conditional knowledge, experts possess a recording.
a significant capacity to recognize patterns, connect 6. Exploration: In exploration, students are encour-
problem states with solution paths, and execute strat- aged to seek and define new problems within the
egies that yield solutions (Mayer 1991). The novice domain, in order to practice using and transferring
learner therefore benefits from metacognitive reflection skills from one context to another.
by the expert who is modeling the skill in order to learn
the conditions under which particular strategies are Important Scientific Research and
used and how troubleshooting may occur. This allows Open Questions
the novice to understand how and why problems are Initially, the cognitive apprenticeship approach was
framed, approached, and solved. Thus, the expert identified in programs designed to improve reading
thinks out loud and uses appropriate prompting tech- comprehension, writing, and mathematics skills.
niques within a collaborative dialogue in which options Collins et al. (1987) describe these techniques in detail.
for solving a problem or completing a task are explic- They are reciprocal teaching (Palinscar and Brown
itly verbalized. In application, this may mean that the 1984), procedural facilitation of writing (Bereiter and
teacher models how to generate appropriate “why” Scardamalia 1987), and Schoenfeld’s (1994) approach
questions while reading, how to revise the first draft to teaching mathematical problem solving. Of these,
of an essay, and how to dissect math problems into reciprocal teaching has garnered the most empirical
givens and unknowns. attention. Employed in elementary, middle, and high
Alongside this argument for the benefits of school settings, reciprocal teaching is a reading com-
a situated learning approach, Collins et al. (1987) prehension strategy instruction method where teachers
presented a framework for cognitive apprenticeship and students alternate between reading and then
learning that included six processes teachers use to discussing the content and the metacognitive processes
promote student learning. During learning episodes required to comprehend the text. Working in small
which are carefully sequenced for increasing com- groups, teachers and students take turns to lead the
plexity and diversity of required skill, the following discussion. Scaffolding and prompting takes place as
take place: necessary, and over time, the goal is to fade the usage of
 Cognitive Apprenticeship Learning C 569

such prompts due to the increasingly expert-like nature ubiquitous presence of the type of social interaction
of the students’ reading strategies. required for successful apprenticeship-based lessons.
In their seminal research, Palinscar and Brown Cognitive apprenticeship models often assume that
(1984, study 1) used reciprocal teaching techniques in learners are able and willing to engage in extensive
a group of seventh grade students with poor compre- collaborative discussion in which their inner thought C
hension skills. Comparison groups received instruction processes can be articulated. Järvelä identified the need
on how to locate information during testing, or to investigate the process of individualizing instruc-
participated in the testing schedule but received no tion, since scaffolding and modeling often need to be
additional instruction. After the intervention, compre- adjusted to suit the needs of linguistically, motivation-
hension accuracy increased from 30% to 80% for the ally, and socially diverse learners.
experimental group, who also performed at or above Along similar lines, relatively little emphasis has been
grade level on measures of skill generalization and placed on gathering data to measure the moment-by-
transfer. Dialogue analyses showed that as time went moment interactions among students and between
on, more expert-like questioning and summarization students and teachers. It is important to understand
strategies were used by the experimental group. These how the process of apprenticeship, as revealed through
results have been replicated – in a review of 16 quanti- small group processes, leads to the achievements
tative studies of reciprocal teaching, Rosenshine and documented in many studies. This may require mixed
Meister (1994) reported a median effect size of 0.32 methods research that can connect intra-individual,
and 0.88 for standardized and experimenter-developed inter-individual, and contextual variables with learning
comprehension tests, respectively. However, in a qual- outcomes. In addition, research is needed to document
itative analysis assessing the success of adopting recip- the long-term feasibility and success of classrooms that
rocal teaching methods, Hacker and Tenent (2002) adopt cognitive apprenticeship methods, whether these
reported that teachers encountered difficulties in are defined from a teacher, learner, or administrative
ensuring that groups of students stayed on-task, used perspective. Finally, questions have been raised about
strategies effectively, and generated sufficiently inter- the legitimacy of the claim that tasks used to teach
rogative questions. Enduring challenges of adopting within apprenticeship-based lessons are truly authen-
cognitive apprenticeship models may therefore be tic, as well as the context and conditions in which cogni-
how to balance classroom logistics and developmental tive apprenticeship techniques are most appropriate and
needs in the absence of low student-to-teacher ratios, feasible. Apprenticeship approaches seems to be most
and how to effectively train teachers to become flexible successful in content domains where a metacognitive or
in their implementation of apprenticeship-liked teach- self-regulatory process lies at the heart of what needs to
ing strategies. be learned, and where problem solving is integral to
Other examples of cognitive apprenticeship tech- the desired skill. This is the case even when the tasks
niques can be found in areas such as science and scien- presented cannot always be considered to be entirely
tific inquiry (Roth and Bowen 1995), instructional authentic. But when students must undergo radical cog-
technology, computer programming, teacher profes- nitive restructuring as well as domain-related skill devel-
sional development, medicine, and psychology (Järvelä opment, such as in the case of conceptual change in
1996). Each emphasizes qualities of situated learning science, apprenticeship models may prove to be less
that map onto cognitive apprenticeship, such as learn- successful (Vosniadou 2007).
ing in a social context through the joint considera-
tion of ill-defined problems, and the importance of Cross-References
drawing upon the knowledge of peers or instructors ▶ Apprenticeship-Based Learning in Production
who demonstrate higher levels of expertise (Roth and Schools
Bowen 1995). However, in a review, Järvelä (1996) ▶ Scaffolding
identified several areas that would benefit from addi- ▶ Self-regulated Learning
tional research. She criticized proponents of cognitive ▶ Situated Learning
apprenticeship for making assumptions about the ▶ Socio-constructivist Models of Learning
570 C Cognitive Apprenticeship Modeling

References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Cognitive Architecture
Learning.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). Fostering evaluative, diagnos-
A theory, expressed as a suite of computer programs
tic and remedial capabilities. In C. Bereiter & M. Scardamalia that provides specification for structures and related
(Eds.), The psychology of written composition (pp. 265–298). processes of the cognitive system. Models derived from
Hillsdale: Erlbaum. the architecture are typically used to explain phenom-
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and ena in several domains.
the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32–42.
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Neuman, (1987). Cognitive apprentice-
ship: teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. Cross-References
Technical Report No. 403. Center for the Study of Reading. ERIC
▶ Schema-Based Architectures of Machine Learning
Document 284181.
Hacker, D. J., & Tenent, A. (2002). Implementing reciprocal teaching
in the classroom: Overcoming obstacles and making modifica-
tions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 699–718.
Järvelä, S. (1996). New models of teacher-student interaction:
A critical review. European Journal of Psychology of Education,
11, 249–268. Cognitive Artifacts and
Mayer, R. E. (1991). Thinking, problem solving, cognition. New York: Developmental Learning in
Worth.
Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of com-
a Humanoid Robot
prehension fostering and comprehension monitoring activities.
Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175. ARTUR ARSÉNIO
Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of
the research. Review of Educational Research, 64, 479–530. Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
Roth, W.-M., & Bowen, G. M. (1995). Knowing and Interacting:
A study of culture, practices, and resources in a grade 8 open-
inquiry science classroom guided by a cognitive apprenticeship
metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13, 73–128. Synonyms
Schoenfeld, A. (1994). Reflections on doing and teaching mathemat- Artificial intelligence; Educating robots, teaching
ics. In A. Schoenfeld (Ed.), Mathematical thinking and problem robots as humans; Human-aided machine learning;
solving (pp. 53–69). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Human-robot social interactions
Vosniadou, S. (2007). The cognitive-situative divide and the
problem of conceptual change. Educational Psychologist, 42,
55–66. Definition
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psy-
Development Learning in a humanoid robot defines
chological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
an incremental, staged methodology for machine
learning based on similar principles that guide chil-
dren’s development. It is therefore strongly tied to
developmental psychology, according to the epigenetic
principle: as each stage progresses, it establishes the
Cognitive Apprenticeship foundation for the next stages. Cognitive Artifacts are
Modeling a humanoid robot’s (and a child’s) learning aids –
▶ Expert Cognitive Modeling and Problem-Based or cognitive enhancers – such as books, toys, puzzles,
Learning drawing boards, or construction bricks, employed by
a caregiver in order to guide development learning
of a humanoid robot. They are an important tool
to achieve socially intelligent humanoid robots
(Arsenio 2004a, b) – introducing robots into our soci-
Cognitive Approach ety and treating them as us – using child development
as a metaphor for developmental learning of a human-
▶ Situated Cognition oid robot.
 Cognitive Artifacts and Developmental Learning in a Humanoid Robot C 571

Theoretical Background as introduced by Vygotsky refers to guidance provided

Research on Development Learning for a humanoid by adults that helps a child (or a humanoid robot) to
robot has been gaining momentum as several research meet the demands of a complex task. The goal is to
groups argue that this is an essential strategy in order increase the chance of a robot succeeding by making
for the robot to achieve eventually human-level cogni- the task of learning something about the world a little C
tive capabilities. As such, scientists have claimed for the easier in some way. Examples of scaffolding includes
usage of Cognitive Artifacts by a human caregiver in the reduction of distractions and the description of
order to teach the robot as a child. a task’s most important attributes, before the robot
Turing, the creator of the famous Turing test to (or an infant) is cognitively apt to do it by itself.
evaluate artificial intelligence of computers, suggested
that, instead of producing programs to simulate the Important Scientific Research and
adult mind, we should rather develop one which simu- Open Questions
lates the child’s mind. He also suggested that an appro- Several research fields have been interested in develop-
priate course of education would lead to the adult brain. mental learning for robots besides engineers and com-
Infants develop both functionally and physically puter scientists, such as psychologists, philosophers,
as they grow. Such development is very important for neuroscientists, anthropologists, biologists, among
infants’ learning. Evidence suggests that infants have others.
several preferences and capabilities shortly after birth. Previous approaches for transferring skills from
Such predispositions may be innate or pre-acquired human to robots rely heavily on human gesture recog-
in the mother’s womb. Inspired by infants’ innate nition, or haptic interfaces for detecting human
or pre-acquired capabilities, the robot is initially motion. Environments are often oversimplified to
preprogrammed for the detection of real-world stimu- facilitate the perception of the task sequence. Other
lus. These preferences correspond to the initial robot’s approaches based on human–robot interactions consist
capabilities (similar to the information stored on of visually identifying simple guiding actions (such as
human genes – the genotype) programmed into the direction following, or collision), for which the struc-
robot to process these events. Starting from this set of ture and the goal of the task are well known.
premises, the robot should be able to incrementally Teaching robots as if they were babies exploiting
build a knowledge database and extrapolate this knowl- humans as caregivers has been the focus of research
edge to different problem domains (the social, emo- work by (Metta et al. 2000; Kozima and Yano 2001;
tional, cultural, developmental learning will set the Breazeal and Aryananda 2000; Fitzpatrick 2003; Arsenio
basis for the phenotype). For instance, the robot learns 2004a, b). Learning from Demonstration is also one
the representation of a geometric shape from a book approach employed for developing incrementally cog-
(Arsenio 2004b), and is thereafter able to identify ani- nitive capabilities on a humanoid robot. This strategy
mate gestures or world structures with such a shape. Or has been used for a robot to learn autonomously infor-
the robot learns from a human how to poke an object, mation about unknown objects (Fitzpatrick 2003;
and uses afterwards such knowledge to poke objects to Arsenio 2004a), employing strategies that include sim-
extract their visual appearance (Fitzpatrick 2003). ple actions such as grabbing or poking an object to
Robots can therefore boost their learning capabilities learn its underlying structure. Learning aids, such as
both by acting on the environment or by observing books, were also used as another source of information
other person’s actions. that can be transmitted to a robot through a human
In contingency learning, the simple contingent (Arsenio 2004b).
presence of the caregiver and the objects involved in Through social interactions of Cog – a humanoid
the action provide the necessary cues for an infant to robot at MIT – with an instructor, the latter facilitates
learn. In the field of robot learning, it is often equated robot’s perception and learning in the same way as
to reinforcement learning. The robot Kismet (Breazeal human teachers facilitate children’s perception and
and Aryananda 2000) relied heavily on caregivers to learning during child development phases. The robot
socially transfer abilities to the robot (as they do to will then be able to further develop its action compe-
infants) by means of scaffolding. The term scaffolding tencies, to learn more about objects, and to act on them
572 C Cognitive Artifacts, Technology, and Physics Learning

using simple actions such as shaking (Fitzpatrick 2003;

Arsenio 2004a). These works show how object recog- Cognitive Artifacts,
nition and robot experimental manipulation evolve Technology, and Physics
developmentally from human demonstration. By Learning
transferring the manipulation skill from human to
robot, the latter can generate equally training data VÍTOR DUARTE TEODORO1, JUDAH L. SCHWARTZ2,
to the object recognition algorithm. For instance, RUI GOMES NEVES1
1
(Arsenio 2004a) shows that by having the robot ham- Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade
mering on a table, the perceptual system extracts visual Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
2
templates of the object which is thereafter recognized as Department of Education & Department of Physics
the same object previously segmented from human and Astronomy, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
demonstration.
Indeed, a large range of applications were investi-
gated in which the humanoid robot Cog was taught as Synonyms
a child by a human caregiver, exploiting human–robot Concrete–abstract objects and cognition; Imagined
interactions for emulating cognitive capabilities on worlds; Worlds from ideas
the robot. Such development was inspired both by
Vygotsky and Margaret Mahler’s child developmental Definition
theories, with several developmental milestones, as Certain types of computer software are powerful cog-
predicted by Mahler’s theory, implemented on Cog nitive artifacts (Norman 1991). A cognitive artifact is
(Arsenio 2004a). a tool to enhance cognition, allowing the user to create
and explore “concrete–abstract objects” and “worlds
Cross-References from ideas” and check how well these “worlds” can
▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies correspond to “real worlds,” or make sense of “imag-
▶ Cognitive Learning ined worlds.” Cognitive artifacts can become an essen-
▶ Cognitive Robotics tial tool in teaching and learning in physics education,
▶ Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and making learning of complex abstract concepts and
Learning models more significative and epistemologically
▶ Developmental Robotics grounded.
▶ Human–Robot Interaction What I cannot create I cannot understand (text
found on Richard Feynman’s blackboard at the time
References of his death).
Arsenio, A. M. (2004a). Children, humanoid robots and caregivers.
Fourth international workshop on epigenetic robotics.
Arsenio, A. M. (2004b). On the use of cognitive artifacts for develop-
Theoretical Background
mental learning in a humanoid robot. In Lecture notes in com-
puter science. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. ISSN 0302-9743. Learning Physics, Conceptual
Breazeal, C., & Aryananda, L. (2000). Recognition of affective com- Difficulties, Familiarization, and
municative intent in robot-directed speech. Proceedings of the Reification
International IEEE/RSJ Conference on Humanoid Robotics.
Physics is a relatively new subject in the secondary
Fitzpatrick, P. (2003). First contact: Segmenting unfamiliar objects by
poking them. Proceedings of the IEEE/RSJ International Confer- curriculum. Only in the second half of the nineteenth
ence on Intelligent Robots and Systems. century did science education become part of the cur-
Kozima, H., & Yano, H. (2001). A robot that learns to communicate riculum, and only in the second half of the twentieth
with human caregivers. Proceedings of the First International century did physics, or physics and chemistry, com-
Workshop on Epigenetic Robotics.
monly become an autonomous subject in the devel-
Metta, G., Panerai, F., Manzotti, R., & Sandini, G. (2000). Babybot:
An artificial developing robotic agent. From animals to animals:
oped countries.
Sixth international conference on the simulation of adaptive behav- Teaching and learning physics has always been
ior (SAB 2000). considered a difficult task by most teachers and
 Cognitive Artifacts, Technology, and Physics Learning C 573

students (see, e.g., Reif 2008). However, for Richard when he felt he did not fully understand quantum
Feynman (1918–1988), a famous physicist and Nobel mechanics. As Davies wrote (1997, pp. 420–421):
Prize winner, “subjects like philosophy and psychology
" If teachers continue to give the impression that they do
are hard, but physics is easy and that’s precisely why we
have a better basic understanding of such fundamen-
know so much about it.” But if physics is “easy,” why is
tals than their students, the students will see their own
C
it difficult to teach and learn? Certainly, there are many
perplexity and uncertainty as a negative reflection on
reasons for that. One, surely not the least important, is
their own capabilities. Even in this group today there
that teachers soon face the harsh reality of how deep
will be some of you who will remember the relief you
and extensive their students’ difficulties are and how
felt when you could use some equation, and your
naı̈ve it is to assume that kids are just as enthusiastic
mathematics, to answer a problem, rather than stay
about the curriculum as they are.
with your uncertainties regarding the concepts
Besides the many social-cultural problems teachers
involved. We learn and teach others to use mathemat-
face in their teaching, it can be argued that learning
ics to manipulate the symbols associated with myster-
science, and physics in particular, is like learning a new
ies. This does not mean that we or they have a grasp of
language – a language that uses many of the same words
the mysteries themselves.
as ordinary language but with altered and far more
precise meanings. Physics deals with conceptual objects such as force,
The essence of the problem of learning the language velocity, energy, radiation, etc. These are all words that
of physics is learning to make conceptual distinctions are in common use in everyday language. In fact, many
among related but distinct concepts. It is, essentially, people will use words like momentum, force, and energy
a matter of familiarization with the lexicon of the interchangeably in casual conversation. Nonetheless, in
language and its proper use in specific contexts. Famil- physics these concepts and the words we use to name
iarization is an important issue when learning science these concepts are quite distinct. Force, in the language
(and mathematics). And, for some eminent scientists, of physics, is the “rate of change of momentum.”
becoming familiar with is so important to the success of Energy or work can be related to force as can momen-
scientific ideas that new ideas only become triumphant tum, but neither force nor momentum is conceptually
because supporters of old ideas die, as Planck wrote in the same as energy. Power is yet a different concept.
his autobiography (Planck 1950, pp. 33–34): “A new Another important issue in learning such abstract
scientific truth does not triumph by converting its concepts, and one that is intimately related to familiar-
opponents and making them see the light, but rather ization, is the issue of reification, that is, of concretiza-
because its opponents eventually die, and a new gener- tion of abstract objects. According to Wright and Wright
ation grows up that is familiar with it.” Scientists fre- (1998, p. 128), “Reification is a central goal [. . . of
quently say that they do not understand some of the learning science and mathematics]; it essentially
most fundamental concepts or theories in their own defines scientific literacy. It is the foundation for com-
field. For example, Feynman confessed that he did not mon sense about how the world works (. . .).”
really understand quantum mechanics. If we take the position that reification and familiar-
Experienced physics teachers also alert us to the ization are essential aspects of learning physics and
fragile nature of our understanding. For example, mathematics, we are led to ask how can such learning
many of the useful concepts of physics are, for teen- be improved with technology and, specifically, with
agers, mysterious and difficult to grasp; the nature of an computers? Hebenstreit, writing about the role of
electrostatic charge, of a magnetic field, of electromag- computers in education, coined a term that provides
netic wave propagation in vacuum, or of charm and an important insight into understanding how com-
color of quarks are examples. There is no absolute puters can help in the reification of knowledge. For
understanding or knowledge of the nature of these Hebenstreit, computers allow us to manipulate a new
entities, yet any young adult will certainly wonder type of object; a kind of object that he calls a concrete–
about their nature. In physics education, there is surely abstract object (Hebenstreit 1987). Concrete in the
the need for the kind of humility shown by Feynman, sense that they can be manipulated on the screen and
574 C Cognitive Artifacts, Technology, and Physics Learning

react as “real objects” and abstract because they might representations of non-concrete formal objects. This
be physical or mathematical constructs such as vectors, ability accounts, at least in part, for the increasing
equations, fields, etc. importance of computer visualization and simulation
Teachers tend to teach what they can teach, not in science in general and in physics in particular.
necessarily what they think it would be useful to Galison (1997), for example, wrote about the new
teach. This is what some authors call technological “epistemic position” of computers and simulations in
determinism. For example, most of the practical and the production of physics knowledge.
theoretical teaching is dependent on the limited math- Nickerson (1995) pointed out that researchers had
ematics that students (and also teachers) can use: sim- not focused on students as authors of simulations.
ple analytical tools that often need complex algebraic He argued that “it is only difficult, not impossible,
manipulation. But with computer tools, one can use and the work that goes into the successful building of
numerical approaches that can turn out to be simpler a microworld is likely to deepen one’s understanding
than analytical ones and lead to improved familiariza- of whatever the microworld is intended to simulate”
tion and reification of physics by students. (p. 16). To build simulations, one can use program-
A characteristic feature of using a computer as ming languages, but these often require technical
a cognitive artifact is that the emphasis is on meaning knowledge and skill outside of the domain being sim-
and semiquantitative reasoning instead of formulaic ulated. This is the reason why Nickerson proposed
solving of well-classified problem types. A good exam- the development of specific tools that can be used by
ple of what is semiquantitative reasoning can be done people without that knowledge (p. 16): “For student-
with a mathematical object such as dx/dt = 4  t. (For developed simulations to be practical for educational
the sake of concreteness, assume that x is a distance and purposes, it will probably be necessary to develop tools
t is a time – in that case the 4 represents an accelera- that are designated to facilitate the building of simula-
tion.) What does this tell us? First, the rate of change of tions by people without such language facility and
x is proportional to t and that means that the larger the programming experience.” Such tools have been devel-
value of t the larger the rate of change of x. More oped in the last decade (see, e.g., Teodoro 2003), and its
precisely, when t is 5 time units, for example, the rate impact has been assessed (see, e.g., Teodoro and Neves
of change will be, at that instant, 4  5 = 20 velocity 2011). These tools have been used extensively as an
units. If t is 10 time units, then the rate of change will be “integral part” of new curricula, such as Advancing
4  10 = 40 velocity units. That is, if t doubles, the rate Physics, developed by the Institute of Physics in the
of change of distance doubles. Moreover, x always UK (2000/2008).
increases for positive values of t. Consider another In the early 1980s, it was not clear how important
example: dx/dt = 4  x. (NB in this case the 4 represents and ubiquitous computers would become in our soci-
1 divided by a time or a frequency.) Now we have a rate ety. Now computers have changed working practices
of change of x that is proportional to x at any instant of and leisure activities, and everybody agrees that
time. For example, if x is zero, then the rate is also zero. using computers is part of literacy and numeracy. The
For a positive value of x, at any instant of time, the rate impact on science is so profound that, for the National
of change is positive and so x increases. Experts can Research Council (USA), scientific computation can
readily do this kind of semiquantitative reasoning even be considered a third fundamental methodology of
if they do not know the specific details of a calculation. science – parallel to the experimental and theoretical
Physics is a science in which visualization plays an approaches.
important role, even when visualization is only used to It has been pointed out that computers, like all
show mathematical objects, such as vectors or field technological innovations in schools, tend to follow
lines. It therefore seems reasonable to suppose that a cycle of high expectations, rhetoric about the need
computer visualization can help learners create mean- to innovate, oriented policy and finally limited use.
ing from manipulations of abstract objects. This capa- There have been many promises of radical change in
bility of the computer has been used extensively in education from technology enthusiasts. After intelli-
many contexts and is stressed by many authors, who gent tutoring systems, multimedia, Internet, etc., edu-
pointed out to the capability of making dynamic cators have become cautious of what can really make
 Cognitive Artifacts, Technology, and Physics Learning C 575

a difference. Educators increasingly tend to focus on into lectures, practical and laboratory work, what is the
supportive systems, on coaching and scaffolding. best way to integrate computer cognitive tools? How do
Groups such as the group that worked with the Educa- these tools relate with interactive digital documents?
tion Technology Center in Harvard between 1985 and We are beyond the point of needing short-term
1995 have initiated this perspective. The Harvard per- programs that assume that innovation is guaranteed C
spective was based on four principles (Harvard Educa- because it has proven to work with enthusiastic
tional Technology Center 1988): adopters. We need programs that encourage cumulative
improvement committed to ongoing slow but clear
Goals: Focus on key concepts and on the overall nature
change. Computer tools and computer networks have
of knowledge, evidence, and inquiry in a discipline.
an enormous potential impact in learning, and it will
Teaching Approaches: Help students develop a deep
increase as technology advances. But, as Seymour Papert
understanding of the subjects they study by taking
pointed out 30 years ago, there is a world of difference
into account their prior theories and by integrating
between what computers can do and what society will
teacher-directed instruction with opportunities
choose to do with them. We all face the challenge of using
and challenges for critical inquiry.
technology to empower learning (as well as other
Technology: Use technologies selectivity to make a dis-
human activities), and not to create a kind of Aldous
tinct contribution to teaching and learning, for
Huxley Brave New World where machines control
example, to present dynamic models of key ideas
everything, dehumanizing schools and learning.
or to enable students to participate in disciplined
inquiry. Cross-References
Implementation: Design technology-enhanced teaching ▶ Cognitive Artifacts and Developmental Learning in
modules and approaches that can be gradually and a Humanoid Robot
gracefully integrated into existing curriculum and ▶ Learning Through Artifacts in Engineering
practice. Education
As we can see in these statements, technology is not ▶ Models and Modeling in Science Learning
a goal in itself but a selective contribution “to make
a distinct contribution to teaching and learning.” And References
it is the teacher that really can make the difference Davies, B. (1997). Physics like you’ve never had before. Physics Edu-
cation, 32(6), 418–421.
in creating powerful educational environments with Galison, P. (1997). Image & logic, a material culture of microphysics.
technology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Harvard Educational Technology Center. (1988). Making sense of
Important Scientific Research and the future. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of
Open Questions Education.
Hebenstreit, J. (1987). Simulation et pédagogie: Une rencontre du
Embedding the use of computers as information deliv-
troisième type. Gif Sur Yvette: École Superieure d’Electricité.
ery tools has been done in schools in the last decade. This Institute of Physics & Ogborn, J. (2000/2008). Advancing physics AS /
use usually adds nothing fundamentally different from A2. London: The Institute; OCR.
previous tools of delivering information. But integrating Nickerson, R. S. (1995). Can technology help teach for understand-
computers as powerful cognitive tools in the physics ing? In D. N. Perkins, J. L. Schwartz, M. M. West, & M. S. Wiske
curriculum (as well as in mathematics and other scien- (Eds.), Software goes to school. NY: Oxford University Press.
Norman, D. A. (1991). Cognitive artefacts. In J. M. Carroll (Ed.),
tific subjects) is a much more difficult endeavor. It needs Designing interaction: Psychology at the human-computer inter-
a coherent view of the role of cognitive tools, a culture of face. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
teaching and learning close to the way science is done, Planck, M. (1950). Scientific autobiography and other papers. London:
and reasonable organizational conditions. Williams & Norgate.
A properly balanced integration of computer cog- Reif, F. (2008). Applying cognitive science to education: Thinking and
learning in scientific and other complex domains. Cambridge, MA:
nitive tools in the curriculum remains to be found.
MIT Press.
Important open questions left for future research are, Teodoro, V. D. (2003). Modellus: Learning physics with mathematical
for example: Is there an optimal set of tools that min- modelling. PhD Thesis, Lisboa: Universidade Nova de Lisboa.
imizes cognitive opacity? If a course is organized Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10362/407.
576 C Cognitive Aspects of Deception

Teodoro, V. D., & Neves, R. G. (2011). Mathematical modelling in about and/or understanding behavioral maneuvers or
science and mathematics education. Computer Physics Commu- even attribution of mental states.
nications (182), 8–10. doi:10.1016/j.cpc.2010.05.021.
In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between
Wright, J. C., & Wright, C. S. (1998). A commentary on the profound
changes envisioned by the national science standards. Teachers different orders of intentionality, as acts carried out to
College Record, 100(1), 122–143. affect the beliefs of others do not look any different
from acts that shall affect merely the others’ behavior.
To date, there is little evidence that nonhuman animals
are capable of full mental state attribution (theory
of mind), i.e., to understand that others have beliefs
Cognitive Aspects of Deception and desires, but there are some persuasive examples
of precursor elements like visual perspective taking.
THOMAS BUGNYAR Recently, attempts have been brought forward to spec-
Department of Cognitive Biology, Konrad Lorenz ify cognitive building blocks of deception, which may
Research Station & Department of Neurobiology and underlie the transition from different orders of inten-
Cognition Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, tionality. The most promising among them are the
Austria ability to flexibly inhibit normal behaviors and the
understanding that conspecifics can be manipulated.

Synonyms Theoretical Background

Intentional deception; Tactical deception In comparison to morphological and physiological
traits, behavior is relatively easy and cheap to fake.
Definition Consequently, behavioral deception in the form of
At the behavioral level, deception constitutes the mis- withholding information and providing false informa-
interpretation of situations by one individual as a tion can be found in variety of species and contexts
consequence of the behavior or signals of the other ranging from predator–prey interactions to any form of
individual. Functionally, such a misinterpretation poses intra- and interspecific communication, cooperation,
costs to the receiver and benefits the deceiver. and competition. To what extent these behaviors meet
This operational concept refers to a variety of the functional definition and cognitive criterion of tac-
responses ranging from species-typical patterns given tical deception and intentional deception, respectively,
in a certain context, like the feigning of injury by has received surprisingly little investigation.
ground-nesting birds or the false alarm calls of sentinel To date, primates have been considered as primary
birds in mixed species foraging flocks, to a broad range candidates for intentional deception because their com-
of diverse behavioral patterns which are used very plex social life creates ample opportunities in which it
flexibly in different situations. The term “tactical” would pay to flexibly conceal information, to distract
deception has been introduced to emphasize a contrast others’ attention, or to use others as social tools.
between short-term tactics (in which the deception Specifically, subordinate group members may use
flexibly uses elements from an honest counterpart in deceptive tactics to counter exploitation by dominants.
the individuals’ repertoire) and long-term strategies (in However, constraints imposed by social structure, such
which deception rests on fixed elements in the individ- as the risk of detection, punishment, and/or the need
uals’ or species’ behavioral repertoire). for cooperation, make deceptive tactics rare events that
From a cognitive perspective, tactical deception has often work only for a short time period. Accordingly,
been assumed to reflect intentions by the deceivers in deceptive tactics are difficult to study and much of the
the sense that individuals want to manipulate others. early literature on the topic consists of anecdotes. Nev-
The critical question concerns the degree of intention- ertheless, progress in studying deceptive tactics and
ality, i.e., whether the deception aims to affect the their cognitive basis has been made with experimental
other’s behavior or the other’s mental states. Deceptive approaches that are based on ecological meaningful
interactions may thus be the result of a range of cogni- behaviors, such as outwitting conspecifics in competi-
tive abilities such as reading behavioral cues, learning tion for food. Moreover, species other than primates
 Cognitive Aspects of Deception C 577

(from mammals to birds and fish), who also live in conceal information and/or provide false information
a complex social environment, have received increased to naive conspecifics in food competition contests.
attention. Long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis, in contrast,
do not seem to be capable of actively concealing infor-
Important Scentific Research and mation from a competitive human experimenter in the C
Open Questions foraging context, although they frequently hide from
dominant conspecifics during sexual intercourse.
Experimental Studies on Intentional For testing how animals respond to deception by
Deception others, studies usually involve the use of human exper-
Studies concerning the cognitive underpinning of imenters, who either give false information in choice
deceptive tactics may follow different experimental studies (i.e., they point out the incorrect location of
lines but generally make use of (experimentally hidden food) or they do not share the reward after
induced or naturally occurring) variation in informa- having relied on the behavior of the test subject to find
tion about desired objects (i.e., food). The focus is it. In most of these studies, nonhuman animals like apes,
either on how informed subjects act to prevent others monkeys, and dogs Canis familiaris learn to provide no
from gaining these objects or on how naı̈ve subjects cues and/or to give wrong cues to the experimenter but
respond to receiving false information. only as a result of intensive training. Reversing the
In the “informed forager” paradigm, a particular roles between experimenter and test subject leads to
individual gets informed about the location of food, a drop in performance, which supports the interpre-
usually by allowing her visual access to the hiding tation that the animals base their deception on the
procedure. The subject is then allowed to retrieve the others’ behavior (which they have to learn anew) and
food together with other group members, which may not on an understanding of the others’ intention.
be dominant and/or uninformed about the food
location. In chimpanzees Pan troglodytes, mangabeys Open Questions and Future Research
Cercocebus torquatus, and ravens Corvus corax, some Complex social life involves various ways of commu-
subjects start withholding the correct information nication, cooperation, and competition, offering a
from naı̈ve dominants (who are likely to steal the range of opportunities in which deception would pay
food) and learn to mislead them to false locations. off. Hence, tactical deception may be a widespread
In chimpanzees, dominant subjects may even develop phenomenon that is primarily constrained by social
counter tactics to avoid being cheated by subordinates. structure (e.g., risk of detection, punishment) rather
Other species, in contrast, seem to have problems in than by phylogeny. Empirical evidence for this assump-
learning that others can be deceived (e.g., ring-tailed tion is still scarce but reports on mammals, birds, and
lemurs Lemur catta) or readily adopt alternative strat- recently also on fish point in this very direction. How-
egies to outwit others when misleading attempts are ever, the occurrence of tactical deception does not
not successful (e.g., domestic pigs Sus scrofa). allow inferring the underlying cognitive mechanism.
Knower-guesser studies, originally designed for Notably, tactical deception may reflect intentional
testing mental attribution, feature aspects of the behavior on side of the deceiver but does not need to
informed foraging paradigm and frequently involve reflect attribution of mental states. The critical points
deceptive maneuvers on side of the informed subjects for future research are thus to study the acquisition and
(knowers) against the uninformed guessers. Corvids flexibility of deceptive tactics and to tease apart differ-
like ravens and Western scrub jays Aphelocoma ent levels of intentionality.
californica spontaneously hide from others when they
cache food, and thus withhold information from pos- Cross-References
sible competitors that could subsequently pilfer the ▶ Complex Learning
caches. Ravens also actively distract others from cache ▶ Intelligent Communication in Animals
sites and do false caches, indicating naturally occurring ▶ Observational Learning: The Sound of Silence
forms of misleading behavior. Likewise, chimpanzees ▶ Social Cognitive Learning
and tufted capuchins Cebus apella may spontaneously ▶ Social Construction of Learning
578 C Cognitive Aspects of Natural Communication in Primates

References design or intention. Naturally produced communica-

Bugnyar, T., & Kotrschal, K. (2002). Observational learning and tion signals are important because they are suited to
the raiding of food caches in ravens, Corvus corax: Is it “tactical” reveal adaptive significance and evolutionary history.
deception? Animal Behaviour, 64, 185–195.
Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (1985). Tactical deception of familiar
individuals in baboons (Papio ursinus). Animal Behaviour, 33, Theoretical Background
669–672. Acts of communication require at least two partici-
Dawkins, R., & Krebs, J. R. (1978). Animal signals: Information or
pants, a signaler and a receiver, who interact with
manipulation? In J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies (Eds.), Behavioral
ecology: An evolutionary approach (1st ed., pp. 282–309). some ritualized code, such as a system of vocalizations,
Oxford: Blackwell. facial displays, or gestures (Seyfarth and Cheney 2003).
Güzeldere, G., Nahmias, E., & Deaner, R. (2002). Darwin’s contin- In primates, communication is usually triggered by
uum and the building blocks of deception. In M. Bekoff, C. Allen, some external event which has a psychological effect
& G. M. Burghardt (Eds.), The cognitive animal. Empirical and
on the signaler and elicits signal production. Receivers
theoretical perspectives on animal cognition (pp. 353–362).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
benefit from attending as long as the signal is a reliable
Hare, B., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Chimpanzees deceive indicator of the event experienced by the signaler or
a human competitor by hiding. Cognition, 101, 495–514. its response to it. For example, an eagle alarm call
Menzel, E. W., Jr. (1974). A group of young chimpanzees in a one-acre allows a monkey to run to cover before it has seen the
field: Leadership and communication. In A. M. Schrier & approaching eagle. The production of signals is bene-
F. Stollnitz (Eds.), Behavior of nonhuman primates (Vol. 5,
ficial if it secures the survival of offspring, close genetic
pp. 83–153). San Diego: Academic.
Mitchell, R. W., & Thompson, N. S. (1986). Deception: Perspectives relatives, or valuable partners or if it reduces other
on human and non-human deceit. Albany: State University of costly consequences. Humans have by far the most
New York Press. complicated natural communication system of all pri-
Semple, S., & McComb, K. (1996). Behavioral deception. Trends in mates, language, and its evolutionary origins are still
Ecology & Evoloution, 11, 434–437.
much debated. Since language is a product of the
Whiten, A., & Byrne, R. W. (1988). Tactical deception in primates.
Behaviour Brain Sciences, 11, 233–273.
human mind, research on primate communication
is very concerned with the cognitive machinery under-
lying it.

Important Scientific Research and

Cognitive Aspects of Natural Open Questions
Communication in Primates Key questions are the following: Is primate communi-
cation the product of mental representations that are
KLAUS ZUBERBÜHLER shared by signalers and recipients? What is the nature
School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, of the different communication codes and how much
St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, UK flexibility do primates have when acquiring them? Are
primates able to perceive graded signals categorically
and do they combine them to more complex utter-
Synonyms ances? To what degree do they take context into
Cognitive underpinnings of primate communication account when producing and interpreting signals?
Do they seek to inform others and check if they have
Definition been understood? Do primates assume that a signaler
Research on the “cognitive aspects of natural commu- wants to be informative or is comprehension an
nication in primates” is on the psychological states, eavesdropping process of learned correlations between
mental representations, and social awareness underly- signals and external events? From the different modes
ing primate communication. Communication involves of communication (vocal, visual, olfactory), are there
the use of elements of an individual’s behavioral reper- differences in the underlying cognitive processes that
toire to interact with others in a ritualized way by govern them?
 Cognitive Aspects of Natural Communication in Primates C 579

Research with natural populations has been partic- shown to convey details about external events. For
ularly useful in addressing some of these questions, example, chimpanzee screams during agonistic inter-
recently also including great apes. It is now clear that actions reflect the nature of the event, the role of the
nonhuman primates are able to produce messages that caller, the severity of the attack, and whether high-
convey not only their inner states but also something ranking group members are nearby. Similarly, chim- C
about their external world, that they use various com- panzees produce acoustically variable “rough grunts,”
munication strategies to this end, and that they can which covary with the perceived quality of the encoun-
develop a fairly complex understanding of the social tered food (Zuberbühler et al. 2009). Yet a number of
consequences of their signals. Some profound differ- basic questions are still unsolved. What evolutionary
ences between human and nonhuman communication processes can explain the acoustic structure of the
have equally emerged, as summarized in the following. different call types within a species’ repertoire? Habitat
structure, caller physiology, and receiver psychology
Signal and Sequence-Based Meaning are likely candidates, but the details are not well under-
A central problem in primate communication research stood. How widespread are meaningful acoustic vari-
concerns the psychological states underlying and driv- ants of basic call types in primate communication, and
ing signal production. A widely held belief is that which call types are especially prone to acoustic vari-
nonhuman primates only experience different degrees ants? How much control do callers have during call
of arousal, which act as the main agent of signal pro- production, and how do they acquire them? Why did
duction. Another version of the arousal model is that humans evolve so much greater control over their
different events trigger different kinds of arousal, which vocalizations than all other primates?
are then linked to signals. At the same time, there is A second mechanism by which nonhuman pri-
good evidence that nonhuman primates possess mental mates can increase their small repertoire is by combin-
representations and organize their world along mental ing different call types into sequences. This has been
concepts (Tomasello and Call 1997), and it seems found in a number of primates, from Old World
unreasonable to assume that this should not also affect monkeys to gibbons and great apes. There is good
their communication. In the end, psychological states evidence that receivers can discriminate the different
are private, but there are no empirical grounds to favor sequences, i.e., they are semantically meaningful to
arousal-based vocal production over concept-based them. Numerous questions remain open such as: Are
models. Whatever psychological states involved in sig- meaningful call sequences a general feature of primate
nal production, primates often behave as if their signals communication? Are there population differences in
convey meaning by referring to the external events or call sequences? How much control do primates have
inner states that trigger the signals. over call sequences, and what is the role of learning?
Most primates are forest dwellers, a habitat in which A more difficult issue is whether sequential signaling
vocal communication is especially important. Neverthe- is relevant for understanding the origins of human
less, primate vocal repertoires tend to be small, with syntax. One notion of human syntax is that its basic
a finite number of basic call types tightly linked to units (e.g., words) have their own stable and indepen-
specific biological functions. However, sometimes indi- dent meanings, something that has not been shown in
viduals produce meaningful acoustic variants within the primate examples. Also, primates do not make
some of the basic call types. For example, female much advantage of the generative power of call com-
Campbell’s monkeys regularly exchange contact calls, binations, suggesting that they have very little active
which help individuals to stay with the group in the control or cognitive understanding of these vocal
dense rainforest habitat. The calls are exchanged products.
according to some social rules and are individually dis- One key issue in vocal production is the role of
tinct. Some acoustic convergence effects have been learning. A wealth of data has shown primate vocal
reported in the structure of calls of closely affiliated repertoires are very species-specific with little acoustic
group members (Zuberbühler et al. 2009). In other variation between populations and rigid developmen-
research, acoustic variation within call types has tal patterns, suggesting that learning does not play an
580 C Cognitive Aspects of Natural Communication in Primates

important role during ontogeny, at least at the level of example, terrestrial alarm calls often do not have nar-
call morphology. Of course, the same is also true for row or fixed referents but are typically given to an array
nonlinguistic human vocalizations, although humans of events that do not always have an obvious shared
are able to mimic calls fairly accurately and at will. conceptual structure. Context then plays a key role
Another key difference is that human infants go and primates often respond very differently to the
through a babbling phase and then gradually gain con- same calls, depending on the circumstances, suggesting
trol over their vocal apparatus and learn to produce basic inferential reasoning. In one experiment, Diana
speech signals. In nonhuman primates, learning does monkeys responded differently to guinea fowl ground
play a role in developing call comprehension and call predator alarms, depending on whether the birds’
use. Individuals are generally very attentive to their alarm calls were caused by a leopard or a human, two
own and other species’ vocal signals, and appear predators that require different antipredator responses.
to have a sophisticated understanding of the meaning Similarly, baboons attend to entire exchanges of calls
of these calls. In terms of call use, young primates begin between group members, a pattern also found in chim-
by generating the different call types in the appropriate panzees. In human communication, transmission of
larger context, but then learn how to fine-tune call meaning also depends largely on the context in which
production in more detail. The classic example is the utterance is produced.
young vervet monkeys, who discriminate from the However, human communication goes beyond
beginning between aerial and terrestrial dangers but context contributing to the meaning of an utterance.
require experience to produce the alarm calls to the Human speakers seek to establish common ground
few relevant predator classes. However, very little sys- with their partners, by taking into account common
tematic research has been done, so it is not clear what knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions, while listeners
the general pattern is like. also make assumptions about the speaker’s intent.
Research on gestural communication has gener- These skills develop gradually from early childhood
ated a somewhat different picture, by showing that and become first visible in joint attentional episodes
there is much variation in the gestural repertoire during which both individuals are aware of each other’s
within different species, especially the apes. While attention to an external object (Tomasello and Carpen-
some gestures appear to be almost universal, others ter 2007). During subsequent stages of development,
can appear and disappear over time. Learning seems humans begin to monitor whether their communica-
to play a role, with signalers and receivers converging tive intentions are properly received and understood.
on what looks like ontogenetically ritualized gestural There is currently no good evidence that nonhuman
conventions (Call and Tomasello 2007). In general, primates possess the same cognitive capacities to
gestural signals are used much more flexibly than take shared knowledge and speaker intention into
vocalizations, but they are also more restricted to account during acts of communication. Yet, some
some contexts, especially play. Many gestures do not key precursor abilities are in place, such as a general
carry much meaning apart from acting as enhancers awareness of the audience and the likely consequences
of ongoing social interactions. One open problem in of producing signals. Audience awareness is particu-
gestural research is also what exactly counts as a ges- larly obvious in the gestural domain. Chimpanzees,
ture, i.e., whether a behavior in question has proper for instance, will not produce visual gestures before
signal character, either by design or intention. Other having established visual contact with the receiver.
communicative modes, especially olfactory communi- Bonobos are capable of engaging in joint activities
cation, are poorly researched and only little is known with human caregivers, in which both partners play
about the underlying cognition involved in production complementary roles, and gesture to their (human)
and perception. partners if they interrupt or are reluctant to pursue
the joint activity. In the vocal domain, chimpanzees
Inferential and Intentional Processes are aware of the composition of the audience and
Another important cognitive process in communica- the potential implications of their calls, as shown by
tion is that primates take the ongoing context into several studies (Zuberbühler et al. 2009). Whether or
account when responding to the signals of others. For not apes are willing to actively inform others about
 Cognitive Aspects of Prosocial Behavior in Nonhuman Primates C 581

relevant events in the world needs to be investigated

more systematically, but it remains a possibility. Cognitive Aspects of Prosocial
Whether primates deal with ignorant receivers in dif- Behavior in Nonhuman
ferent ways compared to knowledgeable ones is equally Primates
unclear, although they are able to make such discrim- C
inations in other contexts. KATHERINE A. CRONIN
In sum, according to current evidence, nonhuman Comparative Cognitive Anthropology Group,
primates share many of the key features of human Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics,
communication although humans appear to be unique Nijmegen, The Netherlands
in their ability to control their vocal tracts and in
their motivation to base their communicative behavior
based on shared knowledge and intentions. Primates Synonyms
may or may not have the required social cognition. If Donation; Helpful Behavior
they do, they do not make regular use of it. Why only
humans are socially motivated to inform each other Definition
about their experiences thus lies at the heart of the Prosocial behavior is any behavior performed by one
human–primate divide. One popular idea is that individual that results in a benefit for another indi-
humans are more cooperatively motivated than other vidual. Prosocial motivations, prosocial preferences, or
primate species, as for example reflected in high degrees other-regarding preferences refer to the psychologi-
of mutual tolerance or willingness to help strangers. cal predisposition to behave in the best interest of
Whether this cooperative propensity has evolved in the another individual. A behavior need not be costly to
context of childcare, foraging, intergroup conflict, or the actor to be considered prosocial, thus the concept is
elsewhere is unresolved. distinct from altruistic behavior which requires that
the actor incurs some cost when providing a benefit
Cross-References to another.
▶ Comparative Psychology and Ethology
▶ Concept Learning Theoretical Background
▶ Imitative Learning in Humans and Animals It is generally agreed that humans are a prosocial
▶ Intelligent Communication in Animals species; for example, we provide assistance to fellow
▶ Social Cognition in Animals humans by donating to charities, donating blood to
strangers, and voting. A renewed interest in nonhuman
References primate prosocial behavior has emerged among com-
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2007). The gestural communication of apes parative psychologists in the last decade. Currently,
and monkeys. London: Taylor & Francis Lea. three hypotheses predominate the literature on
Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2003). Signalers and receivers in prosocial behavior in nonhuman primates:
animal communication. Annual Review of Psychology, 54,
145–173. 1. Prosocial behavior is uniquely human.
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (1997). Primate cognition. New York: Oxford 2. Prosocial behavior emerges from a cooperative
University Press. breeding social system (a social system in which
Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality.
nonbreeding individuals help to care for infants).
Developmental Science, 10, 121–125.
Zuberbühler, K. (2008). Referentiality and concepts in animal cogni- 3. Prosocial behavior is a general predisposition of
tion. In L. R. Squire (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Oxford: nonhuman primates that reflects the early origins
Academic Press. of human empathy.
Zuberbühler, K., Ouattara, K., Bitty, A., Lemasson, A., & Noë, R.
(2009). The primate roots of human language: Primate vocal
behaviour and cognition in the wild. In F. d’Errico &
Important Scientific Research and
J.-M. Hombert (Eds.), Becoming eloquent: Advances in the emer-
Open Questions
gence of language, human cognition, and modern cultures Recent investigations of prosocial behavior in
(pp. 235–266). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. nonhuman primates have often employed the prosocial
582 C Cognitive Aspects of Prosocial Behavior in Nonhuman Primates

choice task. In the prosocial choice task, subjects are survival of the offspring. Some propose that ancestral
presented with a choice between a prosocial option that hominids were cooperative breeders, that modern
provides a single reward (often food) to himself or human minds are adapted for a cooperatively breeding
herself and to the recipient (referred to as the “1/1” environment, and that one of the ways the cooperative
option to denote that one reward is received by the breeding environment influenced our psychology was
actor and one reward is received by the recipient) and to predispose individuals to behave prosocially (e.g.,
another option which provides a reward for the actor Burkart et al. 2009).
only (the “1/0” option). The effort required of the actor Therefore, the cooperative breeding hypothesis pre-
is the same for both choices; the choices differ only dicts that prosocial preferences would be expressed not
by whether or not the recipient also receives a reward. by our closest living primate relatives the chimpanzees,
The proportion of trials on which actors choose the but instead by cooperative breeders. In the primate
prosocial option is compared with a control condition order, cooperative breeding occurs in the taxonomic
in which no recipient is present (a nonsocial control). family Callithrichidae, the marmosets, and tamarins.
Evidence of prosocial behavior is assumed if the actor Empirical support for the cooperative breeding
chooses the prosocial option more often when a recip- hypothesis was generated by presenting marmosets
ient is present to receive the reward than when there is and tamarins with the same prosocial choice task
no recipient present. that was utilized with chimpanzees. Unlike chimpan-
The resurgence of interest in nonhuman primate zees, marmosets and tamarins demonstrated prosocial
prosociality was sparked by findings indicating that preferences (e.g., Burkart et al. 2009; Cronin et al.
chimpanzees did not demonstrate prosocial behavior 2010). These findings support the hypothesis that
on this task. In fact, chimpanzees across multiple cap- there are psychological adaptations associated with
tive populations chose randomly between the two cooperative breeding that positively influence prosocial
choices, showing no increase in the prosocial response preferences.
when a partner was present compared to absent However, positive results from the prosocial choice
(e.g., Silk et al. 2005). These findings provided initial task are emerging from primate species that are not
support for the hypothesis that prosocial preferences cooperative breeders, indicating that cooperative
are uniquely human and emerged in the human breeding is not necessary for prosocial behavior (e.g.,
lineage after our ancestors diverged from the other Massen et al. 2010). Furthermore, under some experi-
great apes, or within the last six million years of evolu- mental conditions, cooperative breeders do not show
tion (hypothesis 1, above). prosocial preferences on the prosocial choice task
Positive results from additional primate species (Cronin et al. 2009). These mixed results suggest that
soon followed that suggested prosocial preferences the expression of prosocial behavior will not be
are not uniquely human and may in fact be a charac- explained by social systems or evolutionary history
teristic shared by humans and cooperative breeding alone and that prosocial behavior is dependent upon
species (hypothesis 2, above). Across primate species, a myriad of ultimate and proximate influences. Along
breeding systems can be arranged along a continuum these lines, de Waal and colleagues have proposed that
defined by which individuals bear responsibility for the proximate mechanism that elicits prosocial behav-
offspring care. At one end of the continuum are inde- ior among nonhuman primate species is empathy, or
pendent breeders. In independently breeding species, the sharing of an emotional state with another (hypoth-
care is provided nearly exclusively by the mother. esis 3, above). de Waal argues that some basic form of
This is the breeding system of most primate species, empathy is present throughout the primate order. The
including chimpanzees. However, at the other end likelihood of expressing prosocial behavior among pri-
of the continuum are cooperative breeders in which mates therefore depends on the ability to match the
many group members are actively involved in infant emotional state of the potential recipient, an ability
care, including the father, siblings, aunts, uncles and that will be affected by social factors such as the degree
sometimes unrelated individuals. Helpful behaviors of social closeness with that individual (de Waal and
by the nonbreeding individuals are essential to the Suchak 2010).
 Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning C 583

The proximate, psychological mechanisms that

underlie prosocial behavior in nonhuman primates is Cognitive Automatisms and
a rich area for future research. For example, some Routinized Learning
results point to differences in the intrinsic reward
experienced when providing benefits to another indi- NATHALIE LAZARIC C
vidual that may differentially reinforce prosocial behav- CNRS – GREDEG, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis,
ior across species (e.g., Cronin et al. 2010). Other results Valbonne, Sophia Antipolis, France
suggest that the ability to inhibit one’s own motivation
for the reward is necessary for prosocial behavior to be
expressed. Additionally, perspective-taking and theory Synonyms
of mind abilities may impact the execution of prosocial Automatic encoding; Automatic process; Cognitive
behaviors since realization of the needs of others may in lock-in
some circumstances rely on these cognitive capacities.
However, the influence of psychological mechanisms Definition
on prosocial behavior in nonhuman primates has The question of cognitive automatisms was first
received little attention. Research on the cognitive addressed from the perspective of individuals’ atten-
influences on prosocial behavior promises to provide tion and their limited capacities and bounded rational-
some much-needed answers to the question of how and ity. Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) consider two types of
when prosocial behavior emerges among nonhuman information processing. The controlled process is
primates. performed more slowly because it is maintained in
working memory, which requires conscious effort
Cross-References and sustained attention. The automatic process, on
▶ Intelligent Communication in Animals the contrary, does not require attention in order to be
▶ Social Cognition in Animals performed.
▶ Social Learning in Animals
Theoretical Background
References Shiffrin and Schneider’s (1977) research has influenced
Burkart, J. M., Hrdy, S. B., & van Schaik, C. P. (2009). Cooperative
research in cognitive science by suggesting that visual
breeding and human cognitive evolution. Evolutionary Anthro- automation is different from motor-sensory automa-
pology, 18(5), 175–186. tion. In the context of motor-skill development, auto-
Cronin, K. A., Schroeder, K. K. E., Rothwell, E. S., Silk, J. B., & mation is comparable to a flexible pattern subject to
Snowdon, C. T. (2009). Cooperatively breeding cottontop multiple parameters; it is not necessarily a rigid
tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) do not donate rewards to their
process as some might naively imagine. Shiffrin
long-term mates. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 123(3),
231–241. and Schneider (1977) distinguish several levels of auto-
Cronin, K. A., Schroeder, K. K. E., & Snowdon, C. T. (2010). Prosocial mation: (a) a highly automatic type of information
behaviour emerges independent of reciprocity in cottontop processing that does not require any particular atten-
tamarins. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series tion; (b) a partly automatic process which attention can
B-Biological Sciences, 277(1701), 3845–3851.
influence; and (c) automatic information processing
de Waal, F. B. M., & Suchak, M. (2010). Prosocial primates:
Selfish and unselfish motivations. Philosophical Transactions
that typically requires attention.
of the Royal Society Series B-Biological Sciences, 365(1553), These studies concur with and complement the work
2711–2722. of Anderson (1983) by putting in perspective the auto-
Massen, J. M., van den Berg, L. M., Spruijt, B. M., & Sterck, E. H. M. matic process implemented by individuals. In the so-
(2010). Generous leaders and selfish underdogs: Pro-sociality in called proceduralization phase, knowledge is directly
despotic macaques. PLoS ONE, 5(3), e9734.
incorporated into procedures for the execution of
Silk, J. B., Brosnan, S. F., Vonk, J., Henrich, J., Povinelli, D. J.,
Richardson, A. S., Lambeth, S. P., Mascaro, J., & Schapiro, S. J. skills, which makes it possible to minimize demands
(2005). Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated on working memory, but this can also lead to errors if
group members. Nature, 437, 1357–1359. the compilation phase is too short. In other words, the
584 C Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning

transition from declarative knowledge to procedural possible for a person to become aware of his or her
knowledge remains a delicate operation because the actions and, as in the case of bad habits, attempt to
automatic process can lock some know-how into tight change those behavior patterns. This question of how
procedures that are not as subject to dynamic alterna- automatic and conscious motivations interact when in
tion as circumstances may actually require. Human conflict is one of practical as well theoretical impor-
judgment is, thus, necessary to update these proce- tance, and we are now investigating parameters of this
dures, but this may occur only after a mistaken appli- interaction” (Bargh 1997, p. 52).
cation of an inflexibly automated procedure.
Bargh (1997) integrates principles of motivations as Important Scientific Research and
described in the self-determination theory. He observes Open Questions
to what extent the emotional, cognitive, and motiva- The question of consciousness in mental processes has
tional conditions that characterize an environment can always been a thorny one. Recent studies converge on
serve as the basis for a preconscious psychological state the fact that the consciousness vs. automaticity oppo-
that can generate an automatic response – automatic in sition is a dichotomy that is not clear because it seems
that it escapes the individual’s awareness and direct that consciousness and automation coexist and influence
consciousness. The underlying idea is that the routin- each other, sometimes in nonconscious ways. Psycholo-
ization of certain procedures helps an individual focus gists agree that both processes evolve together. Acknowl-
his/her attention on essential, new, and creative tasks. edging the role of consciousness in memorization
What is new here is the manner in which Bargh analyses implies recognizing that chance and the environment
motivation. Indeed, nothing happens by accident. First have a limited role. In terms of memorization, this boils
of all, before walking may become an automatic pro- down to no longer focusing all attention on the mech-
cess, we have learnt how to walk; and second of all we anisms of procedural knowledge learning, and to
intend to walk. Bargh (1997) introduces an automotive acknowledging the fact that declarative knowledge is
model to explain to what extent mental representations essential. In other words the transition from representa-
are essential to the development of cognitive mecha- tion to action is a mechanism that needs to be explained
nisms (see Fig. 1). if we are to understand how our procedural knowledge
The interactions between cognition and motivation evolves and why there is a gap between what an individ-
are therefore essential and must be taken into account. ual thinks he/she does and what he/she actually does.
Consciousness initiates the process of skill acquisition Modification of our forms of memorization must be
with possible tensions during this learning stage: “But considered in relation to changes. Individuals, as well as
even in the case of these automatic motivations, it is organizations, must learn to manage them, and to chan-
nel the emotions generated by modifications in the col-
lective representations.
One may note that the debate on routines and
Evaluative automatisms has always had a more or less positive
system
connotation because in everyday language, a routine is
regarded as automatic behavior, in contrast to
designed and implemented strategic plans. This is
the reason why Langer (1989) emphasized the notion
Environmental Motivational
Behavior of mindfulness to highlight individuals’ attention
features system
inside cognitive automatisms. In this perspective,
individuals should make sense of what they do and
perceive, by increasing their acuity so as to be able to
Perceptual integrate new information, to continuously update and
system
refine their mental categories. Indeed, the notion of
mindfulness emphasizes the necessity of focusing not
Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning. so much on simple quantitative questions of data
Fig. 1 Motivation and behavior according to Bargh (1997) storing, but on the quality of the memorization.
 Cognitive Conflict and Learning C 585

Experimental studies show that working groups that Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
apply this principle memorize what they learn better Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and auto-
matic human information processing. Perceptual learning
and are more creative (Langer 1989). This principle has
automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review,
also been implemented in complex technological envi- 84, 127–190.
ronments so as to reduce the risk of accidents and Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2006). Mindfulness and the quality C
prevent major technological disasters (Weick and of organizational attention. Organization Science, 17(4),
Sutcliffe 2006). Potential change in routines should 514–524.
not be seen as a fateful coincidence related to external Further Reading
and disruptive factors, but as a crucial ingredient to the Johnson, E. J., Bellman, S., & Lohse, G. L. (2003). Cognitive
revitalization of individuals and organizations. This lock in and the power law of practice. Journal of Marketing,
67(2), 62–75.
leads us to reconsider the very meaning of the term
“routine” and to focus on individual and collective
memorization processes. The involvement of individ-
uals in the development of new procedural knowledge
is a delicate exercise because deliberate reasoning and Cognitive Change
mindfulness attitude, at the individual level, is a con-
▶ Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) and Cognitive
trolled, effortful, process, whereas other cognitive activ-
Modifiability
ities such as reasoning or intuition appear to be effortless
and to involve a level of automaticity. This also explains
why learning may appear to be costly at an individual
level and why the motivational dimension may play
a critical role in going beyond preexisting cognitive skills Cognitive Conflict and Learning
that are deeply entrenched in the habitual skills. Indeed
skill-based habits acquired through a trial and error MATTHEW WAXER, J. BRUCE MORTON
learning process may become increasingly automated Department of Psychology, The University of Western
as a function of the amount experience with it, creating Ontario, London, ON, Canada
some “cognitive lock-in” resisting to changes. The orga-
nizational context may provide (or not) opportunities
to go beyond these cognitive lock-in with the creation of Synonyms
systems that may facilitate learning. Cognitive dissonance; Conceptual conflict; Disequilib-
rium; Socio-cognitive conflict
Cross-References
▶ Automaticity in Memory Definition
▶ Human Cognition and Learning Cognitive conflict is a psychological state involving
▶ Individual Learning a discrepancy between cognitive structures and experi-
▶ Memory Dynamics ence, or between various cognitive structures (i.e.,
▶ Mental Effort mental representations that organize knowledge,
▶ Mindfulness and Meditation beliefs, values, motives, and needs). This discrepancy
▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories occurs when simultaneously active, mutually incom-
▶ Rote Memorization patible representations compete for a single response.
▶ Routinization of Learning The detection of cognitive conflict is thought to trigger
compensatory adjustments in executive control pro-
cesses, which serve to reduce and prevent subsequent
References
instances of similar cognitive conflict.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Bargh, J. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In J. A. Bargh & Theoretical Background
R. S. Wyer Jr. (Eds.), The automaticity of everyday life (pp. 1–61). Cognitive conflict is a part of many different psycho-
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. logical theories, and has often been regarded as more
586 C Cognitive Conflict and Learning

deleterious than beneficial. For example, Freud (1901/ of the containers. This alternation provides the neces-
1953) viewed distortions of rational thinking and neu- sary conditions for the fourth step, which is simulta-
roses as the result of conflict between basic drives. neous attention to both height and width and their
Similarly, early learning-theoretic investigations of coordination into a mutually compensating system. It
conflict focused on different types of response compe- is at this point that the child recognizes the two con-
tition that lead to negative outcomes (Miller 1944). tainers contain the same amount of liquid (i.e., con-
However, other theorists such as Piaget (1977) and serve quantity).
Festinger (1957) viewed the effects of cognitive conflict Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory shares
as playing a beneficial role in rational thinking and many similarities with Piaget’s theory of equilibration.
intellectual development, insofar as conflict drives pos- Festinger (1957) suggested that the perception of
itive cognitive adaptation. inconsistency between two simultaneously held ideas
Piaget viewed cognitive development as involving generates a state of psychological discomfort or cogni-
the attainment of successively higher states of equilib- tive dissonance. The theory of cognitive dissonance
rium or balance. Piaget proposed that the mechanism holds that individuals have a motivational drive to
of transition from one state of equilibrium to another resolve dissonance by either changing their beliefs,
was the process of equilibration. According to Piaget, attitudes and behaviors, or rationalizing their beliefs,
this process is fueled by conflict or “disequilibrium,” attitudes, and behaviors. For example, it is widely
either between cognitive structures and experience or accepted that smoking is associated with a greater
between various cognitive structures. Disequilibrium probability of developing lung cancer. At the same
then motivates an individual to resolve the conflict time, most individuals desire to live a healthy life. On
and attain a new state of equilibrium. this account, the desire to live a healthy life is dissonant
One example used to illustrate the processes of with engaging in activities that will most certainly
equilibration is the acquisition of conservation of con- shorten one’s life. The conflict produced by simulta-
tinuous quantity. A child is presented with two identi- neously holding these contradictory ideas may be
cal beakers that have been filled to exactly the same level reduced by quitting smoking, or rationalizing one’s
with juice; one is identified as belonging to the child smoking.
and the other to the experimenter. After the child has The ability to recognize and learn from instances of
acknowledged that the amount of juice is the same in cognitive conflict is an important evolutionary adapta-
each beaker, the experimenter pours the contents of tion, and as such, understanding the biological systems
one jar into a short, broad container and that of the that underpin this ability remains an important line of
other into a tall, thin one. The experimenter then asks research. Recent theoretical advances in cognitive neu-
the child if the containers contain different amounts of roscience have started to shed light on the underlying
liquid or the same amount. If the answer is the “same neural mechanisms of cognitive conflict and its resol-
amount,” the participant is said to have “conserved” ution. One theory that has garnered a considerable
the substance of the liquid; and with respect to this amount of attention is the conflict monitoring theory
problem, the child’s thinking has reached a new state of (for review see Botvinick et al. 2004). On this account,
equilibrium. specific subsystems of the human brain detect instances
According to Piaget, all equilibration processes go of conflict in information processing, particularly
through four steps. In the Step 1, the child attends to response competition, and then engage other executive
only one dimension (e.g., the height of the container), brain regions to diminishing conflict in succeeding
and judges the tall drink to contain more liquid (i.e., time intervals. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is
fails to conserve quantity). With repeated experience thought to be the monitoring center that is responsi-
on similar problems, in Step 2 the child then focuses ble for the online detection of response conflict. The
on the opposite dimension (e.g., the width of the conflict signal that is detected by the ACC is then
container), and judges the broad container to contain transmitted to other brain regions, such as the dorso-
more liquid. The third step may be viewed as a mixture lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), to increase the level
of the first two steps. More specifically, the child will of cognitive control and reduce the amount of cogni-
now alternate responses between the two dimensions tive conflict.
 Cognitive Developmental Robotics C 587

Important Scientific Research and these two bodies of literature begin to emerge when
Open Questions the findings of single cell recording studies are taken
Many empirical investigations of the effects of cognitive into consideration. Recording studies in nonhuman
conflict in human participants have shown that when primates have failed to find any evidence of conflict-
conflict arises between behavioral responses in experi- related signals in the ACC (Mansouri et al. 2009). C
mental tasks, performance is adversely affected in terms Reconciling these differences remains an important
of speed and accuracy. For example, in the Stroop task, challenge for future research.
participants are presented with the name of a color Many psychological theories, including develop-
printed in colored ink. The participant’s task is to mental, social, clinical, and cognitive neuroscientific,
identify the color of the ink as quickly and accurately have emphasized the importance of cognitive conflict.
as possible. On high-conflict trials, when the color’s Despite the importance of cognitive conflict in many
name differs from the ink color, participants are slower different psychological theories, the development of
and less accurate than on low-conflict trials, in which a unifying theoretical framework remains an important
the color name and ink match one another, or than on challenge for researchers.
neutral trials, in which the word is not color-related.
A large corpus of neuroimaging studies in humans
Cross-References
▶ Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Processes
using event-related potential (ERP) recordings, and
▶ Metacognition and Learning
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have
reported activation of the ACC to be greater in high- References
conflict conditions relative to low-conflict or neutral Botvinick, M., Braver, T. S., Yeung, N., Ullsperger, M., Carter, C. S., &
conditions during the performance of different tasks Cohen, J. D. (2004). Conflict monitoring: Computational and
designed to elicit conflict (cf. Botvinick et al. 2004; empirical studies. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Cognitive neuroscience of
Mansouri et al. 2009). attention (pp. 91–104). New York: Guilford.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford:
Although the behavioral effects of conflict have
Stanford University Press.
been typically associated with decrements in speed Freud, S. (1953). The psychopathology of everyday life. In J. Strachey
and accuracy, this relationship is dynamically modu- (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of
lated by previous experience with conflict. More spe- Sigmund Freud (Vol. 6). London: Hogarth Press [Original work
cifically, response latencies on high-conflict trials that published in 1901.].
Mansouri, F. A., Tanaka, K., & Buckley, M. J. (2009). Conflict-induced
are immediately preceded by high-conflict trials are
behavioural adjustment: A clue to the executive functions of the
shorter than those on high-conflict trials that are prefrontal cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 141–152.
immediately preceded by low-conflict trials. Addi- Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. McV Hunt
tionally, conflict-related ACC activation has been (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1). New York:
shown to be modulated by preceding conflict, with Ronald.
greater ACC activation observed on high-conflict Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive
structures. New York: Viking.
trials that were preceded by low-conflict trials rela-
tive to high-conflict trials that were preceded by high-
conflict trials. The facilitative effect of previous
experience with conflict has been referred to as the
“conflict adaptation effect”; and has been observed
Cognitive Curiosity
across a wide range of conflict tasks (cf. Botvinick ▶ Curiosity and Exploration
et al. 2004; Mansouri et al. 2009). ▶ Epistemic Curiosity
Cognitive conflict appears to be a ubiquitous phe-
nomenon that can also be observed in non-human
primates and other animals. For example, studies
using nonhuman primates tested on analogs of con- Cognitive Developmental
flict tasks used in human research have shown Robotics
similar behavioral responses to conflict as humans (cf.
Mansouri et al. 2009). However, discrepancies between ▶ Developmental Robotics
588 C Cognitive Disequilibrium

As an example, imagine being presented with evidence

Cognitive Disequilibrium that the Earth revolves around the sun when your
▶ Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Processes understanding is that the sun revolves around the
Earth. From the educational psychology perspective,
Piaget (1929) saw cognitive dissonance as a means to
facilitate the cognitive processes of accommodation
and assimilation, which are central to knowledge devel-
Cognitive Dissonance opment. Accommodation and assimilation occur when
learners are presented with new knowledge and must
This term denotes a psychological phenomenon which
expend mental effort to integrate this information into
refers to the discomfort felt at a discrepancy between
their existing schema.
what a person already knows or believes and new
Both of these perspectives are informative when
information or interpretation which contradicts prior
considering cognitive dissonance and the learning pro-
knowledge or beliefs. Cognitive dissonance was first
cess. While the psychological perspective conceptual-
investigated by Leon Festinger and associates.
izes cognitive dissonance as something that must be
Cognitive dissonance is often combined with a feel-
resolved, those examining it from an educational per-
ing of frustration perceived when an agent holds two
spective see it as an opportunity to foster schema con-
contradictory ideas at the same time; in order to elim-
struction and design opportunities for dissonance to
inate this feeling, the agents may change his/her beliefs
promote the development of knowledge.
or rationalize bad choices – that is, one of the elements
creating the discomfort.
Theoretical Background
Learning processes involve the integration of new
Cross-References
information into existing knowledge structures or
▶ Cognitive Conflict and Learning
schema. When new information is presented to
learners that is unfamiliar or contradictory to their
existing knowledge or schema, this triggers a phenom-
enon referred to as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive
Cognitive Dissonance in the dissonance is a feeling of instability caused by inputs
Learning Processes that contradict one’s existing cognitive understanding
(Festinger 1957). Empirical studies of the manifesta-
AMY ADCOCK tion and effects of cognitive dissonance confirm that
Department of STEM Education and Professional the need to resolve this dissonance is extremely moti-
Studies, Old Dominion University Darden College of vating for humans and activates cognitive processes
Education, Norfolk, VA, USA until the dissonance is resolved (Elliot and Devine
1994; Zanna and Cooper 1974).
Piaget (1975) defines the state of cognitive disequi-
Synonyms librium in much the same way but from an educational
Cognitive disequilibrium; Knowledge gaps perspective. Piaget saw what he termed cognitive dis-
equilibrium as an opportunity for cognitive growth.
Definition One of the assumptions of Piaget’s Cognitive Develop-
In order to understand the relationship between cog- ment Theory states that when learners experience cog-
nitive dissonance and the process of learning, one must nitive disequilibrium, their cognitive systems engage in
first examine how cognitive dissonance is defined from a process of accommodation and assimilation as the
two perspectives. From the psychological perspective, new material is integrated into their existing schema.
cognitive dissonance is described as an uncomfortable This dissonance is seen as an essential trigger for the
internal state occurring when new information con- learning process resulting in learners that are engaged
flicts with commonly held beliefs (Festinger 1957). in problem-solving activities and/or trial-and-error
 Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Processes C 589

learning resulting in the construction of new knowl- discrepancy and completing the procedure. When
edge structures. As an added benefit to the learning using impasse-driven learning to design learning envi-
process, the motivational aspects of resolving cognitive ronments, the quality of the information used by the
dissonance create an environment where learners are learners to continue with the procedure is of critical
continually exposed to content-relevant information importance. Inaccurate information used to repair C
facilitating deeper processing. an impasse will result in internalized misconceptions
of procedural knowledge. Historically, these miscon-
Applying Cognitive Dissonance to ceptions are difficult to repair and can result in persis-
Learning Environments tent misunderstandings.
As the process of knowledge acquisition involves inte-
grating new knowledge with existing schema, allowing Important Scientific Research and
learners to be in a state of cognitive dissonance is ideal Open Questions
for new learning. Theories of cognitive dissonance can The concepts surrounding cognitive dissonance are
be applied to both problem-based learning and proce- a foundational element in learning processes and
dural learning. can occur no matter what the knowledge level of a
Probably the most natural instructional environ- particular learner. An awareness that this phenomenon
ments in which to study the phenomenon of cognitive exists and the processes used by learners to resolve these
dissonance are ones that employ problem solving. In discrepancies is critical to understanding learning pro-
problem-solving exercises, learners are presented with cesses. Designers interested in using the positive effects
information and are asked to use their knowledge to of cognitive dissonance should focus on the creation of
extract the correct information and solve the problem. situations where learners can satisfy their internal need
As soon as learners are presented with the components to resolve dissonant information thereby increasing
of a problem (problem state, goals, operators), they their deep processing of the content.
begin the process of resolving conflicting information, With the abundance of research in advanced learn-
selecting relevant information needed to solve the prob- ing technologies, adaptive systems, simulation, and
lem, and constructing a procedure to solve the problem. game-based environments that require instructional
The intrinsic human need to move from disequilibrium approaches through problem solving, research in the
to equilibrium creates a constant process of examining effects of cognitive dissonance on learning processes is
and reexamining information until a satisfactory solu- ongoing. Design-based research (Barab and Squire
tion is reached. This trial-and-error process leading to 2004) is a methodological approach that proposes the
insight is a cornerstone for the design of game-based design of environments to specifically verify theories of
learning environments (Van Eck 2007). One key consid- learning and the effects of instructional design on the
eration in the design of these environments is to under- learning process. Because cognitive dissonance is
stand the relationship between the level of cognitive closely related to problem solving, the design and
dissonance and the motivation to solve problems. evaluation of problem-based learning environments
Learners are quickly bored with a level of dissonance provides a perfect opportunity to test and validate
that is too easily resolved but on the other hand can be assumptions about cognitive dissonance and the pro-
frustrated with a level of dissonance that is too high. cesses of learning.
Cognitive dissonance can also be used to promote Several specific questions can be addressed through
procedural learning. The impasse-driven learning the- design-based research to verify the effects of cognitive
ory (van Lehn 1988) is defined as a point in which dissonance on learning and motivation to learn. For
learners are presented with a procedural step that can- example, one might assess whether the level of cogni-
not be accomplished due to a discrepancy in their tive dissonance has positive or negative motivational
knowledge base. This theory has been used to propose effects on learners. Variables such as level of challenge
designs for expert systems in procedural domains such and affordances can be manipulated to increase or
as mathematics. After reaching an impasse, learners decrease levels of cognitive dissonance contributing to
go through a repair-and-reflect cycle replacing the a deeper understanding of motivational issues such as
590 C Cognitive Dissonances

learned helplessness where learners disengage from

learning because they find the presentation and/or Cognitive Efficiency
content too frustrating.
One of the important goals to be realized when BOBBY HOFFMAN1, GREGORY SCHRAW2,
designing instruction is to create environments where MATTHEW T. MCCRUDDEN3
1
learners are encouraged to satisfy their internally driven Department of Educational Studies, University of
need to fill in gaps in their existing schema. Designers Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
2
of instruction can utilize theories like cognitive disso- Department of Educational Psychology, University of
nance to manipulate affordances that will maximize Nevada-Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, USA
3
positive intrinsic motivation and enhance the mean- School of Educational Psychology and Pedagogy,
ingfulness of learning environments. Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand

Cross-References
▶ Complex Problem Solving Synonyms
▶ Designing Learning Environments Mental efficiency; Optimal thinking; Problem-solving
▶ Development of Team Schemas efficiency
▶ Emotional Learning
Definition
▶ Emotions in Cognitive Conflicts
Cognitive efficiency (CE) is a multifaceted construct
▶ Games-Based Learning
that describes the ability to reach learning, problem
▶ Motivation and Learning
solving, or instructional goals through optimal use of
▶ Problem Solving
mental resources. CE can be defined as optimal effort
▶ Procedural Learning
needed to perform a task, optimal performance on
▶ Schema Development
a task, or as the relationship between maximum per-
▶ Schema-Based Learning
formances on a task while exerting minimum effort
▶ Schema-Based Problem Solving
(Hoffman and Schraw 2010).
References In general, all views construe CE as the tradeoff
Barab, S., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake between benefits such as increases in the rate, amount,
in the ground. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1–14. or conceptual clarity of knowledge versus costs such as
Elliot, A. J., & Devine, P. G. (1994). On the motivational nature of time, effort, or the cognitive resources expended to
cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as a psychological discomfort. complete a task. Three main criteria influence the
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(3), 382–394.
understanding and utility of CE: the discipline of appli-
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press. cation, measurement of the construct, and individual
Piaget, J. (1975). The equilibration of cognitive structure. Chicago, IL: differences among learners.
University of Chicago Press.
Van Eck, R. (2007). Six ideas in search of a discipline. In B. Shelton & Theoretical Background
D. Wiley (Eds.), The design and use of simulation computer games Beginning in the late nineteenth century, experimental
in education. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishing. and behavioral psychologists such as Ebbinghaus,
van Lehn, K. (1988). Toward a theory of impasse-driven learning. Hull, and Thorndike conducted research using tasks
In H. Mandl & A. Lesgold (Eds.), Learning issues for intelligent
such as maze learning, the memorization of nonsense
tutoring systems. Berlin: Springer.
Zanna, M., & Cooper, J. (1974). Dissonance and the attribution
symbols, and learning word lists in an attempt to
process. In J. Harvey, W. Ickes, & R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions explain individual differences in efficient cognition.
in attribution research (pp. 199–217). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. These researchers concluded that CE was based on the
amount of time needed to complete learning, and sig-
nificant within-person variability on tasks determined
the relative efficiency of learning conditions. Concur-
Cognitive Dissonances rently, efficiency research in diverse disciplines includ-
ing industry, economics, and management examined
▶ Discontinuities for Mental Models what methods and conditions fostered productive
 Cognitive Efficiency C 591

outcomes while minimizing waste. Combined, these (Neubauer and Fink 2009). Additionally, the influence
findings have lead to a focus on CE research in three of gender is related to greater neural efficiency with
primary disciplines: philosophy, neurobiology, and female dominance on verbal tasks, and male superior-
education. ity on spatial tasks.
C
Philosophy Education/Psychology
Spawned by the “efficiency movement” in the early CE research in education and psychology is focused in
1900s, and popularized by Frederick Taylor’s work several diverse areas including problem-solving effi-
(1911) in scientific management, the philosophical ciency in mathematics, verbal efficiency in reading,
view of CE combined psychological and sociological and strategy efficiency across domains. Problem-
perspectives. This systemic approach stated that individ- solving efficiency is the ability to arrive at accurate
ual competence cannot be achieved without efficiency, problem solutions with minimal effort or time (Schraw
and productive cultures are based upon the moral obli- and Hoffman 2010). Verbal efficiency emphasizes the
gation of citizens to maximize effort and avoid wasting ability to quickly decode text and enhance reading
human resources. According to this view, maximal pro- comprehension, while strategy efficiency focuses on
ductivity influences all aspects of life, including applica- how effectively learners apply strategies to solve prob-
tion of efficiency principles to the science of education. lems quickly and accurately.
Research grounded in the discipline of philosophy places Much of the CE research in education and psychol-
strong emphasis on measuring teacher competence and ogy has investigated the effectiveness of instructional
attempts to quantify educational efficiency by determin- design and pedagogy, or focused on determining
ing optimal teaching methods. what factors influence information processing during
learning and problem solving. The characteristics of
Neuroscience instructional materials such as the complexity of the
Neurologically, CE is assessed by the frequency, speed, information and the presentation modality affect CE.
and location of prefrontal cortical activity as measured Grounded in cognitive load theory (Sweller et al. 1998)
by brain imaging technology such as functional mag- cognitive efficiency is constrained due to the limited
netic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission capacity of working memory to process and store
tomography (PET), which detects changes in cerebral information simultaneously. Information that is
blood flow or neural activation. Individuals with faster intrinsically complex and presentation modalities that
and more localized brain connectivity are deemed require learners to engage in extraneous processing
neurologically more efficient when fewer cognitive (e.g., embedding descriptive labels for a diagram in
resources are used and less energy is expended to cor- text rather than near the diagram) reduce CE because
rectly solve cognitive processing tasks such as digit- they create excessive burdens on processing resources
symbol substitution or spatial reasoning tasks, for and can interfere with learning.
example, the Raven Progressive Matrices test. Slower
processing and greater neurological activity is deemed Measurement of CE
less efficient and typically associated with lower intel- Three primary methods are used to measure CE, each
ligence and diminished performance (Neubauer and with different computational formulas (Hoffman and
Fink 2009). Schraw 2010). Studies investigating instructional effi-
Individuals who complete tasks faster and with ciency typically measure differences between perfor-
greater accuracy have lower brain activation and higher mance and effort. These studies convert raw effort
brain alpha levels, meaning they achieve superior task and performance scores obtained when completing
performance with less cognitive effort. However, many tasks to standardized scores and measure the difference
empirical ambiguities exist with the typical negative between control and experimental groups similar to
relations between brain activity and performance calculating effect sizes. For example, according to this
attenuated for complex tasks. Other variables including method of measurement, if two individuals have the
structured practice and adaptive strategy use mediate same test score, the individual that spent less time or
brain activation and increase neurological efficiency effort is deemed to be more cognitively efficient.
592 C Cognitive Efficiency

The second method is processing efficiency, which is memory. Other person variables that influence CE
a measure of the ratio of performance (i.e., accuracy or include metacognitive awareness and motivation.
number of errors) divided by cost (i.e., time or effort) Metacognitive awareness involves knowing what
between participants in different groups (e.g., experi- strategies to use, and how and when to use them.
mental and control groups). The primary focus is on Furthermore, learners’ motivation to use strategies
rate of change, or change relative to the amount of influences CE. So domain knowledge, metacogni-
effort or time that was needed to achieve accuracy. tive awareness, and motivation can help students
A student could either complete a task with greater become more cognitively efficient, even if they have
accuracy, or with less time or effort, and be considered lower WMC.
cognitively efficient. This method differs from the first Instructional variables, including the quality of
method as the construct of interest is the rate of change, instructional materials and the presentation format of
not the difference in change. to-be-learned information, also influence CE. Mate-
A third approach holds a factor constant (e.g., rials enhance CE when individuals can expend less
background knowledge) and uses existing CE measures effort and achieve relatively higher performance out-
to predict future outcomes of efficiency, similar to comes. For example, when solving problems using
using a covariate for statistical control. For example, worked examples, a modeled sample problem, learners
in a situation where an athlete is running an obstacle are more successful than when merely asked to solve
course, the athlete’s efficiency using the ratio of time to a problem without aids. Overly complex or poorly
distance may be the same or even worse than the designed materials lower CE because learners waste
previous run. Using previous information can be help- valuable working memory resources deciphering mate-
ful to determine differences in CE over time by calcu- rials and thus devote less attention to learning.
lating the relative gain after additional instruction or CE can be inhibited even when learners possess
practice. This method of measurement differs from necessary domain knowledge and WMC. Individuals
those previously described as it calculates the condi- lacking in awareness or the motivation to use auto-
tional rate of change from an existing level of CE to mated strategies may forego efficient problem solving
measure relative gain, when some relevant prior mea- in favor of more time-consuming methods such as
sure of practice or learning is considered. calculation. Similarly, effort can influence the potency
of cognitive resources dedicated toward a task, with
Important Scientific Research and greater effort associated with more complex tasks and
Open Questions a reduction in CE. The extra effort strains WMC
Person variables, such as working memory resources resulting in longer problem-solving time, thus reducing
and domain knowledge, influence CE. Learners have efficiency. Although employing more effort usually
limited working memory resources, which means they impedes CE, overconfidence in problem-solving success
can concurrently process and store limited amounts of can result in withholding effort. Individuals anticipat-
information at any given time. Thus, the availability of ing success may not try as hard as usual, miserly appro-
working memory resources influences how much priating effort, resulting in lower performance, and
information learners can process, how quickly they ultimately reducing CE.
can process it, and the strategies they use to process it The mode of presentation, context of learning, and
(Hambrick and Engle 2003). For instance, individuals the nature of pedagogy may influence CE. Some mate-
with greater working memory capacity (WMC) typi- rials are more suitable to the schemata of experts than
cally solve problems more accurately and more effi- novices and instructional methods such as discovery
ciently than individuals with lesser WMC (Mayer and learning can be counterproductive (Kirschner et al.
Wittrock 2006). 2006). These facets of CE assume knowledge acquisi-
Domain knowledge influences CE. When individ- tion and problem-solving ability of a more seasoned
uals have knowledge that is deep, well-structured, learner can be encumbered by information which is
and schematically well-organized, they think more redundant or unnecessary. Materials or methods pro-
efficiently, use strategies judiciously, and are better viding information ancillary to learning can create
able to retrieve information from long-term cognitive congestion, lowering CE.
 Cognitive Instruction C 593

Enhancing CE upon the difference between performance and effort,

CE may be enhanced by using three related approaches: while others use a variety of cost factors such as time
attentional control, optimal allocation of working or effort to create a performance ratio. Inconsistent
memory resources, and adaptive strategy use. Atten- approaches may deem a learner efficient under one
tional control, the ability to inhibit activation of irrel- circumstance but less efficient under another. C
evant or distracting information (Hambrick and Engle
2003), involves focusing on information that enables Cross-References
a learned to reach a goal, such as solving a problem or ▶ Cognitive Load Measurement
comprehending a text. By directing attention toward ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
relevant information, such as identifying key numeric ▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition
values in a math story problem, individuals can ▶ Cognitive Tasks and Learning
direct working memory resources toward knowledge ▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
acquisition. CE relies on speed of processing, thus ▶ Measurement of Learning Processes and Outcomes
individuals that can automate knowledge using little ▶ Mental Effort
conscious activity have a decisive advantage in both ▶ Working Memory
problem solving and recall (Mayer and Wittrock
2006). When information processing is automated, References
processing speed is increased, effort is reduced, work- Hambrick, D., & Engle, R. (2003). The role of working memory in
ing memory resources are conserved, and attention can problem solving. In J. Davidson & R. Sternberg (Eds.), The
be devoted to higher-order thought processes. psychology of problem solving (pp. 176–206). New York:
How individuals represent, allocate, and store Cambridge University Press.
Hoffman, B., & Schraw, G. (2010). Conceptions of efficiency:
knowledge in their long-term memory can also
Applications in learning and problem solving. Educational Psy-
improve CE. The concise organization and allocation chologist, 45, 1–10.
of knowledge structures such as well-defined schemas Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal
for declarative knowledge and automated scripts guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the
for procedural knowledge contribute to less effort- failure of constructivist, discovery, and problem-based, experi-
ential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41,
ful processing (Schraw 2006). Individuals with more
75–86.
awareness of their cognitive processes can achieve bet- Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, M. C. (2006). Problem solving. In
ter knowledge organization thus freeing up available P. A. Alexander & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational
resources to more effectively process information. psychology (2nd ed., pp. 287–304). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Finally, individuals may compensate for limited work- Neubauer, A. C., & Fink, A. (2009). Intelligence and neural efficiency.
ing memory resources through adaptive strategy use, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33, 1004–1023.
Schraw, G. (2006). Knowledge: Structures and processes. In
motivational superiority due to higher degrees of self-
P. A. Alexander & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational
efficacy, and through the use of instructional scaffolds psychology (2nd ed.), (pp. 245–264). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
such as worked examples or explanatory feedback, Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive
which enhance the overall efficiency of strategy use architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology
and subsequent CE. Review, 10, 251–295.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management.
Additional research in CE is needed in two areas.
NewYork: Harper Brothers.
First, it is unclear as to which individual difference
variables influence CE. More research is needed to
determine how individual differences in motivation,
reasoning, thinking dispositions, and beliefs influence
CE. Individuals may be efficient at storing and Cognitive Instruction
processing information yet may apply their knowledge
inefficiently. This conception can be defined as efforts for helping
Second, measurement approaches are inconsistent students to process information meaningfully, enabl-
across and within disciplines. For example, some ing them to becoming independent from the teacher.
researchers measure cognitive efficiency strictly based Cognitive instruction also reflects ideas of social
594 C Cognitive Jump

constructionism as described by Lev Vygotsky Concepts – models, schemas, categories, or principles,

(1978) in his work “Mind in Society”: learners con- such as knowing the difference between a circle and
struct knowledge in a social context as they try to a square
make sense of it, continually modifying prior knowl- Procedures – step-by-step processes, such as knowing
edge as they apply it to new contexts.” how to carry out long multiplication for 5627=
___
Strategies – general methods for accomplishing a goal,
such as breaking a problem into parts or managing
the learning process
Cognitive Jump Beliefs – thoughts about how one’s learning works,
such as thinking “I am good at learning about
▶ Mental Leap
psychology”
Achieving proficiency on most complex tasks
requires learning more than one kind of knowledge,
including meta-strategies for how to coordinate them
Cognitive Learning (i.e., strategies for managing cognitive processing).

RICHARD E. MAYER
Department of Psychology, University of California, Theoretical Background
Santa Barbara, CA, USA The science of learning is the scientific study of how
people learn (Mayer 2011). Over the past 120 years,
researchers have developed three conceptions of how
Synonyms learning works – response strengthening, information
Knowledge change; Learning acquisition, and knowledge construction. According
to the response-strengthening view, learning involves
the strengthening or weakening of an association
Definition
between a stimulus and a response, in which responses
Cognitive learning is a change in knowledge attributable
that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened and
to experience (Mayer 2011). This definition has three
responses that are followed by dissatisfaction are
components: (1) learning involves a change, (2) the
weakened. The instructor is a dispenser of rewards
change is in the learner’s knowledge, and (3) the cause
and punishments whereas the learner is a passive re-
of the change is the learner’s experience. An example of
cipient of rewards and punishments. The response-
cognitive learning includes being able to give the defini-
strengthening view reached prominence in the first
tion of cognitive learning after reading this entry.
half of the twentieth century, and is reflected in classic
Cognitive learning can be distinguished from
research by Thorndike (1911/1965) on trial and error
behavioral learning on the basis that cognitive learning
learning by cats.
involves a change in the learner’s knowledge whereas
According to the information acquisition view,
behavioral learning involves a change in the learner’s
learning involves adding new information to memory,
behavior. However, a change in knowledge (i.e., cogni-
in which the amount of practice or time spent studying
tive change) must be inferred from the learner’s behav-
is related to the amount of information learned. The
ior (i.e., behavioral change), so cognitive learning is
instructor is a dispenser of information and the learner
closely related to behavioral learning.
is a passive recipient of information. The information
Knowledge change is at the heart of cognitive learn-
acquisition view reached prominence in the 1960s and
ing; so it is useful to distinguish among five kinds of
1970s in conjunction with the information-processing
knowledge (Mayer 2011):
revolution in cognitive psychology, and has its roots in
Facts – factual knowledge about the characteristics classic research by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1964)
of things, such as knowing that the numeral “5” on the role of practice in memorizing lists of nonsense
corresponds to the word “five” syllables.
 Cognitive Learning C 595

According to the knowledge construction view, memories have unlimited capacity to hold sensory
learning is an active process of sense making in which representations for very brief periods (i.e., less than
the learner constructs a mental representation by 1 s). The second row represents working memory in
selecting relevant incoming information, mentally which selected aspects of incoming sounds and images
organizing it into a coherent structure, and integrating from sensory memory are mentally organized into C
it with appropriate prior knowledge. The instructor is coherent cognitive verbal and pictorial representations,
a cognitive guide who helps the learner engage in respectively. However, working memory capacity is
appropriate cognitive processing during learning, and severely limited; so only a small amount of cognitive
the learner is an active sense maker. The knowledge processing can take place within each channel at any
construction view has been prominent since the 1980s, one time, and information that is not processed decays
and has its roots in classic research by Frederic Bartlett quickly (i.e., in less than 1 min). Finally, the third row
(1932) on learning and memory as constructive activ- represents long-term memory, which is the learner’s
ities that depend on the learner’s existing knowledge. storehouse of knowledge – a memory store for knowl-
Although all three conceptions of learning are still edge with nearly unlimited capacity and long duration.
influential today, they may be most relevant for differ- These distinctions are consistent with the limited-
ent kinds of learning situations. capacity principle, which holds that learners can process
only a small amount material at any one time in work-
Important Scientific Research and ing memory.
Open Questions Concerning cognitive processes, the arrows repre-
Figure 1 presents a framework for cognitive learning, sent the three major kinds of cognitive processing
which consists of two channels, three memory stores, required for cognitive learning – selecting, organizing,
and three cognitive processes (Mayer 2009). Concer- and integrating. Selecting occurs when learners attend
ning channels, the top row represents the auditory/ to aspects of the incoming information in sensory
verbal channel whereas the bottom row represents the memory for further processing in working memory,
visual/pictorial channel. This distinction is consistent as indicated by the arrows from sensory memory to
with the dual-channel principle, which holds that working memory (i.e., selecting words and selecting
learners have separate channels for processing verbal images). Organizing occurs when learners mentally
and visual material. arrange verbal elements into a coherent verbal repre-
Concerning memory stores, the first row represents sentation (indicated by the organizing words arrow)
sensory memory in which incoming spoken words and mentally arrange pictorial elements into a coherent
impinge on the ears and are held in acoustic form for pictorial representation (indicated by the organizing
a very brief time within auditory sensory memory images arrow). Integrating occurs when learners acti-
whereas incoming pictures and printed words impinge vate relevant knowledge from long-term memory
on the eyes and are held in visual form for a very brief and connect it with incoming information in work-
time within visual sensory memory. These sensory ing memory (as indicated by the integrating arrow).

Multimedia Sensory Long-term

memory Working memory memory
presentation

Selecting Organizing Verbal

Words Ears Sounds
words words model
Integrating
Prior
knowledge
Selecting Organizing Pictorial
Pictures Eyes Images
images images model

Cognitive Learning. Fig. 1 A framework for cognitive learning

596 C Cognitive Learning Strategies

These cognitive processes are consistent with the active-

processing principle, which holds that meaningful learn- Cognitive Learning Strategies
ing depends on appropriate cognitive processing for Digital Media
during learning such as selecting relevant incoming
information, organizing it into a coherent mental ROLF PLOETZNER
representation, and integrating it with appropriate Institute of Media in Education, University of
prior knowledge. Education, Freiburg, Germany
Important research questions concern the nature of
learning processes, the nature of mental representa-
tions, and the design of effective instruction. First, Synonyms
research is needed to determine how the processes of Approaches to learning; Learning methods
selecting, organizing, and integrating work during
learning. Second, research is needed to determine Definition
how various kinds of knowledge are represented in According to Streblow and Schiefele (2006), a learning
working memory. Third, research is needed to deter- strategy is defined as “. . . (a) a sequence of efficient
mine how to guide learning by using effective instruc- learning techniques, which (b) are used in a goal-
tional design. oriented and flexible way, (c) are increasingly automat-
ically processed, but (d) remain consciously applied”
(p. 353, translation by the author). Learning techniques
Cross-References denote both specific internal learning activities, such as
▶ Cognitive Load Theory
remembering a piece of information or establishing
▶ Cognitive Processes in Learning
a relation between pieces of information, and external
▶ Constructivist Learning
learning activities, such as highlighting and annotating
▶ Ebbinghaus, Hermann
information in external representations. When several
▶ Generative Learning
learning techniques are employed together in a coordi-
▶ Human Information Processing
nated and goal-oriented way, they form a learning
▶ Knowledge Representation
strategy. Cognitive learning strategies serve to effec-
▶ Multimedia Learning
tively and efficiently process information, to store
▶ Thorndike, Edward L
information in long-term memory, and to support
the retrieval of information.
References
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social Theoretical Background
psychology. London: Cambridge University Press. In digital learning environments, learning material is
Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psy-
frequently comprised of different static and dynamic
chology. New York: Dover. Originally published in German in
1885. verbal and pictorial representations. Educators com-
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). New York: bine both verbal representations (e.g., written or spo-
Cambridge University Press. ken text) and pictorial representations (e.g., pictures,
Mayer, R. E. (2011). Applying the science of learning. Upper Saddle animations, or simulations) in order to improve stu-
River: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
dents’ learning. This can have various beneficial effects
Thorndike, E. L. (1965). Animal intelligence. New York: Hafner.
Originally published in 1911.
on learning. For instance, different representations
might single out different aspects of a subject domain,
describe aspects of a subject domain that cannot
be described by means of other representations, or
complement each other in such a way that more
Cognitive Learning Strategies complete mental representations are achieved (cf.
Ainsworth 2006).
▶ Elaboration Strategies and Human Resources During the last 10 years, however, educational and
Development psychological researches have demonstrated that many
 Cognitive Learning Strategies for Digital Media C 597

students encounter difficulties when learning from and Robinson 1972). Numerous principles have been
combinations of different verbal and pictorial repre- identified on how to design texts in a manner, which
sentations. Such combinations not only offer various support students’ learning. These principles address
learning opportunities for students, but also place issues of content as well as structure and layout. No
increased demands on the students. For instance, stu- one assumes, however, that texts designed according to C
dents need to understand (1) how information is these principles guarantee that students will learn suc-
encoded in each single representation, (2) how each cessfully. Rather, students are taught – from the ele-
representation is related to the subject domain, and mentary to the university level – reading and learning
(3) how information in one representation can be strategies which take the specific characteristics of texts
related to information in another representation (cf. into account. These strategies involve both internal
Ainsworth 2006). Thus, students not only have to learn learning activities (e.g., paraphrasing text segments)
how to identify the relevant components of verbal and and external learning activities (e.g., highlighting text
pictorial representations, but how to relate them to segments). Thus, after many years of education, the
each other as well. If the representations are dynamic, students have acquired and exercised a number of
students must also learn how to identify and relate internal and external techniques which help them to
both spatially and temporally separated compo- systematically approach particularly complex and dif-
nents. Interactive representations place even more ficult texts.
demands on the students in that they need to plan, If empirically evaluated strategies for learning from
to monitor, and to evaluate their interactions with the texts are available, but there exist almost no strategies
representations. for learning from other external representations, then
One approach to support learning from different one obvious approach to conceptualizing strategies for
static and dynamic representations is the principled learning from other representations is to draw upon the
design of digital media. Based on theories and models strategies for learning from texts. However, strategies
of human learning, such as Richard Mayer’s (2001) for learning from texts cannot be directly mapped onto
theory of multimedia learning, this approach essen- strategies for learning from other representations.
tially aims at designing digital media in a way that Because each external representation has its own char-
make the identification and selection, as well as the acteristics and places its own demands on learners,
organization and integration of information as easy as a conceptual model that mediates such a mapping is
possible for students. Examples of important design needed. Theories on multimedia learning create
principles are the multimedia principle, the split- a promising starting point for formulating the required
attention principle, and the modality principle (cf. conceptual model.
Mayer 2005). Several studies have demonstrated that Mayer’s (2001) theory of multimedia learning
the principled design of digital media facilitates learn- emphasizes four different kinds of cognitive processes:
ing. Over the past 10 years, research on learning from selection, organization, transformation, and integra-
digital media has focused on this approach. tion of information. Selected textual and pictorial
Another approach to improve learning from exter- information is initially processed in separate channels.
nal representations is the principled design of learn- Subsequently, the selected information is then orga-
ing strategies. Also based on theories and models of nized into two separate models: one model for verbal
human learning, it aims at empowering students to information and one model for pictorial information.
initiate, plan, organize, monitor, and regulate their During information processing, verbal representations
own learning and to competently deal with challeng- may be transformed into pictorial representations (e.g.,
ing learning material. With respect to learning from by constructing mental images) and vice versa (e.g., by
digital media, this approach has been largely neglected internally verbalizing images). In order to make mul-
up until now. timedia learning successful, both models need to be
One example in which research on the design of integrated and related to prior knowledge.
external representations has been successfully coupled If strategies for learning from multimedia are to be
with research on the design of cognitive learning strate- based on strategies for learning from text, the models
gies is when applied to learning from texts (e.g., Thomas can support this conceptualization in two different
598 C Cognitive Learning Strategies for Digital Media

ways. First, learning techniques used in strategies for investigated in order to analyze the learning effective-
learning from text can be categorized according to the ness of the strategy. One group of students learned
cognitive processes which they aim to induce. Subse- without the strategy whereas another group of students
quently, analogous techniques for learning from mul- learned with the strategy. It was demonstrated that the
timedia have to be constructed in such a way that they students who employed the strategy attained signifi-
stimulate the same cognitive processes. In this case, the cantly better learning results with medium to large
model serves as a synthetic aid for “mapping” tech- effect sizes.
niques, which have been designed for learning from The strategies proposed by Kombartzky et al.
one representational system to those techniques (2010) and Schlag and Ploetzner (in press) are two
designed for learning from another representational examples of cognitive strategies for learning from dif-
system. Secondly, once a learning strategy is available, ferent combinations of digital media. Additional exam-
the learning techniques employed within the strategy ples of such strategies are self-explaining while learning
can be categorized, as described above, in order to from text and pictures (e.g., Ainsworth and Loizou
determine whether each of the cognitive processes is 2003) and guided discovery learning while learning
promoted by a corresponding learning technique. In from interactive simulations (e.g., de Jong and van
this case, the model serves as an analytic aid in order to Joolingen 1998). However, there is much potential for
verify that all four kinds of cognitive processes are further research on strategies for learning from digital
supported by the strategy. media. For instance, a learning strategy can be provided
to the students in many different ways. The complete
Important Scientific Research and strategy can either be presented to the students at once
Open Questions on a worksheet or the students can be prompted incre-
Based on the conceptual model described above, mentally and adaptively for single learning techniques
Kombartzky et al. (2010) proposed a cognitive strategy when they are working on specific parts of the learning
for learning from animations and spoken text. Two material. Currently, we do not know which possibility
different experimental studies were conducted in is more beneficial to learning.
order to evaluate the strategy. In the first study, one In the long run, one also needs to investigate whether
group of students learned from an animation without the learning strategies can be taught to students in such
the strategy, whereas a second group of students was a way that the students internalize the strategies step by
encouraged to make use of the proposed strategy dur- step and then automatically apply them to new learning
ing learning. The use of the strategy was not monitored. situations. This commonly requires the training of
The students who were encouraged to take advantage learning strategies over a longer period of time. Research
of the strategy learned significantly better than the indicates that the use of a newly acquired, but not yet
students who were not asked to do so. In the second automatized learning strategy demands a great deal of
study, three groups of students were investigated. The mental effort and might therefore – temporarily – even
first group learned from an animation without the impede learning. Only after a longer period of training
strategy. The second group was encouraged to make does it become easier to apply the strategies, hence
use of the strategy during learning but use of the strat- learning improves.
egy was not monitored. The third group was also There might also be potential for optimizing the
encouraged to make use of the strategy during learning proposed strategies. On the one hand, we need to better
and their use of the strategy was monitored. The results understand how the learning techniques employed in
of the second study replicated the findings of the first the strategies contribute to learning success. Are the
study. Furthermore, learning was most successful when learning techniques of equal importance or could some
the students’ use of the learning strategy was moni- of the learning techniques be neglected? On the other
tored. The effect sizes are medium to large. hand, only processes at the cognitive level are currently
On the basis of the same conceptual model, Schlag induced by means of the strategies. Various studies,
and Ploetzner (in press) developed a cognitive learning however, indicate that learning might be even more
strategy in order to support learning from written text successful if processes at the metacognitive level were
and static pictures. Two groups of students were also taken into account. It could therefore be of interest
 Cognitive Load Measurement C599
to further investigate whether or not it is beneficial to
complement the proposed learning techniques at the Cognitive Load
cognitive level with learning techniques at the ▶ Mental Effort
metacognitive level.
C
Cross-References
▶ Animation and Learning
▶ Audio-Visual Learning Cognitive Load Measurement
▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies
▶ Learning Strategies TAMARA VAN GOG1, FRED PAAS1,2
1
▶ Multimedia Learning Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University
▶ Representational Learning Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
2
▶ Strategic Learning University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia

References Synonyms
Ainsworth, S. (2006). DeFT: A conceptual framework for considering Measurement of working memory load; Workload
learning with multiple representations. Learning and Instruction,
measurement
16, 183–198.
Ainsworth, S., & Loizou, A. (2003). The effects of self-explaining
when learning with text or diagrams. Cognitive Science, 27, Definition
669–681. Cognitive load can be defined as the load imposed on
de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. R. (1998). Scientific discovery an individual’s working memory by a particular (learn-
learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains.
ing) task. It can be measured using various techniques.
Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 179–201.
Kombartzky, U., Ploetzner, R., Schlag, S., & Metz, B. (2010). Devel-
oping and evaluating a strategy for learning from animation. Theoretical Background
Learning and Instruction, 20(5), 424–433. Cognitive load theory (CLT) is discussed extensively
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge
elsewhere in this Encyclopedia, and therefore not
University Press.
Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia
repeated in detail here. What is important to note for
learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. cognitive load measurement, though, is that the intrin-
Schlag, S., & Ploetzner, R. (in press). Supporting learning from illus- sic load imposed by a learning task results from both
trated texts: Conceptualizing and evaluating a learning strategy. task and learner characteristics. The higher the number
Instructional Science. of novel interacting information elements a task con-
Streblow, L., & Schiefele, U. (2006). Lernstrategien im Studium.
tains, the higher the intrinsic cognitive load it imposes
[Learning strategies in academic studies]. In H. Mandl &
H. F. Friedrich (Eds.), Handbuch Lernstrategien [Handbook on working memory. With increasing practice, ele-
of learning strategies] (pp. 352–364). Göttingen: Hogrefe Verlag. ments are combined or chunked into a schema, which
Thomas, E. L., & Robinson, H. A. (1972). Improving reading is stored in long-term memory and can be retrieved
in every class: A source-book for teachers. Boston: Allyn and and handled in working memory as a single informa-
Bacon.
tion element. Because schemata can be handled as
a single element, the same task imposes less cognitive
load for people who have had more practice than for
people who are unfamiliar with the task, that is, their
Cognitive Learning Strategy performance is more efficient. Therefore, measuring
cognitive load next to the more traditional perfor-
Goal-directed mental activities aimed at enhancing mance measures (e.g., accuracy, number, or type of
one’s knowledge and skill. Examples of cognitive learn- errors), before, during, or after a learning phase, can
ing strategies include summarizing, outlining, concept provide additional information on the level of exper-
mapping, creating analogies, generating elaborations, tise of a learner or group of learners relative to that of
sub-goaling, self-questioning, etc. other learners.
600 C Cognitive Load Measurement

Next to intrinsic cognitive load, the way in which or (an adapted version of) the 9-point symmetrical
the task was designed or presented to the learner category mental effort rating scale developed by Paas
may affect cognitive load. In this case, measuring cog- (for reviews, see Paas et al. 2003; Van Gog and Paas
nitive load in combination with performance can – 2008). This mental effort rating scale asks students
at least when the level of intrinsic load is kept to indicate “how much mental effort did you invest
constant – provide information on the effects of differ- in solving this problem?” (or “. . .in studying this
ent task designs relative to each other. For example, example,” or “. . .in completing this task”), with answer
when we know that two groups of learners (A and B), of options ranging from (1) very very low mental effort to
equal levels of expertise (i.e., materials will impose (9) very very high mental effort. Mental effort is
a comparable intrinsic load), both experience the defined as “the aspect of cognitive load that refers to
same level of cognitive load during learning with two the cognitive capacity that is actually allocated to
different instructional formats, say A (Group A) and accommodate the demands imposed by the task; thus,
B (Group B), we do not know very much. However, it can be considered to reflect the actual cognitive load”
if we know that the learning outcomes of Group (Paas et al. 2003, p. 64). To illustrate the difference
B were higher than those of Group A, we can conclude between “objective” cognitive load (e.g., as defined by
that the cognitive load they experienced must have the number of interacting information elements) and
resulted from different cognitive processes: The load actual cognitive load as measured by mental effort: if
experienced by Group B was imposed by cognitive a task is very high in intrinsic load, but the learner does
processes that were more effective for learning than not allocate any cognitive capacity to the task (i.e., does
those in Group A. Or alternatively, if Groups A and not engage in it, which can be the case, e.g., when
B had obtained the same test scores, but Group learners perceive a task as being too difficult), the task
A experienced more cognitive load during learning will not actually impose any cognitive load on the
than Group B, the learning process of Group B was learner’s working memory. Subjective ratings are usu-
more efficient (Van Gog and Paas 2008). ally collected immediately after each task, in which case
In sum, cognitive load is the load imposed on they do not give insight into fluctuations in load over
working memory by the cognitive processes that a time. They can also be applied repeatedly during the
(learning) task evokes. It can be measured at different task, in which case, some information on fluctuations
levels. Xie and Salvendy (2000) distinguish between in load is available.
instantaneous load, peak load, average load, accumu- A more objective way of measuring cognitive load
lated load, and overall load. Instantaneous load reflects is the use of secondary-task procedures, in which the
the dynamics of cognitive load, which fluctuates every amount of load imposed by the primary (learning)
moment during execution of the (learning) task. Peak task is measured by the performance or response time
load is the maximum value of instantaneous load while on a secondary task: the higher the load imposed by
working on the task. Accumulated load is the total the primary task, the less cognitive capacity is available
amount of load that the learner experiences during for attending to the secondary task, and as a conse-
a task. Average load represents the mean intensity of quence, response to the secondary task will be ham-
load during the performance of a task. The average pered/slower (for a review, see Brünken et al. 2003). For
value of instantaneous load equals the accumulated example, learners could be asked to respond to a color
load per time unit. Finally, overall load is the experi- change of a letter placed above the multimedia mate-
enced load based on the whole working procedure (see rials they are studying as soon as possible (see Brünken
also Paas et al. 2003). et al. 2003). The slower their response to the color
change, the more cognitive capacity was being devoted
Important Scientific Research and at that moment to the multimedia materials. Note that
Open Questions in order for the secondary task to be sensitive to vari-
Cognitive load can be measured with different tech- ations in cognitive load, it should draw on the same
niques. Most CLT research applies subjective rating working memory resources as the primary task. More-
scales to assess cognitive load, such as an adapted over, if learners decide to devote more cognitive capac-
version of the NASA-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) ity to the secondary task, this might hamper their
 Cognitive Load Theory C 601

performance on the primary (learning) task (Brünken Cross-References

et al. 2003). ▶ Cognitive Efficiency
Both secondary-task procedures and subjective rat- ▶ Cognitive Load Theory
ing scales that are applied multiple times during task ▶ Mental Effort
performance do not provide a continuous measure of ▶ Working Memory C
fluctuations in cognitive load, because of the time
intervals between presentations of the rating scale or
References
Antonenko, P., Paas, F., Van Gog, T., & Grabner, R. (2010). Using
secondary task. Continuous measurement of (instan-
electroencephalography (EEG) to measure cognitive load. Edu-
taneous) cognitive load allows looking at data for spe- cational Psychology Review, 22, 425–438.
cific instances of time, which will allow a more detailed Brünken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of
interpretation of the effects of instructional interven- cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist,
tions on cognitive processes, cognitive load, and learn- 38, 53–61.
Grabner, R. H., Neubauer, A. C., & Stern, E. (2006). Superior perfor-
ing than a single measure of accumulated or overall
mance and neural efficiency: The impact of intelligence and
load. Objective cognitive load measurement techniques expertise. Brain Research Bulletin, 69, 422–439.
that have been explored in CLT research which can Paas, F., Tuovinen, J., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003).
provide continuous measures, thereby allowing for Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive
assessment of cognitive load at all levels (instantaneous, load theory. Educational Psychologist, 38, 63–72.
Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revisiting the
peak, accumulated, average, and overall), are psycho-
original construct in educational research. Educational Psycholo-
physiological measures such as heart-rate variability,
gist, 43, 16–26.
with increases in cognitive load being associated with Xie, B., & Salvendy, G. (2000). Review and reappraisal of modeling
decreases in variability, or pupil dilation, with increases and predicting mental workload in single- and multi-task envi-
in cognitive load being associated with increases in ronments. Work and Stress, 14, 74–99.
dilation (see Paas et al. 2003). Increasingly, psycho-
physiological techniques from neuroscience are being
applied to study cognitive load, such as functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emis- Cognitive Load Theory
sion tomography (PET), or electroencephalography
(EEG). Both PET and fMRI are neuroimaging tech- JOHN SWELLER
niques that register changes in blood flow related School of Education, University of New South Wales,
to neural activity, using scanners; EEG measures elec- Sydney, NSW, Australia
trical activity produced by the brain via electrodes
that are placed on the scalp. Interestingly, research
using a combination of behavioral and neuroscience Definition
techniques has shown that the cognitive efficiency Cognitive load theory is concerned with the manner in
discussed above (i.e., individuals with more expertise which instruction should be presented and the activi-
perform better while they experience lower cognitive ties in which learners should engage to maximize per-
load, i.e., have to invest less mental effort) also occurs at formance. The theory is based on our knowledge of
a neural level: Better performance is reached with human cognitive architecture, particularly working
a lower level of neural activity (Grabner et al. 2006; memory and long-term memory. Relations between
see also Antonenko et al. 2010). Traditionally, a major working memory and long-term memory are consid-
drawback of most psychophysiological measurement ered from an evolutionary perspective.
methods has been that the equipment is highly
intrusive and difficult to use in natural settings. Theoretical Background
However, more options are becoming available and Cognitive load theory has a particular view of
affordable for psychophysiological data collection in human cognitive architecture (Sweller 2003; Sweller
natural settings, such as head-mounted eye trackers et al. 2011; Sweller and Sweller 2006), and the type of
connected with a laptop computer in a backpack, or knowledge that is acquired during instruction. The
wireless EEG caps. theory applies solely to biologically secondary rather
602 C Cognitive Load Theory

than biologically primary knowledge (Geary 2008). We is provided by the borrowing and reorganizing principle.
have evolved to acquire primary knowledge such as Information is borrowed (and reorganized) from the
listening to and speaking our first language, recog- long-term memories of other people by imitating what
nizing faces, engaging in routine social relations, and they do, listening to what they say, and reading what
using general problem-solving strategies, over many they write.
generations. Each of these skills is modular and not While information can be borrowed from other
closely related to other primary skills. Primary knowl- people, that information must be created in the first
edge can be acquired effortlessly, unconsciously, and instance. Information is created during problem-
without explicit instruction by immersion in a human solving by the randomness as genesis principle, using
society. a random generate and test for effectiveness proce-
Secondary knowledge is cultural. We have not dure. Random generation of moves can result in an
required specific examples of secondary knowledge unmanageable number of possible moves. Knowledge
until relatively recently and so have not evolved to held in long-term memory is used to reduce the range
acquire any particular form of such knowledge. For of possible moves.
example, we have not specifically evolved to read and When dealing with novel information, knowledge
write in the way we have evolved to listen and speak. may be unavailable to sufficiently limit the range of
Similarly, it is plausible to argue that we have not possible moves. Instead of using knowledge to reduce
evolved to acquire the content of any subject com- the range of moves, the narrow limits of change prin-
monly taught in educational institutions. In contrast ciple is used. Our limited capacity, limited duration
to primary knowledge, the acquisition of secondary working memory prevents us from attempting to gen-
knowledge requires a general cognitive architecture erate a large number of complex moves.
applicable to a wide variety of areas, rather than mod- Lastly, the environmental linking and organizing
ular systems specific to a particular area. Furthermore, principle uses information from long-term memory
acquiring secondary knowledge tends to be effortful, to alter the characteristics of working memory. Indef-
conscious, and enhanced by explicit instruction. The inite quantities of organized information held in long-
cognitive architecture used by cognitive load theory term memory can be transferred to working memory
applies to secondary rather than primary knowledge for indefinite periods. As a consequence, information
and is central to cognitive load theory. When dealing held in long-term memory transforms a working mem-
with secondary knowledge, human cognition can be ory that is limited in capacity and duration into a
considered a natural information processing system working memory with no known capacity or duration
whose evolution has been driven by an analogous limits. That information from long-term memory
natural information processing system, evolution by determines how we interact with our environment.
natural selection (Sweller and Sweller 2006). The char- This cognitive architecture is used by cognitive load
acteristics of natural information processing systems as theory to generate instructional procedures. The aim
applied to human cognition will be described using five of instruction, based on the information store principle,
basic principles. is to accumulate knowledge in long-term memory.
The information store principle deals with the stor- Once stored, the environmental linking and organizing
age of information in human long-term memory. principle allows us to use the information to function
All learning requires information to be stored in long- in our environment. Knowledge stored in long-term
term memory. If nothing is stored in long-term memory is most easily acquired from other people
memory, nothing has been learned. In biologically sec- using the borrowing and reorganizing principle. If
ondary areas, massive amounts of domain-specific knowledge held by others is unavailable to us, it can
information in schematic form are stored in long- be created using the randomness as genesis principle. In
term memory. The primary goal of instruction is to both cases, the narrow limits of change principle indi-
assist learners to store that information. cates that instruction needs to minimize an unneces-
Because the amount of information stored in long- sary working memory load.
term memory is so large, an efficient procedure for The cognitive load (or working memory load)
acquiring that information is required. That procedure imposed by instructional material depends on the
 Cognitive Load Theory C 603

number of elements (or schemas) with which learners separate form. For example, an explanation associated
must simultaneously deal. If elements interact, they with a diagram may be presented next to the diagram
must be dealt with simultaneously by working memory. rather than at appropriate points on the diagram.
Interacting elements that are intrinsic to the instructional Learners must mentally integrate a text and diagram
material impose an intrinsic cognitive load that cannot that are physically separate and mental integration C
be reduced other than by changing the nature of the task requires working memory resources that consequently
or by learning to group elements together into a higher- are unavailable for learning, imposing an extraneous
order schema that acts as a single element. Interacting cognitive load. Placing text at appropriate points on
elements that are extraneous to the instructional area a diagram allows working memory resources to be
impose an extraneous cognitive load that should be used for learning instead of relating the two sources
reduced by altering instructional procedures. Working of information. The split-attention effect occurs when
memory resources devoted to dealing with intrinsic cog- physical integration is superior to mental integration.
nitive load are germane to the task at hand and are The effect requires the two sources of information to
sometimes referred to as germane cognitive load. Effec- be unintelligible in isolation. If, for example, text
tive instruction maximizes working memory resources merely redescribes a diagram, the split-attention effect
dealing with intrinsic cognitive load that is germane will not be obtained (see the redundancy effect below).
to the task at hand and minimizes working memory The modality effect is demonstrated by comparing
resources dealing with extraneous cognitive load. information presented in both visual (e.g., a diagram)
Cognitive load theory has been used to generate and spoken (text) modes to information presented in
many instructional effects using randomized, con- a visual mode only with written text. The effect occurs
trolled experiments comparing various instructional when a dual, audio-visual mode of presentation is
procedures. These are described in the next section. superior to a single, visual only (with written text)
mode of presentation. The modality effect is related
Important Scientific Research and to the split-attention effect in that both effects require
Open Questions one or more sources of information to be unintelligible
The worked example effect is demonstrated when study- in isolation. The effect occurs because working mem-
ing worked examples increases problem-solving skill ory capacity and learning can be increased by using
more than solving the equivalent problems. Searching both auditory and visual processes. The effect will not
for problem solutions using the randomness as genesis be obtained if the information includes long textual
principle imposes a heavy, extraneous cognitive load passages. These passages must be presented in written
that reduces learning. In contrast, studying worked form because it may not be possible to process them
examples makes use of the borrowing and reorganizing appropriately in working memory.
principle. Skilled problem solvers have learned to rec- The redundancy effect occurs when multiple sources
ognize problem states and the best move for each state. of information are unnecessary for understanding,
Worked examples are ideally suited to indicate which unlike the split-attention and modality effects that
moves are best for particular problem conditions. only occur when each source of information is essential.
The problem completion effect is related to the Unnecessary information must be processed in working
worked example effect. Instead of learners being memory and so imposes an extraneous cognitive load
presented with fully worked examples, they are presented that is eliminated by eliminating the redundant informa-
with partially completed worked examples that they tion. The effect is obtained when learning is enhanced
must complete themselves. Characteristically, learners by the elimination of redundant information.
who complete partially completed problems learn more The expertise reversal effect is obtained when in-
and perform better on subsequent tests than learners structional procedures that facilitate learning by
who solve full problems, demonstrating the problem novices reduce in their relative effectiveness as levels
completion effect. of expertise increase. Instructional procedure A may
The split-attention effect occurs when learners must result in more learning that procedure B for novices but
split their attention between multiple sources of infor- for more knowledgeable learners, B may be superior to
mation that are unnecessarily presented in physically A. This effect is an outcome of the redundancy effect.
604 C Cognitive Load Theory

Information critical for novices may be redundant for extraneous cognitive load (all of the above effects),
experts and so impose an extraneous cognitive load. intrinsic cognitive load must be high. If intrinsic cogni-
There are many versions of the expertise reversal effect tive load is low due to low intrinsic element interactivity,
depending on relations between the categories of infor- reducing a high extraneous cognitive load may not mat-
mation. One version is particularly important and is ter because total cognitive load may be below working
discussed next. memory limits. Cognitive load effects require complex
The guidance fading effect is an example of the information.
expertise reversal effect that is dependent on the worked The isolated-interacting elements effect can be
example and completion effects. Worked examples only obtained if element interactivity due to intrinsic cog-
are effective in comparison to solving problems for nitive load is too high for working memory to process
novice learners. With increasing expertise, the relative the information. Element interactivity and its atten-
effectiveness of worked examples decreases and eventu- dant working memory load can be reduced by initially
ally reverses. For more expert learners in an area, study- presenting the interacting elements as though they are
ing worked examples is redundant and learning may be isolated without reference to the interactions between
facilitated if worked examples are replaced by comple- them before presenting them in fully interacting
tion problems. As expertise increases further, even form. Presenting information in isolated followed by
completion problems may be redundant and should be interacting form facilitates learning compared to only
replaced by full problems. In this manner, the informa- presenting the information with all interactions between
tion provided to learners is faded from worked examples elements emphasized.
to completion problems and finally, to full problems as The variability effect also depends on variations in
relevant information is stored in long-term memory and intrinsic cognitive load. If learners are presented new
so becomes redundant if provided during instruction. material with examples that vary in many surface char-
The imagination effect occurs when learners who acteristics, they must not only learn a new concept or
imagine concepts or procedures learn more than procedure, they also must learn to extract the concept
learners who study those concepts or procedures. or procedure from the surface structure in which it
Imagining requires rehearsal of concepts or proce- is embedded. Intrinsic cognitive load is likely to be
dures in working memory, a procedure that can better high. It can be lowered by reducing the surface vari-
transfer information to long-term memory than sim- ability but then learners no longer learn to distinguish
ply studying. The imagination effect is obtained when between different surface variations. Providing there
learners asked to imagine concepts or procedures learn is sufficient working memory capacity to handle the
more than learners asked to study the same concepts or increased element interactivity, high variability exam-
procedures. ples will result in more learning and transfer than low
The goal-free effect is obtained when learners are variability examples.
presented the givens of a problem without the goal These effects, generated by cognitive load theory,
and asked to make as many problem moves as they can indicate instructional procedures that can facilitate
without reference to a goal. Conventional problems with learning. The theory emphasizes the storage of large
a conventional goal require problem solvers to consider amounts of biologically secondary information in
their current problem state, the goal state, differences long-term memory after processing in a limited
between the two, and possible moves to reduce those working memory. Stored information governs expert
differences. Under goal-free conditions, problem solvers performance. Novel information is best obtained
only need to consider whether any move can be made. from other people. Cognitive load theory assumes
The reduced working memory load enhances learning that during instruction, learners do not acquire very
compared to solving conventional problems. This tech- general cognitive strategies because general strategies
nique only is likely to be effective using problems for are biologically primary and so learned easily and
which the number of moves that can be generated from automatically. Rather, the function of instruction is
the givens without a goal is very limited. to assist in the acquisition of a large number of
The element interactivity effect depends on intrinsic domain-specific, biologically secondary knowledge
cognitive load. For effects dependent on reducing structures.
 Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems C 605

Cross-References
▶ Cognitive Load Measurement Cognitive Modeling with
▶ Goal-Free Effect Multiagent Systems
▶ Guidance-Fading Effect
▶ Imagination Effect ANGELO CANGELOSI C
▶ Modality Effect on Learning Centre for Robotics and Neural Systems, University of
▶ Redundancy Effect on Learning Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
▶ Split-Attention Effect on Learning
▶ Worked-Example Effect
Synonyms
References Adaptive agents; Artificial life; Evolutionary robotics;
Geary, D. (2008). An evolutionarily informed education science.
Embodied agents
Educational Psychologist, 43, 179–195.
Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of human cognitive architecture. In
B. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation Definition
(Vol. 43, pp. 215–266). San Diego: Academic Press. The computational modeling of cognition highly ben-
Sweller, J., & Sweller, S. (2006). Natural information processing sys- efits from the use of computer models of the learning
tems. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 434–458. of behavioral and cognitive capabilities in simulated
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory.
agents, such as for language development and evolu-
New York: Springer.
tion, or for the development of sensorimotor skills.
Through the simulation of the dynamics and interac-
tions in groups of agents it is possible to investigate
Cognitive Lock-In the role of social and group-based processes contrib-
uting to the development of cognition. In addition,
▶ Cognitive Automatisms and Routinized Learning multiagent systems can be used to investigate phyloge-
netic processes affecting the evolution of cognitive
capabilities. Examples of multiagent systems method-
ologies used for the study of cognition are artificial life
Cognitive Map models and evolutionary robotics. The main areas of
investigation in this field are language learning and
Internal representation of spatial relationship between
sensorimotor strategy development.
cues within the environment.

Theoretical Background
Cognitive modeling through agent-based systems per-
Cognitive Mapping mits the development and testing of specific hypotheses
on the ontogenetic and evolutionary acquisition of
▶ Spatial Learning behavioral and cognitive capabilities. Through the use
of multiagent systems it is possible to investigate, with
computer simulations, the role of social and group-
based processes in the development of cognition. In
Cognitive Model particular, researchers can adopt a synthetic modeling
Representation strategy (Cangelosi and Parisi 2002; Langton 1997),
which is quite different from classical scientific meth-
▶ Mental Models
odologies based on the analytic approach. For example,
in the natural sciences such as biology, a top-down
approach is often used by assuming the analysis, i.e.,
Cognitive Modeling division, of the global biological system into its main
component (e.g., the body is analyzed as a set of func-
▶ Adaptive Game-Based Learning tional systems and organs). In linguistics, language is
606 C Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems

analyzed, i.e., decomposed, into syntax, words, pho- well as the interaction between evolutionary dynamics
nemes. On the contrary, a synthetic modeling approach and ontogenetic learning processes.
to cognition uses a bottom-up strategy to reconstruct Evolutionary robotics regards the autonomous de-
the behavioral and cognitive system. The researcher can sign of the controllers of (simulated or physical) robots
define the basic components of a cognitive agent, the through the use of genetic algorithms (Nolfi and
rules by which these components interact, and the Floreano 2000). This robotics approach can be consid-
environment in which the agent and its components ered as a subset of the artificial life methodologies,
interact with each other. The computer program will with an additional focus on the role of embodiment
then simulate the interactions among the components in cognition due to the simulation of the robot’s sen-
to observe the emergence of the various higher-level sorimotor system. Although great part of the early
capabilities. With a simulation model, the feasibility work in evolutionary robotics focused on low-level
and validity of assumptions regarding the components, sensorimotor capabilities (navigation, object avoid-
their interaction rules, and the environment can be ance, foraging), more recent work has extended the
tested. For example, wrong, incomplete, or inadequate use of this methodology for higher-order motor and
assumptions will make it impossible to observe the cognitive capabilities such as object manipulation and
emergence of higher-level entities or of entities that language learning. In addition, evolutionary robotics
do not have realistic properties and do not exhibit has been recently applied to more complex models
realistic phenomena. The bottom-up approach of syn- of robotic platforms, moving from the use of simple
thetic simulations of multiagent cognitive systems also wheeled robots to humanoid robot platforms. In addi-
permits the study of problems and phenomena that are tion, evolutionary robotics has also been used to develop
analytically intractable, such as those of complex and models of the evolution of morphology of both the body
nonlinear systems, as it is the case of the phylogenetic and the brain of the agents.
and ontogenetic development of cognition. If we consider the main areas of cognition that
Within the field of cognitive agent modeling, two have been investigated through both approaches in
main synthetic modeling methodologies have been multiagent systems, we can identify five main behav-
employed: (1) artificial life models and (2) evolutionary ioral and cognitive capabilities where important scien-
robotics. Artificial life refers to the synthetic modeling tific insights have been produced:
of natural and artificial life-like systems, an innovative
approach developed by Langton and collaborators in ● Navigation, exploration, and foraging strategies. This
the late 1980s at the interface between biology and is the area where evolutionary robotics, as well as
computer science (Langton 1997). Although part of early artificial life models, has contributed most
the initial efforts within artificial life focused mostly (Nolfi and Floreano 2000). These studies typically
on the modeling of plant systems (e.g., Lindenmayer used wheeled robots (khepera, e-pucks) to investi-
systems) and low-level biochemical interactions (e.g., gate the evolutionary emergence of flexible, adap-
protein binding), artificial life systems have been exten- tive strategies for optimal exploration strategies and
sively used for the modeling of behavioral and cogni- foraging. Models demonstrated the strict coupling
tive capabilities in multiagent systems (Cangelosi and between the agent’s own sensorimotor system and
Parisi 2002; Steels and Belpaeme 2005). These agent- of the constraints of their environment.
based artificial life models typically consist of the sim- ● Categorization. The adaptive interaction with the
ulation of a group of agents that have to survive by environment requires the capability to categorize
adapting to the social and physical requirements of the objects and entities in the world, consistently
the environment and have to reproduce through with the agent’s own internal needs and social
genetic algorithms. Common artificial life tasks regard context. For example, Steels and Belpaeme (2005)
navigation and exploration of the environment, social analyzed which mechanisms a population of auton-
cooperation, and communication. The behavioral and omous agents benefits from to arrive at a repertoire
cognitive capabilities of each agent are controlled using of perceptually grounded color categories. They
a variety of methods, such as artificial neural networks, compared three main approaches to human cate-
that permit the modeling of learning mechanisms, as gorization: nativism, empiricism, and culturalism.
 Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems C 607

Multiagent simulations showed that the collective agents (e.g., model of humanoid robots) and carry out
choice of a shared repertoire must integrate multi- extensive simulation experiments (e.g., on the evolu-
ple constraints, including constraints coming from tion of brain and body morphology). In addition, the
communication. increasing empirical evidence in neuroscience and psy-
● Biological and cultural evolution of language. Lan- chology on the embodiment bases of cognition opens C
guage is definitely one of the main areas where new challenges for the understanding of the interaction
synthetic multiagent systems have produced signif- between sensorimotor knowledge and other cognitive
icant impact and scientific explanations (Cangelosi capabilities.
and Parisi 2002). In particular, numerous models of Such significant technological and scientific advances
the biological and cultural evolution of language have opened up a series of new challenges in cognitive
have shed light on the crucial factors favoring the modeling through multiagent systems. Here we list a few
evolutionary emergence of languages, such as social of the key research questions for future research:
learning phenomena and internal representation
– How can more complex embodiment systems, such
capabilities. More recently, such computer models
as simulation models of humanoid robots, be used
have been put in relationship with empirical data
to explain the fine mechanisms of the grounding of
on human languages (Vogt 2009).
cognition (e.g., microaffordance effects of action–
● Development and grounding of cognition in embodi-
vision links, action-compatibility effects in lan-
ment systems. Language again has been used as
guage processing)?
a test case for investigating the role of embodiment
– What are the evolutionary and developmental mech-
in cognition. For example, Cangelosi (2010) uses
anisms that supported the coevolution of brain and
a variety of multiagent systems to examine the
behavior?
grounding of language into the agent’s own action
– How can multiagent systems be used to investigate
repertoire, both in simulation agents and in human-
the effects of different social interaction protocols
oid robots. These models are consistent with increas-
in the establishment and maintenance of social
ing empirical evidence from neuroscience and
structures?
cognitive psychology on embodied cognition.
– How can the current minimal cognitive models
● Social coordination. Synthetic multiagent models
used in multiagent systems be scaled up to investi-
have been utilized to study social coordination
gate higher-order cognitive capabilities?
(both competition and cooperative interactions)
– What are the interaction dynamics between genetic
amongst groups of cognitive agents. For example,
evolution and cultural evolution in the emergence
coevolutionary simulations on prey–predator com-
of language?
petition experiments demonstrated an “arms race”
– What is the role of evolutionary and cognitive fac-
phenomenon where increase in complexity in one
tors in the emergence of syntax?
population, e.g., escape strategies of the prey, can
cause the emergence of complex strategies in the
Cross-References
coevolving predator species (Nolfi and Floreano
▶ Agent-Based Modeling
2000).
▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
▶ Cognitive Robotics
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Learning Agents and Agent-Based Modeling
Open Questions
The field of synthetic multiagent systems has received
an important boost in the last few years because of References
technological progress on computer simulation sys- Cangelosi, A. (2010). Grounding language in action and perception:
tems and robotic agent modeling. Thanks to advances From cognitive agents to humanoid robots. Physics of Life
Reviews, 7(2), 139–151.
in computationally intensive simulation tools for evo-
Cangelosi, A., & Parisi, D. (Eds.). (2002). Simulating the evolution of
lutionary and multiagent systems and to the availability language. London: Springer.
of open-source physics engines, it is now possible to Langton, G. C. (1997). Artificial life: An overview. Cambridge, MA:
build more detailed and accurate models of cognitive MIT Press/Bradford Books.
608 C Cognitive Models of Learning

Nolfi, S., & Floreano, D. (2000). Evolutionary robotics: The for just about any imaginable context. A cognitive
biology, intelligence, and technology of self-organizing machines. model for a given domain or problem solving task
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
typically represents an expert’s knowledge, which can
Steels, L., & Belpaeme, T. (2005). Coordinating perceptually
grounded categories through language: A case study for colour. sometimes take years (or even a decade) to form in the
The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(4), 469–489. mind of that expert. For a learner seeking to become
Vogt, P. (2009). Modelling interactions between language evolution an expert in that domain, the developmental path to
and demography. Human Biology, 81(2–3), 237–258. that desirable end state can be just as complex, if not
more, than the domain knowledge itself. The tools of
cognitive science can also be used to describe the
processes learners engage to acquire knowledge and
expertise in a given domain. To construct such cogni-
Cognitive Models of Learning tive models of learning, a variety of approaches are
used to collect relevant data while students are
H. CHAD LANE engaged in learning. These include think-aloud pro-
Institute for Creative Technologies, University of tocols, problem solving traces, diagnostic tests, and
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA even neurological analyses of brain activity. Because
learning can occur in different ways, in different
contexts, and for different knowledge types, a variety
Synonyms of models that account for learning have emerged.
Cognitive skill acquisition; Computational models of Further, cognitive models of learning can take a des-
learning; Conceptual change criptive form reporting empirical observations and
strategies revealed from learner thinkalouds to a
Definition more formal, computational form suitable for simu-
A cognitive model is a descriptive account or compu- lation on a computer (Ohlsson 2008).
tational representation of human thinking about a Acquisition of cognitive skills is a common focus of
given concept, skill, or domain. Here, the focus is on cognitive models of learning. Here, learning is focused
cognitive knowledge and skills, as opposed to sensori- on solving problems in a given domain. Substantial
motor skills, and can include declarative, procedural, empirical evidence exists showing that cognitive skill
and strategic knowledge. A cognitive model of learn- acquisition progresses in three stages: (1) cognitive
ing, then, is an account of how humans gain accurate stage: learners develop a declarative encoding of the
and complete knowledge. This is closely related to domain knowledge, (2) associative stage: through prac-
metacognitive reasoning and can come about as a result tice, errors in knowledge are identified and repaired,
of (1) revising (i.e., correcting) existing knowledge, and (3) autonomous stage: continued practice increases
(2) acquiring and encoding new knowledge from speed and accuracy during execution of the cognitive
instruction or experience, and (3) combining existing skill. Models of cognitive skill acquisition generally
components to infer and deduce new knowledge. strive to follow the same pattern, and deal with the
A cognitive model of learning should explain or simu- complexities that learners also face. They track learning
late these mental processes and show how they produce of individual rules, or knowledge components, to mul-
relatively permanent changes in the long-term memory tiple interacting pieces of knowledge at once, and
of learners. It is also common to consider impoverished finally, on to the final stages when practice produces
cognitive models of learning which can be useful for autonomy (VanLehn 1996).
diagnosis of learner errors and misconceptions, and Cognitive models of learning are tied closely to
in many cases, prescribing appropriate instructional metacognition, which can informally be understood
interventions. as “thinking about thinking.” Metacognitive thinking
represents an essential aspect to cognitive models of
Theoretical Background learning because they define control mechanisms the
Cognitive modeling is a basic tool for the field of learner must apply in order to actually acquire new
cognitive science used to account for human thinking knowledge. That is, to reach the end state of possessing
 Cognitive Models of Learning C 609

usable and accessible new knowledge in long-term Important Scientific Research and
memory, learners must actively regulate their own cog- Open Questions
nitive processes, decide where to direct their attention, Cognitive models represent an important class of tools
self-assess to decide if they understand, self-explain in the study of human cognition and learning. To date,
in order to establish connections between domain researchers have made incredible strides in studying C
principles and the object of study, decide if they will and modeling complex human learning (Ohlsson
seek help, and so on. For example, learners who study 2008; VanLehn 1999). However, any model of human
worked-out examples learn more effectively if they learning is almost by definition, incomplete. It is always
choose to frequently stop to check their own under- necessary to restrict a cognitive model of learning in
standing and identify underlying principles that pro- some way, whether it be the domain it operates on
vide justification for problem solving steps (Chi et al. or the kinds of reasoning of which it is capable.
1989). A good example of a computational model of Nowhere is this more evident than in recent efforts to
these activities, along with other learning mechanisms, integrate affective and emotional processes into models
is captured in the computational cognitive model of of learning (Kort 2009). Here, researchers are focused
learning, Cascade (VanLehn 1999). The model simu- on understanding the interplay between emotion and
lates learning from worked-out examples as well as learning to answer basic questions such as when
from problem solving and produces cognitive changes instruction is most effective, at what point do learners
on the impasse–repair–reflect cycle, a model derived respond positively to challenge, and when does frus-
from empirical studies of human learners (Chi et al. tration hinder or impede learning. These questions
1989). During learning, if Cascade finds that its current represent key open questions in both the psychological
domain knowledge is insufficient to move forward in literature on human learning, as well as in the cognitive
reading or problem solving (i.e., it is at an impasse), modeling literature. Ohlsson (2008) points out that an
this triggers a learning event. The system seeks to mod- assumption made by many computational models of
ify its existing knowledge or add a new rule that will learning is that learning mechanisms are tested inde-
allow it to overcome the impasse (i.e., a repair). Finally, pendently (p. 384). This suggests that as more models
reflection is achieved via explanation-based reasoning are tested for validity and completeness, they should be
on the proposed solution to determine correctness. In done so in complex learning contexts that involve mul-
Cascade, the approach is to leverage commonsense tiple learning mechanisms. It is the interaction between
knowledge in conjunction with existing knowledge to learning mechanisms that may pose a hidden threat to
construct new rules for future use (VanLehn 1999, the success of existing computational models of learn-
pp. 86–87). ing. In addition, research on emotions in learning pro-
Broadening the perspective beyond cognitive skill cesses can be viewed as a positive step because they are
acquisition, researchers have also investigated cog- inherently contextual (i.e., learning is never focused on
nitive models of conceptual change during learning sitting down to simply experience an emotion – it always
and development. Here, models deal directly with the involves a cognitive target). Finally, very few cognitive
fact that learners enter into learning situations with models of learning have integrated findings from cogni-
preconceived and naı̈ve conceptions and misconcep- tive neuroscience, and so this represents a key open area
tions about the world. Recent research on conceptual of future research. To date, researchers have determined
change has shifted focus to the learner by introduc- areas of the brain that are involved in learning, emotion,
ing intentional conceptual change, defined as “goal- and automaticity. This empirical data may shed light on
directed and conscious initiation and regulation of cognitive models of learning by providing evidence for
cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes setting of parameters (e.g., rate of learning or memory
to bring about a change in knowledge” (Sinatra and decay) and testing of underlying assumptions.
Pintrich 2003, p. 6). These approaches therefore over-
lap significantly with metacognitive models of learning, Cross-References
but with substantially more of a focus on developmen- ▶ ACT
tal and repair activities necessary for long-term con- ▶ Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Processes
ceptual understanding. ▶ Cognitive Learning
610 C Cognitive Neuroscience

▶ Cognitive Load Theory

▶ Computational Models of Human Learning Cognitive Processes
▶ Conceptual Change ▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
▶ Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and
Learning
▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
▶ Metacognition and Learning
References Cognitive Processing Speed
Chi, M. T. H., Bassock, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. ▶ Mental Chronometry
(1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples
in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 15, 145–182.
Kort, B. (2009, May 10). Cognition, affect, and learning: The role of
emotions in learning. Retrieved March 13, 2010, from http://
knol.google.com/k/cognition-affect-and-learning
Ohlsson, S. (2008). Computational models of skill acquisition. In Cognitive Psychology
R. Sun (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of computational psychol-
ogy (pp. 359–395). New York: Cambridge University Press.
The study of the psychological processes that underlie
Sinatra, G. M., & Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.). (2003). Intentional conceptual information processing.
change. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
VanLehn, K. (1996). Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual Review of Cross-References
Psychology, 47(1), 513–539.
▶ Human Information Processing
VanLehn, K. (1999). Rule-learning events in the acquisition of com-
plex skill: An evaluation of Cascade. The Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 8(1), 71–125.

Cognitive Psychology of Music

Cognitive Neuroscience Learning
The study of information processing that emphasizes CLINT RANDLES1, VARVARA PASIALI2
the relationship between psychological processes and 1
Center for Music Education Research, School of
their neural substrates. Music, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
2
Department of Music Therapy, Queens University of
Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
Cognitive Overload
▶ Effects of Multimedia Redundancy in History Synonyms
Learning Psychology of Musical Thinking and Acting

Definition
Cognitive psychology of music learning is the study of
Cognitive Plasticity the perceptive and generative processes involved in
listening to, performing, analyzing, improvising, and
▶ Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) and Cognitive composing music.
Modifiability
Theoretical Background

Cognitive Pleasure The Musical Brain

The human brain responds to musical stimuli through-
▶ Aristotle on Pleasure and Learning out the lifespan. Infants process musical auditory skills
 Cognitive Psychology of Music Learning C 611

and remember music they hear. Development of Music Learning and Cognition
musical abilities follows a developmental trajectory. Learning Theories
Both genetic predispositions and early instruction Theories of the development of musical learning
experiences affect the development of the musical include both a thinking component – cognition – and
brain. Contextual influences, such as parent sup- a learning component. The learning component is C
port, as well as intrinsic motivation factors deter- experiential in nature. Musicians grow in both knowl-
mine the extent to which an individual becomes edge and experience. The next sections briefly describe
a musician. the essential general learning theories, in the context of
Musicians who began receiving music instruction at music learning.
an early age have different brain structures when com- Behaviorism. Adherents to this theory of musical
pared to individuals who never received instruction. learning believe in the power of classical conditioning.
Moreover, musicians exhibit different electrophysio- Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov in his
logical brain responses while performing different experiments with dogs, revealed that a neutral stimulus
tasks. Regardless of differences in brain structure, the will elicit a response after repeatedly being paired with
underlying processes that govern how we perceive, another stimulus that already elicits that response.
process, and respond to musical stimuli is the same Stimulus-response chains can then be developed that
for musicians and nonmusicians. will lead to predictable, generalizable behaviors. Exam-
Musical activity encompasses every part of our ples of behaviorism in music teaching and learning can
brain. Different parts of the brain process different be found in the area of traditional instrumental music
elements of music, such as timbre, beat, rhythmic pat- education. Wind bands practice for festivals, where
terns, tonalities, harmonies, song lyrics, and so on. they receive ratings that reinforce or inhibit their
Different parts of the brain are interconnected and behaviors. On a smaller level, instrumentalists’ musical
dependent on each other when attempting to catego- practice habits can be reduced to a series of behaviors
rize incoming musical stimuli, using memory, reason- that researchers who espouse to this theory of learning
ing, and evaluation. A variety of factors determine how can describe and measure quantitatively. Examples
brain mechanisms work in the case of evaluating and of behaviorism in music therapy include using music
responding to music. as a contingency for modifying behavior or as a cue
We evaluate music based on our previous experi- for teaching new skills. Jayne M. Standley and her
ences. Through musical experiences our brain learns research with premature infants, Clifford K. Madsen,
to associate different sounds as pleasant, soothing, and Alice-Ann Darrow are examples of researchers
calming, or arousing. As we listen to music, our brains firmly grounded in Behaviorism.
work quickly to categorize and impose structure over Cognitive Psychology. Cognitive psychology, specif-
the incoming stimuli. This process is ongoing because ically, in music learning theory was a shift from the
the feedback we receive from our brain subsequently focus on observable measurable behaviors to a focus on
becomes a factor determining how we respond and examining internal processes of cognition and intellec-
evaluate future musical stimuli. Gradually our brain tual growth. Constructivism is a branch of cognitive
develops a complex system of expectations that helps psychology grounded on the principle that all individ-
us understand musical genres, harmonies, and rhyth- uals are born with certain cognitive functions, and
mic or tonal patterns. that these cognitive functions develop over time. So,
Musical compositions are designed around vali- each cognitive function builds on previous age-based
dating or violating our expectations. Our familiarity and/or experience-based versions of that particular
with specific musical genres determines whether function. Jean Piaget is probably the most influential
our brain will interpret a piece as simple or com- figure in this line of research. Within the music learn-
plex. An individual who has heard jazz music ing area, researchers such as Mary Louise Serafine and
throughout his or her life will have a different evalu- her Generative Processes theory, and Edwin Gordon
ating response when hearing a jazz composition in and his Music Learning Theory are examples of
comparison to an individual who has only heard jazz researchers in music education firmly grounded in
music sporadically. Cognitive Psychological theory. Kenneth Aigen is
612 C Cognitive Psychology of Music Learning

a music therapy researcher who has applied Serafine’s research. Performance practice has been considered
theory to explain client responses in music therapy. almost exclusively in terms of Western Classical
Sociohistorical Theory. Proponents of the sociohis- music-making. Future research might examine prac-
torical theory of learning emphasize the importance tice in terms of non-Western Classical music-making:
of context and history in the development of all man- ethnic ensembles, popular music ensembles, and new-
ifestations of learning, including both cognitive and music ensembles. Improvisation – constraints imposed
experiential. Through this theoretical lens, researchers on the process of improvisation has been a topic of
such as Vygotsky have proposed that learning does not research. The measure of musical ability and impro-
center entirely on the solitary actions of individuals, as visation has been examined most notably in jazz.
the behaviorists would imply, or on the interaction Researchers have examined group improvisation as
between the individual and his or her environment as a social construct, one where individual identities are
the constructionist would imply. Rather, sociohistor- shaped by participation in the group. Future work in
ical theorists see all human learning as occurring this area could include examining how an identity as an
within particular cultures, with particular histories. improviser in a group is different than an identity as
Vygotsky’s work in sociohistorical theory can be seen a performer. Composition – work in the area of compo-
in the music education literature in the work of sition learning has focused on processes, products, and
Patricia Shehen Campbell and others. In music ther- the meaning of composition to individuals. There is
apy, Mercédès Pavlicevic, Gary Ansdell, and Brynjulf a focus currently on understanding composition learn-
Stige are prominent researchers influenced by socio- ing in particular teaching and learning contexts. Future
historical theory. work could probe qualitatively the value and meaning
Connectionism. Connectionist theorists use innova- of composition learning to students.
tive technology such as electroencephalography (EEG), Perception of Musical Sounds. A number of different
electromagnetic-encephalography (EMG), event- areas have been examined in the area of music percep-
related potential (ERP), magnetic resonance imaging tion. Researchers have focused their efforts on under-
(MRI), computer tomography (CT), and positron standing the perception of pitch, tonal cognition,
emission tomography (PET) to measure activity in musical timbre, musical time (meter and rhythm),
the brain when individuals are engaged in musical and musical memory. This line of research has
activities. Neural networks provide the basis for an blossomed alongside the multiple technological inno-
individual’s musical representations. Learning within vations that have made measurement in this area
this theory is then related to physiological conditions of more feasible.
the brain. Notable pioneer researchers within this area Music Cognition and Psychobiology. Empirical stud-
of music learning area are Donald Hodges, John Flohr, ies examining how music cognition and the aesthetic
Daniel Miller, and Diane Persellin. In music therapy, qualities of music affect cognitive, affective, sensory,
Michael H. Thaut is a prominent researcher who devel- and motor human responses are continuing to emerge
oped Neurologic Music Therapy, a scientific model of in the music therapy literature. Such findings continue
examining the therapeutic uses of music in neurologic to inform clinicians who use biomedical applications of
rehabilitation, neoropediatric therapy, nerogeriatric music in therapy or music as therapy.
therapy, development, and adaptation.
Cross-References
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
Open Questions ▶ Shared Cognition
Measurement of Musical Abilities. The measurement of ▶ Situated Cognition
various musical abilities have been examined in
research, including: performance, improvisation, and
References
composition. Performance – practice habits and moti-
Gruhn, W., & Rauscher, F. (2002). The neurobiology of music cogni-
vation have been explored recently in the area of musi- tion and learning. In R. Colwell & C. Richardson (Eds.), The new
cal performance. The function of family support to the handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York:
practicing musician has been a component of that Oxford University Press.
 Cognitive Robotics C 613

Hallam, S., Cross, I., & Thaut, M. (2009). The oxford handbook of neuroscience. In addition to the technological aim of
music psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. designing autonomous robots, cognitive robots are
Hodges, D. A. (1996). Handbook of music psychology (2nd ed.).
also widely used as embodied computational models
San Antonio, TX: IMR Press.
McPherson, G. (2006). The child as musician: A handbook of musical investigating the organization of learning and cogni-
development. New York: Oxford University Press. tion within the cognitive and neural sciences. A C
National Association for Music Education. (2000). Music makes growing field of cognitive robotics has taken a devel-
the difference: Music, brain development, and learning. Reston, opmental (i.e., ontogenesis) flavor in recognition of the
VA: MENC.
fundamental role of learning in the final performance
of biological cognitive systems.

Theoretical Background
In the fields of cognition, neuroscience, and robotics
Cognitive Restructuring there is growing theoretical and empirical evidence on
▶ Cognitive-Behavioral Family Therapy the role of embodiment, situated learning, and the
grounding of cognitive capabilities in sensorimotor
knowledge in natural and artificial cognitive systems
(Pfeifer and Bongard 2006). Recent advances in cogni-
tive psychology, neuroscience, cognitive linguistics,
Cognitive Robotics and developmental psychology support an embodied
view of cognition, i.e., the fact that cognitive functions
GIORGIO METTA1, ANGELO CANGELOSI2 (e.g., perception, categorization, reasoning, and lan-
1
Department of Robotics, Brain and Cognitive guage in particular) are strictly intertwined with sen-
Sciences, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy sorimotor and emotional processes (Rizzolati and
2
Centre for Robotics and Neural Systems, University of Craighero 2004). This is particularly evident in numer-
Plymouth, Plymouth, UK ous experimental psychology studies on the grounding
of language, and other cognitive capabilities, in action
and perception.
Synonyms Such evidence is consistent with cognitive robotics
Cognitive systems; Developmental robotics; Epigenetic research. This uses knowledge from neural and cogni-
robotics; Humanoid robots; Neuro-robotics tive sciences to derive bio-inspired design principles
for cognitive development that are then tested in
Definition robotic platforms. The training of a robot to acquire
Cognitive robotics, also known as artificial cognitive sensorimotor, cognitive, and social capabilities implies
systems research, regards the use of bio-inspired that these skills are developed through dynamic inter-
methods for the design of sensorimotor, cognitive, actions between the entire cognitive system and its
and social capabilities in autonomous robots. Other environment. As such, most studies in cognitive robot-
designations have been proposed in the short history ics require the simultaneous learning of several cog-
of cognitive robotics which spans approximately the nitive skills, although a certain progression can be
last 15 years, as for example, Epigenetic Robotics, identified by studying human cognitive development
Autonomous Mental Development (AMD), or Cog- (von Hofsten 2004).
nitive Developmental Robotics (CDR). Robots are Within the field of cognitive robotics, in fact, the
required to learn suchcapabilities (e.g., attention and developmental (epigenetic) robotics approach focuses
perception, object manipulation, linguistic communi- on the autonomous mental development of cognition
cation, social interaction) through interaction with through incremental and maturational stages (Weng
their environment and via incremental develop- et al. 2001; Lungarella et al. 2003). Such an approach
mental stages. The biological- and cognitively inspired is directly inspired by ontogenetic stages studied in
methods and design principles are derived from stud- developmental psychology, as in Piaget’s epigenetic
ies in cognitive and developmental psychology, and psychology. Development adds an important aspect
614 C Cognitive Robotics

to the study of cognitive robotics by considering the grounding. A simulated robot is first trained to
possibility that cognitive skills arise only through a learn, by imitation, a set of action primitives,
process of maturation rather than being fixed and and a corresponding set of action words describing
hand-coded a priori by a human designer. Typically, these motor categories. Subsequently, the robot is
developmental robotics attempts at identifying a small taught linguistic combinations of the names of
number of early behaviors (the inductive bias) and the actions to describe compositional, higher-order
rules of development that transform the early behaviors actions (e.g., “grab” as a result of the simultaneous
in new skills via interaction of the cognitive agent with use of the left and right arms). Through a symbol
the environment (including social interaction). grounding mechanism, implemented in the robot’s
The main areas of research in cognitive and devel- own neural architecture, the robot is then able to
opmental robotics regard the following topics: transfer the grounding of basic action words to
higher-order compositional actions. This simula-
● Curiosity, attention, vision. The development of
tion model is currently being extended to language
humans is driven by motives that can be social
learning experiments with the iCub robot.
(interaction) or even motoric (it seems that exercis-
● Social interaction, imitation, and cooperation.
ing the motor system is a strong motive by itself).
Great part of early work on cognitive humanoid
This is important since cognition develops at the
robotics has centered on imitation and social
interface between the brain and action but requires
learning (Schaal 1999). This is also explained by
goals and a motivated subject (von Hofsten 2004).
developmental psychology focus on learning by
Attention and more in general vision clearly shape
imitation from parents and peers and its impor-
profoundly the acquisition of cognitive skills. In
tance for social development. Social learning and
robotics, many of these skills and their developmen-
imitation studies have proposed models of learning
tal counterparts have been modeled and this repre-
by imitation (e.g., imitation of motor behavior
sents one of the main trends in cognitive robotics.
from a teacher or demonstrator) as well as social
For a review of the relevant literature, the interested
learning for higher-order cognitive capabilities
reader is redirected to Lungarella et al. (2003) and
(e.g., perspective-taking).
Vernon et al. (2007).
● Locomotion. There is consistent developmental
● Manipulation. Tantalizing results from neurosci-
literature that locomotion in humans opens up
ence have shed light into the intricacy of the con-
the doors of spatial understanding. Numerous
trol of manipulation in the brain (Rizzolati and
experiments show that certain perceptual judg-
Craighero 2004). Many examples of the cognitive
ments develop in tight synchrony with the develop-
control of manipulation (comparing this to more
ment of crawling (or more in general with the ability
traditional model-based manipulation) have been
to move in the environment). Robotic research in
proposed, often at the boundary of imitation and
this direction concentrated though mostly in the
social interaction as an attempt to explain not only
technical skills (motor control) required for stand-
the how (that is the realm of neuroscience) but also
ing and walking (e.g., Asimo) rather than in the
the whys of certain brain circuits. One pivotal dis-
cognitive aspects connected with walking. Further-
covery is clearly that of mirror neurons (Rizzolati
more, most of this same research does not consider
and Craighero 2004 for a review) which has gener-
a developmental progression (Thelen and Smith
ated consistent interest in the cognitive robotics
1994) and rather addresses the problem of the gen-
community (see Arbib et al. 2008).
eration of suitable trajectories and feedback stabi-
● Communication and language. Language learning
lizing controllers.
is one of the key research topics in cognitive robot-
ics as it provides a prototypical example of how
higher-order cognitive skills (semantics, syntax) Cognitive Robotics Platforms
are directly grounded on sensorimotor knowl- In the literature there is a variety of robotics plat-
edge. For example, Cangelosi and Riga (2006) forms, using different actuators configurations (mobile
developed an epigenetic robotics model of language robots, arm manipulators, humanoid), that have been
 Cognitive Robotics C 615

employed for cognitive modeling research. However, invariant aspects of the cognitive system and those
humanoid robots provide a more general and suitable that are independent from the task. Provided with
test platform for cognitive robotics as they permit knowledge, the cognitive architecture was theoreti-
the investigation of complex sensorimotor capabilities cally capable of performing a given task. Conversely,
(e.g., object manipulation) and realistic human–robot for embodied and developmental systems the defi- C
interaction (HRI) scenarios. The humanoid platforms nition of a Cognitive Architecture is less clear. One
most commonly used in cognitive robotics are the iCub attempt of a definition as proposed in the above
(RobotCub Consortium), Qrio (Sony Corp.), AIBO mentioned paper by Vernon et al. identifies the
(Sony Corp.), Asimo (Honda), and NAO (Aldebaran Cognitive Architecture of a developmental system
robotics). as its phylogeny. In this respect, the Cognitive
The humanoid robot iCub (Sandini et al. 2007) is Architecture contains the initial skills of the system
one of the platforms gaining significant impact in cog- together with its developmental rules.
nitive and developmental robotics. The iCub has been ● Interaction between development, maturation, and
developed as part of the RobotCub EU project (IST FP6 phylogeny. Within cognitive robotics, most of the
004370) with the explicit goal of providing a complex focus has been on incremental (i.e., developmental,
platform for cognitive systems research. With this in ontogenetic) learning. On the other end, other
mind, the iCub was designed with complex hands approaches such as evolutionary robotics mostly
for manipulation (9 degrees of freedom each), facial focus on phylogenetic changes. Future research
expressions (for interaction), and locomotion abilities should look at the interaction between such
(crawling). Sensors are also important and in this phenomena (as in the Baldwin effect) and the
respect, the iCub sports cameras, microphones, gyro- interaction with neural and morphological matura-
scopes, accelerometers, position sensors of various tional mechanism, known to affect learning and
types, and a sensorized skin. The platform is distrib- development.
uted as Open Source following a GPL license in an ● Robustness in unstructured environment. One of
attempt to make it the platform of choice for research the main challenges that cognitive robotics aims
in cognitive systems. About 20 iCubs have been built to address, in comparison with classical robotics
as part of this endeavor. This allowed the creation of approaches such as industrial automation, is the
a community of users and the possibility of sharing capability of robots to adapt to dynamic and
results or building on each other’s success. unpredictable environments. This is the case for
One important aspect of the availability of such example of humanoid robots that have to operate in
complex platforms at many locations is the possibility open and unstructured environments (e.g., walking
of benchmarking and experimental validation. Experi- in home, table-top manipulation tasks).
ments and models can be now truly tested on the ● HRI and social acceptance. The increasing availabil-
same hardware and results compared quantitatively. ity of humanoid and mobile robots in service robot-
In a sense, the dependence on the platform becomes ics, such as companions for elderly, has important
less important since many share the same platform implications for defining users’ acceptability criteria
(the iCub). to facilitate human–robot interaction.

Important Scientific Research and Cross-References

Open Questions ▶ Agent-Based Modeling
Open research questions in cognitive robotics regards ▶ Cognitive Modeling with Multiagent Systems
the following topics: ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
▶ Learning Agents and Agent-Based Modeling
● Cognitive architecture. As Vernon and colleagues
(2007) point out, the term Cognitive Architecture References
was precisely defined as early as the seminal work Arbib, M., Metta, G., & Van der Smagt, P. (2008). Neurorobotics:
of Newell and Simon (1976). For classical AI sys- From vision to action. In B. Siciliano, O. Khatib, (Eds.), Hand-
tems, the Cognitive Architecture represented the book of robotics (Chap. 62, p. 1375) LX, 1611. Berlin: Springer.
616 C Cognitive Skill Acquisition

Cangelosi, A., & Riga, T. (2006). An embodied model for sensorimo- which actions are relevant, under which circumstances
tor grounding and grounding transfer: Experiments with epige- those actions should be performed, how they relate
netic robots. Cognitive Science, 30(4), 673–689.
to the person’s goal, and what their effects are likely
Lungarella, M., Metta, G., Pfeifer, R., & Sandini, G. (2003). Develop-
mental robotics: A survey. Connection Science, 15(4), 151–190. to be. This type of knowledge is variously referred to as
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1976). Computer science as empirical “competence,” “expertise,” “know-how,” “practical
inquiry: Symbols and search. Communications of the Association knowledge,” “procedural knowledge,” and “skill knowl-
for Computing Machinery, 19, 113–126. Tenth Turing award lec- edge.” No single term is standard; practical knowledge
ture, ACM, 1975, March 1976.
will serve.
Pfeifer, R., & Bongard, J. (2006). How the body shapes the way we
think: A new view of intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Practical knowledge is intrinsically related to goals
Rizzolati, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. and actions, while declarative knowledge consists of
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169–192. facts, episodes, and generalities that are true or false
Sandini, G., Metta, G., & Vernon, D. (2007). The iCub cognitive independent of a person’s intentions or behavior (e.g.,
humanoid robot: An open-system research platform for enactive the Earth is round). Practical knowledge is primarily
cognition. In M. Lungarella, F. Iida, J. Bongard, & R. Pfeifer,
acquired via practice, while declarative knowledge is
(Eds.), 50 years of artificial intelligence. Essays dedicated to the
50th Anniversary of artificial intelligence series: Lecture notes in primarily acquired via observation and discourse.
computer science (Vol. 4850). Heidelberg: Springer. A popular belief holds that the two types of knowledge
Schaal, S. (1999). Is imitation learning the route to humanoid robots? follow different forgetting curves, with declarative
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(6), 233–242. knowledge (e.g., the content of a text) decaying faster
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the
than practical knowledge (e.g., the skill of riding a
development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vernon, D., Metta, G., & Sandini, G. (2007). A survey of cognition
bicycle), but this belief is not grounded in research.
and cognitive architectures: Implications for the autonomous Cognitive skills are exemplified by symbolic activi-
development of mental capabilities in computational systems. ties like chess and mathematics and by professional ac-
IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 11(2). Special tivities like medical diagnosis, computer programming,
issue on AMD, April 2007. and ship navigation. Successful performance depends
von Hofsten, C. (2004). An action perspective on motor develop-
primarily on the processing of conceptual information.
ment. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8, 266–272.
Weng, J., McClelland, J., Pentland, A., Sporns, O., Stockman, I., In contrast, motor skills (a.k.a. “perceptual-motor
Sur, M., & Thelen, E. (2001). Autonomous mental development skills” and “sensori-motor skills”) are exemplified by
by robots and animals. Science, 291, 599–600. tasks such as baseball, dance, and juggling. Successful
performance depends primarily on the physical char-
acteristics of the person’s movements: acceleration,
amplitude, direction, force, speed, timing, and so
on. The boundary between the two types of skill is
Cognitive Skill Acquisition not sharp.

STELLAN OHLSSON Theoretical Background

Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at The study of cognitive skill acquisition began in the late
Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA nineteenth century with the work of Edward Thorn-
dike, who studied how animals learned to escape from
problem boxes, and by W. L. Bryan and N. Harter, who
Synonyms studied the growth of skill in telegraph operators.
Learning by doing; Learning by practicing A review by Robert Woodward in 1938 summarized
27 relevant studies. The behaviorist school of psychol-
Definitions ogy that dominated learning research in the 1913–1956
The term “skill” refers to the ability to perform a period developed many of the experimental methods
multistep task such as tying one’s shoelaces, using an for the study of learning that are still in use and dis-
electronic device, or proving an algebraic theorem. covered the implicit learning of statistical regularities
Successful performance requires knowledge about (e.g., probability matching). During World War II,
 Cognitive Skill Acquisition C 617

psychologists worked with natural scientists and tech- internalization of task instructions, if any (a.k.a.
nologists who developed the first information tech- “proceduralization” and “knowledge compila-
nologies, including feedback systems. Information tion”); the use of analogies to already mastered
processing concepts revolutionized cognitive psychol- tasks; the study of solved examples and demonstra-
ogy, but they were initially applied to other problems tions, if available; reasoning from prior declarative C
than learning. In the 1960s, applied psychologists like knowledge; and capturing positive outcomes of
P. Fitts, R. Gagné, and A.T. Welford developed the heuristic search (a.k.a. “trial and error”).
enduring notions of learning curves, phases of practice, 2. The mastery phase lasts from the first complete
and multiple modes of learning, The modern study of performance until the correct performance can be
cognitive skill acquisition began with a 1979 article by reliably produced. The cognitive mechanisms that
Y. Anzai and H.A. Simon that reported a computer are likely to be important during this phase include
simulation of the acquisition of a problem solving learning from the feedback (a.k.a. “knowledge of
skill in a single subject. results”) provided by the task environment (see
The essence of practice is to attempt to perform below).
a target task that one has not yet mastered, with the 3. The optimization phase begins when the task has
intent to master it. Each attempt at performing the task been mastered and lasts as along as the learner
is a training trial, or trial for short. The learner’s behav- continues to perform the task. The cognitive mech-
ior changes gradually over trials: The learner makes anisms that are likely to operate during this phase
fewer erroneous or unnecessary steps, hesitates less, include the discovery of new, qualitatively different
and executes the appropriate actions faster. These strategies; the identification of redundancies and
changes can be represented by a learning curve (a.k.a. shortcuts; the optimization and speedup of actions
“practice curve”): If performance, measured, e.g., by and cognitive operations; and the replacement of
the time for task completion, is plotted as a function of multistep processes with retrieval from memory of
the amount of experience with the target task, mea- repeatedly produced answers.
sured, e.g., in terms of number of trials, the result is
The observable effects of practice – fewer errors,
invariably a negatively accelerated curve. That is, the
faster performance – are cumulative effects of the inter-
rate of improvement is fastest in the beginning, slows
actions among the multiple learning mechanisms. The
down as practice progresses, and eventually approaches
three phases should not be seen as sharply bounded.
an asymptote that represents the best possible perfor-
They represent gradual shifts in the relative importance
mance. There is disagreement about the best mathe-
of different mechanisms as practice progresses.
matical description of such curves, but the negatively
accelerated shape of empirical learning curves is one of
the most thoroughly documented regularities in the Important Scientific Research and
study of learning. An accurate theory must account Open Questions
for this phenomenon. However, it turns out that neg- 1. Feedback. The term “feedback” is imported from
atively accelerated learning curves can be derived from engineering. In the study of cognitive skill acquisi-
several different theoretical assumptions, so this test is tion, positive feedback (a.k.a. positive reinforcement)
less stringent than it first appears. is information to the effect that an action taken by
A variety of cognitive mechanisms have been pro- the learner was appropriate, correct, or useful, while
posed to explain the basic practice effects. It is useful to negative feedback (a.k.a. negative reinforcement) is
organize these by the phase during practice when they information to the effect that the learner’s action
are most likely to be active: was inappropriate, incorrect, or unhelpful. Feedback
is sometimes intrinsic to a task environment (e.g.,
1. The initial phase lasts from the first encounter with error messages in computer software), but a coach,
the target task until the task has been completed supervisor, teacher, trainer, or tutor can support skill
for the first time. Cognitive mechanisms that are acquisition by delivering additional feedback in the
likely to operate during this phase include the course of practice. The two central questions are
618 C Cognitive Skill Acquisition

when, under which circumstances, a tutor should strategies, and the encoding into memory of a
intervene, and what information should be included large number of particular cases have all been pro-
in a feedback message. posed as possible sources of flexibility. It is widely
Immediate feedback is more helpful than believed that varied problem solving experience is
delayed feedback. Other aspects of feedback have more likely to foster transferable skills than drill on
turned out to be less straightforward. If feedback very similar practice tasks. It is also widely believed
helps, it seems to follow that more feedback should that conceptual understanding of why a particular
help more. In some studies, increasing the fre- strategy works facilitates application of a strategy
quency of feedback resulted in more effective learn- to unfamiliar situations. Neither belief is strongly
ing. But in others, higher feedback density appears supported by research. Due to the intrinsic contra-
to impair learning. With respect to content, some diction between effectiveness and generality, it
studies show that bare bones feedback (“yes/no” or is unlikely that the transfer problem has a princi-
“right/wrong”) is less effective than feedback with pled solution.
explanations (“this answer is wrong, because. . .”), The problematic consequence for school learn-
while other studies have found no advantage for ing is that there is no way to ensure that skills
the explanatory content. Both positive and negative learned in a classroom will be applied outside
feedback can be helpful, but if the learner interprets school. In vocational and professional training sit-
negative feedback as punishment, it is likely to have uations, the standard solution to this problem is to
an adverse effect on motivation. Even when feed- trade off generality for effectiveness and conduct
back is purely informational, results vary. Some training in so-called high-fidelity training environ-
studies show strong effects of negative feedback, ments. These are designed to be as similar to the
while others do not. Common sense suggests that future application environment as possible. Exam-
negative and positive feedback in combination is ples include flight simulators for airline pilots and
more helpful than either in isolation, but this simulated battlegrounds for the military. Virtual
assumption has no extensive research support. reality technology makes this training strategy
The problem of feedback is central to the design more widely applicable.
of intelligent tutoring systems, educational software 3. Long-term practice effects. As practice progresses
systems that use artificial intelligence techniques over long time, the consequences depend on the
to compute on line the feedback to be delivered to type of skill and the characteristics of the training.
the learner. Tutoring systems are more helpful than A simple skill performed over and over again with
independent practice or lectures but less helpful little variation – a.k.a. drill – becomes automatized.
than human tutors. The effort to design more help- Automatized skills (a) are triggered when appropri-
ful tutoring systems would benefit from more deci- ate even without deliberate decision making, (b) are
sive research on the effects of different feedback rigid in their execution, and (c) impose low levels of
variables. The possibility of accessing tutoring sys- cognitive load. Automaticity can require thousands
tems via the Internet suggests that their importance of training trials.
will grow over time. Complex skill sets applied in varied situations
2. Transfer. The finding that cognitive skills become exhibit a different type of long-term outcome com-
more adapted to the particulars of the target task monly referred to as expertise. This is the outcome
during practice raises the question of how a mas- sought in professional training and other practice
tered skill can be applied (transferred) to tasks that scenarios. Expertise is characterized by fast but
differ in their details from the training task. Effec- flexible decision making and superior memory for
tive performance requires high specificity, while area-related information. Experts engage in deliber-
broad application requires abstraction. Yet, people ate practice, i.e., they intentionally vary already
tend to be both effective and flexible in their mastered performances to explore possibilities for
everyday behavior. Abstract declarative knowledge, improvement. The amount of practice required to
anticipation of the future situations in which a achieve top-level performance is approximately
skill is to be applied, the hierarchical structure of 10 years, if the learner practices 4 h a day, 6 days
 Cognitive Tasks and Learning C 619

a week. These numbers are relatively stable across

such otherwise different areas as athletics, the arts, Cognitive Structure
the military, music, and the professions. Cognitive structure is a psychological construct that
accounts for a form of human knowledge. Schema
Related Topics and mental models are examples of cognitive struc- C
The study of perceptual learning is not well integrated tures. Cognitive structure provides meaning and
with other areas of skill research. Some research in organization to experiences and guides both the
the field of cognitive development pertains to skill processing of new information and the retrieval of
acquisition in children. The study of social skills is stored information.
typically conducted from a different point of view than Theorized components of memory for representing,
information processing. The mathematical modeling of storing, organizing, and retrieving knowledge.
learning curves (a.k.a. “learning by doing”) is a topic
of research in business management and microeco-
nomics, because the negatively accelerated shape of the
Cross-References
▶ Mental Models and Lifelong Learning
learning curve has implications for cost calculations
for new business ventures. The latter type of research
is not well integrated with skill acquisition research
in psychology.
Cognitive Styles
Cross-References
▶ Cognitive Models of Learning ▶ Adaptation to Learning Styles
▶ Computational Models of Human Learning ▶ Jungian Learning Styles
▶ Deliberate Practice
▶ Effects of Instruction and Modeling on Skill
Learning
▶ Expertise
Cognitive Systems
▶ Feedback in Instructional Contexts
▶ Imitation Learning from Demonstration ▶ Cognitive Robotics
▶ Procedural Learning
▶ Subgoal Learning

References
Ohlsson, S. (2008). Computational models of skill acquisition. In Cognitive Tasks and Learning
R. Sun (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of computational psychol-
ogy (pp. 359–395). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. LIESBETH KESTER, PAUL A. KIRSCHNER
VanLehn, K. (1996). Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual Review of
Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies,
Psychology, 47, 513–539.
Open University in the Netherlands, Heerlen,
The Netherlands

Cognitive State Synonyms

▶ Belief Formation Complex tasks; Higher-order tasks; Intellectual tasks;
Problem-solving tasks

Definition
Cognitive Strategies Cognitive tasks are those undertakings that require
a person to mentally process new information (i.e.,
▶ Learning Strategies acquire and organize knowledge/learn) and allow
620 C Cognitive Tasks and Learning

them to recall, retrieve that information from memory or similar situations – in other words to perform well
and to use that information at a later time in the same on cognitive tasks – one must first possess the necessary
or similar situation (i.e., transfer). individual cognitive skills for schema acquisition/
schema construction. Then, one must be able to coor-
Theoretical Background dinate the separate skills that constitute the task. In
addition, these skills must be integrated with prior
Cognitivism knowledge and existing attitudes. Finally, successful
The roots of cognitive psychology and the role of performance of cognitive tasks requires differentiation
cognitive tasks lie with David Ausubel’s Psychology by recognizing qualitative differences among the task
of Meaningful Verbal Learning (Ausubel 1963) and characteristics that influence the constituent skills that
Robert Gagné’s Conditions of Learning (Gagné 1977). have to be applied.
According to Gagné, cognitive tasks aim at the acqui-
sition of intellectual skills and consist of eight hier- Cognitive Tasks and Learning
archically organized cognitive processes: stimulus Performing cognitive tasks taxes the learner’s
recognition, response generation, procedure following, limited working memory (cf. Sweller 1988). In other
use of terminology, discriminations, concept forma- words, it induces significant cognitive load. Because
tion, rule application, and problem-solving. Gagné of this, effective learning can only commence if
identified five major categories of learning (verbal the specific instructions within a cognitive task are
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, properly aligned with cognitive architecture (Van
motor skills, and attitudes), each requiring different Merriënboer and Kirschner 2007). In their Ten Steps
internal and external conditions for it to occur. to Complex Learning Van Merriënboer and Kirschner
Cognitivism was a response to behaviorism which outline an instructional design model based upon
saw learning as a simple response to environmental a whole-task approach and provide strategies to
stimuli. Ausubel, in response to behaviorism, believed align instruction to human cognitive architecture and
that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas is help people learn how to perform the complex cogni-
achieved through deductive reasoning requiring active tive tasks.
participation in of a learner whose actions are a conse- Part-task models of skill acquisition dominated
quence of thinking. He called this meaningful learning; the field of instructional design until the late 1980s. In
as opposed to rote memorization. that approach, one aspect of a skill was learned and
practiced until mastery, at which time a new – often
Schema Theory of Learning related aspect of the skill – was then learnt and mas-
That which is meaningfully learned is organized in tered, etc., until the “whole” skill was considered to be
schemata. The schema theory of learning (Anderson mastered. Van Merriënboer and Kirschner (2007)
1977) views organized knowledge as an elaborate stress the use of a whole-task model of learning since
network of abstract mental structures which represent part-task models have three major shortcomings,
how one understands the world. Schemata (1) are namely, they lead to compartmentalization (i.e., teach-
constructed by the learner, (2) are meaningfully ing knowledge, skills, and attitudes separately, thus
organized, (3) are added to and refined as an indi- hindering complex learning and competence develop-
vidual gains experience (Piaget: assimilation), (4) are ment), fragmentation (i.e., analyzing a complex learn-
reorganized when incoming data make this necessary ing domain in small pieces corresponding with
(Piaget: accomodation), and (5) are embedded in other specific learning objectives, and then teaching it
schemata and contain sub-schemata. In other words, piece-by-piece without paying attention to the rela-
learning can be seen as change in a learner’s schemata. tionships between pieces), and limit transfer (i.e.,
transfer paradox: using instructional methods that are
Cognitive Tasks highly efficient to reach specific learning objectives, but
To mentally process new information effectively, that are not suitable to reach transfer of learning.). Due
retrieve it from memory, and then use it in the same to this, there has been a growing interest in whole-task
 Cognitive Tasks and Learning C 621

models of learning and instructional design. In dealing theories, etc.), and a way of reasoning which a scientist
with the learning of cognitive tasks, whole-task models uses to support or refute the claim. They must eval-
provide an alternative to part-task models. Whole- uate the quality of the argumentation and the informa-
task models, in contrast, analyze tasks as a coherent, tion used.
interconnected whole and then teach them from very A reverse task presents a goal state and an accept- C
simple, yet meaningful wholes that are representative able solution, but the learners have to trace the impli-
for the whole task to increasingly more complex cations for different claims (i.e., predict the given). In
wholes, fostering coordination, integration, and trans- the context of troubleshooting, for example, learners
fer of learning. might be told that a particular component is faulted
Whole meaningful tasks, thus, are seen as the driv- or has failed and predict the behavior of the system
ing force for learning. Easy-to-difficult sequencing based on this (i.e., what they should observe in order to
techniques and learner support and guidance, which reach a correct diagnosis themselves). Like case studies,
may be faded as learners acquire more expertise (i.e., reverse tasks focus learners’ attention on useful solu-
scaffolding), are studied as methods to deal with task tions and require them to relate solution steps to given
complexity. Second, there is a focus on the develop- situations.
ment of the whole person (i.e., learner-centered) rather An imitation task presents a conventional task in
than the acquisition of isolated pieces of knowledge, combination with a case study of an analogous task.
and the learner is co-responsible for a process of The solution presented in the case study provides
competency development. Third, there is a renewed a blueprint for approaching the new task, focusing
interest in the study of instructional methods that attention on possibly useful solution steps. Imitation
explicitly aim at transfer of learning. Methods that tasks are quite authentic, because experts often rely on
work the best for reaching isolated, specific objectives their knowledge of specific cases to guide their prob-
are often not the methods that work best for reach- lem-solving behavior on new problems – a process
ing integrated objectives and increasing transfer known in the field of cognitive science as case-
of learning (Van Merriënboer et al. 2006). A whole- based reasoning.
task approach takes this paradox into account and A nonspecific goal task stimulates the exploration of
is always directed toward reaching multiple, inte- relationships between solutions and the goals that can
grated objectives that go beyond a limited list of highly be reached by those solutions. It invites learners to
specific objectives. Therefore, whole-task approaches move forward from the givens and to explore the
are characterized by the use of mathemagenic instruc- problem space, which helps them construct cognitive
tional methods that give rise to meaningful learning schemas. This is in contrast to traditional, goal-specific
and transfer. problems that force learners to work backward from
the goal. For novice learners, working backward is
What This Means a cumbersome process that may hinder schema con-
Van Merriënboer and Kirschner (2007) present a series struction (Sweller 1988).
of cognitive task types which are well suited to the A completion task provides a given state, criteria
learner’s cognitive architecture and which are also for an acceptable goal state, and a partial solution.
aimed at carrying out and learning from whole tasks. Learners must complete the partial solution by deter-
Different types of cognitive learning tasks can be mining and adding the missing steps, either at the end
constructed by manipulating the information given to of the solution or at one or more places in the middle of
the learner, the goal state to be achieved by the learner, the solution. A particularly strong point of such tasks is
and/or the solution that the learner is required to come that learners must carefully study the partial solution
up with. Here, for the field of problems in the natural provided to them, because they will otherwise not
sciences for example, explanations and examples of the be able to come up with the complete solution. Well-
different types are presented: designed completion tasks ensure that learners can
In a case-study, learners receive a media claim, understand the partial solution and still have to per-
relevant articles, and/or information (i.e., facts, form a nontrivial completion.
622 C Cognitive Underpinnings of Primate Communication

The common element of all of the learning tasks Cross-References

is that they direct the learners’ attention to problem ▶ Cognitive Learning
states, acceptable solutions, and useful solution steps ▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition
helping them to mindfully abstract information from ▶ Human Cognitive Architecture
good solutions or use inductive processes to construct ▶ Learning Task(s)
cognitive schemas that reflect generalized solutions for ▶ Schema Development
particular types of tasks. ▶ Task Sequencing and Learning

Important Scientific Research and References

Open Questions Anderson, R. C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educa-
tional enterprise: General discussion of the conference. In
Cognitive Load R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling
and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 415–431). Hillsdale:
Much research effort has been invested in finding
Erlbaum.
methods to decrease irrelevant cognitive load (i.e., Ausubel, D. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning.
extraneous cognitive load) caused by poor instruction New York: Grune & Stratton.
to help learners deal with the complexity of cog- Gagné, R. (1977). The conditions of learning (3rd ed.). New York:
nitive tasks (Van Merriënboer et al. 2006). Nowadays Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on
research in this area is directed to finding means to
learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285.
combine mathemagenic (literally activities or methods Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). Ten steps to
of instruction that give birth to learning), whole-task complex learning. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
instructional methods with complex cognitive tasks Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2006). Teaching
without causing cognitive overload. These activities complex rather than simple tasks: Balancing intrinsic and ger-
should/would, on the one hand, lead to a reduction of mane load to enhance transfer of learning. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 20, 343–352.
extraneous load and, on the other, lead to germane
cognitive load which is beneficial for learning. How-
ever, this combination has only been empirically con-
firmed for a limited number of concrete instructional
methods. More research is needed to show that the
combination holds across a wide variety of methods.
Cognitive Underpinnings of
Primate Communication
Learner Expertise ▶ Cognitive Aspects of Natural Communication in
Probably the most important point to consider when Primates
designing education or training programs using cog-
nitive tasks is that the experienced complexity of a
task depends on the expertise of the learner. The
greater the learner’s expertise, the lower the experi-
enced complexity. In a flexible and adaptive learning Cognitive, Motivation, and
environment, it should be possible to take differences
between individual learners into account when learn-
Emotional Impairment
ing tasks are designed and selected. As a consequence, ▶ Learned Helplessness
a high-ability student will receive different cognitive
tasks, may proceed much more quickly from simple
to complex tasks than a low-ability student, and also
will need fewer learning tasks to complete the pro-
gram and achieve the required competency. More Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
research is needed to determine which parameters with Couples
should be used to most effectively adapt instruction
to a learner’s needs. ▶ Cognitive-Behavioral Family Therapy
 Cognitive-Behavioral Family Therapy C 623

cognitions that can lead to conflict in family mem-

Cognitive-Behavioral Family bers’ lives. The content of family members’ percep-
Therapy tions and inferences are shaped by relatively stable
underlying schemas or cognitive structures. Many
FRANK M. DATTILIO schemas about relationships and the nature of family C
Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, interactions are learned early in life from primary
Boston, MA, USA sources such as family of origin, cultural traditions
and mores, the mass media, early dating experiences,
and other relationship experiences. As a result of
Synonyms years of interaction among family members, individ-
Behavior family therapy; Cognitive restructuring; uals often develop jointly held beliefs that constitute
Cognitive-behavior therapy with couples; Schema a family schema to the extent that the family engages
therapy in cognitive distortions that may result in dysfunc-
tional interaction patterns.
Definition The behavioral component of the cognitive-
Cognitive-behavioral family therapy is an approach behavioral therapy model addresses observable behav-
to family therapy that focuses on the use of prin- iors and the factors in family relationships that
ciples of behavioral modification (namely, contingency influence it. These techniques include communications
contracting and negotiation strategies) and is designed training, problem-solving strategies, and behavioral
to change the interactional patterns of family members, exchange agreements. Much of these techniques are
as well as the restructuring of distorted beliefs and based on the social exchange theory, which centers on
perceptions that develop as a result of faulty interac- the costs and benefits associated with relationships.
tion. There is also a heavy emphasis on schema, or This theory is based on economic theory and views
what is otherwise known as core beliefs in an attempt family interactions through the lens of an exchange
to evaluate how these impinge on the emotions and of costs and rewards and what behaviors will increase
behaviors of family members’ interaction. positive exchange as opposed to those that inhibit
positive exchange or facilitate negative exchanges.
Theoretical Background Other aspects of behavioral intervention include asser-
Cognitive-behavioral family therapy is based on the tiveness training, paradoxical techniques and interven-
tenet that members of the family are simultaneously tions, behavioral rehearsal, and the use of homework
and/or influenced by each other’s actions. Conse- assignments.
quently, the behavior of one family member leads to Included in this theory is the emphasis on affect
behaviors, cognitions, and emotions in other members, and emotional regulation in which the concept of
which, in turn, elicits cognitions, behaviors, and emo- schema has been expanded to include multilevel
tions in response to the former member. As this cycle aspects containing details of emotion, physiology, and
continues, the volatility of family dynamics escalates, behavior. Affect of responses from family members
rendering family members vulnerable to a negative spi- are a core component of the cognitive-behavioral
ral conflict. As the number of family members involved approach. The theory behind cognitive-behavior ther-
increases, so does the complexity of the dynamics, apy supports the idea that cognitions heavily influence
adding more fuel to the escalation process. emotion, physiological reactions, and behaviors, and
The cognitive portion of the model places a heavy that a reciprocal process exists among those domains.
emphasis on schema, or what has otherwise been Cognitive-behavior family therapy is concerned with
defined as core beliefs. This is also based on the work the complex and interdisciplinary relationships among
of Aaron T. Beck et al. (1976), who addressed the thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and biophysiology of
issue of automatic thoughts and underlying beliefs family members. It has chosen a specific method with
and how these are influenced by cognitive distor- which to address these components in the pursuit
tions. Cognitive distortions are otherwise known of helping couple and family members change.
as information processing errors that contribute to The processing of emotion is viewed as crucial for
624 C Cognitive-Behavioral Family Therapy

survival and is as highly influential to cognitive schemas therapy. An emphasis needs to focus on examining
in the processing of information. the application with different types of family problems
The combination of the cognitive-behavioral and also cultural variations (Dattilio 1998b). It would
approach with families is equally effective with the also be interesting to examine the various character-
behavioral conditions, although cognitively focused istics of family members and determine what consti-
interventions tend to produce more cognitive change, tutes differential responses to treatment, as well as
while behavioral interventions modify behavioral optimal sequences of behavior and the restructuring
interactions. of schemas. Comparative studies, if conducted, would
help to isolate the specific characteristics that render
Important Scientific Research and cognitive-behavior family therapy effective and also
Open Questions discover which components are most advantageous
Cognitive-behavior therapy has been subjected to for integrative purposes with other modalities.
more controlled outcome studies than any other
therapeutic modality in existence (Dattilio 2001). Cross-References
There is substantial empirical evidence from treatment ▶ Application of Family Therapy on Complex Social
outcome studies, using cognitive-behavior therapy to Issues
indicate the effectiveness with relationships, although ▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied
most studies have primarily focused on the behavioral Behavior Analysis and Learning
interventions of communication training, problem- ▶ Behavior Therapy
solving training, and behavior contracts, with only
a handful of studies examining the impact of cognitive
restructuring procedures (see Baucom et al. 1998, for
References
Barrowclough, C., & Tarrier, N. (1992). Families of schizophrenic
a review that employs stringent criteria for efficacy).
patients: Cognitive-behavioral interventions. London: Chapman
Baucom et al. (1998) review of outcome studies indi- & Hall.
cate that cognitive-behavior therapy is efficacious in Baucom, D. H., Shoham, V., Mueser, K. T., Daiuta, A. D., &
reducing relationship distress. Cognitive-behavioral Stickle, T. R. (1998). Empirically supported couples and family
approaches gained popularity and respect among cli- therapy for adult problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
nicians, including couple and family therapists (Bitter Psychology, 66, 53–88.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive
2009; Dattilio 1998a; Dattilio and Epstein 2003; Epstein
Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford.
and Baucom 2002; Davis and Piercy 2007; Nichols and Bitter, J. M. (2009). Theory and practice of family therapy and counsel-
Schwartz 2008). ing. Belmont: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
Epstein (2001) has produced an excellent overview Dattilio, F. M. (Ed.). (1998a). Case studies in couple and family
of the empirical status of cognitive-behavior therapy therapy: Systemic and cognitive perspectives. New York: Guilford
Press.
with relationships. More recently, Dattilio and Epstein
Dattilio, F. M. (1998b). Finding the fit between cognitive-
(2003) and Dattilio (1998a) published an overview of behavioral and family therapy. The Family Therapy Networker,
both couples and family therapy with additional empha- 22(4), 63–73.
sis on family schema. A more comprehensive text by Dattilio, F. M. (2001). Cognitive- behavioral family therapy: Con-
Dattilio (2010) outlines all of the research literature up temporary myths and misconceptions. Contemporary Family
to date. Sadly, the area of cognitive-behavior therapy Therapy, 23(1), 3–18.
Dattilio, F. M. (2010). Comprehensive cognitive-behavior therapy with
with couples has substantially more quantitative studies
couples and families. New York: Guilford Publications.
than that of family therapy (Baucom et al. 1998; Dattilio Dattilio, F. M., & Epstein, N. B. (2003). Cognitive-behavioral couple
and Epstein 2003; Epstein 2001; Dattilio 2010). The and family therapy. In G. Weeks, T. Sexton, & M. Robbins (Eds.),
most recent of the family therapy studies include Handbook of family therapy: Theory research and practice
the treatment of schizophrenia in the early 1980s, as (pp. 147–173). New York: Routledge.
Davis, S. D., & Piercy, E. P. (2007). What clients of couple
well as those studies conducted by Barrowclough and
therapy model developers and their former students say
Tarrier (1992). about change: Part 1. Model dependent common factors
An open question remains the need for future across three models. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy,
research with family cognitive-behavioral family 33(3), 318–343.
 Cognitive-Code Learning C 625

Epstein, N. B. (2001). Cognitive-behavioral therapy with couples: of linguistic theories and the findings of psycholinguis-
Empirical status. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 15(2), tic research, cognitive psychologists and applied lin-
299–310.
guists, such as John B. Carroll and Kenneth Chastain,
Epstein, N. B., & Baucom, D. H. (2002). Enhanced cognitive therapy
for couples: A contextual approach. New York: Guilford Press. advocated the cognitive-code approach to the study of
Nichols, M. P., & Schwartz, R. C. (2008). Family therapy: Concepts and a second language as an alternative to the audio-lingual C
methods (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. method prevalent at the time. Cognitive-code learning
theory (Chastain 1971) proposes that learning a second
language requires explicit instruction and a study of
the language as a complex and rule-governed system
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (Carroll 1964). This approach took the view of a con-
scious study of the language structure as central and
▶ A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of placed a great deal less emphasis on the development
Psychotherapy of a second language as a combination of skills. In
the current perspective on second language learning,
cognitive-code theory is largely seen as an updated
variety of the traditional grammar-translation method,
Cognitive-Code Approach with an attendant goal of overcoming the shortfalls
of the audio-lingual approach. At its core, cognitive-
▶ Cognitive-Code Learning code learning represents a theoretical, rather than a
pedagogical approach. In part due to the fact that this
theoretical proposal met with debate and skepticism,
its tangible outcomes in the form of curricula, methods,
Cognitive-Code Learning or teaching techniques did not materialize.
Providing learners opportunities for a great deal
ELI HINKEL of meaningful practice in a second language con-
Department of Anthropology, Seattle University, stitutes the central precept of the cognitive-code
Seattle, WA, USA approach. The main emphasis on meaningful practice
underscored the need for the learner first to under-
stand the language rules and then apply them in the
Synonyms context of practical language use. Thus, the explicit
Code-cognition approach; Cognitive-code approach; study of language rules, such as in grammar and
Cognitive-code learning theory vocabulary, was not only expected, but strongly
encouraged. In the context of structural linguistics
Definition and behavioral psychology, cognitive-code learning
Cognitive-code learning refers to a theory of second envisions practice to be meaningful when learners
language teaching and learning rooted in cognitivist clearly understand and are able to apply language
psychology and structural applied linguistics developed rules in practice. The essential difference between
in the 1960s. The theory emphasizes the central role the audio-lingual approach and the cognitive-code
of cognition in the conscious and explicit learning of approach is that in the former, structural learning
the rules of a language as a code. The cognitive-code without an explanation and pattern drills are seen as
approach to learning a second language sees it as a leading to modifications in the learners’ language
study of language as a complex system with the goal behavior, while in the latter, students need to
of gaining conscious control of the grammatical, lexical understand the linguistic rules before these can be
(vocabulary), and auditory patterns. implemented in practice. According to Carroll (1966,
p. 102), “the theory attaches more importance to the
Theoretical Background learner’s understanding of the structure of the foreign
Cognitive-code learning theory was proposed and language than to the facility in using that structure,
widely debated in the 1960s. Based on the foundations since it is believed that provided the student has
626 C Cognitive-Code Learning Theory

a proper degree of cognitive control over the structures

of the language, facility will develop automatically with Cognitive-Code Learning
use of the language in meaningful situations.” Theory
▶ Cognitive-Code Learning
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
To a great extent, cognitive-code learning theory
was based on contemporary developments in transfor-
mational grammar and the generative theory of lan- Cognitive-Economy
guage that saw its heyday in the 1950s and 1960s. In Assumptions for Learning
this light, the cognitive-code approach did not have
much appeal to language teachers whose training rarely DAVID J. FINTON
entailed a detailed familiarity with grammar rules Boeing Research & Technology, The Boeing Company,
and abstract concepts of syntax. By the mid-1970s, Seattle, WA, USA
the cognitive-code approach had all but disappeared
among other competing theories of second language
learning, and more specifically, due to the prominent Synonyms
rise of communicative language teaching. The influ- Representational assumptions
ence of cognitive-code learning on the subsequent
methodological developments in second language Definition
teaching was felt in the evolution of error analysis and ▶ Cognitive economy refers to the combined simplic-
the need for contextualized grammar instruction. More ity and relevance of a categorization scheme or knowl-
specifically, in language pedagogy, the cognitive-code edge representation.
proposal has lead to a realization that linguistic struc- ▶ Representational assumptions are the built-in biases
tural rules, as, say, in grammar teaching, are not syn- of a representation that give sensitivity to certain fea-
tactic abstractions but are an integral component of tures of the world instead of others.
language production and use in writing or interaction. ▶ Cognitive-economy assumptions for learning are
It is important to note, however, that by the mid to those representational assumptions that allow a cog-
late 1970s, the impact of cognitive and general linguis- nitive agent to focus on details that matter, while
tic theories on teaching was greatly diminished and avoiding the distraction of irrelevant features.
supplanted by sociocultural and interactional views of
language learning and teaching. Theoretical Background
Cognitive agents categorize their perceptions in
Cross-References order to avoid overwhelming their bounded cognitive
▶ Cognitive Learning resources with the vast sea of stimuli presented to their
▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition senses. The goal is to “provide maximum informa-
▶ Grammar Learning tion with the least cognitive effort,” “conserving finite
▶ Second Language Learning resources as much as possible” (Rosch 1978, p. 28).
This common sense idea has informed our understand-
References ing of human perception, learning, and reasoning.
Carroll, J. B. (1964). Language and thought. Prentice Hall: Human perception appears to be categorized
Englewood Cliffs. according to cognitive-economy assumptions that
Carroll, J. B. (1966). The contribution of psychological theory cause us to see “a qualitative difference in how similar
and educational research to the teaching of foreign languages. things look or sound depending on whether or not
In A. Valdman (Ed.), Trends in language teaching (pp. 93–106).
they are in the same category” (Harnad 1987, p. 2).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chastain, K. (1971). The development of modern language skills:
This phenomenon is termed categorical perception. It
Theory to practice. Philadelphia: The Center for Curriculum appears to be biologically constrained, at least in part.
Development. For example, even though color stimuli vary along
 Cognitive-Economy Assumptions for Learning C 627

a smooth continuum of wavelengths, humans break distract, but some features prove critical. We are begin-
that continuum into a small set of labeled regions. ning to develop an understanding of these issues in
According to Berlin and Kay (1969), humans break terms of generalization, sample complexity, and com-
the color spectrum into 11 basic color categories, putational learning theory, but many questions remain,
although cultures differ in whether they have basic such as these: How can we measure the importance of C
color terms for all 11. We judge color differences as features? When does the discriminating power of a new
smaller if they come from the same category, and larger feature justify the added expense of increasing com-
if they come from different categories, even when the plexity? What are the best ways to recognize the impor-
wavelength difference is the same. The same effect tant features as we learn a task from scratch? How
characterizes perception of speech sounds such as the do our categorical assumptions change our view of
stop-consonant categories /ba/, /da/, and /ga/ (Harnad the world – and what is their effect on learning? It is
1987, p. 2). difficult to answer these questions in the general sense
Other evidence indicates that perceptual categories because relevance and value depend upon the task at
are the result of experience and learning. For example, hand, the agent, and the relative costs of computation
infants that grow up in a particular language environ- time, mistakes, and risk.
ment, say, English, appear to lose the ability to discrim- Choosing an appropriate representation often is the
inate speech sounds absent from that environment most critical step of solving a problem – as will be
during the first year of life (Werker and Tees 1984). apparent to anyone who has tried to multiply numbers
These changes suggest that human perception develops represented as Roman numerals. Cognitive economy
category distinctions that give us a functional advan- assumptions affect every field involving decision-
tage for interactions with our environment. making or skilled performance. Examples include the
Human reasoning and problem solving also appear following.
to benefit from our innate cognitive-economy assump- Writing: Effective technical writing provides the
tions. Herbert Simon (1957) used the term bounded reader with an appropriate level of detail. Too much
rationality to describe our limited cognitive capacity – detail will confuse the reader.
much too small to produce objectively rational behav- Teaching: Students need to develop effective repre-
ior in the real world. Therefore, we construct a simpli- sentational constructs for the topic at hand, and the
fied model of reality that allows us to discard details teacher must communicate concepts in terms the stu-
that appear tangential to our task. dents can understand.
Simon’s analysis has been born out in studies of Athletic performance: Keep your eye on the ball!
experts and novices. Experts appear to represent the Learn how to recognize an opponent’s intentions and
relevant details of their tasks much more efficiently pending actions.
than novices. The experts have learned “what to look Design: Objects may present perceived affordances
for,” and have learned to disregard spurious features. that enable the user to recognize how the object may be
For example, experiments with chess players have used. For example, some doors have a brass push plate
shown that a key difference between master players on one side and a pull handle on the opposite side,
and lesser players is that the masters are able to making usage obvious. Design of human–machine
immediately recognize the important attributes of interfaces (e.g., computer technology) can either make
a chess position (de Groot 1965). But this ability only human use error-prone and frustrating (and thus expen-
extends to chess positions from actual games. When sive), or intuitive and empowering. In automobiles and
presented with random chess boards, the experts had in airplane cockpits, cognitive economy assumptions
no advantage. may have life-and-death consequences.
Machine learning: Feature extraction and feature
Important Scientific Research and selection are both areas of active research at major
Open Questions conferences such as AAAI (the annual conference of
Cognitive economy is based on the common sense idea the Association for the Advancement of Artificial
expressed so aptly by Albert Einstein: “Make everything Intelligence) and ICML (the International Conference
as simple as possible, but not simpler.” Irrelevant details on Machine Learning). In order for researchers to
628 C Cognitivism

analyze data with computers, they must first design an

appropriate representation for that data. Thus, cogni- Coherence Effect
tive economy assumptions critically affect the success ▶ Redundancy Effect
of scientific work in medicine, astronomy, geography,
physics, and social science.

Cross-References
▶ Affordances Co-learning
▶ Categorical Representation
▶ Cognitive Efficiency ▶ Learning by Eliminating
▶ Expertise
▶ Judgment of Similarity
▶ Knowledge Organization
▶ Knowledge Representation
▶ Mathematical Models Theories of Learning Collaboration
▶ Mental Representation From Latin com- þ laborare to work jointly with others
▶ Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning Processes or together especially in an intellectual endeavor. A
synergic relationship among participants sharing their
References knowledge or skills, engaged in a specific context using
Berlin, B., & Kay, P. (1969). Basic color terms. Berkeley, CA: University implicit or explicit interaction rules to achieve one or
of California Press.
more valuable and situated outcomes.
de Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague:
Mouton & Co.
Harnad, S. (1987). Introduction: Psychophysical and cognitive Cross-References
aspects of categorical perception: A critical overview. In
▶ Learning Through Social Media
S. Harnad (Ed.), Categorical perception (pp. 1–25). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Rescher, N. (1989). Cognitive economy: The economic dimension of the
theory of knowledge. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch &
B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27–48). Collaboration Scripts
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man: social and rational. New York:
Wiley.
KATI MÄKITALO-SIEGL1, INGO KOLLAR2
1
Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Finnish Institute for Educational Research, University
Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of of Jyväskylä, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 49–63. 2
Department of Psychology, University of Munich,
Munich, Germany

Synonyms
Cognitivism Cooperation scripts; Instructional support; Scaffold-
A theory of learning which considers that learning can ing; Scripted cooperation
be compared to the way a computer processes infor-
mation. The learner gathers information and con- Definition
structs an internal symbolic database of real world Collaboration scripts are a specific type of scaffolds
objects and experiences. Information may come from for collaborative learning that is characterized by its
a perceived expert (the teacher). Learning focuses on focus on supporting learning through direct manipu-
structured schemas. lation of collaboration processes rather than through
 Collaboration Scripts C 629

offering content-specific support. A collaboration a text, then summarizing it, then making predictions).
script is a set of instructions which aims to guide and Fourth, activities are often clustered to roles that are
support two or more learners to interact and behave distributed (e.g., an explainer and a listener) and
during collaborative learning in a way that all learn- may be switched among the learning partners. Finally,
ing partners benefit from collaboration. The aim of scripts can vary with respect to their type of representa- C
the collaboration script is to enhance learning of tion, that is, they may be presented to the learners as
group members by engaging them in cognitive (e.g., oral instructions, but also as instructional texts or they
explaining, questioning, summarizing), metacognitive may be embedded in the communication interface in
(e.g., monitoring, regulating, formulating arguments), a CSCL environment.
and social activities (e.g., taking turns, listening, Two prototypical realizations of the collaboration
playing specific roles, etc.) related to individual script approach are “Scripted Cooperation” (O’Donnell
knowledge and skill acquisition. Collaboration scripts 1999) and “ArgueGraph” (Dillenbourg and Jermann
specify, sequence, and distribute these activities among 2007). The Scripted Cooperation approach supports
the learning partners of a group and often attach groups of two learners in learning from text. The text
them to specific collaboration roles. Thereby, they can is split up into paragraphs by the learners or the teacher
vary with respect to how much structure they provide: before learners read the first passage individually. After
so-called macro-scripts bring specific collaboration that, learners put the text aside and one learner has
phases in a certain order, but do not give further the role of the recaller, whose aim is to recall the text
instructions on how learners should act in these information as completely as possible. Simultaneously,
phases. So-called micro-scripts, in contrast, offer the learning partner is in the role of the listener, who
more specific instructions on how to perform certain tries to catch misconceptions and identify omissions.
activities, for example, by prompting one learner to After this, learners jointly elaborate the text content to
give a constructive critique on a learning partner’s make it more memorable. Then the next passage of
contribution (e.g., “What I did not understand in the text is read and the procedure of the activities is
your contribution was. . .”). repeated as in the first round except that learners switch
their roles. The learning objectives for the learners are
Theoretical Background acquiring the domain-specific content knowledge and
There is plenty of evidence both in face-to-face and domain-general text-learning strategies. In order to
▶ computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) reach these goals, learners engage in cognitive activities,
situations showing that unstructured collaboration such as explaining, and metacognitive activities, such
usually does not lead to high achievements with as monitoring. Activities are sequenced in a fixed order,
respect to learning. Therefore, different approaches according to which learners need to read a text, then to
for instructing learners’ collaborative activities, called summarize it and identify misconceptions and omis-
collaboration scripts, have been created both for sions, and jointly elaborate the text content. Learners
face-to-face and CSCL situations (Fischer et al. 2007). are assigned to play roles, such as the recaller and the
Research on collaboration scripts includes a vast variety listener, and these roles are switched several times dur-
of different script variants. Despite this diversity, five ing the learning process. The script instructions are
central conceptual components of collaboration scripts usually presented by the teacher and practiced prior
can be identified, which are the following (Kollar et al. to collaboration.
2006): First, collaboration scripts are directed towards Unlike Scripted Cooperation, which offers instruc-
specific learning objectives, such as the acquisition of tional support for collaborative processes occurring
domain-specific knowledge or domain-general compe- within dyads of learners, ArgueGraph aims to integrate
tences. Second, they try to engage learners in parti- small group, individual, and whole-class activities in
cular activities that are functional with respect to the computer-supported classroom situation. First,
reaching these objectives (e.g., explaining, argumenta- learners are asked individually to fill in a computer-
tion, questioning). Third, these activities are typically based multiple-choice questionnaire (e.g., on the topic
to be shown in a particular sequence (e.g., first reading “Theoretically driven courseware design”) and give an
630 C Collaboration Scripts

argument for each choice in an open text window. orchestration of learning processes within a complex
Once each student has completed the questionnaire, social system by integrating individual, small group,
the software system creates a graph which shows and whole-class activities, it is a proponent of more
learners’ positions on different predefined dimensions macro-level scripting which leaves learners consider-
(e.g., permissiveness) compared to other learners based able freedom to interact in a way they want and play
on their answers. Second, the graph is looked through different roles. Scripted Cooperation, in contrast, aims
and discussed with the whole class in the plenary to support small group activities in a more fine-grained
session. After this, the system automatically builds manner and requires both learners to engage in partic-
pairs by selecting the learners who have the most ular predefined activities and play two roles during
contrasting positions in the graph to work together. collaboration. Therefore, Scripted Cooperation repre-
Third, the dyads’ task is to answer the same question- sents more micro-level scripting. However, activities
naire together, select one answer per question, and and roles may be even more prestructured by using
finally give a joint argument for their selection. During prompts or sentence starters (e.g., “What does. . ..
that process, significant argumentation activities are mean?,” “Tell me more about. . .”), which has been
expected to happen. After this phase has been com- realized especially in purely computer-based collabora-
pleted, the system shows a new graph based on the tion scripts that can be found in the literature (e.g.,
answers of individuals and pairs as well as an aggre- Weinberger et al. 2005).
gation of the arguments. Fourth, there is a plenary
phase in which the teacher discusses with the learners Important Scientific Research and
about their arguments, asking explanations, organizing Open Questions
their arguments into theories, clarifying definitions, The research conducted with collaboration scripts
etc. Finally, each learner writes a synthesis of arguments shows positive effects with respect to domain-specific
from a specific question. Learning objectives are to knowledge and domain-general competence. However,
acquire domain-specific knowledge (e.g., courseware there are variations in learners’ outcomes. Even highly
design and learning theories) and domain-general coercive collaboration scripts cannot be expected to
competences (e.g., argumentation). Activities students completely determine the success of collaborative
engage in are, for example, elaborating, explaining, and learning. Rather, the students also bring “internal”
formulating arguments and counterarguments. The collaboration scripts with them which guide their
activities are sequenced both with respect to their behavior during collaboration. These “internal” collab-
type and the social level (individual, small group, ple- oration scripts have been acquired through repeated
nary) on which they are supposed to occur. For exam- experience in collaborative situations and are highly
ple, in pairs, learners are not only asked to formulate resistant to change (Schank 1999). Therefore, learning
arguments, but also counterarguments, when trying can be interrupted if learners’ internal scripts are
to reach a joint position with their fellow learners. inconsistent with a given external script or if the exter-
Learners are not explicitly assigned to the roles, but nal script overestimates learners’ skills and ability. Fad-
they are, for example, taking the roles of the opponent, ing might be a solution for reconciling external and
the defender, or the explainer. Switching roles takes internal scripts in an adaptive way in order to avoid
place when learners are engaging in different activities. over- and under-scripting problems. This approach
The script’s representation is located in both the means that less and more support can be provided
teacher’s instruction and the particular design of the during activities depending on an individual learner’s
computer-based learning environment which provides or group’s needs. In order to increase or decrease sup-
instruction on what is supposed to happen during the port in the right moment means that the group
particular learning phase. processes need to be observed in real time. Yet, moni-
Scripted Cooperation and ArgueGraph represent toring multiple groups on a more detailed level at the
a considerable amount of diversity that also becomes same time is an impossible task for one teacher in
apparent when more collaboration scripts are consid- a classroom, but could be done by technology. First
ered in the literature. As ArgueGraph focuses on an computer-supported analysis software tools are within
 Collaborative Learning C 631

reach that are able to assess collaboration processes in

real time and use these analyses for fading external Collaborative Learning
scripts in and out when appropriate.
ALICE UDVARI-SOLNER
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University C
Cross-References of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
▶ Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies
▶ Collaborative Learning
▶ Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
Synonyms
▶ Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning; Small group learning; Team
▶ Group Learning
learning
▶ Metacognition and Learning
▶ Small-Group Learning
▶ Team Learning Definition
Collaborative learning is a process by which students
interact in dyads or small groups of no more than
References six members with intent to solicit and respect the
Dillenbourg, P., & Jermann, P. (2007). Designing integrative scripts.
In F. Fischer, I. Kollar, H. Mandl, & J. M. Haake (Eds.), Scripting
abilities and contributions of individual members.
computer-supported collaborative learning – Cognitive, computa- Typically, authority and responsibility are shared for
tional and educational perspectives (pp. 275–301). New York: group actions and outcomes. Interdependence among
Springer. group members is promoted and engineered. Collabo-
Fischer, F., Kollar, I., Mandl, H., & Haake, J. M. (Eds.). (2007). rative learning changes the dynamics of the classroom
Scripting computer-supported collaborative learning – Cognitive,
by requiring discussion among learners. Students are
computational and educational perspectives. New York: Springer.
Kollar, I., Fischer, F., & Hesse, F. W. (2006). Collaboration scripts – encouraged to question the curriculum and attempt
a conceptual analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 18, to create personal meaning before the teacher inter-
159–185. prets what is important to learn. Opportunities to
O’Donnell, A. M. (1999). Structuring dyadic interaction through organize, clarify, elaborate, or practice information are
scripted cooperation. In A. M. O’Donnell & A. King (Eds.),
engineered, and listening, disagreeing, and expressing
Cognitive perspectives on peer learning (pp. 179–196). Mahwah:
Erlbaum.
ideas are as important as the “right answers.” In class-
Schank, R. C. (1999). Dynamic memory revisited. New York: Cam- rooms that support this type of ideology, the student is
bridge University Press. an active participant in learning rather than a passive
Weinberger, A., Ertl, B., Fischer, F., & Mandl, H. (2005). Epistemic recipient of education from an expert source. Collabo-
and social scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning. rative learning is an overarching term referring to a set of
Instructional Science, 33(1), 1–30.
small group educational approaches that share these
common characteristics. Various names given to forms
of collaborative learning include reciprocal learning,
team learning, study groups or circles, peer teaching,
and the most well-known, cooperative learning.
Collaborative e-Learning Formal learning groups, informal learning groups,
▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media and study teams are the most common formats for
collaborative learning. Formal learning groups are
arranged to complete an explicit project or task that
may take place in a single class period or over a number
of weeks in a unit or semester of instruction. There is
Collaborative Knowledge sustained collaboration to accomplish the academic
Creation assignment. Informal learning groups are temporary
groupings of students that can be formed spontane-
▶ Knowledge Creation Metaphor, The ously in the context of a class session. Checking for
632 C Collaborative Learning

understanding, solving a problem, responding to a Morton Deutch in 1949 formally conceptualized

question, comparing ideas or notes are typical uses social interdependence theory. The primary principle
for informal groups. Study teams are formed for the guiding the theory is that the way goals are structured
specific purpose of providing mutual support to com- determines how individuals interact, which in turn
plete course or class assignments. Membership is con- creates outcomes (Johnson and Johnson 2005). Social
sistent and maintained across over the time period of interdependence exists when the outcomes of individ-
the course. Time for study teams to work together can uals are affected by the actions of others. There are
be arranged in the context of the class but often in two types of interdependence, positive and negative.
secondary and higher education settings members Positive interdependence exists when actions of individ-
meet regularly outside of class to study together and uals promote the achievement of joint goals, resulting
provide assistance or feedback to one another. in promotive interaction. Alternatively when actions
impede the achievement of other’s goals, oppositional
Theoretical Background interaction occurs. Collaborative learning is structured
Collaborative learning as a philosophy and technique to facilitate positive interdependence. Promotive or
of interaction is rooted in constructivist and social positive interactions take place when an individual
learning theories as well as the pedagogy of social makes a choice to engage in actions that help others
justice (Bandura 1977; Freire 1970; Vygotsky 1978). achieve their goal or a joint outcome. Negative
Vygotsky (1978), in his theory of social constructivism interdependence occurs when an individual or multiple
posited that the nature of learning is inherently col- members of a team engage in actions that are counter-
laborative and it is impossible to separate learning productive to the entire group reaching its goals. Col-
from its social context. Social discourse is the means laboration or cooperation doesn’t exist until promotive
by which cognitive functions and knowledge are actions are taking place. If structured well, collaborative
developed. A critical tenet of this theory is that learning can be the arena where individuals move from
knowledge or the way humans understand their expe- self interest to making the group’s interest central.
riences and reality is not simply constructed, it is co- Paulo Freire (1970) helped establish the discourse
constructed through the frameworks of language and of social justice that would guide more democratic and
culture in relationships among individuals. Through humanistic orientations to the process of learning.
the lens of social constructivism collaborative learn- Unfortunately in classrooms across the world students
ing establishes the community in which knowledge are still asked to sit in desks for long periods of time
can be cocreated, provides opportunities for indi- and be passive recipients of instruction that is dictated
viduals to learn from more competent peers, and by others. Freire deemed this banking education in
promotes conceptual development through the expe- which unknowing students are passive receptacles of
riences of modeling, perspective taking, and cognitive “deposits” made by an instructor who grants the gift
challenges. of her knowledge. In this traditional paradigm the
Social learning theory (Bandura 1977) suggests that teacher is the subject of the learning process and the
human behavior is influenced by the interaction student is the object. Clearly dehumanizing, Freire
among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental fac- called for education that was student-centered, rele-
tors. The reciprocal social interaction is yet again crit- vant, multicultural, democratic, and dynamic. He
ical as it provides a context in which individuals cannot felt that education should be pursued collaboratively,
only observe, but model the attitudes, reactions, and requiring a dialogue between educator and students. In
behavior of others. Only through observing others does addition, the process of educational liberation must
the individual develop behavioral and intellectual include both personal effort and external help. Collab-
repertoires and have a guide for how these new skills orative learning can be a vehicle of empowerment for
are performed. Accordingly, in collaborative learning both students and instructors envisioned by Freire.
the individual has ample opportunities to be exposed Students have significant agency in their own learning
to other conceptual constructs while being able to while being supported in dialogue and problem-
rehearse their understanding of new behavior. solving by a trusted educator.
 Collaborative Learning C 633

Important Scientific Research and time of this study a report by the American Association
Open Questions for the Advancement of Science advised that the work
Research at all levels of schooling has indicated that of professionals in the sciences is not done in isolation,
students learn and retain more when they have agency but collaboration is necessary at all levels. Current
in the process and have opportunities to speak, listen, instructional methods that focused on traditional C
share, interact, reflect, and be active. Over 750 studies teaching rather than student learning raised concerns
have focused on the positive aspects of collaborative that professionals were ill prepared to solve real world
learning and its underlying learning theory (Johnson problems in cooperative ways. Consequently, frequent
and Johnson 2005). Two studies will be highlighted group activity in the classroom and experience sharing
here to illustrate the influence that both simple and responsibility for learning was called for at a national
more complex forms of collaboration can have on level. In the meta-analysis conducted of the 39 highest
student outcomes in comparison to traditional teach- quality studies, the use of small group learning for
ing practices. undergraduates in STEM classes showed significant
In a well-known study Ruhl et al. (1987) examined and positive effects on ▶ achievement, persistence in
what happens when students are given opportunities to courses, and favorable attitudes toward courses when
share understanding of classroom content at key points compared to students who did not work collabora-
in a lecture sequence. Two groups of university students tively. On these three broadly defined outcome mea-
received the same instruction in two different ways. In sures the effect size for all three variables was about
the experimental group, an instructor paused for 2 min 0.50. Achievement differences which included grades
on three occasions (intervals between pauses were and test scores showed an effect size of 0.51. This
approximately 15 min) during each of five lectures. difference would move a student from the 50th per-
During the pauses, while students simply worked in centile to the 70th percentile in a course. An effect size
pairs to discuss and rework their notes, no interaction of 0.46 was identified in the area of persistence, indi-
occurred between instructor and students. At the cating that by using small group and collaborative
end of each lecture, students were given 3 min to learning methods classes and institutions would
write down everything they could remember from the reduce their attrition by 22%. Student attitudes
lesson. Twelve days after the last lecture students were about their own competence and the subject matter
also given a multiple-choice test to measure long term were also positively affected by their exposure to
retention. A control group received the same lectures as small-group instruction. The effect size on this mea-
those in the “pause procedure” group and was similarly sure was 0.55 for attitudes in small group settings
tested. In two separate courses repeated over two versus an average effect of 0.28 for other classroom
semesters, the results were consistent. Students who interventions.
experienced more student-to-student interaction and
were more involved in the learning process did signif- Cross-References
icantly better on the daily assessments and on the final ▶ Action-Based Learning
multiple-choice test. The magnitude of the difference ▶ Active Learning
in mean scores between the two groups was large ▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
enough to make a difference of two letter grades. This ▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies
study suggests that if teachers talk less (even 6 min less ▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
as noted in this study) and brief pauses for collabora- ▶ Group Cognition and Collaborative Learning
tion are engineered, students can learn more effectively. ▶ Group Learning
In a highly regarded study funded by the National ▶ Learning in the Social Context
Science Foundation, Springer et al. (1999) reviewed ▶ Multimodal Learning Through Media
hundreds of studies to conduct a metanalysis of the ▶ Social Construction of Learning
effect of small-group/collaborative instruction on stu- ▶ Social Interactions and Learning
dent outcomes in university level science, technology, ▶ Social Learning Theories
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) classes. At the ▶ Trust into e-Learning
634 C Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking

References pool their resources and integrate specializations.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learn- The increased pressure to perform tasks with fewer
ing Press. employees, at faster speeds, and with more quality
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum. and customer responsiveness creates the need for effi-
Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (2005). New developments in social
cient teamwork. Workers need to be able to think
interdependence theory. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology
Monographs, 131(4), 285–358. creatively, solve problems, and make decisions as a
Ruhl, K., Hughes, C., & Schloss, P. (1987). Using the pause procedure team. A person who thinks critically can ask appropri-
to enhance lecture recall. Teacher Education and Special Educa- ate questions, gather and creatively sort through rele-
tion, 10, 14–18. vant information, relate new information to existing
Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. (1999). Measuring the
knowledge, reexamine beliefs, reason logically, and
success of small-group learning in college level SMET teaching:
A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 69, 21–51.
come to reliable and trustworthy conclusions. Critical
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. London: Harvard University thinking and collaboration are intricately linked to
Press. realize gains in productivity. Let us individually exam-
ine the constructs of collaboration and critical thinking
and next discuss the relationship between them.
The training to work effectively in teams should
begin at an early age in school and continued through
Collaborative Learning and college. Education has long investigated the effective-
Critical Thinking ness of collaborative work to enhance student learning.
The concept of collaborative learning, the grouping
ANU A. GOKHALE and pairing of students for the purpose of achieving
Department of Technology, Illinois State University, an academic goal has been widely researched and
Normal, IL, USA advocated throughout the professional literature. The
term “collaborative learning” refers to an instruction
method in which students at various performance
Synonyms levels work together in small groups toward a com-
Cooperative learning; Creative thinking; Problem- mon goal (Gokhale 1995). Collaborative learning is
solving a relationship among learners that fosters positive
interdependence, individual accountability, and inter-
Definition personal skills. In small groups, students can share
The term “collaborative learning” refers to an instruc- strengths and also develop their weaker skills, while
tion method in which students at various performance learning to deal with conflict.
levels work together in small groups toward a common Group size is very important in collaborative struc-
goal. Collaborative learning is a relationship among tures. Dyads have many advantages as a functional unit
learners that fosters positive interdependence, individ- since the likelihood of participation increases when
ual accountability, and interpersonal skills. “Critical there are only two individuals involved. A potential
thinking” involves asking appropriate questions, gath- disadvantage to dyadic interaction may emerge on
ering and creatively sorting through relevant informa- complex tasks, as there may be insufficient resources
tion, relating new information to existing knowledge, to generate appropriate strategies to complete the task.
reexamining beliefs, reasoning logically, and drawing As group size increases, the likelihood of having some-
reliable and trustworthy conclusions. one in the group who can satisfactorily complete
a challenging task increases. However, the larger the
Theoretical Background group, the more opportunity there is for diffusion of
The advent of revolutionary information and commu- responsibility among group members or for exclusion
nication technologies has effected changes in the orga- of some members. Active participation in the collabo-
nizational infrastructure and altered the characteristics rative process is essential for learning to occur. Opti-
of the workplace putting an increased emphasis on mum group size is dependent on the task; for in-class
teamwork and processes that require individuals to informal activities, group size is often in the range of
 Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking C 635

two to four students while a group of three to five activities of individual learners. A psychoanalysis of the
students may be appropriate for a semester-long pro- group discussions reveals useful information. The goal
ject (Slavin 1995). Thus, a group size of three to four is is to enhance the probability that interactions in a
optimum and promotes positive interdependence, yet group are educational and result in enhancing higher-
provides sufficient diversity of opinions and back- order thinking skills. C
grounds, which is influenced by group composition. Thinking is often casual and informal but critical
Much of the literature emphasizes that groups thinking calls for persistent effort to apply theoretical
should be heterogeneous when possible; heterogeneity constructs to understanding the problem, consider evi-
among group members refers to general differences like dence, and evaluate methods or techniques for forming
age, gender, race, ethnicity, and performance in school, a judgment. The cognitive skills of analysis, interpreta-
or task-specific differences like proficiency in the sub- tion, inference, explanation, evaluation, and of moni-
ject-matter. Studies indicate that some difference of toring and correcting one’s own reasoning are at the
viewpoints is required to trigger interactions but within heart of critical thinking (APA 1990). Critical thinking
the boundaries of mutual interest and intelligibility. not only mimics the process of scientific investigation –
Studies indicate that grouping learners with even distri- identifying a question, formulating a hypothesis, gath-
bution of abilities results in better learning when com- ering and analyzing relevant data, using it to test and
pared to learning outcomes of randomly mixed groups eventually accepting or rejecting the hypothesis, and
with varied student abilities. There is no clear way to finally drawing conclusions – but executes it repeatedly.
maximize group diversity and prevent individual isola- Collaborative learning facilitates the expression of
tion. An advantageous compromise is to cluster at least the thought processes in a non-stressful environment
two students of the same kind, say two women or two and provides opportunities to examine and reexamine
students of common ethnicity, or two students of beliefs and conceptions of the subject-matter in the
same ability, in a group of four (Cooper et al. 1990). light of evidence that may or may not support them.
A consciously designed group permits a healthy balance When students are confronted with different interpre-
of homogeneity and heterogeneity among its members. tations of the same situation, the peer support system
For collaborative learning to be effective, the makes it possible for the learner to internalize new
instructor must view teaching as a process of devel- knowledge and convert that into tools for intellectual
oping and enhancing students’ ability to learn. The functioning. The medium provides students with
instructor’s role is not to transmit information, but to opportunities to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate
serve as a facilitator for learning. This involves creating ideas cooperatively. The informal setting facilitates dis-
and managing meaningful learning experiences and cussion and interaction. This group interaction helps
stimulating students’ thinking through real-world students to learn from each other’s scholarship, skills,
problems. Yet, the task must be clearly defined and be and experiences.
guided by specific objectives. There is no reason to When collaboration is structured, group diversity
expect that unstructured collaboration will result in in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and knowledge and
the expected learning outcomes so this predicament experience contributes positively to the learning process.
has been tackled by the use of scripts. Students are asked to go beyond mere statements of
Scripts structure collaborative learning by creating opinion by giving reasons for their judgments and
roles and mediating interactions while allowing for reflecting upon the criteria employed in making these
flexibility in dialog and activities (Kollar et al. 2006). judgments. Thus, each opinion is subject to careful
Scripting is a compromise between the constraints scrutiny, and the ability to admit that one’s initial opin-
usually induced by instructional design and the free- ion may have been incorrect or partially flawed is valued.
dom of collaborative learning. There are two broad Proponents of collaborative learning claim that the
types of scripts: macro-scripts and micro-scripts. active exchange of ideas within small groups not only
Macro-scripts aim at creating situations within which increases interest among the participants but also
desired interactions will occur by describing groups, promotes critical thinking. According to Johnson and
roles, and phases while micro-scripts emphasize the Johnson (1989), there is persuasive evidence that coop-
communication process students must engage in and erative teams achieve at higher levels of thought and
636 C Collaborative Learning Environment

retain information longer than students who work virtualization for enhancing critical thinking. A psy-
quietly as individuals. The shared learning gives stu- choanalysis of online group discussions could reveal
dents an opportunity to engage in discussion, take useful information.
responsibility for their own learning, and thus become
Cross-References
critical thinkers. Gokhale (1995) found that students
▶ Collaborative Learning
who participated in collaborative learning performed
▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies
significantly better on a critical-thinking test than stu-
▶ Cooperative Learning
dents who studied individually, while both groups did
▶ Creative Inquiry
equally well on a drill-and-practice test. Students are
▶ Creativity and Learning Resources
capable of performing at higher intellectual levels when
▶ Critical Learning Incidents
asked to work in collaborative situations than when
asked to work individually. References
The development and enhancement of critical- American Philosophical Association. (1990). Critical thinking:
thinking skills is one of the primary learning goals in A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational
technical disciplines. Educational research investigates assessment and instruction. ERIC document ED (pp. 315–423).
Cooper, J., Prescott, S., Cook, L., Smith, L., Mueck, R., & Cuseo, J.
effective methodologies for nurturing higher-order
(1990). Cooperative learning and college instruction: Effective use
thinking skills and preparing students to deal with of student learning teams. Long Beach: California State University
increasingly complex workplace problems. Researchers Foundation.
report that students working in small groups tend to Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical think-
learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than ing. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1), 22–30.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1989). Cooperation and competi-
when the same content is presented in other instruc-
tion: Theory and research. Edina: Interaction Book Company.
tional formats. Additionally, students learn how to Kollar, I., Fischer, F., & Hesse, F. (2006). Collaboration scripts –
communicate effectively, provide leadership, and prac- A conceptual analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 18(2),
tice social skills. 159–185.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and prac-
Important Scientific Research and tice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Open Questions
The explosion of knowledge and information technol-
ogy has altered the characteristics of the learning envi-
ronment; higher education continues to adapt to the Collaborative Learning
digital culture and changes in student learning styles. Environment
Today, it is even more imperative that students acquire
critical thinking skills to manage information overload. ▶ Online Collaborative Learning
So the question is, how do we investigate the effective-
ness of collaborative learning to enhance critical think-
ing skills in digital environments? How relevant is
heterogeneity among group members when avatars Collaborative Learning
are taking the place of real people? How does an instruc- Strategies
tor provide structure and effectively intervene in asyn-
chronous communications? What is the difference in ALICE UDVARI-SOLNER
dynamics of face-to-face and online communications? Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University
The corporate culture is changing too with virtual of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
meetings, remote access, and globally spread-out teams
becoming a reality. Critical thinking is part of a life-
long learning process and collaboration fosters its Synonyms
development through discussion, clarification of Active learning strategies; Cooperative learning strate-
ideas, and evaluation of others’ ideas. Future research gies; Small group learning strategies; Team learning
studies need to investigate the implications of strategies
 Collaborative Learning Strategies C 637

Definition learning strategy will be used here to illustrate how

Collaborative learning strategies are explicit approaches these key theoretical orientations are represented.
or procedures to guide the process of collaborative learn- Classify, Categorize, and Organize, described by
ing. Collaborative learning occurs when dyads or small Udvari-Solner and Kluth (2007), is a collaborative
groups have been engineered to share responsibility, learning strategy particularly well suited to teaching C
authority, and learning outcomes. Collaborative learn- and learning new concepts. The approach can be used
ing strategies provide the frameworks and step-by-step for small groups or an entire class and is carried out in
processes to facilitate interdependence among group the following manner:
members, active participation, interactive dialogue,
● The instructor creates note cards, strips of paper,
and cocreation of academic products, all of which are
or actual pictures related to concepts that can be
hallmarks of collaborative learning. In essence, these
classified, categorized, or ordered in two or more
strategies are the architecture or infrastructure to
groups (e.g., different species of animals, words
facilitate construction of knowledge among students.
that are different parts of grammar such as nouns
Like active learning strategies an underlying principle
and verbs).
of collaborative learning strategies is meaningful stu-
● Each student receives one card that will fit into at
dent engagement. Collaborative learning strategies are
least one category or group. Students must actively
inherently active; however, not all active learning strat-
move around the room viewing every class mem-
egies are collaborative. Whereas many active strategies
ber’s card to find others with related concepts.
can be performed independently, collaborative learning
● When students believe they have classified them-
strategies support the mutual engagement of partici-
selves correctly, the group is given a short amount
pants in synchronous activity while developing a shared
of time to identify its category and determine how
conception of a problem or experience (Roschelle and
the different parts of information each person holds
Teasley 1995).
are related. Each group is asked to report its newly
Specific collaborative learning strategies can be
integrated findings to the class. The group members
enlisted to help groups to organize, clarify, elaborate,
may also add novel or additional information they
or practice information. Based on the intent of the
know about the concept that is not represented on
learning experience collaborative learning strategies
their cards.
can be engineered to promote a range of communi-
● Only after each group presents does the instructor
cation and social skills (e.g., acceptance of others, lis-
pose questions, provide information that will rein-
tening, questioning, discussion, conflict resolution,
force key points, clear up misconceptions, or pro-
and perspective taking) and cognitive processes (e.g.,
vide more elaborate explanations.
higher level reasoning, application of knowledge, crea-
tive thinking, problem solving, and long-term reten- Three applications of this collaborative learning
tion of concepts). A selected strategy sets a course of strategy that represent different grade/educational
action for academic and social interactions and pro- levels and subjects follow:
vides a plan for students to learn how to collaborate in
● A first-grade teacher used this structure to teach
pairs, teams, or as an entire class. These strategies are
animal classifications (e.g., what characteristics are
content-free procedures that can be used across sub-
associated with birds, reptiles, mammals, amphib-
jects, grade, and age levels with variations in complexity
ians, and fish).
and academic purpose.
● A third-grade general and special educator teaching
Theoretical Background team created cards that constituted a number of
Collaborative learning strategies share the same theo- different equations (e.g., cards representing these
retical foundations as collaborative learning. Descrip- numerals, symbols, or operations: 2, (=),10, (),
tions of social constructivism, social learning theory, 15, 12, (
), 13, (=), 120). When grouped in specific
social interdependence theory, and social justice combinations, a correct solution was evident. When
pedagogy can be found under the Collaborative Learn- students correctly configured themselves in two
ing entry of this publication. A specific collaborative groups of four, these equations were formed: 10 
638 C Collaborative Learning Strategies

12 = 120 and 15–13 = 2. The teachers could differ- interactions that take place in the context of this
entiate instruction easily by creating cards (and collaborative learning strategy require and promote
ultimately equations) that ranged in difficulty level. positive interdependence. To engage in the activity
Some student groups could form algebraic equa- and ultimately be successful students cannot function
tions, others fractions, and still others could repre- in isolation. By sharing their knowledge and finding
sent the process of addition or subtraction. relationships between what is represented on their card
● In a university level pharmacology course for phy- and others’, the individual is ultimately promoting the
sician’s assistants, drug types identified by their group’s achievement of joint goals (i.e., to constitute
generic names were placed on cards. Students were a meaningful category that integrates each individual’s
asked to classify themselves in multiple ways by the contribution).
use of the drug, the side effects of the drug, and the Representation of social justice principles: In this
populations of patients who benefit from its use. example students are placed in an empowering and
“knowing” position at the outset of the learning expe-
Representation of social constructivism: A critical
rience. Rather than assuming the students are not
tenet of this theory is that knowledge or the way
knowledgeable and must be taught what is relevant
humans understand their experiences and reality is
from an instructor, students individually and then col-
not simply constructed, it is co-constructed through
lectively must use their existing knowledge to discover
the frameworks of language and culture in relation-
and make personal meaning from the content. They are
ships among individuals. In this example social dis-
not passive recipients of instruction that is dictated by
course is not only encouraged but required to make
others but have significant agency in their own learn-
meaning of the academic content. The individual must
ing. The teaching/learning relationship is reoriented to
seek out others to make deliberate comparisons, judg-
one that becomes a dialogue first among students and
ments, and analyses. In doing so, each interaction with
then with the teacher who is informed by the students’
another class member reveals new perceptions and
discovery of new patterns and conceptions. Students
interpretations, consequently shaping new knowledge
have an equitable role in conveying relevant concepts
that has been developed collaboratively within a unique
alongside the teacher. This process promotes greater
social context. In addition, learners have multiple
spontaneity in instruction and assures instructional
opportunities to interact with and learn from more
time is not spent directly teaching what students
competent peers during the interchange of information
already know or could discover.
representing the zone of proximal development defined
by Vygotsky (1978). Important Scientific Research and
Representation of social learning theory: Social Open Questions
learning theory emphasizes that by observing others Research regarding collaborative learning strategies is
and engaging in reciprocal social and academic inter- generally subsumed under broader investigations of
actions the individual develops new and more complex collaborative learning. If collaborative learning strate-
behavioral and intellectual repertoires. The strategy gies are held distinct from cooperative learning, it is
Classify, Categorize, and Organize establishes an arena difficult to find studies that have extensively investi-
for individuals to observe the language and behavior of gated the use of one particular strategy. Overall in
other group members while problem solving. Models reviews of research, outcome measures of achievement,
are present as exemplars for appropriate attitudes, reac- reasoning, frequency of new idea generation, and trans-
tions to questions, and higher level thinking skills. fer of content learned from one situation to another
Since students must integrate their knowledge and were found to be superior in collaborative learning
information and then convey it to the rest of the par- approaches as compared to competitive or individual-
ticipants, there is opportunity to rehearse or practice istic structures (Barkley et al. 2005; Johnson and John-
new behavior. son 2005). Additionally, research examining the use of
Representation of social interdependence theory: collaborative learning strategies as forms of differenti-
Social interdependence exists when the outcomes of ation in instruction and vehicles to promote the inclu-
individuals are affected by the actions of others. The sion of students with disabilities in general education
 Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media C 639

environments are being established (Udvari-Solner structure over another but to create a balance of expe-
and Kluth 2007). It seems the critical research question riences in the classroom that serves the needs of mul-
is no longer: Should collaborative learning be installed tiple learners well.
in our elementary, secondary, and higher education
classrooms? Instead the pertinent question arises: Cross-References C
When should collaborative learning be selected over ▶ Active Learning
other approaches? ▶ Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is not a panacea for all ▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
instructional purposes. It is also wrought with poten- ▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
tial downfalls in implementation, the learning process, ▶ Cooperative Learning
and group dynamics. Ineffectively sharing information ▶ Group Cognition and Collaborative Learning
held by individuals to the group, social loafing, limita- ▶ Group Learning
tions in information processing and conflict resolution, ▶ Social Construction of Learning
and the ability to rectify failing projects have been ▶ Social Learning Theories
documented problems (Kirschner et al. 2009). Conse-
quently, an instructor must make conscious choices
regarding the most appropriate instructional strategy
References
Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2005). Collaborative
to match the demands of an academic task. Kirschner learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco:
et al. (2009) use cognitive load to theory to propose Jossey-Bass.
that the complexity of the task should influence the Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (2005). New developments in social
decision whether to use individualistic or collabora- interdependence theory. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology
tive approaches. On a basic level, cognitive load theory Monographs, 131(4), 285–358.
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009). A cognitive load
relates to the perceived mental effort expended by the
approach to collaborative learning: United brains for complex
individual under specific instructional conditions. tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 31–42.
"
Roschelle, J., & Teasley, S. D. (1995). The construction of shared
It is, therefore, hypothesized that the more complex
knowledge in collaborative problem solving. In C. O’Malley
the learning task (i.e., the higher the intrinsic cognitive
(Ed.), Computer supported collaborative learning (pp. 69–97).
load), the more efficient and effective it will be for Berlin: Springer.
individuals to collaborate with other individuals in Udvari-Solner, A., & Kluth, P. (2007). Joyful learning: Active and
a manner that reduces this load. By contrast, less com- collaborative learning in inclusive classrooms. Thousand Oaks:
plex tasks that can easily be solved by a single individ- Corwin Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher
ual will lead to less efficient learning in groups than in
psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
individuals alone, because the required group commu- Press.
nication and coordination process (i.e., transaction
costs) impose an additional cognitive load upon the
group members, regardless of whether this communi-
cation and coordination is beneficial to learning or not
(Kirschner et al. 2009, p. 37). Collaborative Learning
The critical message for teachers as they design Supported by Digital Media
assessment, curriculum, and instruction is that the
learning activities designated for collaborative interac- CHRISTIANE METZNER, RICARDO A. CATTAFI
tions should be complex enough in nature that they Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
cannot be easily carried out by individuals. In addition,
based on the replete research history, collaboration in
learning carries with it opportunities to build valued
academic skills concurrently with essential social skills Synonyms
that are required for complex human relationships. The Collaborative e-learning; Computer-supported collab-
key is not to make exclusive choices for one learning orative work; Computer-supported cooperative work
640 C Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media

Definition Teaching/learning strategies provide learners with

Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media experiences in a relevant context allowing them to trans-
(CLSDM) is a teaching/learning strategy with digital fer the acquired knowledge into a real context (Schunk
media collaborative tools, used by interacting partici- 1997; Cattafi and Metzner 2007). Instructional design
pants to change the state of collaborative products. uses strategies aimed at the individual such as tutorials,
CLSDM is used to generate evolving documents as training, simulation, up to date information, explora-
a result of knowledge sharing, experience, and infor- tion, and goal-centered scenarios. Group strategies
mation sources in a scholar context. include forums, discussion, expert view, multiple
perspectives, and informal collaboration. Instructors
Theoretical Background should identify needs and plan, implement, and assess
Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media is classroom instruction through the collaborative use of
used as an instructional framework to introduce col- technology and other resources (Willis 2006).
laborative learning experience (Cattafi and Metzner A learner has to interact with other learners,
2007); it is based on learning theories, and teaching instructors, content, and the underlying technological
and learning strategies incorporated into instructional platform. In order to contextualize collaboration as a
design, group strategies, and collaborative tools. Con- teaching/learning strategy it is useful to classify inter-
sideration of instructional theories in the design of actions among participants as conversational, transac-
tools is referred as instructional design. tional, and collaborative. A conversational interaction
Learning and learning strategies are grounded on is characterized by an exchange of information bet-
well-defined theories: constructivist, cognitive, and ween two or more participants with the purpose of
behaviorist theories (Schunk 1997). These define gen- establishing a relation. A transactional interaction
eral concepts and contribute to a discipline of thought includes the exchange of transactional entities specify-
for theoretical comprehension as well as in the con- ing the relation among participants (e.g., in a commer-
cept’s application (Schunk 1997); however, they pro- cial context the exchange of goods or transactional
vide partial views since they generally focus on certain entity for money defines buyer and seller roles). In
aspects of a learning situation. a collaborative interaction, the main goal of partici-
The cognitive processing paradigm is based on the pants is to change the state of the collaborative entity
objectivist paradigm, which purports that knowledge usually realized as a collaboration product such as
(i.e., reality) exists independent of and external to the a document or a diagram; the collaborative entity is
learner. Knowledge is a fixed commodity and, as such, evolving and will change state until it reaches a
can be measured and known objectively. If knowledge stable form as a consequence of the collaborative inter-
exists “outside” the learner, it is the task of the learner to actions. Collaborations conceptualized as “communi-
acquire and retain an accurate representation. It is the ties of learners” are supported by communication tools
task of the instructor to reflect or “mirror” reality ranging from decision support systems to computer-
(Jonassen et al. 1995). Behaviorism maintains that only supported intentional learning environments that per-
external observable processes explain a behavior; there- mit learners to build knowledge databases (Jonassen
fore learning is the response behavior to a stimulus. The et al. 1995; Schneider 1994; Wagner 1997).
constructivist paradigm reflects a position that knowl- The tools enabling collaborative strategies can be
edge is not independent of the learner but is internally classified as supporting a method or supporting an
constructed by the learner as a way of making meaning area. Web-based tools can be viewed as communica-
of experiences. Research has found equality, collabora- tional, collaborative, or teleconferencing tools. Com-
tion, construction of knowledge, and learner control municational tools supporting collaboration rely
as variables associated with constructivist strategies predominantly on sending messages, files, data, or doc-
(Miller and Miller 1999). A dominant characteristic of uments enabling information sharing among partici-
constructivist learning is collaboration among learners pants. Collaborative tools enable group work and they
using technology tools to enhance communication include Project Management Systems, Workflow Man-
through collaboration. agement Systems, Knowledge Management Systems,
 Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media C 641

Extranets, blogs, online forums, wikis, podcasts, tools and techniques but also its social, organizational,
lifestreams, social bookmarking, Web communities, and psychological impact. Groupware applications
social networking, and avatar-based virtual reality. integrate concurrent activities of users working on
They are used in a wide spectrum of problem domains, a single project connected on a network or Internet
including business computing. Teleconferencing tools (Wilson 1995). It is worthwhile noting that “collabora- C
enable interactive information sharing and each par- tive” and “cooperative” are sometimes used indistinctly
ticipant can set and access data in a shared blackboard; in the definition of CSCW; however, some authors
video and audio are used for information exchange, consider a semantic difference between these two con-
forums for asynchronous virtual discussions, and chat cepts (Dillenbourg and Schneider 1995). Dillenbourg
rooms are platforms for synchronous virtual discus- and Schneider argue the difference lies in how the
sions. Online conferencing and email are two technol- tasks to be accomplished are decomposed: cooperative
ogies available and easy to use which has made them means tasks are decomposed hierarchically into
a tool of choice for collaborative courses (e.g., Jonassen independent subtasks; collaborative means tasks are
et al. 1995; Warschauer 1997). decomposed hetero-hierarchically into interchange-
The key to implementing successfully these strate- able layers (Cattafi and Metzner 2007).
gies lies in the analogy between mental structures Coordination is a process used to exchange infor-
and processes and the associative structure and mation among people using a common system of
hyperlinking processes of the Web. The challenge is to symbols, signs, and behavior, requiring a dependency
construct an instructional environment accurately management between activities and support of inter-
reflecting the instructor’s knowledge structure (Miller dependencies among participants (Bordeau and Wasson
and Miller 1999). 1997). Cooperation requires coordination when the
Several guidelines for the successful application of a results are to be integrated while collaboration is
digitally supported teaching and learning strategy are usually a synchronous process. Therefore, communi-
proposed: establishing a highly structured, positive cation is essential in any coordination or collaboration
learning environment that encourages individual activity.
responsibility and creates high expectations, to teach In a wider context, Computer-Supported Collabo-
collaboratively; creating spaces for learner collabora- rative Work, Groupware, Computer-Supported Coop-
tion and peer review; redefining the instructor’s role; erative Work, and Collaborative Learning Supported by
building a community; and exploiting time (Kuriloff Digital Media are considered teaching/learning strate-
2005). gies supporting Web education or e-learning, where all
educational activities use digital media and software
Important Scientific Research and tools, and Internet is the communication platform.
Open Questions Computer-mediated communication involves the use
Computer-Supported Collaborative Work, Group- of computer communication technologies to connect
ware, Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, and learners. It can be used in various forms in a teaching/
Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media learning process for content publication, support of
are frequently used as synonymous; however, this administrative tasks, increasing availability via elec-
point of view is at least theoretically incorrect (Cattafi tronic tutorials and promoting collaborative learning
and Metzner 2007). by enhancing communication between learners and
Computer-Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) instructors. In Web education or e-learning, strategies
is a multidisciplinary research field dealing with the can be collaborative or cooperative and encompass
development of tools and techniques providing sup- cognitive procedures for self-control and self-
port to people performing shared tasks on a network or regulation applied by participants on attention,
a distributed platform (Greif and Cashman 1988). memory, and comprehension; in a collaborative form,
Although the terms “CSCW” and “Groupware” are activities are performed in the classroom – virtual or
generally used indistinctly, some authors point out real – by small groups of learners after explanations of
that CSCW focuses not only on studying groupware the instructor.
642 C Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media

Information technologies supporting Web educa- and meaning can also impact the process of collabora-
tion or e-learning should have the following properties: tive learning and tools. Additionally, collaborative
accessibility, multiplatform, multimedia format for learning could affect power relations in participants
displaying information, graphical interfaces, group and influence performance. These power relations can
restricted access, hypertext structure of information be studied by allowing role changes of the participants.
and content, interpersonal communication, learner
follow-up, tools for collaborative work, learner Cross-References
management and control, creation of evaluation and ▶ Collaborative Learning
self-evaluation assignments, access to information ▶ Computer-Based Learning Environments
and content on the Web, and interactions among ▶ e-Learning and Digital Learning
group members. In e-learning the learning process is
viewed in terms of the increasingly skilled participation References
of members in a knowledge-based community. Bordeau, J., & Wasson, B. (1997). Orchestrating collaboration in
When developing a collaborative/cooperative pro- collaborative telelearning. In Proceedings of the eighth world con-
ject some degree of structuring groups is necessary. A ference on artificial intelligence in education (pp. 565–567).
Amsterdam: IOS Press.
structure is the result of an organization viewed as a
Cattafi, R., & Metzner, C. (2007). A didactic experience in collabora-
social or administrative entity (Chiavenato 1999). As
tive learning supported by digital media. Journal of Issues in
social entities, organizations consist of people having Informing Science and Information Technology, 4, 15–28. Retrieved
to reach some goals. Every goal requires work to be March 15, 2010, from http://proceedings.informingscience.org/
accomplished. The work is decomposed into tasks and InSITE2007/IISITv4p015-028Catt351.pdf.
assigned to members of the group. Formal organizations Chiavenato, I. (1999). Introducción a la teorı́a general de la
administración (5th ed.). Mexico: Mc Graw Hill.
are based on a structure rigorously defined in official
Dillenbourg, P., & Schneider, D. (1995). Collaborative learning
documents and on a rational division of tasks to be and the Internet. In Proceedings of ICCAI 1995. Retrieved
accomplished, specializing the functions and entities March 20, 2010, from http://tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/tecfa-research/
by activities. In informal organizations the structure CMC/colla/iccai95_1.html
emerges on the fly as an outcome of human relations Greif, I., & Cashman, P. (1988). CSCW: A book of readings. San Mateo:
Morgan Kaufmann.
based on friendship or antagonism between individuals
Holzinger, A. (2002). Learning. Cognitive fundamentals of
playing specific roles in the underlying formal organiza-
multimedial information systems. Multimedia Basics, 2, 55.
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official documents (Cattafi and Metzner 2007). multimedia.at.
As administrative entities, organizations are respon- Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Haag, B.
sible for planning, integrating, structuring resources, cre- (1995). Constructivism and computer- mediated communica-
tion in distance education. The American Journal of Distance
ating entities, and assigning activities. According to the
Education, 9(2), 7–26.
degree of formality of the relationships between the Kuriloff, P. (2005). Breaking the barriers of time and space:
members of an organization, different kinds of organiza- More effective teaching using e-pedagogy. Innovate Journal of
tional structures can be identified: bureaucratic, team, Online Education, 2(1). Retrieved March 13, 2010, from http://
and spontaneous cooperation based on teams and col- Innovateonline.info
Miller, M. S., & Miller, L. K. (1999). Using instructional theory to
laborations. Whether communication strategies consider
facilitate communication in web-based courses. Educational
time elements (i.e., synchronous vs. asynchronous)
Technology & Society, 2(3), 106–114. Retrieved April 3, 2010,
allows classifying organizations as hierarchical, dynamic, from http://digitalebookden.com/using-instructional-theory-
and virtual (Whittaker et al. 2001). Each kind of orga- to-facilitate-communication-in-web.html
nization shows different degrees of collaboration Schneider, D. (1994). Teaching and learning with internet tools:
between its members (individuals or groups) when A position paper. In Proceedings of the first international confer-
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As in any human endeavor, specific social or task edu-ws94/contrib/schneider/schneide.fm.html
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useful these factors should be measurable. Language Prentice Hall.
 Collective Development and the Learning Paradox C 643

Wagner, E. D. (1997). Interactivity: From agents to Outcomes. something genuinely novel is therefore impossible and
In T. E. Cyrs (Ed.), Teaching and learning at a distance: What that all essential structures must be present at birth. It
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(New directions for teaching and learning, Vol. 71, pp. 19–26).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. sequently this extreme Nativist position had a devastat-
Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: ing impact on the popularity of theories of learning and C
Theory and practice. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), development (e.g., Piaget’s theory).
470–480. Collective learning refers to a conceptualization of
Whittaker, P., MacKinnon, J., & White, D. (2001). Virtual desire
learning that takes the structures and processes of social
and virtual reality. A case study highlighting the reality of
becoming a virtual organization. In Proceedings 2001 BITWORLD cooperation into account as a “reality sui generis”
conference, Cairo. (Miller 1987). It is an alternative conceptualization
Willis, J. (2006). Creating a working model for technology integration of learning that promises to avoid the learning paradox.
through a lesson planning WebQuest. Electronic Journal for the Collectively accepted knowledge is knowledge that
Integration of Technology in Education, 5, 25–33. Retrieved April cannot be denied and yet is not necessarily completely
1, 2010, from http://ejite.isu.edu/Volume5No1/.
comprehended. It thus creates the possibility of exp-
Wilson, B. G. (1995). Metaphors for instruction: Why we talk about
learning environments. Educational Technology, 35(5), 25–30. eriencing contradictions without reference already to
the subsequent level of understanding. The suggestion
is that if we explain, in this social way, how a group of
peers who seriously try to solve a dispute can under-
stand a disturbance and can learn something genuinely
Collaborative Learning with novel, we are not invoking the contradictions alluded
Emerging Technologies to in the learning paradox in our explanations.
▶ Interactive Learning Environments
Theoretical Background
The novelty problem was articulated by Fodor some
30 years ago. He provided a modern formulation of the
ancient (Plato) learning paradox, making it relevant
Collective Development and to learning and the conception of stage development
the Learning Paradox as entertained by Piaget. He concluded that it is impos-
sible to learn something fundamentally new. Novel
JAN BOOM knowledge cannot be derived completely from old
Department of Developmental Psychology, University knowledge or it would not be new. Yet the new tran-
of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands scendent element of it cannot be wholly new either,
because then it could never be understood. In Plato’s
“Meno” dialogue, the paradox is brought forward by
Synonyms Meno but the arguments underlying it originated with
Innateness controversy; Novelty; Sociological model of the Sophists. They used the paradox to argue against
learning the view that learning is an activity of learning persons
themselves. They tried to convince their opponents
Definition that learning is completely dependent upon instruc-
The learning paradox refers to a set of arguments tion. For if it were true that learning depended on
that, in the 1980s, questioned the received way of con- asking and searching, learning would not be possible
ceptualizing learning. The core of the arguments was – asking for something means that you already know
that novel knowledge cannot be derived completely what you are looking for, in which case you do not need
from old knowledge, or it would not be new. Yet the to learn it anymore. However, if you do not know it yet,
new transcending part of it cannot be completely you cannot learn it either, because then you cannot
new either, for then it could never be understood. In know what it is that you are looking for. Plato did not
particular, Fodor (1980) maintained that learning agree with the conclusion that learning is exclusively
644 C Collective Development and the Learning Paradox

dependent on instruction. Although he admitted that Notice that all of the three steps or conditions are
some knowledge must be presupposed, he maintained necessary for the paradox to occur. If one is omitted,
that this knowledge could be dormant. The immortal there is no paradox. For example, if condition (c) is not
soul already knows everything before being born; met, it is perfectly possible that something is learned.
learning is a matter of recollection. More recently Fodor admits that complex concepts might be learned
the same controversies have reemerged. Fodor (1980) because they can be represented initially by other (i.e.,
maintains that learning something genuinely novel is primitive) concepts (Fodor 1981, p. 271). Also, relative
impossible and therefore that all essential structures learning is possible because input and output are of
must be present at birth. Fodor is primarily concerned a different order. The initially available cognitive struc-
with the issue of concept learning, which he believes to tures are powerful enough to generate new hypotheses
be a confused notion. He claims that all learning theo- (new content), as long as these hypotheses do not
ries are based on inductive extrapolation, and therefore transcend the boundaries of the present framework.
must acknowledge hypothesis formation and confir- As we will see, Miller’s solution of the Meno paradox
mation among the processes involved in learning. He is also based on a definition of the input as of a different
then shows that given such premises, there can be no order than the output, such that condition (c) does not
such thing as concept learning, or achieving a new stage apply. If there existed a form of learning in which
in development as Piaget would have it. conditions (a) or (b) were not required, the paradox
The line of argument entertained in such learning likewise would not follow. If a test and confirmation are
theories (specifically within the empiricist tradition), not required to learn something truly new, a represen-
and Fodor’s objections to it, can be reconstructed in tation is not necessary prior to the acquisition of the
three steps: (a) First, a subject has to have an idea of new knowledge. In the absence of condition (b), the
what he or she wants to learn. A representation of it emergence of a representation of something novel and
(e.g., a hypothesis specifying a general rule) must be learning something novel are the same phenomenon.
present: the input. (b) Second, the subject should The attainment of a mathematical insight might be an
test whether these ideas conform with experience. For illustration of such a learning step. It may be unclear
example, the hypothesis must be put to test. That is how such a step can occur, but there no longer exists
why it has to be representable in the first place. Fodor’s a paradox! Note, therefore, that Fodor’s (1980) basic
main examples involve concept learning. Testing would argument that it is impossible to represent a richer
amount to verifying whether the concept is used cor- logic in terms of a weaker logic, while being true, is
rectly after the inference of a rule that specifies the not sufficient to allow the conclusion that learning
right use. Correction, in this case, is carried out by a richer logic is impossible. Only if learning is defined
other competent speakers. The predicate learned in such a way that step (b) is indispensable is this
(novel knowledge) is only justified after confirmation conclusion warranted. Fodor is very clear about this
of the hypothesis, so something is learned if and only if because he adds: “if what you mean by learning is
this step has been completed: the output of the learning hypothesis formation and confirmation” (p. 148). Of
process. (c) A problem of circularity will occur in the course, giving up the notion of confirming the new
special case when the input and output are of the same insight is a heavy price to pay to avoid the paradox.
kind. In this case, the learning process presupposes as But it is logically possible that a form of learning exists
input that which is only available as output. Fodor that involves neither hypothesis formation nor confir-
points out an instance of circularity. A problem arises mation. Fodor (1981) does not subscribe to the empir-
when we want to learn a “primitive” concept (concepts icists’ account of learning. Instead, he maintains that all
having no further internal structure and hence not primitive concepts (and fundamental structures) must
representable in terms of other concepts). It is impos- be innate, although he admits that experience plays
sible (by definition) to form a hypothesis about them a role by triggering the concepts. Triggering is consid-
without the use of the primitive concept itself. But since ered to be a causal process and for that reason not
this is exactly the concept that is to be attained, the a form of (constructive) learning. In this way Fodor
paradox follows (Fodor 1981). avoids the paradox.
 Collective Development and the Learning Paradox C 645

We now turn to another account of learning, based collective argument are much more restrictive than
on the idea of internalization as advanced by social those governing individual thinking. An isolated indi-
interactionists. Chapman (1992) proposed that joint vidual could easily ignore conflicting information.
activity in which subjects come to share the knowledge However, in a collective argument this is not accept-
that each alone possesses can lead to the construction able as long as the goal – developing a joint argu- C
of new knowledge neither individual possessed before. ment that gives an answer to a disputed question –
Such an idea has been worked out originally and fairly is retained.
elaborated by Miller (1987). Assuming these principles are indeed in operation,
Miller claims that it is possible to experience dis- it is conceivable that one participant in the argument
turbances in a relevant and meaningful way without asserts proposition A while another participant asserts
reference to the subsequent level of understanding. proposition B, with both statements mutually exclusive
However, this is only possible, according to him, by and both traceable to the same shared base of collec-
means of discussion by a group of peers who seriously tively accepted knowledge. Consider the well-known
try to solve a dispute. Miller maintains that cognitive balance scale task. If two or more children address
development can be explained adequately only if this problem, one child may claim that the one arm is
the structures and processes of social cooperation are heavier due to a greater number of weights, while
taken into account as a “reality sui generis” (Miller another child maintains that the other arm is heavier
1987). In collective argumentation – which is the because of the greater distance of the weights from the
model for all argumentation – the primary goal is to fulcrum. Since both children are at a stage in which
develop a joint argument that answers a disputed ques- they acknowledge only one of the variables, they must
tion by relating it to collectively accepted knowledge. in principle be able to understand each other’s reason-
Of greatest relevance is a discussion between peers ing (albeit with difficulty). What they were unable to
sharing the same developmental level. On the basis do is to coordinate both points of view and to see their
of theoretical considerations as well as empirical interconnectedness. The conclusion that Miller draws
research, Miller states that under such circumstances from this example is that a child can no longer simply
a disturbance can be understood and something novel ignore what is going on and is bound to experience
can be learned. He claims that such collective argu- some form of contradiction. At least he or she will be
ments are regulated by a very specific set of rules and made aware of the fact that his or her current knowl-
more specifically three cooperation principles. These edge is not sufficient to reach a consensus (Miller
three basic cooperation principles of argumentation 1986). Collectively accepted knowledge is knowledge
can be in operation (in some form) between very that cannot be denied and yet is not necessarily
young subjects. They function as a coordinating device completely comprehended. It thus creates the possibil-
that determines the processes of argumentation in such ity of experiencing contradictions without reference to
a way that, in principle, a set of collectively valid state- the subsequent stage.
ments can be found and agreed upon. The principle of
generalizability specifies that a statement is justified if Important Scientific Research and
(a) it is either immediately acceptable (belongs to the Open Questions
collectively valid) or (b) if it can be converted to the The learning paradox posed a huge problem for devel-
collectively acceptable. The principle of objectivity opmental psychology and learning theories. An alter-
states that if a statement cannot be denied (i.e., its native to individualistical, psychological theories of
denial cannot be converted into a collectively valid learning was felt to be needed by many. Yet, approaches
statement), it belongs to the realm of the collectively just stressing the social character of learning often
valid, whether it confirms or falsifies the point of view do no more than shift the problem of novelty to the
of some participants. The principle of consistency for- sociocultural plane. In that case, either all novelty is
bids that contradictions enter into – or (once they have denied or novelty remains unaccounted for. For exam-
been discovered) remain in – the realm of the collec- ple, if children learn new ways of thinking from their
tively valid (Miller 1987). These conditions governing parents and their parents have learned them from
646 C Collective Knowledge

their parents, and so forth, we get an infinite regress. Miller, M. (1987). Argumentation and cognition. In M. Hickmann
Miller (1986) offered a far more interesting version of (Ed.), Social and functional approaches to language and thought
(pp. 225–250). New York: Academic.
a Vygotskian social approach based on collective learn-
Molenaar, P. C. M. (1986). On the impossibility of acquiring more
ing principles. powerful structures: A neglected alternative. Human Develop-
However, despite the huge impact on developmen- ment, 29, 245–251.
tal psychology and learning theories the learning
paradox is not a hot topic any more. Interactionism
has become more fashionable, partly due to nonlinear
dynamic systems theory (Molenaar 1986). It is
accepted nowadays that interactions in a dynamic sys- Collective Knowledge
tem may lead to the emergence of new structures and ▶ Collective Learning
sudden reorganizations. That reorganization can take
place quite suddenly and have rather severe conse-
quences is not only possible, but even plausible for
systems as complex as the human mind. Although
Fodor’s strict functionalism has lost much of its cred- Collective Learning
ibility and interactionism is nowadays conceived of as
much broader than just collective argumentation – for THOMAS N. GARAVAN, RONAN CARBERY
example, from the neuronal to the social level – the Department of Personnel and Employment Relations,
fundamental questions involved in the learning para- Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick,
dox should not be ignored because otherwise they will Limerick, Ireland
undoubtedly return in some new form.

Cross-References Synonyms
▶ Bootstrapping: How Not to Learn Collective knowledge; Learning networks
▶ Can Children Learn by Bootstrapping?
▶ Collaborative Learning Definition
▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking Collective learning is a complex concept that is vari-
▶ Collective Learning ously defined. It is generally conceptualized as a
▶ Conceptual Change dynamic and cumulative process that results in the
▶ Cooperative Learning production of knowledge. Such knowledge is institu-
▶ Piaget, Jean tionalized in the form of structures, rules, routines,
▶ Plato norms, discourse, and strategies that guide future
▶ Social Construction of Learning action. Learning emerges because of interactive mech-
▶ Socio-Constructivist Models of Learning anisms where individual knowledge is shared, dissem-
inated, diffused, and further developed through
relational and belonging synergies. Collective learning
References can therefore be conceived as an evolutionary process
Boom, J. (1991). Collective development and the learning paradox. of perfecting collective knowledge.
Human Development, 34, 273–287.
Chapman, M. (1992). Equilibration and the dialectics of organiza-
tion. In H. Beilin & P. B. Pufall (Eds.), Piaget’s theory: Prospects Theoretical Background
and possibilities (pp. 39–59). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. The concept of collective learning draws on a wide
Fodor, J. (1980). Fixation of belief and concept acquisition. In body of theory related to learning, organization the-
M. Piattelli-Palmarini (Ed.), Language and learning: The debate ory, sociology, and psychology. It recognizes the role
between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. Cambridge, MA:
of social interactions in the construction of values
Harvard University Press.
Fodor, J. (1981). The present status of the innateness controversy. and identity. Collective learning may result in a com-
In J. Fodor (Ed.), Representations (pp. 257–316). Brighton: munal language, in which collective approaches and
Harvester Press. knowledge are expressed and cultivated. Garavan and
 Collective Learning C 647

McCarthy (2008) highlight a multiplicity of concepts the collective process differentiates collective learning
that fall within the rubric of collective learning, includ- from individual learning.
ing organizational learning; the learning organization; Different types of collective learning are highlighted
team learning; communities of practice; collective in the literature:
knowledge and memory; and collaborative learning.
● Aggregate learning is conceptualized as the aggre-
C
Collective learning, therefore, represents a macro con-
gation of learning gained though trial and error
cept that addresses learning at the levels of the team,
at the individual level. The emphasis is on individ-
the organization, and society. An important distinction
ual learning processes rather than any collective
is made between individual learning and collective
perspective. Aggregate learning may give rise to
learning. Individual learning tends to be conceptual-
fragmentation and individualization rather than
ized as an information system where learning is
inclusion and collectivity.
interpreted, retained, and retrieved by individuals. Col-
● Group learning focuses on the processes that a
lective learning is viewed as a more macro-level concept
group uses to acquire new skills, knowledge, ways
that emphasizes the synergy and advantages of the
of interacting, change patterns between group
collective element.
members, standard operating procedures, and
Collective learning has been defined in a variety
behavioral routines.
of ways. It is possible to view it as an aggregate of
● Institutional learning is conceptualized as learning
individual learning. According to this perspective,
that institutions undergo in order to meet their
collective learning occurs when individuals create,
public brief or mission. It is a form of learning
acquire, and share unique knowledge and informa-
that enables the institution to function effectively;
tion. A second perspective suggests that collective
however, it may lead to institutionalized practices
learning is assumed to occur when a collective
such as hierarchy, paternalism, and authority.
engages in behavior such as asking questions, seeking
● Associational learning is conceptualized by high
feedback, experimenting, reflecting, and discussing
symbolic complexity, but low levels of structural
options and errors. Another view suggests that collec-
openness. It focuses on the coordination and syn-
tive learning is a dynamic process in which learning
thesis of cognitive structures of associated individ-
process and the behavior of the collective change as the
uals and groups. The emphasis in associational
collective learns.
learning is on collective identity.
This third view considers the collective to be an
● Double contingency learning is conceptualized as
open, living system that continuously interacts with
a process of social or discursive construction that
its environment. Many collectives are structured; how-
delineates a field of experiences. It involves the
ever, others are unstructured, yet they take on charac-
erection of boundaries and the exclusion of others.
teristics of complex, living entities. Collectives are
It may result in situations where consensus is
essentially self-organizing through their interactions
expected, disagreements are avoided, and, in some
with the environment. Collectives can be both closed
cases, it leads to a form of fundamentalism.
and open. Some components do not change whereas
● Triple contingency learning is characterized by both
others are transformed.
structural openness and symbolic complexity. This
Central to collective learning is the notion that the
learning occurs due to the emergence of discourses,
collective is enhanced in three ways: (a) it achieves the
cognitive forms, and the capacity to observe, chal-
capacity to restructure and to meet changing condi-
lenge, evaluate, and form opinions. It has strong
tions; (b) it can add and use skills, knowledge, and
self-constituted and self-organized characteristics.
behaviors; and (c) it becomes highly sophisticated in
its capability to deal with feedback and reflect on its Collective learning is considered valuable for indi-
actions. Evolutionary theory defines learning as viduals, organizations, and societies. The outcomes of
a process of cumulative knowledge, taking place in collective learning may be both individual and collec-
firms where common and shared rules exist which tive. Commentators such as Simons and Ruijters
allow individuals to coordinate their action in search (2001) consider collective learning to be collective in
for problem solutions. The social element embedded in the sense of process and outcomes. Their restrictive
648 C Collective Learning

definition has, however, been broadened by other knowledge is central to the competitive success of the
researchers to accommodate individual learning pro- organization and while the existence of linkages and
cess with collective outcomes. emulation is important for this to occur, linkages or
emulation do not simply transfer knowledge directly.
Important Scientific Research and Instead, they are part of the social context in which
Open Questions learning occurs and new knowledge is generated within
From a theoretical point of view, there is much to be the organization. Therefore, particular phenomena
done to further develop the concept of collective learn- such as localized interfirm networks and spin-offs and
ing. Collective learning processes potentially include intra-regional labor mobility become crucial focuses of
a variety of perspectives such as a cognitive and/or attention and indicators of the possibility of innovation
behavioral focus; whether learning is individual learn- and learning.
ing within the collective or genuine collective learning. The conditions that facilitate collective learning are
The factors that facilitate collective learning are not yet largely hypothetical and primarily focused on analogies
fully understood. The role of learning networks, for to individual learning and on experience. Nonaka and
example, are highlighted as important because they Takeuchi (1995) refer to a number of conditions that
provide physical or virtual platforms for human inter- stimulate collective learning, including the presence of
actions (Fu et al. 2006). a vision which directs the processes of knowledge cre-
Camagni (1991) suggests that collective learning is ation, an avoidance of information, and a creative focus
not simply the acquisition of information, and that the which stimulates interaction with the environment.
availability of information is not a central issue. Recent theories on innovation, mainly from cultural–
Instead, it is the process by which available information individual perspectives, focus on supportive conditions
becomes useable knowledge that is the main focus. for collective learning including learning skills, learning
Organizations within the innovative environments motivation, and collective foreknowledge.
seek to cope with the problem of uncertainty by devel- The distinction between individual learning and
oping a “transcoding function” that translates external collective learning requires more detailed investiga-
information into a language that the organization can tion. Both concepts share elements of continuity and
understand. Crucial to this process is the emergence of dynamic synergies; however, they differ in terms of the
a common language and culture that act as precondi- social nature of the latter process. Commentators high-
tions to enable this transcoding to take place. Further light the public dimension of collective learning. The
research may be required to understand the shared mechanisms for transfer of learning focus on ratings
cognitions that facilitate collective learning. The term and behaviors. The operationalization of collective
cognitive consensus has been used in relation to shared learning is, therefore, problematic and researchers are
cognition and collective learning. Cognitive consensus faced with significant problems concerning how best to
refers to the degree of similarity among the mental measure it or identify and label it as a social construct.
models by members of the collective. This consensus
increases over time depending on the level of interaction. Cross-References
The role of trust is also important in terms of the extent ▶ Collective Development and the Learning Paradox
of social interaction and the extent to which a shared ▶ Communities of Practice
cognition will emerge expediently (Capello 1999). ▶ Cooperative Learning
Camagni (1991) distinguishes between “links- ▶ Group Learning
based” and “non-links-based” mechanisms by which ▶ Organizational Learning
this common language or shared cognitions emerges. ▶ The Learning Organization
In the context of organizations and firms, of particular
importance on the links-based side are supply chain
References
linkages or links established via the movement of
Camagni, R. (1991). Local “milieu”, uncertainty and innovation net-
labor between firms. Non-links-based forms of learn- works: towards a new dynamic theory of economic space.
ing include imitation, emulation, and reverse engineer- In R. Camagni (Ed.), Innovation networks: spatial perspectives
ing. This perspective proposes the belief that, while (pp. 121–42). London: Belhaven.
 Communication and Learning in the Context of Instructional Design C 649

Capello, R. (1999). Spatial transfer of knowledge in high technology ▶ Discourse and the Production of Knowledge
milieux: learning versus collective learning processes. Regional ▶ Social Interaction Learning Styles
Studies, 34(4), 353–365.
Fu, W., Lo, H., & Drew, D. S. (2006). Collective learning, collective
knowledge and learning networks in construction. Construction
Management and Economics, 24, 1019–1028. C
Garavan, T. N., & McCarthy, A. (2008). Collective learning processes
and human resource development. Advances in Developing Communication and Learning
Human Resources, 10(4), 451–471. in the Context of Instructional
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company:
how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New
Design
York: Oxford University Press.
Simons, R. J., & Ruijters, M. (2001). Learning professionals: PHILIP GRISÉ
Towards an integrated model. Paper presented at the bian- The College of Communication and Information
nual conference of the European Association for Research Studies, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
on learning and instruction, Aug, 26 – Sept, Fribourg,
Switzerland.

Synonyms
Listening; Reasoning; Thinking

Commitment Definition
Learning may take place through self-discovery, by
▶ Motivational Variables in Learning accident, through observation, by reading, or through
communication with another individual. This descrip-
tion focuses on purposeful teaching/training of an
individual or group, using principles of instructional
Commitment for Learning design. Learning is the purposeful adoption of an
Goals organism’s behavior to its environment based upon
insight gained from encounters with the environment
▶ Volition for Learning directly or communication that provided the insight.
Somewhere between the two fields of communica-
tion and learning lies a blend, an opportunity for the
creative, entertaining stimuli of communication theory
Common Understanding to merge with teaching/training materials to offer to
learners instructional tools that are at once both rigor-
▶ Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning ous and pleasurable. The result is a measurable out-
come where one knows that learning/training took
place effectively and efficiently, while at the same time
the learner/trainee comes away from the event with
a warm positive feeling, ready to expand ones learning
Communal Learning and tackle even more difficult scenarios.
▶ Group Learning
Theoretical Background
Beginning in the 1960s, elements of what today is
called “instructional design” coalesced from compo-
Communication nents in education, experimental psychology, educa-
tional learning theory, and industrial psychology. Early
▶ DICK Continuum in Organizational Learning work by Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs laid the
Framework groundwork for others who followed at Florida State
▶ Discourse University. Because these researchers were rooted in
650 C Communication Anxiety

hard scientific backgrounds, and used that perspective Communication and learning needs to pay heed
to develop their teaching/learning paradigms, some of to ongoing research with nonhumans. Current studies
the softer, humanistic aspects of interpersonal interac- with dolphin (Viegas 2010) demonstrate that mammal
tion may have been accidentally slighted. Among the sea creatures have astonishing levels of intellect and
casualties might have been communication and its creativity, and are readily able to understand, prob-
relationship to learning. Some of the fundamental lem-solve, empathize, and otherwise demonstrate
resources that provide extensive background on the “human” characteristics.
interrelationships between communication and instruc-
tional design include works by (Briggs 1979); (Dick and Cross-References
Carey 1990); (Gagné 1985); (Kaufman and Grisé 1995), ▶ Communication Theory
and (Keller 1987). ▶ Discourse
Building on the notion of system thinking (Capra ▶ Discourse and the Production of Knowledge
1996; Wheatley 2006; Senge 2004) a deeper under-
standing of the holistic nature of learning and commu-
References
nication begins to pull together. All pieces are connected
Briggs, L. J. (1979). Handbook of the procedures for the design of
and impact all others. It is this communication between instruction (Monograph #4). Pittsburgh: American Institutes
beings that enables learning to arise. As we intensify our for Research.
study by turning to one another, clarity and wisdom Capra, F. (1996). The Web of Life. New York: Doubleday.
may bring about understanding and perhaps even Dick, W., & Cary, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction
harmony. (3rd ed.). New York: Harper Collins.
Gagné, R. M. (1985). Conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
Important Scientific Research and Kaufman, R., & Grisé, P. J. (1995). Auditing your educational
Open Questions strategic plan. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. http://grise.
Leslie Briggs once remarked that the essence of instruc- wordpress.com.
tion (for purposes of the teaching/learning paradigm) Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of
motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3),
was to “Tell the learners about what you are going
2–10. http://www.arcsmodel.com/.
to teach them, then teach them, then tell them what Senge, P. (2004). Presence: Human purpose and the field of the future.
you taught them” (personal conversation 1969). This Cambridge, MA: The Society for Organizational Learning.
is a more straightforward way of describing David http://www.solonline.org/PeterSenge/bio/.
Ausubel’s concept of advanced organizers, wherein Viegas, J. (2010, Jan 10). Dolphins: Second smartest animals? (http://
www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/20100108/dolphins-deserve-human-
the learner is stimulated to become aware that he/she
status-say-scientists.htm).
was about to be taught something which would consist Wheatley, M. (2006). Leadership and the New Science: Discovering
of specific elements for a specific purpose. Bob Gagné Order in a Chaotic World. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler
(1965–1992) also carefully dissected the teaching/ Publishers.
learning process into the necessary condition of learn-
ing to ensure that instruction would take place.
Sadly, all of these works have an element of sterility
to them. The emphasis of experimental design on the
process cannot be mistaken. Conversely, marketing and Communication Anxiety
advertising domains – created to persuade people to act
▶ Apprehension and Communication
in certain predictable ways – do not integrate the rigor
of instructional design but rely more on group dynam-
ics and interpersonal communication. The inclusion of
system thinking with its outcome-based orientation
has done much to move teaching/learning theory Communication Aversion
toward a humane application of principles that are
valuable and functional for learners. ▶ Apprehension and Communication
 Communication Theory C 651

automatically and possibly without control of the

Communication Theory encoder (body language is a good example of an auto-
matic channel of transmission that might provide
PHILIP J. GRISÉ substantial information to the astute decoder). The
The College of Communication and Information majority of the transmitted message is usually conveyed C
Studies, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA via channels other than the direct verbal presentation,
with much research indicating that up to 80% of
a received message is ultimately delivered by nonverbal
Synonyms means (again, such as body language).
Conversation; Information transmission; Language; The recipient of the transmitted message is the
Listening; Message; Speech; Statement decoder, who when stimulated to pay attention to the
situation, translates and interprets the message into
Definition a meaningful statement – at least as far and they per-
Communication must be seen as a two-way street. A sonally are concerned. In an ideal setting, the commu-
stimulus is provided, and upon reception on the part nication loop is completed by the decoder encoding
of another species, a reaction (appropriate or inap- a new feedback message back to the original encoder,
propriate, overt or implicit) takes place. When speak- demonstrating reception and interpretation. Much
ing of communication, so far it is still essential that or even most of the initial intended information of
both participants are living organisms, not electro- the message may often become distorted or lost, or
mechanical or other devices. The day fast approaches misconstrued at this point. While there may be a
where artificial intelligence provided through com- common language and dialect shared between the
puters may adequately integrate thinking and feeling encoder and the decoder, the degree to which they do
behaviors to qualify as communication. not share a common frame of reference can be critical in
Communication’s definition lies in two parts: disorienting or otherwise confounding the meaning.
there is a transmitting or sending organism, often The degree to which encoder and decoder operate
times referred to as the encoder. The encoder encodes from different frames of reference (when perceiving
the message to be delivered. A recipient organism, often how things happen – people, governments, religions,
referred to as the decoder, receives the message. Much gender, etc.) will reduce the ability for the message to be
processing, with many components, takes place in the translated and interpreted in the manner anticipated by
transmission between the two beings, and components the encoder.
of that transmission are an essential ingredient to the Coding of the message evolves in three forms:
definition of the communication process. Language itself – the verbalization used; paralanguage
– delivery of the verbalization: tone, pitch, rate, empha-
Theoretical Background sis, volume; and nonverbal cues – including body lan-
guage, gestures, posture, use of eye contact and facial
The Communication Process expressions, and so on. Interestingly, research over the
Person A has a notion within his/her mind to make past quarter century has consistently demonstrated that
a statement and then vocalizes that statement (or about two-thirds of the meaning of a message is actually
otherwise issues forth a symbolic message – such as carried through nonverbal and paralanguage codes – not
through sign language). This is referred to as encoding. the spoken words of the message! So communication
The encoder selects a method of transmitting the state- functions on levels that are much more fundamental
ment, be it via live and in person voice, or telephone, than vocabulary. The notion of not looking a gorilla or
meaningful symbols, written or electronic message – a bear or a lion in the eye is much more than idle chatter.
or even body language. That transmission selection The intended recipient of a message may be tuning in on
feature is referred to as the coded channel of communi- all channels!
cation. Note that not all transmission channels are In completing the communication loop, decoders
always overtly selected by the encoder, some happen should make their best attempt to respond to the
652 C Communication Theory

encoder with their most accurate translation of what and can exhibit empathy. Following are three of an end-
they perceive was transmitted. This feedback enables less array of examples of creatures other than humans
a series of successive approximations to close in on communicating with one another, engaging higher order
a harmonious understanding of what the message was reasoning processes that move the interchange from
supposed to be. In reality, such feedback looping rarely a pure S-R pattern to a communication scenario.
occurs, leaving less than an ideal communication event.
1. A dog is hit by a vehicle on a busy highway. He is
Additional communication hurdles are presented
crippled. Another dog observes the cries for help
by both internal interference and external interference,
and comes to his assistance. He pulls his “friend”
in every situation. These interference features are
out of harm’s way. See YouTube, December 3, 2008.
sometimes referred to as noise. Internal interference
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2qSakxWt54
arises when the decoder is physically or emotionally
2. Animal psychologist Joyce Poole, from Cornell
distracted. This may arise from a headache, pressing
University, and others are conducting elephant
matters of one’s schedule, concern for an ill family
listening projects in Kenya, Africa, as well as central
member, or other distractions. Additionally, a value
and western Africa. We have learned that elephants
judgment may be made by the decoder as to whether
routinely emit subsonic (to humans) utterances
he/she wishes to believe/accept/appreciate the message
that can be distinguished by other elephants more
being transmitted. This can be because the encoder is
than a mile away. These vocalizations are in addi-
a person of another gender, another race, another cul-
tion to the sonic vibrations that elephants make by
ture, a working subordinate, a lost love, or a host of
stomping the ground and in turn detecting those
other rejections. By external interference we mean
vibrations through their feet at a considerable dis-
confusion caused by the external environment – quite
tance. See CBS Television “60 Minutes, January 3,
literally, noise.
2010,” and National Geographic (2003). http://
news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0221_
Important Scientific Research and 030221_elephantvocal1.html
Open Questions 3. A pet, be it a cat, a dog, or another creature, rou-
Communication holds a special place within psychol-
tinely responds to its owner’s requests, not always in
ogy, education, and other social sciences. It is a prac-
the manner desired (the same can be said of chil-
tical application of a variety of disciplines, melded
dren). There is no question on the part of the
together to be a functional device for living organisms.
human “master” that the animal is not simply
Because communication is such an inherent element of
performing an S-R conditioned response pattern
society and culture, its roots and complexity are often
such as Pavlov’s dog salivation experiments
overlooked. Now in the twenty-first century, the defi-
(English publication 1927). The communication
nition demands leaping beyond all-too-frequent per-
that exists is at a much higher level than S-R pat-
spectives such as a process of conveying ideas, and
terns. Pets truly can conduct nonverbal dialog with
thoughts, and feelings between people.
their owners and others. This interplay should be
B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning methodology
considered a form of communication, as we shall
requires an observable change in behavior caused by
see through the expanded definition.
an event. The stimulus-response (S-R) observation
may be covert and not readily seen – such as change Although many other examples of animal commu-
in blood pressure, galvanic skin response, retinal dila- nication can be cited (e.g., dolphin and primate
tion, and so on. The “skinner box” was often used research), for simplicity’s sake, the definition of com-
within experimental psychology to trigger responses munication shall be described by actions and reactions
in an organism. This is not communication. between people.
Let the loop be closed here so that the definition
expands beyond humans to include other animals for- Functional Definition of
merly referred to as “dumb” animals. Situational obser- Communication
vation and experimentation routinely demonstrate, for It is time to take a new look at the functional defi-
example, that animals possess problem-solving skills, nition of communication. It is time to embrace
 Communication Training for Health Professionals C 653

communication features that are very real and take are unobstructedly listening to each other, not
place daily in human to human contact, in human to assuming, second guessing, ignoring, but earnestly
other species contact, and in other species to other working on maintaining a focus between one another.
species contact. Age, gender, culture, attitude, etc.: life gets in the way.
One last mention should be made regarding the Communication requires work. C
functionality of external sounds within a communica- The more one studies communication, the more
tion setting. Often unbeknownst to a film audience, awareness is gained regarding how imprecise and acci-
a movie director is employing long-understood princi- dental communication between two individuals really
ples of the psychological impact film music can have on is. Through improved communication skills, people
an audience. “Film music” refers to more than the can and must do a better job sharing experiences and
melody carried by music, but also the background working in harmony, rather than remaining antago-
effects that are brought to play which might further nistic based upon misunderstandings.
the message of the film. One example is the application From the 1967 Paul Newman film Cool Hand Luke,
of subsonic or very low pulsation softly in the back- the phrase “What we’ve got here, is a failure to
ground to raise the tension level in an audience. communicate” became a symbol for culture clashes.
A rather sublime scene can move viewers to a feeling Communication across racial, religious, cultural, and
of uneasiness, not by what is seen on the screen, or even ethnic lines is essential. Retired US Senator Bob
by the words or melodic track, but by the foreboding Graham, chair of the United States Commission on
rumble that strikes up an innate fear response. Another the Prevention of Weapons of Mass Destruction Pro-
classic example of communication impact within liferation and Terrorism noted that failure of commu-
a movie, without the use of words is music itself. Alfred nication between various US intelligence agencies
Hitchcock’s classic film “Psycho” (1960) rivets the enabled the terror of 9/11 to take place. Had better
audience in fear as violins strike up a screeching noise communication existed between cultures, perhaps the
as the slasher cuts through the shower curtain, killing War on Terror would find itself to be unnecessary.
the bathing Janet Leigh. Proof of the subliminal impact
communicated is easily demonstrated by replaying the
same scene without audio. A much more innocuous
Cross-References
▶ Communication and Learning in the Context of
murder takes place.
Instructional Design
▶ Discourse
To Recap and Add a Touch of
▶ Discourse and the Production of Knowledge
Philosophy
A message that intends to convey meaning is commu-
nicated by an encoder using one or more channels to References
transmit a message. A decoder absorbs the elements Andrews, P. H., & Baird, J. E. (2005). Communication for business and
presented as best as possible, interpreting through the professions (8th ed.). Long Grove: Waveland.
the filters and experiences of his/her own frame of Hamilton, C. (2008). Communicating for results (8th ed.). Belmont:
Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
reference, paying attention to language, paralanguage,
Shockley-Zalabak, P. S. (2006). Fundamentals of organizational com-
and nonverbal cues. Ideally, the decoder will respond munication (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
to the encoder with their interpretation of the mean- Wood, J. T. (2004). Communication theories in action (3rd ed.).
ing, seeking validation, or obtaining redirection/ Belmont: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
correction. Additionally, within a communication
setting, internal and external stimuli often create dis-
traction/noise.
Woven throughout the definition of the com-
munication process is an essential element – Communication Training for
listening! For all the encoding, decoding, and feed- Health Professionals
back loops to function, success of the communication
depends upon a situation wherein both parties ▶ Empowering Health Learning for the Elderly (EHLE)
654 C Communities of Practice

not a community of practice. Also, having the

Communities of Practice same job or the same title does not make for a
community of practice unless members interact
MURAT ATAIZI and learn together. Members of communities of
Department of Communication, Anadolu University, practice do not have to work together or be together
School of Communication, Eskisehir, Turkey on a daily basis (Wenger 2006, p. 2). Sharing their
ideas and thoughts on the same subject and devel-
oping themselves through those ideas and thoughts
Communities of practice are groups of people who wish
make them a member of community of practice.
to learn something by collaborating with other members
Learning from each other might be verbalized as the
of the group both in real and virtual world. These people
base of communities of practice in this context.
share a goal or interest and learn from each other by
3. The practice: Members of a community of practice
sharing information and experiences. The term origi-
are practitioners and their aim is to develop them-
nates from Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger (1991) and
selves and learn from each other. They develop a
has since spread into other fields of learning research,
shared repertoire of resources: experiences, stories,
including second language learning.
tools, and ways of addressing recurring problems in
Lave and Wenger (1991) characterize learning as
their shared practice. Practicing together to learn
a legitimate peripheral participation in communities
from each other, face to face or at a distance in a
of practice. They examine learning is distributed
small or large group, might be verbalized as another
among participants of the communities. In their
base of communities of practice in this context.
view, learning is an integral part of generative social
practice in the lived-in world (p. 35). Learning can Application of the concept of community of
be explored as a legitimate peripheral participation. practice has been found in business, organizational
When a person becomes a member of communities of design, education, government, professional associa-
practice, he or she gradually transforms into a practi- tions, development projects, and civic life.
tioner, a newcomer becoming an old-timer and/or
a novice becoming a practitioner, a member of com- Cross-References
munity of practice in which all the tasks, skills, ▶ Situated Cognition
and knowledge can be learned. Wenger (2006) empha- ▶ Situated Learning
sizes three important characteristics of community
of practice: References
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral
1. The domain: A community of practice is not only a participation. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
club of friends or a network of connections between Wenger, E. (2006). Communities of practice: A brief introduction.
people, it can be defined as a domain of interests Retrieved May 31, 2011, from http://www.ewenger.com/theory/
communities_of_practice_intro.htm
like a shared competence that distinguishes mem-
bers from other people. Members of the commu-
nity therefore value their collective competence or
knowledge and learn from each other.
2. The community: In the Dictionary.com Web site, Community of Learners
community is defined as “a social group of any
size whose members reside in a specific locality, CHRISTOPHER FISCHER, SHANA PRIBESH
share government, and often have a common cul- The Center for Educational Partnerships, Old
tural and historical heritage.” but community of Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
practice has something more than this definition.
Members of community of practice engage in joint
activities and discussions, help each other, share Synonyms
information, and most importantly learn from Schools-within-schools; Small learning communities;
each other. On the Internet, a Web site alone is Small schools; Smaller learning communities
 Community of Learners C 655

Definition SLCs have been credited with enhanced student

Community of Learners is a general term used to refer outcomes on several measures including: decreased
to the concept of grouping individuals to support col- dropout rates, increased promotion rates, increased
lective and individual learning. The phrase has been number of graduating seniors planning to attend col-
associated with professional learning communities lege, increased attendance, lower incidences of school C
(PLCs), but this entry examines its association with violence, and increased participation in extracurric-
small learning communities (SLC), a product of the ular activities (Cotton 2001; Kahne et al. 2008; Levin
small schools movement. A small learning community 2010; U.S. Department of Education et al. 2008; Wasley
is any separately defined, individualized learning unit et al. 2000). Outcomes related to increased academic
within a larger school setting. Students and teachers are achievement and engagement have been modest or
scheduled together by community and frequently have neutral (Kahne et al. 2008; Lee and Smith 1999;
a common area of the school in which to hold most or Marks 2000; Shouse 1996).
all of their classes (Wasley et al. 2000).
A small learning community is a school reform Theoretical Background
initiative aimed at addressing issues caused by large The benefits of small schools were first established in
comprehensive high schools’ bureaucratic school orga- Barker and Gump’s (1964) seminal study examining
nization, fragmented curriculum, and impersonal cli- the relationship of affective outcomes with school size
mate, especially in urban settings. Sources of substantial in Kansas. They concluded that small high schools
funding for smaller learning communities have come foster a sense of community among students that pro-
from several philanthropic organizations as well as the mote opportunities to participate in extracurricular
US Department of Education’s Smaller Learning Com- activities and exercise leadership roles. Additionally,
munities (SLC) Program established in 2002. The pro- SLCs provide for repeated contacts between teachers
gram awarded discretionary grants to local educational and students, between teachers and parents, and
agencies to support the implementation of SLCs and among students that result in the establishment of
activities to improve student academic achievement in strong social bonds across all of a school’s stakeholders.
large public high schools with enrolments of 1,000 or A systematic focus on student learning, often
more students. This funding was provided in response to referred to as academic press, has also emerged as a
early research findings that suggested small schools key characteristic of successful SLCs. Academic press is
could potentially narrow achievement gaps between defined as the extent to which school members
White middle class, affluent students and ethnic minor- (administrators, teachers, and students) emphasize
ity and/or poor students (Cotton 2001). conformity to the norms and values associated with
SLCs are usually created from the division of academic excellence. The theory behind academic
large comprehensive high schools into smaller commu- press is that students will achieve more when expecta-
nities, employing structural as well as strategic reforms tions for academic learning are high, what they are
aimed at addressing concerns about at-risk student supposed to learn is made clear, and they are held
populations. Restructuring methods common among accountable for their academic performance (Lee and
SLCs include: small learning clusters, “houses,” career Smith 1999). Unfortunately, in schools that enroll
academies, magnet programs, or schools-within-a- substantial proportions of low-achieving students, stu-
school. SLCs may also employ strategic reforms aimed dents may become alienated when academic standards
at changing daily operations within a school that either are raised beyond what they can reasonably attain.
complement the structural reforms or are used alone. Smaller learning communities address this issue by
Some common strategic reforms include: block sched- fostering a school culture that emphasizes high expec-
uling, freshman transition academies, advisory or adult tations for academic performance, while providing the
advocate systems, academic teaming, multiyear group- social supports necessary for students to meet those
ings, common planning time for teachers and other expectations. Findings from several research studies
innovations designed to create a more personalized suggest that when students experience academic press
high-school experience for students (U.S. Department and strong social support concurrently, they perform
of Education et al. 2008). better on achievement tests than when they report
656 C Community of Learners

experiencing high levels of either construct alone (Lee implementation of SLCs found that SLCs were most
and Smith 1999; Wasley et al. 2000; Cotton 2001; Marks often implemented as career or freshmen transition
2000; Shouse 1996). academies and were moderately implemented based
Most research on SLCs, and small schools in gen- on criteria such as: common planning time for
eral, suggests that school size is not the proximate cause teachers, autonomy over program policies and staffing
of the improved student outcomes. Instead, school size decisions, the availability of course offerings related to
is said to facilitate the development of school charac- a given theme, and career related graduation require-
teristics associated with positive student outcomes. ments. There are several factors commonly identified as
Cotton’s 2001 comprehensive analysis of SLCs identi- facilitating SLC implementation and sustainability
fied several characteristics of successful SLCs grouped including: strong school leadership, supportive central
into five categories: administration, high levels of staff buy-in, and suffi-
cient space to make SLCs separate and distinctive.
● Self-determination: The ability to make decisions
However, scheduling and logistical issues, lack of
regarding building usage, scheduling, budget, cur-
physical space to separate SLC programs, and lack of
riculum, instruction, and personnel in order to
qualified staff to accommodate smaller class sizes are
establish a distinct identity.
commonly described as having a negative influence on
● Identity: A common sense of vision and mission
SLC implementation and sustainability.
around enhanced student learning as well as an in-
Research aimed at associating enhanced student
depth focus on a particular theme that distinguishes
outcomes with SLC conversions have focused on atten-
an SLC from the larger building in which it is housed.
dance, graduation rates, student engagement, and aca-
● Personalization: Focus on the social relationships
demic achievement. In his examination of extant
developed among teachers and students, as well
research on the impact and challenges of SLCs, Levin
as substantive efforts to involve parents and the
(2010) examined findings from four separate SLC eval-
community.
uative studies. Three of the four studies examined
● Support for teaching: Includes a variety of strate-
identified significant increases in attendance rates of
gies that enhance the role and decision making
SLC schools contrasted to comparison schools. In the
authority of teachers, including bottom up deci-
studies that had at least one cohort of students reach
sion-making structures, job-embedded ongoing
graduation, there was evidence suggesting SLCs had
professional development, teaching teams, and the
higher graduation rates than comparison schools.
implementation of integrated curricula.
However, there is not yet a critical mass of research
● Functional accountability: Incorporating authentic
examining SLCs with cohorts having reached gradua-
performance assessments that measure what students
tion and, thus, conclusions about whether they impact
can do as well as what they know, in addition to
graduation rates are tentative at best.
standardized tests for gaging student learning. Addi-
Most research at the present cannot provide suffi-
tionally, the use of non-traditional accountability
cient evidence either to support or refute SLCs as
measures such as measures of teacher efficacy, com-
a means for improving academic achievement. Three
mitment, and collective responsibility for student
of the four studies Levin (2010) examined did not
learning that provide time for the SLCs structures
identify statistically significant differences between
and strategies to take effect in measureable ways.
SLC schools and comparison schools on academic
achievement defined by performance on standardized
Important Scientific Research and math and reading tests. However, there was modest,
Open Questions but statistically significant improvement in middle and
Early research on SLCs has focused on the extent to high schools’ achievement in one study where SLCs had
which SLCs are successfully implemented, issues facil- been implemented for 8 years, the longest of any of the
itating and inhibiting implementation of SLCs, as well studies examined.
as on the nature of the various structural methods and The existing research examining the impacts of
strategic reforms SLC schools employ. A study commis- SLCs has several limitations that should be noted.
sioned by the US Department of Education examining First, most studies do not include comparison groups
 Community of Learners C 657

or base line data to contrast with SLC outcomes. Addi- SLCs are often situated in low performing schools
tionally, often SLCs are implemented in conjunction using the existing building and employing the same
with other reform efforts, and thus it is difficult to faculties and staff. Thus, school norms, patterns of
isolate the SLC structure as the cause for any improve- relationships, and community expectations of the
ment identified. school are difficult to change. Levin (2010) suggests C
As SLCs mature as a school reform measure, several that stakeholders explicitly discuss the challenges and
challenges to its promise to promote the educational pitfalls of history so that SLCs may be better able to
success of at-risk populations have emerged. Propo- attain a level of change that includes altering patterns of
nents claim that SLCs allow teachers time to collaborate student learning.
on instructional improvements and relationships with Research that demonstrates the impact of SLCs on
students; however, collaboration among teachers has students over longer time frames is needed. Addition-
mostly focused on addressing SLC logistical issues or ally, research examining how SLCs successfully navi-
data analysis of standardized test scores. Teachers spend gate pressures from the division, state, and national
much less time reforming curriculum and instruction levels and sustain curriculum and instructional
in meaningful ways such as team teaching and curric- reform in the face of high stakes testing and account-
ulum integration than on student behavior manage- ability should be undertaken. Finally, research com-
ment. Despite being granted autonomy, SLCs often are paring the effectiveness of the various strategies and
still subject to pressures from the district, state and structures SLCs employ incorporating baseline data
national level regarding testing and accountability or comparison groups should be conducted so that
implications. The result is often a lack of substantive what works about SLCs is more clearly elucidated
change in the approach to teaching and learning; leav- and communicated.
ing SLCs as small versions of the large schools they are
designed to replace. Cross-References
Proponents of SLCs suggest that the structure can ▶ At-Risk Learners
better match individual students’ interests, learning ▶ Interests and Learning
styles and career ambitions. SLCs can tailor the curric- ▶ Learner-Centered Teaching
ulum, instructional approach, and school culture, to ▶ School Climate and Learning
the specific interests of the student population. How- ▶ Small Group Learning
ever, the variety of SLCs, in terms of themes and ▶ Student-Centered Learning
instructional focus, may also pose challenges for ensur- ▶ Workplace Learning
ing consistent levels of rigor across SLCs. When stu-
dents are given a choice of SLCs, their selection is
usually based on, “the extent to which they were willing References
Barker, R., & Gump, P. (1964). Big school, small school: High school size
to let high school make demands on their time and
and student behavior. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
effort” (Ref., p. 121), and thus resulted in stratifying Cotton, K. (2001). New small learning communities: Findings from
high and low performing students based upon SLCs’ recent literature (70 pp.). Portland, OR: Northwest Regional
reputations (Lee and Ready 2007). The allocation of Educational Lab
teaching staff by teacher preference can have a similar Kahne, J. E., Sporte, S. E., de la Torre, M., & Easton, J. Q. (2008). Small
impact. For example in one reorganized SLC, teachers high schools on a larger scale: The impact of school conversions
in Chicago. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 30(3),
who previously worked in an International Baccalau- 281–315.
reate program all chose to work in the same SLC and Levin, T. (2010). What research tells us about the impact and
thus attracted academically high achieving students challenges of smaller learning communities. Peabody Journal of
while another SLC chosen by coaches and athletic Education, 85, 276–289.
staff attracted student athletes. Lee, V. E., & Ready, D. D. (2007). Schools within schools: Possibilities
and pitfalls of high school reform. New York: Teachers College
Newly formed SLCs must also transcend school
Press.
history. Stand-alone small schools are often founded Lee, V., & Smith, J. B. (1999). Social support and achievement for
in new buildings with new faculties and create new young adolescents in Chicago: The role of school academic press.
norms rather than challenging old ones. However, American Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 907–945.
658 C Comparative Cognition

Marks, H. M. (2000). Student engagement in instructional Romanes, a friend and student of Charles Darwin.
activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school Flourens’ book title represented the first use of the
years. American Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 153–184.
term, comparative psychology (Psychologie Comparée
Shouse, R. (1996). Academic Press and sense of community: conflict
and congruence in American High Schools. In A. M. Pallas (Ed.), 1864) and predated Romanes’ Animal Intelligence
Research in the sociology of education and socialization. Green- (1882). Both proposed a science that would compare
wich: JAI Press. animal and human behavior, Romanes postulating
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and the existence of a gradient of mental processes and
Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service
intelligence from the simplest animals to man – the
(2008) Implementation study of smaller learning communities,
final report. Washington, DC.
comparative approach much in use today. Romanes
Wasley, P. A., Fine, M., Gladden, M., Holland, N. E., King, S. P., strengthened his proposal by a vast collection of anec-
Mosak, E., & Powell, L. C. (2000). Small schools: Great strides. dotal accounts of clever behavior in dozens of animal
A study of new small schools in Chicago. New York: Bank Street species. Though perhaps best known today for the
College of Education. fallacies of his anecdotal method and for his easy
assignment of human mental faculties to animals –
anthropomorphism – Romanes nevertheless succeeded
in establishing his idea of a gradient of mental processes
Comparative Cognition across the animal kingdom as a basic premise of early
comparative psychology. Ethology too has a mixed
▶ A Salience Theory of Learning
parentage. Isidore Geoffroy-Saint-Hillaire first used
▶ Learning in Invertebrates
the term in 1859, though Oskar Heinroth, a late nine-
▶ Linguistic and Cognitive Capacities of Apes
teenth century German biologist, was one of the first to
apply the methods of comparative morphology to ani-
mal behavior; he is thus considered to be one of the
founders of ethology.
Comparative Music Education Both disciplines had many adherents in the early
and middle parts of twentieth century: Comparative
▶ International Perspectives in Music Instruction and
Psychology in the USA under the influence of the
Learning
learning psychologists (e.g., Ivan Pavlov and Edward
Thorndike), the behaviorists (e.g., Zing-Yang Kuo,
John Watson, and B. F. Skinner), and the epigeneticists
(e.g., T. C. Schneirla, Daniel Lehrman, Ethel Tobach,
Comparative Psychology and and Gilbert Gottlieb), while Ethology became firmly
Ethology established after World War II in Europe under the
influence of biologists such as William Thorpe, Nikko
GARY GREENBERG Tinbergen, and Konrad Lorenz. The latter two, in fact,
Department of Psychology, Wichita State University, were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine (there is no
Wichita, KS, USA separate prize for behavioral research) in 1972 for their
animal behavior studies (they shared this prize with
Karl von Frisch, an early twentieth century biologist).
Definition
Comparative psychology and ethology are both sciences Theoretical Background
which study animal behavior, typically nonhuman Given the biological roots of both comparative psy-
behavior, though both have often studied humans. chology and ethology, evolution was seen to play an
Comparative psychology is a subdiscipline of psychol- important role in behavioral origins by both disci-
ogy and ethology of biology. Both can trace their roots to plines, though in different ways. Comparative psychol-
the late nineteenth century. Depending on which history ogy, strongly influenced by early twentieth century
one reads, the first comparative psychologist was Pierre Functionalists (e.g., William James, John Dewey),
Flourens, a protégé of Baron Cuvier, or George John believed behavior allowed organisms to adapt to their
 Comparative Psychology and Ethology C 659

environments (i.e., Darwinism); behavior itself was not it is in biology, though many in both camps understand
an evolved phenomenon, though the organism was. behavior to be a biopsychosocial phenomenon. The
Thus, as organisms changed through evolution, new significance of both psychological and biological devel-
or different behavioral potentials arose. Ethologists, on opment, long ignored, is now seen to be crucial to
the other hand, understood behavior itself to be an a full understanding of behavioral origins. While focus- C
evolved process, the route being genes –> instincts, or ing primarily on issues of comparative psychology,
inherited behaviors. In later years, this one-way route, the many open questions still confronting the study
from genes to behavior, became to be known as the of animal behavior are reviewed in a recent textbook
central dogma of molecular biology. Additionally, (Greenberg and Haraway 2002). For example, though
while comparative psychology tended to engage pri- studied now for well over 100 years, there are still new
marily in laboratory research, ethology emphasized the developments to be found in the area of learning.
significance and importance of studying behavior out-
side the laboratory, in natural settings. Current Status
These two fundamentally different approaches to While comparative psychology grew in America,
the study of behavior lead to a serious intellectual and ethology remained somewhat stagnant in Europe.
theoretical “war” around the 1950s. Ethology advo- Many still identified with the discipline, though it
cated the position that behavior was a biological phe- was clear that they had abandoned the hard-nosed
nomenon, determined, and not merely influenced by biological determinism of the classical ethologists.
the organism’s genotype; much animal behavior was Beginning in 1944 with the initiation of the American
thus believed to be instinctive. Indeed, Lorenz, whose Psychological Association’s divisional structure, com-
mentor was Oskar Heniroth, and Tinbergen spelled out parative psychology had a home in Division 6, Physi-
the full meaning of what instinctive behavior was. The ological Psychology and Comparative Psychology. In
clearest statement of this is found in Tinbergen’s book, the 1990s, in an effort to attract new members, the
The Study of Instinct (1951). Comparative psycholo- division entered into discussion of a name change –
gists, on the other hand, tended to take an epigenetic the important point for the present discussion was the
approach, stressing the importance of development, retention of “comparative psychology” in the new
experience, and other psychological processes. The dif- name adopted at the 1995 APA meeting, Behavioral
ferences were summarized in an important paper by Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology. While
Daniel Lehrman (1953), which today still represents membership in Division 6 was falling, comparative
one of the best critiques of instinct theory. While psychology as a field of study remained healthy as
healthy, the ensuing debates settled little. It was an illustrated by the appearance of several comparative
important 1966 book by Robert Hinde (Animal behav- psychology societies in the closing years of the twenti-
iour: A synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology) eth century: The Southwestern Comparative Psychol-
that seemed to resolve the differences between these ogy Association (founded in 1983 by Michael Domjan,
two opposing views. Indeed, a later 1981 book by the Del Thiessen, Steve Davis, and Gary Greenberg); the
ethologist S. A. Barnett (Modern ethology: The science of Comparative Cognition Society (founded in 1994 by
animal behavior) was able to discuss the discipline Ron Weisman, Mark Bouton, Marcia Spetch, and Ed
without resorting to instinct explanations. Wasserman); and the International Society for Com-
parative Psychology (founded in 1983 by Ethel Tobach
Important Scientific Research and and Gary Greenberg). An even earlier group, the Inter-
Open Questions national Society for Developmental Psychobiology, was
The two disciplines historically sparred over the nature– founded in 1967 by George Collier, Norman Spear,
nurture issue: Was behavior a biological or a psycholog- Bryon Campbell, John Paul Scott, and others. The
ical phenomenon? Endless debates over this issue have annual and biennial meetings of these societies attract
yet to see it formally resolved. Contemporary reports of animal behavior researchers from several disciplines
the discovery of a gene for a behavior are routinely across the globe; their membership is also interna-
retracted following failures to replicate such findings – tional. There are, of course, several other such societies
but the search continues. This is as true in psychology as in countries around the world.
660 C Comparative Psychology and Ethology

The picture was not so rosy for ethology which scientist in 2011 can object to the significance of evo-
seemed to languish in the same period. This was likely lution to psychology?
because, “The simple truth is that ethology never did There has also been new life breathed into ethology
deliver as a science of comparative behavior. . .” and sociobiology. The sociobiological idea of the
(Plotkin 2004, p. 105). Indeed, in 1989 ethology was genetic basis of human altruism has recently been
declared: somewhat retracted by one of its earliest proponents,
E. O. Wilson. While this is comforting news to many
" dead, or at least senescent. That is, if you think of
non-reductionistic comparative psychologists and other
ethology in the narrow sense – the study of animal
animal behaviorists, it does not sit well with all students
behavior as elaborated by Konrad Lorenz, Nikolas Tin-
of behavior (Marshall 2010), attesting to the staying
bergen, and Karl von Frisch. It has been quiescent for
power of the classical ideas of ethology. In a recent
some time. No exciting ideas were emerging, and data
analysis, Salzen (2010) makes a case for interpreting
gathering on key issues had lost its direction. (Barlow
the ideas of ethology in modern neuroscientific terms.
1989, p. 2)
There is in fact a discipline known as “neuroethology,”
However, the biological study of animal behavior has which describes animal behavior in terms of how the
thrived well into the twenty-first century. Ethology was nervous system works. As a comparative psychologist,
reborn in the early 1970s as a new science, that of I take comfort in the staying power of my discipline. Its
sociobiology (Wilson 1975), the goal of which was to history has been long, though not nearly as tumultuous
biologicize the social sciences. But this blatant attempt as that of ethology.
at understanding animal and human behavior as a
purely biological phenomenon was met with scathing Cross-References
criticism (Hull 1988; Lustig et al. 2004) from numerous ▶ Animal Culture
quarters. The main point of contention centered ▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning
around the continuing nature–nurture issue and the ▶ Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and
question of whether behavior, especially human behav- Learning
ior, was the result of genetic and biological determin- ▶ Evolution of Learning
ism. To many opponents of sociobiology, psychology
was not a biological science at all, but a uniquely psy-
References
Barlow, G. W. (1989). Has sociobiology killed ethology or revital-
chological science (e.g., Greenberg 2007).
ized it? In P. P. G. Bateson & P. H. Klopfer (Eds.), Perspectives
The intellectual sparks flew for years, well into the in ethology (Whither ethology? Vol. 8, pp. 1–45). New York:
end of the twentieth century, which witnessed the Plenum.
appearance of a still new iteration of ethology, evolu- Buss, D. M. (Ed.). (2005). The handbook of evolutionary psychology.
tionary psychology. This approach focuses primarily Hoboken: Wiley.
Greenberg, G. (2007). Why psychology is not a biological science:
on human behavior and posited that we owe our uni-
Gilbert Gottlieb and probabilistic epigenesis. European Journal of
versal nature to evolutionary adaptations faced by our Developmental Science, 1, 111–121.
Pleistocene ancestors that we have inherited in our Greenberg, G., & Haraway, M. M. (2002). Principles of comparative
genomes. A good source for reviewing the tenets and psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
the research conducted in this field is The Handbook of Hull, D. (1988). Science as a process. Chicago: University of Chicago
evolutionary psychology (Buss 2005). With evolutionary Press.
Lehrman, D. S. (1953). A critique of Konrad Lorenz’s theory of
psychology, instincts are once again in vogue. As with
instinct. Quarterly Review of Biology, 28, 337–363.
ethology and sociobiology, evolutionary psychology is Lickliter, R., & Honeycutt, H. (2003). Developmental dynamics:
not without its critics (e.g., Lickliter and Honeycutt toward a biologically plausible evolutionary psychology. Psycho-
2003). It is not the application of evolution to behavior logical bulletin, 129, 819–835.
that is at question, but the manner in which it is Lustig, A., Richards, R. J., & Ruse, M. (Eds.). (2004). Darwinian
heresies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
understood to apply to behavioral origins. Evolution-
Marshall, M. (2010). Sparks fly over origin of altruism. New Scientist,
ary psychology, though seen by many to be seriously 2780, 8–9.
flawed, is a rather popular orientation in the contem- Plotkin, H. (2004). Evolutionary thought in psychology: A brief history.
porary behavioral sciences. After all, what serious Maiden, MA: Blackwell.
 Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning C 661

Salzen, E. (2010). Whatever happened to ethology? The case for the reflects the degree to which a cue activates a neural
fixed action pattern in psychology. History and Philosophy of representation of the outcome. However, there are
Psychology, 12.
a number of observations that challenge that simple
Tinbergen, N. (1951). The study of instinct. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. assumption. Most notably, studies of contingency
Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge: found that behavioral control by a cue depends not C
Harvard University Press. only on the probability of the cue being followed
by the outcome (p[outcome|cue]), but also on the
probability of the outcome in the absence of the
cue, that is the context (p[outcome|context alone]).
Thus, behavioral control by a cue seemingly reflected
Comparative Psychology of p(outcome|cue) – p(outcome|context alone). Initially,
Learning it was unclear whether the critical context was that of
▶ Evolution of Learning training or test, and whether the computation occurred
after each training trial or at the beginning of each test
trial. But subsequent research determined that the crit-
ical context was that of training and that this compu-
tation occurred at the time of each test trial.
Comparator Hypothesis of Miller and Matzel (1988) used these two findings to
Associative Learning formulate, in associative terminology (as opposed to
conditional probabilities), the original Comparator
RALPH R. MILLER1, JAMES E. WITNAUER2 Hypothesis, which went well beyond contingency the-
1 ory by allowing nontarget cues that were present dur-
State University of New York at Binghamton,
Binghamton, NY, USA ing target training (not only the training context) to
2 serve as the basis of comparison (i.e., as comparator
State University of New York at Brockport,
Brockport, NY, USA stimuli). This provided a new account of cue competi-
tion (e.g., overshadowing and blocking) as well as the
contingency phenomena on which the model was
Synonyms based. Prior accounts of cue competition assumed
Comparator theory; Performance-focused model; that cue competition is caused by a failure to acquire
Response rules; Retrieval-focused model the target cue-outcome association. When the pairings
occurred in the presence of another cue, the most
Definition common account asserted that the two cues competed
The central tenet of the Comparator Hypothesis is that for a limited amount of available associative strength
responding to a cue requires that the cue signal a that could be supported by the outcome. The Compar-
change in reinforcement. That is, given prior cue- ator Hypothesis instead assumes that each cue acquires
outcome pairings, responding to the cue is not an association with the outcome independent of the
a direct function of the strength of the outcome repre- presence of the other cue. The impaired behavioral
sentation activated by the cue. Instead, responding control of the target cue after it is trained in compound
depends on the degree to which the cue predicts an with a nontarget [comparator] cue is a consequence of
increase (or decrease) in the likelihood of the outcome a comparison between the target cue-outcome and
relative to the likelihood of the outcome in the training comparator stimulus-outcome associations; each
context (which might differ from the test context) in serves as the context of learning for the other. However,
the absence of the cue. as testing of the target can occur in the absence of the
comparator stimulus, activation of the comparator-
Theoretical Background outcome association must be mediated by activation
Both early theorizing and prevailing contemporary of the target cue-comparator stimulus association (see
models of learning (e.g., Rescorla and Wagner 1972) Fig. 1). Thus, the Comparator Hypothesis states that
posit that responding to a cue in a Pavlovian situation behavioral control by a target cue is a direct function of
662 C Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning

X-US
Presentation Association
Directly activated
of target CS X US representation
at test Link 1

X-Comparator
stimulus Link 2 Comparator Response
association to the CS

Comparator Link 3 Indirectly

stimulus activated
representation Comparator US representation
stimulus-US
association

Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning. Fig. 1 The Original Comparator Hypothesis. Learning by contiguity
(not total error reduction); Responding by modulation, which is the basis of stimulus interaction

the target-outcome association (Link 1) and an inverse Link 2 also explains the context specificity of these
function of the product of the target-comparator stim- effects. The reduced behavioral control by the target
ulus association (Link 2) and the nontarget cue- cue seen as a result of CS-alone presentations (i.e.,
outcome association (Link 3). Critically, this account CS-pretraining exposure, partial reinforcement, and
views cue competition as something that influences extinction) is viewed as a consequence of strengthening
expression rather than acquisition of associations. of Link 2, with the training context serving as the
Hence, the Comparator Hypothesis is centrally a comparator stimulus.
response rule, with acquisition governed by a simple The Comparator Hypothesis not only anticipates
local error reduction rule, that is, a learning mechanism excitatory responding to the target cue when Link 1 is
that reduces the predictive error of each cue separately, strong compared to the product of links 2 and 3. It also
rather than the overall predictive error of all cues pre- anticipates behavior indicative of condition inhibition
sent on a given trial. when Link 1 is weak relative to the product of Links 2
Great flexibility was obtained by allowing compar- and 3. In contrast with traditional associative models,
ator stimuli to be either a punctuate companion cue the Comparator Hypothesis does not posit negatively
or a protracted training context. The Comparator valued associations or associations between cues and
Hypothesis so framed readily accounts for cue compe- no-outcome representations. Rather, all associations
tition effects, all of which depend on strong associa- are positive (i.e., excitatory), and behavior indicative
tions both between the target cue and the competing of conditioned inhibition arises from an interaction
cue (Link 2, with the competing cue serving as the among positive associations. This is a strength of the
comparator stimulus) and between the competing cue Comparator Hypothesis, as it obviates perplexing
and the outcome (Link 3). Additionally, the reduced issues concerning encoding of information that sup-
behavioral control by the target cue seen as a result of ports behavior indicative of conditioned inhibition.
presentations of the outcome alone during target cue The Comparator Hypothesis, unlike prior models
training and the outcome-preexposure effect are con- of learning, avoided using a learning mechanism
sequences of a strong training context-outcome asso- dependent on total error reduction (i.e., a discrepancy
ciation; the requirement that this be the training between the outcome that occurs on a trial and the
context (not the test context) in order to establish expectation of the outcome based on all cues present on
 Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning C 663

that trial). Because cue competition is viewed as mod- (the association between this third cue and the [first-
ulation of performance, rather than modulation of order] comparator stimulus), and Link 3 (now
acquisition that is governed by total error reduction, Link 3.1) was similarly down modulated by the product
the Comparator Hypothesis was the first model to of Link 3.2 (the association between the [first-order]
account for retrospective revaluation. Retrospective comparator stimulus and a third cue) and Link 3.3 (the C
revaluation (as an empirical phenomenon) refers to association between this third cue and the outcome).
a change in responding to a cue as a consequence of a Although these changes seemingly complicate the
change in the associative status of another cue that was Comparator Hypothesis, they actually simplify it by
previously paired with the target cue. Such demonstra- eliminating the arbitrary assumptions that there can
tions are challenging for many models of learning be only one comparator stimulus and that Link 1
because they assume that a cue must be present for was special in being potentially down modulated,
a change to occur in its behavior control. Most dem- whereas Links 2 and 3 were immune to this process.
onstrations of retrospective revaluation consist of In the Extended Comparator Hypothesis, all stimuli
decreasing the associative status of the target’s compar- and associations are treated equally. The consequence
ator stimulus (i.e., the cue with which the target was of potential higher-order comparator stimuli is that
trained) and observing an increase in responding to the a second-order comparator stimulus can reduce the
target. The best known example of retrospective reval- effectiveness of a first-order comparator stimulus,
uation is recovery from overshadowing. Following just as a first-order comparator stimulus can reduce
overshadowing of a target cue by a nontarget cue (by responding to a target cue. Thus, a post-target training
reinforcing them in compound, which results in change in the associative status of a second-order com-
reduced behavioral control by the target relative to its parator stimulus should produce a change in behav-
being reinforced by itself), extinction of the nontarget ioral control by the target cue in the same direction as
cue increases behavioral control by the target. the second-order comparator. This contrasts with
Although the Comparator Hypothesis provided the changes in the associative status of a first-order com-
first coherent account of retrospective revaluation, parator stimulus, which ordinarily induce a change in
alternative accounts (e.g., Van Hamme and Wasserman behavioral control by the target cue in the opposite
1994) were soon developed that viewed retrospective direction.
revaluation as the consequence of changes in the Stout and Miller (2007) provided a mathematical
value of the target-outcome association during the implementation of the Extended Comparator Hypoth-
retrospective revaluation trial despite the absence of esis. In addition to formalizing the Extended Compar-
the target cue. The Extended Comparator Hypothesis ator Hypothesis, this implementation added a feature.
(Denniston et al. 2001), which elaborated the Compar- Both the original Comparator Hypothesis and its
ator Hypothesis, made predictions that differentiated extension assumed that the product of Links 2 and 3
its approach from that of the new acquisition-focused are always subtracted from Link 1 yielding so-called
models. The changes in the Extended Comparator negative mediation (e.g., cue competition). However,
Hypothesis relative to the original Comparator phenomena like second-order conditioning and sen-
Hypothesis were twofold. First, it allowed multiple sory preconditioning suggest that, under some circum-
comparator stimuli to summate in down modulating stances, the indirect pathway from the target cue to the
responding to a target cue, whereas the original Com- outcome (i.e., Link 2 and Link 3) adds to the direct
parator Hypothesis assumed that only the companion pathway (i.e., Link 1) yielding so-called positive medi-
cue with the strongest association to the target cue ation. The mathematical implementation assumes
would serve as a comparator stimulus. Second, the that the determinant of the type of mediation is
Extended Comparator Hypothesis not only assumed whether the organism has had sufficient opportunity
that Link 1 was down modulated by the product of to discriminate between the directly and indirectly
Links 2 and 3 as in the original Comparator Hypothe- activated representations of the outcome. With few
sis, but that Link 2 (now Link 2.1) was down modu- training trials, the discrimination is difficult, so the two
lated by the product of Link 2.2 (the association outcome representations summate. When there have
between the target cue and a third cue) and Link 2.3 been sufficient trials to facilitate the discrimination,
664 C Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning

the product of Links 2 and 3 is subtracted from Link 1 Seemingly, animals are relatively resistant to losing
rather than added. previously acquired behavioral control, a conservative
The Extended Comparator Hypothesis makes pre- evolutionary strategy. To circumvent this problem,
dictions that differentiate it from acquisition-focused studies have been performed in which the target cue
models of retrospective revaluation. Notably, when is not made biologically significant until after infla-
a target cue has two (as opposed to one) comparator tion. In this situation, retrospective revaluation is
stimuli that are themselves associated, each compar- seen to result from both posttraining associative
ator stimulus can act as a first-order comparator for deflation and inflation of comparator stimuli. This
the other comparator, thereby reducing the effect of confirms the basic prediction of the Comparator
the other comparator on the target cue. Thus, two Hypothesis, but does not integrate into the model
treatments, each of which independently decreases proper an account of why posttraining inflation of
responding to a target, collectively can result in more comparator stimuli does not work well in first-order
behavioral control by the target than with either treat- conditioning.
ment alone. For example, a target cue having two The Comparator Hypothesis is designed to explain
blocking cues as comparator stimuli can evoke elemental learning and interactions between cues (and
stronger responding than the same target with only outcomes) trained in compound. However, the Com-
one blocking cue. These so-called counteractions are parator Hypothesis does not explain stimulus interfer-
widely seen. Often the context serves as one of the ence, that is, interactions between stimuli (outcomes or
competing cues. For instance, degraded contingency cues) trained apart.
and overshadowing counteract; that is, context- The Comparator Hypothesis is a trial-wise model
outcome pairings, relative to context-alone trials, that assumes information processing necessary for
when interspersed among target–outcome pairings, responding occurs at the beginning of each test trial
reduce responding to the target, and compound cue and information processing necessary for new learn-
trials reduce responding relative to elemental cue ing occurs at the end of each trial. That is, it is not
trials. But compound cue trials interspersed with a real-time model. Hence, it is unable to account for
context-outcome trials result in stronger responding a number of timing effects.
to the target than either response reducing treatment
alone. Counteraction has also been reported between Cross-References
cue-preexposure and overshadowing, trial massing ▶ Associative Learning
and overshadowing, and long duration cues and ▶ Context Conditioning
overshadowing. Moreover, counteraction has been ▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
reported between treatments that enhance excitatory
behavior control such as second-order conditioning
References
supported by a context as the first-order cue and
Denniston, J. C., Savastano, H. I., & Miller, R. R. (2001). The
second-order conditioning supported by a punctuate extended comparator hypothesis: Learning by contiguity,
stimulus as the first-order cue. Counteraction has responding by relative strength. In R. R. Mowrer & S. B. Klein
also been reported between two inhibitory treatments (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary learning theories (pp. 65–117).
(Pavlovian conditioning inhibition training and differ- Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
ential inhibition training, Urcelay and Miller (2008)). Miller, R. R., & Matzel, L. D. (1988). The comparator hypothesis:
A response rule for the expression of associations. In G. H. Bower
(Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 22,
Important Scientific Research and pp. 51–92). Orlando: Academic.
Open Questions Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian
The Comparator Hypothesis anticipates changes in conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement
behavioral control of a target cue to occur as a result and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.),
Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64–99).
of both posttraining associative deflation and inflation
New York: Appleton.
of its comparator stimulus. Deflation is readily seen to Stout, S. C., & Miller, R. R. (2007). Sometimes competing retrieval
increase responding to the target, whereas inflation’s (SOCR): A formalization of the extended comparator hypothe-
decreasing responding to the target is more elusive. sis. Psychological Review, 114, 759–783.
 Compartmentalization in Learning C 665

Urcelay, G. P., & Miller, R. R. (2008). Counteraction between two phenomenon that occurs when an individual has
kinds of conditioned inhibition training. Psychonomic Bulletin & two or more different, potentially conflicting conceptual
Review, 15, 103–107.
schemas concerning a particular domain in his/her
Van Hamme, L. J., & Wasserman, E. A. (1994). Cue competition in
causality judgments: The role of nonpresentation of compound cognitive structure. Certain situations trigger one
stimulus elements. Learning and Motivation, 25, 127–151. schema and other situations stimulate another. Com- C
partmentalization is evident, by and large, when a given
situation does not activate the schema that is most
relevant to the specific situation and, instead, activates
another – plausibly less relevant. One way to under-
Comparator Theory stand the notion of conceptual schema is, following
▶ Comparator Hypothesis of Associative Learning Seel in this volume, as representing a particular way
of organization of the generic and abstract knowledge
a person has acquired in the course of numerous
individual experiences with objects, people, situa-
tions, and events.
Comparison Task
Definition 2 (Based on
A comparison task requires the observer to mentally
Representations)
imagine whether two objects could be rotated into con-
This definition of compartmentalization is used more
gruence with each other. The mental rotation can take
extensively in the field of mathematics education,
place in the three dimensions, and the experimenter can
since mathematical concepts are accessed, processed,
include distractor shapes by scrambling the shape in
and transmitted only through semiotic representa-
a different way or creating a mirror image of the item.
tions. Applied to representations, the phenomenon of
The participant must therefore exclude the plausible
compartmentalization reveals the cognitive difficulty
alternatives and detect the correct choice.
that arises from the need to accomplish flexible and
competent conversions back and forth between differ-
ent types of mathematical representations of the
same concept. These cognitive difficulties reveal defi-
Compartmentalization in ciencies in representational flexibility, which indicate
Learning a fragmentary mathematical understanding of the rel-
evant concept.
ATHANASIOS GAGATSIS
Department of Education, University of Cyprus, Definition 3 (Experimental-
Nicosia, Cyprus Operational)
From a statistical perspective and based on the idea that
compartmentalization refers to the splitting up of an
Synonyms idea or concept into (sometimes more or less incon-
Inconsistency; Inflexibility gruent) parts, compartmentalization is the phenome-
non of the establishment of two distinct clusters that
Definitions correspond to different mathematical conceptualiza-
There are three relevant definitions for the term tions or different representations of, or different cog-
compartmentalization depending upon the content in nitive processes related to, the same concept which have
which it is used. a weak statistical relation (correlation, implication,
similarity) between them.
Definition 1 (Based on the Concept of
Conceptual Schema) Theoretical Background
The term “compartmentalization” is used in the sci- Psychologists, cognitive scientists, and philosophers
ences of learning and cognition to designate the have all contributed toward theories on the architecture
666 C Compartmentalization in Learning

of mind. Some key constitutive notions of these theo- There is a possible parallel here between the
ries are modules and modularity of mind. Fodor (1983) modular theory of mind and compartmentalization.
examines the modularity of mind and the extent to Compartmentalization is not indicated only by the
which the nativist thesis and the alleged domain spec- inconsistency of one’s behavior due to the activation
ificity of cognition are relevant to constraints on the of different schemas. Sometimes, in a given situation
architecture of the mind. He argues that the input the schema that is the most relevant to the specific
systems or perceptual modules as well as the system situation is not activated and instead, another plausibly
for processing language are domain-specific, encapsu- less one is. Compartmentalization represents the act of
lated, mandatory, fast, hardwired in the organism, and partitioning an idea or concept into (sometimes more
have a fixed neural architecture. As Fodor states infor- or less incongruent) distinct components and, in an
mational encapsulation is at the heart of modularity. attempt to simplify things, trying to impose thinking
However, Fodor forcibly argues that the brain apart processes that eventually impede attempts to allow
from its input systems is not modular either in struc- these components to connect again. Thus, several
ture or in function since processing in certain domains authors describe compartmentalization as the implicit
is not informationally encapsulated from information or explicit knowledge that is automatically activated in
in other domains. The processes in the higher cognitive everyday life and operates independently of other
centers, that is, the cognitive areas minus the input forms of knowledge. This phenomenon is described
systems, are holistic in the sense that the knowledge as knowledge compartmentalization (Schoenfeld 1986).
stored in the system can affect all sorts of processing. A distinction is made between at least five types of
All beliefs in the system are formed within the back- knowledge compartmentalization that differ with
ground of the total body of knowledge stored in the regard to their effects on further learning and knowl-
brain. In other words, there are no higher cognitive edge application. These are discussed below.
functions that are not affected by cognitive functions
elsewhere in the brain and, thus, there are no The Compartmentalization of Correct
compartmentalized areas of knowledge; the mind is and Incorrect Concepts
not modular and cognition is massively abductive – In this case instruction does not replace the incorrect
abductive inferences are inferences to the best ideas by the correct concepts, but just provides addi-
explanation. Equivalently, there are no higher cognitive tional pieces of knowledge; correct and incorrect
systems whose function relies only on information knowledge coexist. The major deficiency resulting
stored in their proprietary data-bases. Instead, these from this kind of knowledge compartmentalization is
functions depend on information stored everywhere that in situations where only the use of the correct
in the brain. concept enables problem solving, the problem solver
Raftopoulos (2009) claims that even in the case of often depends on the old inadequate misconceptions
the perceptual system the distinction between percep- and not on the scientific concepts he/she has recently
tion and cognition is not as clear cut as Fodor thinks in developed which would be more appropriate (Mandl
so far as locations in the brain that participate in et al. 1993).
perceptual tasks also participate in cognitive tasks,
although they perform different functions in each case. The Compartmentalization of Several
Karmiloff-Smith (1992) has examined the ques- Correct Concepts
tion “Is the initial architecture of the infant mind Different concepts that are closely associated are
modular?” and criticizes Fodor’s ideas. In her model acquired as separate pieces of knowledge and are
of representational redescription (RR) she describes the stored in different compartments. This causes over-
way procedural knowledge is initially represented and simplifications on the application of these knowledge
processed and then modularized and again becomes structures because their complicated interconnec-
explicit and non-modular following her four Phases tions are not reachable. This kind of compartmen-
of Modularization. Karmiloff-Smith’s theory is that talization results in limited understanding and
modularity is the result of ontogenetic and not phylo- oversimplification in knowledge application (Mandl
genetic processes. et al. 1993).
 Compartmentalization in Learning C 667

The Compartmentalization of Symbol various mathematical concepts, such as the addition

Systems and Real World Entities or subtraction of natural numbers, the addition of
This concerns the lack of connections between symbol fractions, the concept of function, the equation of the
systems and real-world entities. In mathematics learn- axis of symmetry of a parabola, etc. Among these
ing, for instance, this kind of knowledge compartmen- studies, according to Definition 1, the following behav- C
talization causes students to manipulate symbols in a ior could be considered as evidence of the existence of
meaningless and mechanical way without understand- compartmentalization: first, learners inconsistently or
ing their relevance to their everyday activities. Conse- incoherently deal with the same mathematical concept;
quently, on the one hand, students do not use real-world second, a schema or thought process less relevant to the
knowledge in solving arithmetical problems in school, situation is activated in the learners’ minds. Similarly,
and, on the other hand, they do not use school mathe- according to Definition 2, the following behavior could
matics in their everyday life (Mandl et al. 1993). be considered as evidence of the existence of compart-
mentalization: First, learners inconsistently or incoher-
The Compartmentalization of ently deal with the same representation in different
Representations contexts or with different representations of the same
The ability to identify and represent the same concept concept. Second, a mental representation less relevant
in different representations, and the flexibility in mov- to the problematic situation is activated in the learners’
ing from one representation to another allow students minds as it is evident from the type of external repre-
to see rich relationships and develop deep understand- sentation used by the learner in problem solving.
ing of a concept. Weak connections or even a complete On the one hand, further research could be done to
lack of connections among different types of conver- the direction of “measurement” of the above men-
sion (i.e., with different starting representations) of the tioned behavior in relation to Definitions 1 and 2. In
same mathematical concept is the main feature of particular, further research could be done in relation to
the phenomenon of compartmentalization of repre- some statistical methods such as the hierarchical clus-
sentations and indicates that learners do not construct tering of variables, the implicative statistical analysis,
the whole meaning of a particular concept and have and the confirmatory factor analysis (Elia and Gagatsis
not grasped the whole range of its applications. This 2008) in order to finalize the statistical indexes of the
inconsistent behavior can also be seen as an indication existence or not of the phenomenon of compartmen-
of students’ several views that different representa- talization. In other words the research should contrib-
tions of the same concept are completely distinct and ute to the operationalization of Definition 3.
autonomous mathematical objects and not just dif- On the other hand, further research could be
ferent ways of expressing the meaning of a particular done about the role of the learners’ and context’s
concept. In other words, students confuse an “object” characteristics on the extent to which learners
or a concept with its semiotic representation (Elia and exhibit compartmentalized behavior. Since learning a
Gagatsis 2008). concept can be accomplished through a process of “de-
compartmentalization” that allows students to see the
The Compartmentalization of various interrelations between various aspects of the
Strategies same concept, it is important and useful to examine
Finally, it can be assumed that strategy compartmen- what kinds of instructional conditions and approaches
talization refers to the difficulties in using multiple can prevent or alleviate compartmentalized ways of
strategies and switching between them. This kind of thinking in specific domains, such as mathematics.
compartmentalization can impede successful problem Compartmentalization can be identified in various
solving. learning domains, concepts, and cognitive processes
(i.e., use of strategies, representations). A major chal-
Important Scientific Research and lenge to research in compartmentalization is therefore
Open Questions to propose and validate a comprehensive detailed
Research in mathematics education has investigated framework for systematically describing and investigat-
the notion of compartmentalization with respect to ing this phenomenon.
668 C Compassion

Cross-References for personalising learning paths and adaptively assessing

▶ Schema(s) knowledge and competence in the context of adaptive
▶ Semiotics and Learning learning systems and adaptive educational games.

References Cross-References
Elia, I., & Gagatsis, A. (2008). A comparison between the hierarchical ▶ Activity- and Taxonomy-Based Knowledge
clustering of variables, implicative statistical analysis and confir-
Representation
matory factor analysis. In R. Gras, E. Suzuki, F. Guillet, &
F. Spagnolo (Eds.), Statistical implicative analysis: Theory and
applications (pp. 131–163). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT
Press.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity. Cambridge, MA: Competency-Based Learning
The MIT Press.
Mandl, H., Gruber, H., & Renkl, A. (1993). Misconceptions and SHAHRAM AZIZI GHANBARI
knowledge compartmentalization. In G. Strube & K. F. Wender
Department of University Teaching and E-Learning,
(Eds.), The cognitive psychology of knowledge (pp. 161–176).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
International University Institute Zittau, Zittau,
Raftopoulos, A. (2009). Perception and cognition: How do psychology Germany
and the neural sciences inform philosophy. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1986). On having and using geometrical knowl- Synonyms
edge. In J. Hiebert (Ed.), Conceptual and procedural knowledge:
Ability-based; Learning; Learning object; Performance;
The case of mathematics (pp. 225–264). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Prescription

Definition
Competence is a skill which is acquired. It is described
Compassion by a certain set of tasks which can be executed if one has
the relevant expertise. This set of tasks can contain
▶ Altruism and Health
subsets of different types of tasks. “Task,” in fact, does
not refer to the colloquial use of the word, but rather
the exact description of a particular action scheme
(e.g., for adding). Competence consists of one or
Competence more degrees of competence which indicate how well
these tasks can be performed and describes a skill with
▶ Learner Characteristics and Online Learning a certain degree of sustainability, i.e., it should – if it is
a characteristic of a person – survive for an extended
period of time.
However, despite broad use of the concepts “com-
Competence Development petence” and “competency” in educational literature,
the terms are not explicitly defined and, therefore, the
▶ Comprehensive Learning question of how to differentiate these terms still
remains topical.

Theoretical Background
Competence-Based Knowledge There is neither a standard method for describing com-
Space Theory petencies nor a universal definition of “competency.”
We (e.g., Schott and Azizi Ghanbari 2008) propose
A mathematical psychological framework for domain a definition of competency which is – in our opinion
and learner knowledge representation that is applied – appropriate for educational research. To this end, we
 Competency-Based Learning C 669

turn to Schott’s (1992). “Appropriate” means that the 8. Behavioral aspect (the measure of executing the
competencies to be determined should be as desirable task): The behavioral aspect of a task, its operator,
as possible for the educational system, as well as suffi- can be inferred from the change from the initial to
ciently describable, conveyable, and verifiable. the final state of the task.
If – as in the definition above – “competency” 9. Contextuality: The context of each execution of a C
consists of a set of tasks and competence levels, an task may vary. A distinction is made between an
accurate description of competency is a problem of internal variation of the scheme of change describ-
appropriate task analyses. According to Schott’s work ing a task and an external variation, which is
on task analysis (e.g. Schott 1992), it is useful to split related to the situational circumstances in which
each task into states and changes and to take into the scheme of change is implemented.
account that the concept of “task” includes the follow- 10. Universality: There are no range limitations
ing elements: concerning which operations can describe tasks.
Tasks are not limited only to cognitive tasks.
1. Task name (what the task is called, e.g., “adding,”
“first aid”). The lack of a generally accepted operational defini-
2. Task objective (what the task is, e.g., “applying first tion of competence/competency is generally acknowl-
aid to a health problem,” “summing up several edged. Some authors simply accept this fact and
numbers by means of a rule of calculation”): support a pragmatic approach. Stoof et al. (2002)
The task objective describes the deeper structure label the search for an overarching definition of the
of the task. term an objectivist approach in which the “criterion
3. Task representation (the manner in which a task is for a competence definition is not whether the defini-
represented, e.g., “73 + 25 = 98” or “if you add tion is true but the extent to which the constructed
LXXIII and XXV, you obtain LXXXXVIII”): The definition has proved to be adequate in the context in
task representation describes the surface structure which it is used (i.e., viability)” (p. 347).
of the task. In the literature, many definitions of competence/
4. Basic formal structure as scheme of change: Every competency can be found – almost as may there are
task describes an operation as a change: It can be authors writing on competence-related matters. In
broken down into an initial state (the question), the following, a selection of definitions by various
a final state (the answer/solution), and an opera- authors will be compared (for a detailed discussion
tor which transforms the initial state into the see Kouwenhoven 2003).
final state. For a more detailed description, inter- The basic structure of competence requires the fol-
mediate states may be specified. Given that such lowing distinction:
an operation of change can never be repeated
● The distinction between competence and performance.
in exactly the same way, it is always a scheme
Competence is the ability of a person to carry
of change.
out a certain task (e.g., to have command of the
5. Proficiency (how well a problem is solved): A
German language). Performance is the implemen-
degree of competence can be specified in quanti-
tation of a concrete subset of the task (e.g., to speak
tative terms (e.g., 90% of the solutions are correct)
or to write German). A person’s competence can be
or qualitative terms (e.g., certain facts have to
diagnosed only through his or her performance.
occur).
● The distinction between competence as prescription
6. Degree of resolution (the level of detail of the task
and as ability. Competence as prescription relates to
description): Tasks can be broken down into sub-
a code or directive. Competence as ability describes
tasks or combined to form higher-level, complex
what a particular person can actually do.
tasks: The former increase the degree of resolution
Educational goals describe competencies as pre-
of the description, whereas the latter decrease it.
scription or “prescriptive skills.” Learning controls
7. Content aspect (the subject of the task execution):
describe individual abilities or “personal skills.”
The content aspect of a task may be inferred from
Opponents view the movement toward
the initial state and the final state of the task.
competency-based systems as reductionistic and
670 C Competency-Based Learning

prescriptive, especially in general education areas semantic and rational task analysis is, however, limited,
(Betts and Smith 1998). since they are determined by the requirements of spe-
● The distinction between subject-specific skills and cific subject content.
mental ability. When one regards mental abilities Instructional psychology has a long tradition of
as people’s psychological dispositions to live, act, assigning teaching materials to certain forms of learn-
and behave (e.g., the ability to perceive, remember, ing, which shall not be discussed here in detail. The
or feel), then a professional role is not necessarily a empirical task analysis finally determines what a person
mental ability. Mental abilities are relatively inde- is actually doing when solving the tasks which represent
pendent of the requirements of a particular techni- the competence to solve a given problem (e.g., Schott
cal field. Subject-specific skills, however, are mainly and Azizi Ghanbari 2008, p. 62).
determined by the context and professional recom-
mendations of the technical field in question. Con-
siderations regarding the skills needed in a particular
Important Scientific Research and
field describe prescriptive but not personal skills.
Open Questions
The educational term competency-based learning is not
Thus, a psychological investigation is not sufficient
the result of a fashion of introducing new words and
for the determination of a subject-specific skill or for
concepts, but an objective phenomenon in education
the development of a theoretical competency model.
motivated by social and economic, political, and educa-
tional conditions. First of all, it is professional education’s
The clarification of competence in education using
reaction to changes in social and economic demands and
semantic, rational, psychological, and empirical task
to the innovative processes which have appeared together
analysis.
with the global market economy (Lobanova and Shunin
If one accepts the definition above, which states that
2008). At the international level, work in the field of
each competency is precisely described by specifying
competencies began in 1990 under the aegis of the
a set of tasks and the corresponding degrees of compe-
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Develop-
tence, then the determination of specialist skills is
ment (OECD) with the international interdisciplinary
a problem of task analysis. It is useful to distinguish
program DeSeCo (Definition and Selection of Compe-
four types of task analysis: “semantic,” “rational,” “psy-
tencies: theoretical and conceptual foundations).
chological,” and “empirical” task analysis.
The quality of subject-specific skills taught at all
These four kinds of task analysis for determining
levels of education – secondary, higher, and continuing
competence have different functions and relate to each
– plays a decisive role in establishing individual and
other. As the first step of determining competence, the
national well-being. Good education depends inter alia
semantic task analysis describes what is meant by a
on the quality of teaching itself, i.e., the methods used
specific competency.
to convey the relevant educational material.
The rational task analysis and the psychological task
The two most important quality criteria for practi-
analysis contain requirements of a process which is
cal interventions both in education and in any other
necessary for solving the tasks that describe the skills.
area of application are:
As far as rational task analysis is concerned, these
requirements are provided from the perspective of the 1. “the relevance of the objective of the respective
respective fields. Psychological task analysis refers to intervention, its justification and desirability
additional assumptions of a specific person’s psycho- 2. the efficiency of the intervention. A[n] intervention
logical processes. is effective if:
For reasons of field orientation, rational task anal- a. the desired effect or goal of the measure (i.e.,
ysis precedes psychological task analysis. During a step- output) is achieved in a sufficient manner. In
wise clarification of competence, the results of the education, this is mainly characterized by the
individual task analyses may reveal repercussions on intended learning results; is resource friendly.
the previous task analyses. For example, the result of That is, the desired effect is achieved at a good
an empirical task analysis may result in a correction of cost-benefit ratio without harmful side effects.”
the psychological task analysis. The revision of the (Schott and Azizi Ghanbari 2010) (p. 481).
 Competitive Learning C 671

Efficiency is of fundamental importance to the Schott, F., & Ghanbari, S.A. (2010). Zur Theorie und Praxis kompeten-
(successful) teaching of specialized skills. A theoretical zorientierten Lehrens und Lernens Probleme und Lösungsmö-
glichkeiten). Zeitschrift für Report Psychologie (RP). Report
competence model that requires an unrealistic amount
Fachwissenschaftlicher Teil., 474–487.
of time is without practical value. Relevance and effi- Stoof, A., et al. (2002). The boundary approach of competence:
ciency of teaching measures are referred to as “quality A constructivist aid for understanding and using the concept C
of intervention.” of Competence. Human Resource Development Review, 1(3),
The pathways of learning no longer lead automat- 345–365.
ically to traditional institutions of higher education.
Instead, they lead most directly to learning opportuni-
ties in which competencies are defined explicitly and
delivery options are multiple. This new paradigm will
ultimately redefine the roles of faculties, institutions,
Competitive Learning
and accreditation authorities.
PITOYO HARTONO
Although cognitive skills and abilities gained
Department of Mechanics and Information
through traditional higher education programs are
Technology, Chukyo University, Toyota, Aichi, Japan
the decisive results of education, the choice of compe-
tencies can still hardly be reduced to these frameworks
only. This is just one aspect of the difficulty to be con-
sidered. As the theory and practice of hiring procedures
Definition
Competitive learning is a learning mechanism where
for young specialists demonstrates, noncognitive aspects
the components of the learning systems compete for
play an important role, such as practical skills, attitudes,
motivation, value preferences, and ethics, which are not the executions of the learning procedures. As opposed
to the noncompetitive learning algorithms, where in
necessarily achieved and developed in the field of
each learning step all of the components of the learning
formal education. Furthermore, terms like competence,
system take part in the learning procedure, in compet-
competency, key competences, and skills are often used
itive learning algorithm only a part of the components
ambiguously.
that fulfill a predefined criterion win the right to
execute the learning procedure. The competition
Cross-References between the components of the learning system usually
▶ Cognitive Learning
results in the clear division of the training data or
▶ Cognitive Tasks and Learning
underlying dynamics of the learning target among the
▶ Subject of Learning
components.

References Theoretical Background

Betts, M., & Smith, R. (1998). Developing the credit-based modular
Over the last several decades, a rich variety of com-
curriculum in higher education. Bristol: Falmer.
petitive learning algorithms have been successfully
Kouwenhoven, G.W. (2003). Designing for competence. Doctoral dis-
sertation, Twente University, Enschede. proposed. In this article, three of the most popular
Lobanova, T., & Shunin, Yu. (2008). Competence-based education – competitive learning algorithms are explained in detail.
a common European straregy. Computer Modelling and New All of the examples of competitive learning algorithms
Technologies, 12(2), 45–65. in this article were implemented with MATLAB.
Schott, F. (1992). The useful representation of instructional objec-
tives: A task analysis of task analysis. In S. Dijkstra, H. P. M.
Krammer, & J. J. G. van Merriënboer (Eds.), Instructional models K-Means
in computer-based learning environments. Berlin/Heidelberg/New Due to its simplicity and clarity, K-means algorithm
York: Springer. (Forgy 1965) (MacQueen 1967) is one of the most
Schott, F., & Ghanbari, S. A. (2008). Kompetenzdiagnostik,
used competitive learning algorithms. Given N d-
Kompetenzmodelle, kompetenzorientierter Unterricht. Zur
Theorie und Praxis überprüfbarer Bildungsstandards ComTrans
dimensional points fx1 ; x2 ;    ; xN g, the purpose of
ein theoriegeleiteter Ansatz zum Kompetenztransfer als K-means algorithm is to divide these data into K
Diskussionsvorlage. Münster: Waxmann. nonhierarchical clusters. Here, cluster i is represented
672 C Competitive Learning

by a prototype vector, Ci 2 R d , which is the centroid 4.5

of a collection of vectors belonging to that cluster.

These prototypes are randomly initialized or initialized 4
according to some prior knowledge in the beginning of
the learning process.
3.5
In K-means algorithm, the prototypes are compet-
itively trained to minimize a cost function, tradition-
ally E, defined in (1): 3

X
K X
N
E¼ aij jjCi
xj jj2 ð1Þ 2.5
i¼1 j¼1

Here, aij = 1 when point j belongs to cluster i or 2

otherwise aij = 0. 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
In the learning process, when a point xðtÞ 2
Competitive Learning. Fig. 1 Data
fx1 ; x2 ;    ; xN g is presented at time t, a winner proto-
type, Cw(x), is competitively decided by calculating the
distances between the presented point and all the pro-
Self-organizing Map
totypes as follows:
K-means algorithm allows us to divide a multivar-
wðxÞ ¼ arg minjjx
Ci jj 2
ð2Þ iate data space into K clusters where each cluster is
i
represented by a prototype vector. While this property
The winner is then modified so that it moves is often useful for understanding the structure of
toward the given input, while the other prototypes the data, it is not possible to visualize these clusters
remain the same. The modification rule is formulated for multivariate data. One of the motivations behind
in (3) with  as the learning rate: the introduction of self-organizing maps (SOM)
( (Kohonen 1982) is to map multidimensional data
Ci ðtÞ þ ðxðtÞ
Ci ðtÞÞ i ¼ wðxÞ into a lower-dimensional space (usually two or one
Ci ðt þ 1Þ ¼
Ci ðtÞ i 6¼ wðxÞ dimension) while keeping the topological characteris-
ð3Þ tics of the data correct. The low-dimensional map can
then be visualized for helping us to intuitively under-
After the termination of the learning process, it is stand the structure of the multivariate data. The topol-
clear that a prototype, Ci is the approximation of ogy-preserving property of SOM is illustrated in Fig. 4,
the centroid of the points belonging to the i-th cluster, where the original dimension of the data (represented
Si, as follows: by D, r, and ★) is three. In their original dimension,
1 X two similar points, D and r, are positioned in each
Ci  xj ð4Þ other’s vicinity, while a dissimilar ★ is in the far end
Ni xj 2Si
of the data space. In mapping data into a lower-
In (4), Ni is the number of points in the i-th cluster. dimensional space, SOM preserves the similarity char-
To give a better understanding on the clustering acteristics of the data, such as that shown in Fig. 4
characteristics of K-means algorithm, in this article, where D and r which are similar in their original
this algorithm is applied to simplify Fisher’s Iris data dimension are positioned close to each other in map,
set (Fisher 1936). This data set originally contains four- while ★ is diagonally positioned from these two points.
dimensional points, but here for the purpose of clarity As illustrated in Fig. 5, the structure of SOM is
each point is represented by its first two elements. The supported by two layers, the input layer, where the
distribution of these two-dimensional data is shown external inputs are received, and the competitive
in Fig. 1. The Voronoi diagrams of K = 10 prototypes layer, where the low-dimensional map is formed. The
and K = 20 prototypes are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, input layer of SOM contains the same number of neu-
respectively. rons, d, as the dimension of the data, while the
 Competitive Learning C 673

4.2
4
3.8
3.6
C
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6

4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5

Competitive Learning. Fig. 2 K = 10

4.2

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8

Competitive Learning. Fig. 3 K = 20

competitive layer of SOM contains Nx  Ny neurons most similar prototype input is then designated as the
that are aligned in a two-dimensional grid. The i-th winner according to (5):
neuron in the competitive layer represents a prototype
vector Ci 2 Rd. Similar to K-means algorithm, this wðxðtÞÞ ¼ arg min jjxðtÞ
Ci ðtÞjj2 ð5Þ
i
prototype Ci should be the reference for input vectors
x that are similar to it. SOM ensures the topological The winner and the neurons in its neighborhood
correctness of the map by assigning similar prototypes are allowed to modify their prototypes as follows:
to the neighboring neurons in the map.
This topological-correctness is obtained through Ci ðt þ 1Þ ¼ Ci ðtÞ þ ðtÞdist ði; wðxðtÞÞ
ð6Þ
a competitive learning process, in which, when an  ðxðtÞ
Ci ðtÞÞ
input vector x is presented at time t, the neurons in
the competitive layer compete to be the reference for Here, (t) is a constantly decreasing function and
this input by measuring the distance between their dist(i,w) is the distance between the i-th neuron and
current prototype vectors with this input where. The the winner.
674 C Competitive Learning

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Competitive Learning. Fig. 4 Topology-preserving mapping

Competitive Layer are connected with light color, while dissimilar pro-
totypes are connected by dark color. From this figure,
we can learn that most of the neighboring neurons
represent similar prototypes and it is also obvious
that the map is roughly divided into two parts by
a string of dark areas, which can be regarded as a kind
of border in the data space.
The simple example shows that the ability to visu-
Input Layer
alize the multivariate data helps us in intuitively under-
standing the structure of the data.

Input Vector
Learning Vector Quantization
Unlike K-means algorithm and SOM that quantize
Competitive Learning. Fig. 5 Structure of SOM
unlabeled data into a specified number of prototype
vectors, learning vector quantization (LVQ) quantizes
To give a clearer understanding on the topology- labeled data into a predefined number of labeled pro-
preserving mapping characteristics, SOM with 10  10 totype vectors. Similar to K-means and SOM, the pro-
neurons is trained with the original 150 points of the totypes are generated through a competitive learning
four-dimensional Iris data (Fisher 1936) which natu- process, but taking the labels of the training data into
rally cannot be visualized on their original data space. account. After the learning process, the collections
The result is shown in Fig. 6, where the hexagons are of the prototype vectors can be used for classifying
the neurons in the map. The gray area of a hexagon is unlabeled vector.
proportional to the number of inputs that refer the The training process in LVQ is started by initially
corresponding neuron as their prototype (also shown setting K prototypes, usually by choosing K vectors
with a number inside the hexagon). Figure 7 explains from the labeled data. In the competitive training pro-
the topological characteristics of this map. In this fig- cess for each presentation of a labeled vector x(t),
ure, neurons are represented as gray hexagons, while a winner prototype Cw(x) is chosen as K-means algo-
the colors of the areas connecting these hexagons rithm in (2). However, in LVQ the labels of the given
indicate the similarities of the prototypes of the vector x(t) and the winning prototype Cw(x) play an
corresponding neurons, in which similar prototypes important part in modifying the prototype as follows:
 Competitive Learning C 675

Hits

8
4 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 0 1

7 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 0 1 C
6 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 3

1 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 3 3
5

3 0 1 1 0 5 0 1 1 1
4
1 3 0 2 1 1 1 0 3 3
3
1 2 1 2 2 2 0 3 2 1
2
2 1 2 2 1 4 0 1 2 5

1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 3 2

0 2 3 2 2 0 3 0 1 1 1

−1
0 2 4 6 8 10

Competitive Learning. Fig. 6 SOM: iris data

SOM Neighbor Weight Distances

−1
0 2 4 6 8 10

Competitive Learning. Fig. 7 Topological relation

676 C Competitive Learning


CwðxÞ ðtÞ þ ðxðtÞ
CwðxÞ ðtÞÞ lðCwðxÞ ðtÞÞ ¼lðxðtÞÞ vector. In this case, when an unlabeled vector is
CwðxÞ ðt þ 1Þ ¼
CwðxÞ ðtÞ
ðxðtÞ
CwðxÞ ðtÞÞ lðCwðxÞ ðtÞÞ 6¼ lðxðtÞÞ presented, the vector is assigned the label of the most
ð7Þ similar prototype. The competitive learning mecha-
nism of LVQ is improved in LVQ2 and LVQ3 where
It is obvious that with the modification rule in (7), the modifications of the prototype vectors are only
a winner prototype with the same label as the input executed when they are in the vicinity of the borders
vector is pulled toward the vector while a winner between different classes, which will generate better
prototype with different label is repelled away from dividing hyperplane between different classes.
the input vector. The non-winner prototype vectors
remain unmodified. An example of LVQ is given with Important Scientific Research and
a simplified Iris data similar to that of K-means, except Open Questions
that the data are labeled. Originally the Iris data are Here three of the most utilized competitive learning
labeled with three classes; however in this example for algorithms are explained. However, over the recent
simplicity, the labels of data belonging to one class were decades, there are many interesting competitive learn-
kept, while the two other classes were merged and ing mechanisms with various objectives and properties.
labeled as one new class. The distribution of the two- Neural gas (NG) (Martinetz et al. 1993) is a kind of
class data is shown in Figs. 8 and 9, where data belong- self-organizing algorithm similar to SOM; however the
ing to one class are expressed with △s and the data prototype vectors in NG are not bounded in grid
from the other class are shown with ○s. In these figures neighborhoods. In NG, the similarity between neigh-
the prototypes are shown with large △s and ○s. bors is decided using the ranking of the Euclidean
Figures 8 and 9 show the distribution of the prototypes distances between the input vector and the prototype
when their numbers are three and six, respectively. It is vectors. The most significant difference between SOM
clear that the prototypes are well positioned to quantize and NG is that in modifying the prototype vectors
the data. NG minimizes a global cost function which is not
After the termination of the learning process, LVQ available for SOM. Modular network SOM (mnSOM)
can be used for deciding the label of an unlabeled (Tokunaga and Furukawa 2009) was proposed to

4.5

3.5

2.5

2
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8

Competitive Learning. Fig. 8 LVQ(k = 3)

 Complex Declarative Learning C 677

4.5

4
C

3.5

2.5

2
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8

Competitive Learning. Fig. 9 LVQ(k = 6)

expand the ability of SOM to self-organized different

dynamics into low-dimensional maps that can be Complex Action Learning
visualized. ▶ Neurophysiological Correlates of Learning to Dance
Competitive Learning is also traditionally associ-
ated with Hebbian learning.

Cross-References
▶ Hebbian Learning Complex Communication
▶ Learning in Artificial Neural Networks
▶ Self-organized Learning ▶ Intelligent Communication in Animals
▶ Supervised Learning
▶ Unsupervised Learning

References
Fisher, R. A. (1936). The use of multiple measurements in taxonomics Complex Declarative Learning
problems. Annals of Eugenics, 7, 179–188.
Forgy, E. (1965). Cluster analysis of multivariate data: Efficiency vs. STELLAN OHLSSON
interpretability of classifications. Biometrics, 21, 768–780. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at
Kohonen, T. (1982). Self-organized formation of topologically cor-
Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
rect feature maps. Biological Cybernetics, 43, 59–69.
MacQueen, J. (1967). Some methods for classification and analysis of
multivariate observation. In Proc. of the Fifth Berkeley Sympo-
sium, Vol. 1, (pp. 281–297). University of California Press, Los Synonyms
Angeles. Knowledge acquisition
Martinetz, T., Berkovich, S., & Schulten, K. (1993). “Neural-gas”
network for vector quantization and its application to time-
series prediction. IEEE Trans. on Neural Networks, 4(4), 558–569.
Definition
Tokunaga, K., & Furukawa, T. (2009). Modular network SOM. Neural Declarative knowledge is knowledge about what the
Networks, 22(1), 82–90. world is like. Examples include specific facts, e.g., that
678 C Complex Declarative Learning

bananas grow on trees; general principles, e.g., that bound on the size of the declarative knowledge
spring follows winter; and episodic information, e.g., base of an adult must hence be on the order of a
that such-and-such a person was absent (or present) million knowledge units. There are no estimates of
on a particular occasion. In epistemology, the term the upper bound.
“knowledge” is used normatively to refer to assertions There are three main models of LTM. In the propo-
that are, in fact, true, but in the learning sciences, the sitional model, the unit of knowledge is the proposition,
term is used to refer to whatever assertions a person which is approximately the meaning of a declarative
believes to be true. sentence. Propositions are linked by logical relations
Declarative knowledge contrasts with practical (e.g., follows from, instance of ) and form intuitive
knowledge (also known as “competence,” “expertise,” theories (also known as belief systems). In the schema
“know-how,” “procedural knowledge,” and “skill”). model, the unit of declarative knowledge is instead the
Practical knowledge is knowledge about how to per- schema, which consists of slots (also known as “roles”),
form tasks such as tying one’s shoelaces, using an which are linked by semantic relations (e.g., instrument
electronic device, or proving an algebraic theorem. for, recipient of ). For example, a schema for a birthday
Practical knowledge is intrinsically related to goals party has slots for, at least, the person whose birthday
and actions, while declarative knowledge (e.g., the it is, the host, the presents, the cake, and the guests.
Earth is round) is neutral with respect to purpose. To create a memory of a birthday party, the slots are
Practical knowledge is primarily acquired via practice, filled with the details of the particular event. Schemas
while declarative knowledge is primarily acquired via are interconnected because a schema can fill a slot in
observation and discourse. A popular belief holds that another schema. In the network model, every concept
the two types of knowledge follow different forgetting (node) is linked to other concepts, and the links repre-
curves, with declarative knowledge (e.g., the content of sent adjacency in time or space, causal relations, or
a text) fading faster than practical knowledge (e.g., the semantic similarity. The propositional model empha-
skill of riding a bicycle), but this belief is not grounded sizes the organization of declarative knowledge by
in research. topic, the schema concept highlights the importance
It is useful to distinguish between episodic knowl- of abstraction, and the network model captures the
edge, i.e., knowledge of particular events, and concep- interrelatedness of all declarative knowledge. Neither
tual knowledge, i.e., knowledge of concepts, facts, and model explains all relevant phenomena.
principles. Many episodic memories are autobiographi- Learning declarative knowledge involves at least
cal, i.e., they are memories of a person’s own experi- three types of processes. First, the knowledge must be
ences. Memories for events in stories are episodic but acquired. That is, it must be encoded into LTM; meta-
not autobiographical, because the events happened to phorically, it is said to be stored in LTM. The acquisi-
the protagonist of the story. tion process constructs new knowledge units. Second,
the retention of knowledge in LTM is not perfect.
Theoretical Background Subjective experience suggests that knowledge decays
Declarative knowledge resides in long-term memory over time, but there is less evidence for this than
(LTM). There is no way to measure the total capacity for interference among memory units. Third, using
of LTM directly. But the average educated adult in stored knowledge requires retrieval. Metaphorically,
a Western nation has been estimated to know approx- the retrieval process moves information from LTM
imately 50,000 words, and hence approximately that into working memory (WM). The latter holds those
many concepts. Each concept enters into more than knowledge units that are currently attended. There is
one piece of knowledge. Furthermore, estimates of consensus that the storage metaphor, albeit convenient
the number of knowledge units required for expert and widely used, is misleading. It is more accurate to
performance in a cognitive domain fall in the 10,000– think of retrieval as the activation of a subset of LTM.
100,000 range. Competent but not expert perfor- Failure to recall can be due to failure to encode, imper-
mance is likely to require fewer knowledge units, but fect retention, or failure to retrieve. When the learned
an individual is typically competent in more than one knowledge is complex, these processes become com-
domain (cooking, driving, gardening, etc.). The lower plex as well.
 Complex Declarative Learning C 679

Important Scientific Research and tends to be better retained than the first two. Each
Open Questions transformation draws upon the reader’s prior knowl-
edge. Differences in prior knowledge between author
Acquisition and reader probably accounts for a significant propor-
A significant proportion of the content of LTM con- tion of failures to learn from text. C
sists of autobiographical information acquired in the The acquisition of declarative knowledge becomes
course of everyday experience. The creation of autobio- even more complex when a discourse directly contra-
graphical memories requires no intentional effort, but dicts the learner’s prior knowledge. This case is studied
subjectively the process appears selective: Some expe- under the label cognitive consistency (also known as
riences are remembered well and others poorly or not “cognitive dissonance”) in social psychology and con-
at all. A popular hypothesis holds that the probability ceptual change in the learning sciences. Resistance
of encoding a particular experience is proportional to to contradictory information is proverbial and easily
how closely the person pays attention. The explanatory observed in public discourse, but it also operates in
power of this principle is limited by the lack of a theory reading and declarative learning generally. A variety of
of degrees of attention. Another popular hypothesis cognitive mechanisms have been proposed to explain
holds that the probability of encoding is proportional resistance. These include doubting the veracity of the
to the emotional quality and intensity of the experi- source, creating exceptions, and introducing new
ence. The research evidence for the latter principle is assumptions (also known as “abductive reasoning”).
mixed: Some studies have found better recall for emo- Evidence from both social psychology and the history
tionally intense events (also known as “flash bulb of science supports the intuition that the degree
memories”), while others have not. The intriguing of resistance is a function of the centrality of the
but implausible hypothesis that all experiences are contradicted belief. Resistance processes might cause
stored in LTM is proposed from time to time but new information to be distorted or misunderstood.
difficult to test. There is no widely accepted theory of how resis-
Conceptual knowledge is typically acquired via dis- tance to contradictory information is overcome. The
course. Knowledge about abstractions (e.g., the gross idea that resistance can be removed by undermining
national product, the square root of
2), the past prior conceptions with anomalies – counterarguments
(e.g., World War II), theoretical entities (e.g., chemical and demonstrations – has not been shown to improve
atoms), and other matters with which we have no the effectiveness of school learning. An alternative
firsthand experience is necessarily learned via some hypothesis holds that a misunderstanding is due to
type of communication (discussing, listening, reading, a misclassification of some phenomenon under the
watching, etc.). wrong ontological category, so successful acquisition
The essence of the acquisition process is to relate the requires an ontological category shift. A related proposal
new information to previously acquired knowledge. is that a phenomenon can be understood differently by
Research on discourse comprehension, specifically, has re-subsuming it under a different intuitive theory. It is
revealed multiple knowledge-based processes, including likely that there are multiple paths to new knowledge,
lexical disambiguation (identifying the intended mean- each involving different processes.
ings for ambiguous words), parsing (identifying the
relations between parts of a sentence), and bridging Retention
inferences that link the sentences in a text into a coherent Everyday experience shows that the longer the time
whole. There is also evidence that the mental represen- since acquisition, the lower the probability of successful
tation of a text undergoes successive transformations in recall. Experimental studies have revealed that forget-
the course of reading: The initial perception of the words ting follows a negatively accelerate curve, i.e., forgetting
and sentences – the surface representation – is transient is rapid immediately after acquisition but the rate of
and rapidly replaced by a representation of the meaning forgetting decreases over time. The mechanism that
of the sentences and their relations to each other – the produces this regularity is not fully understood.
text base – which in turn generates a representation of Complex declarative knowledge is also affected by
the referent of the text – the situation model. The latter processes that alter the content of memory. F. Bartlett
680 C Complex Declarative Learning

proposed in the 1930s that the memory of a complex transfer, i.e., the application of knowledge acquired in
structure like a story undergoes a process of abstrac- one context (e.g., a classroom) in another, possibly
tion and compacting that leaves only the gist, typi- dissimilar context (e.g., everyday life). Cognitive psy-
cally embellished with a few striking details. Later, chologists find less transfer than they expect in labora-
D. Ausubel proposed the related principle that memory tory experiments, and educators lament that students’
for expository text looses in specificity over time and knowledge is “inert,” i.e., not retrieved when needed.
becomes absorbed into its overarching abstraction The possibility of retrieval, given an application con-
(“obliterative subsumption”). Also, there is strong evi- text, depends on how the knowledge was encoded
dence for both proactive and retroactive interference initially (encoding specificity). One way to increase the
between successive acquisition processes. Researchers probability of retrieval is therefore to anticipate the
have found evidence that declarative knowledge is future use of knowledge while it is acquired and encode
affected by repeated efforts to recall and use it. Each recall it accordingly (transfer appropriate processing). When
involves a certain amount of reconstruction to fill gaps in future use cannot be anticipated, transfer can be facil-
the stored information. The reconstructions are them- itated by encoding the information in multiple ways
selves stored and become part of the memory. Future (encoding variability).
retrievals may or may not distinguish between the orig-
inal information and the subsequent reconstructions. Related Areas
The underlying cause of such effects might be lack of Research on the acquisition of declarative knowledge
source monitoring, which causes pieces of information has generated novel instructional techniques. Research
from different sources to be fused in memory. on knowledge distortion has proven useful in the eval-
uation of eyewitness reports and other topics in law
Retrieval and psychology. Social research on prejudice and ste-
Retrieval requires a probe (also known as “cue”) that reotypes is closely related to, but not well integrated
specifies the needed information. The source of the with research on knowledge acquisition in the learning
probe can be a question asked by someone else, a sciences.
deliberate attempt to recall events in the environment
or implicit task demands. The retrieval probe guides Cross-References
the search through LTM. Successful retrieval requires ▶ Abductive Learning
that the cognitive system makes contact between the ▶ Advance Organizers
probe and the sought after knowledge structure. Due to ▶ Analogical Reasoning
the size of the knowledge base and the probabilistic ▶ Ausubel, David P. (1918–2008)
character of the retrieval process, the latter might fail ▶ Belief Formation
to access a piece of knowledge even though it is, in fact, ▶ Categorical Learning
available (i.e., present) in LTM. ▶ Classification Learning
The probability of successful retrieval, given that ▶ Cognitive Dissonance in the Learning Process
the target information has been encoded and retained, ▶ Conceptual Change
is a function of multiple factors. These include the ▶ Discourse and the Production of Knowledge
number of times a knowledge unit has been retrieved ▶ Dogmatism and Learning
in the past and the time since the last retrieval. Coher- ▶ Episodic Learning
ent and interconnected knowledge structures provide ▶ Fact Learning
more support for retrieval than isolated fragments. ▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning
Consequently, individuals with large amounts of well- ▶ Schema-Based Learning
organized knowledge that is used frequently – experts – ▶ Verbal Learning
exhibit superior memory for knowledge that is relevant
Further Reading
to their area of expertise.
Chi, M. T. H., & Ohlsson, S. (2005). Complex declarative learning. In
The greater the similarity between the probe and K. J. Holyoak & R. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook
the target representation in memory, the higher the of thinking and reasoning (pp. 371–399). Cambridge: Cambridge
probability of retrieval. This creates the problem of University Press.
 Complex Learning C 681

Chinn, C. A., & Brewer, W. F. (1993). The role of anomalous data in approach in education reduces complex contents and
knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implica- tasks into simpler elements, until a level where the
tions for science instruction. Review of Educational Research,
distinct elements can be transferred to learners through
63, 1–49.
Dole, J. A., & Sinatra, G. M. (1998). Reconceptualizing change in presentation and/or practice. The elements are thus
the cognitive construction of knowledge. Educational Psycholo- taught as readymade pieces, which correspond to C
gist, 33(2/3), 109–128. specific, single objectives. This approach works well if
there are few interactions between the elements or
associated objectives, but, according to the holistic
perspective, it does not work well if objectives are
Complex Learning interrelated to each other. For such integrative objec-
tives, the whole is more than the sum of its parts.
JEROEN J. G. VAN MERRIËNBOER Holistic approaches basically try to deal with complex-
FHML, Department of Educational Development and ity without losing sight of the relationships between
Research, Maastricht University, Maastricht, elements. They do so by teaching from simple to
The Netherlands complex wholes. Right from the start, learners are
confronted with the most important relationships
between the elements of complex tasks or complex
Synonyms information.
Integrative goals Another characteristic of the atomistic approach in
education is that skills, knowledge, and attitudes are
Definition often taught separately. For example, knowledge is
A common complaint of students is that they experi- taught in lectures, skills are taught in a skills lab, and
ence the curriculum as a disconnected set of topics and attitudes are taught in role plays. This approach makes
courses, with implicit relationships between them and it difficult if not impossible for learners to integrate
unclear relevance to their future profession. This com- objectives from different domains of learning. Charac-
plaint prompted the initial interest in complex learn- teristic of complex learning is that integrative objectives
ing. The term was introduced in the 1990s to refer to are assumed to be rooted in different domains of learn-
forms of learning aimed at ▶ integrative goals (Gagné ing, including the declarative or conceptual domain,
and Merrill 1990). Learning goals that require the inte- the procedural or skills domain (including perceptual
gration of multiple objectives are frequently encoun- and psychomotor skills), and the affective or attitudes
tered when instruction must reach beyond a single domain. It thus refers to the simultaneous occurrence
lesson or course, for example, when professional com- of knowledge construction, skill acquisition, and atti-
petencies or complex skills are taught. Complex learn- tude formation.
ing takes a holistic rather than atomistic perspective on
learning and teaching processes (van Merriënboer Important Scientific Research and
2007). First, complex contents and tasks are not Open Questions
reduced into simpler elements up to a level where the The main research question is how complex learning
single elements can be transferred to learners through could best be evoked and supported. Most educational
presentation and/or practice, but they are taught from theories assume that complex learning occurs in situa-
simple-to-complex wholes in such a way that relation- tions where learning is driven by rich, meaningful
ships between elements are retained. Second, complex tasks, which are typically based on real-life, profes-
contents and tasks are not divided over different sional tasks. Such tasks are called learning tasks (van
domains of learning, but knowledge, skills, and atti- Merriënboer and Kirschner 2007), enterprises (Gagné
tudes are developed simultaneously. and Merrill 1990), scenarios, projects, or problems.
Well-designed learning tasks explicitly aim at integra-
Theoretical Background tive objectives, by forcing learners both to coordinate
The concept of complex learning is rooted in holism different aspects of task performance and to integrate
(van Merriënboer 2007). The traditional atomistic knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Guidance is necessary
682 C Complex Problem Solving

to help learners deal with the complexity of tasks, Reiser, B. J. (2004). Scaffolding complex learning: The mechanisms of
that is, to provide supports that enable them to deal structuring and problematizing student work. Journal of the
Learning Sciences, 13(3), 273–304.
with more complex content and skill demands than
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2007). Alternate models of instructional
they could otherwise handle. Moreover, provided design: Holistic design approaches and complex learning. In
guidance and support should gradually decrease in R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instruc-
a process of “scaffolding,” as learners gain more exper- tional design and technology (pp. 72–81). Upper Saddle River:
tise (e.g., Reiser 2004). ▶ Cognitive load theory (van Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). Ten steps to
Merriënboer and Sweller 2005) explicitly studies
complex learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum/Taylor & Francis.
methods that might help to reduce the high cognitive Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory
load that is imposed by rich learning tasks. Van and complex learning: recent developments and future direc-
Merriënboer et al. (2003), for example, describe on tions. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 147–177.
the basis of ▶ four-component instructional design Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L. (2003). Taking
methods that might help reduce high cognitive load: the load of a learners’ mind: instructional design for complex
learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 5–13.
(a) simple-to-complex sequencing of classes of equally
difficult whole tasks, (b) working from worked exam-
ples to conventional problems, (c) just-in-time presen-
tation of helpful information, and (d) provision of
part-task practice for routine aspects of tasks. Complex Problem Solving
With regard to learning outcomes, complex learn-
ing explicitly aims at ▶ transfer of learning, that is, the JOACHIM FUNKE
ability to apply what has been learned to unfamiliar Department of Psychology, Heidelberg University,
problems and/or in new situations. The main assump- Heidelberg, Germany
tion is that complex learning yields a highly integra-
ted knowledge base, organized in cognitive schemas,
which facilitates transfer (Gagné and Merrill 1990). Synonyms
On the one hand, particular types of learning tasks Dealing with uncertainty; Dynamic decision making;
(e.g., goal-free problems, worked examples, comple- Problem solving in dynamic microworlds
tion tasks), which are carefully tuned to the current
level of expertise of learners, contribute to the devel- Definition
opment of an integrated knowledge base and subse- Complex problem solving takes place for reducing the
quent transfer performance; on the other hand, barrier between a given start state and an intended goal
▶ variability of practice should ensure that the whole state with the help of cognitive activities and behavior.
set of learning tasks varies on all dimensions on which Start state, intended goal state, and barriers prove
tasks also differ from each other in the real world, complexity, change dynamically over time, and can be
including surface features and structural features, to partially intransparent. In contrast to solving simple
reach transfer (for an overview, see van Merriënboer problems, with complex problems at the beginning of
and Sweller 2005). a problem solution the exact features of the start state,
of the intended goal state, and of the barriers are
Cross-References unknown. Complex problem solving expects the effi-
▶ Cognitive Load Theory cient interaction between the problem-solving person
▶ Four-Component Instructional Design and situational conditions that depend on the task.
▶ Transfer of Learning It demands the use of cognitive, emotional, and
▶ Variability of Practice social resources as well as knowledge (see Frensch and
Funke 1995).
References
Gagné, R. M., & Merrill, M. D. (1990). Integrative goals for instruc- Theoretical Background
tional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, Since 1975 there has been started a new movement in
38(1), 23–30. the psychology of thinking that is engaged in complex
 Complex Problem Solving C 683

problems in contrast to simple problems. Essential more reliable assertions. Complexity demands
impulses for this development came from external, from the problem solver a simplification through
shocking events like the oil crisis or the first analyses reduction to the essential.
of the “Club of Rome” at that time, which showed the 2. Connectivity between involved variables. Needless to
constraints of growth and which made humanity- say, it is not the pure number of variables that is C
threatening problem fields visible. Besides that, the decisive for the workload on the problem-solving
dissatisfaction about the nonpredictability of relevant person, but the connectivity between these. Assum-
characteristics like professional, economical, or politi- ing that in a system of 100 variables every variable is
cal success based on classical intelligence tests led to connected to only exactly one other, the connectiv-
a search of alternative measurements for the assessment ity is lower than in a system in which all variables
of the way humans deal with complex situations, are connected to each other. For making mutual
a search for “operative intelligence,” as it was coined dependencies understandable, a model of the con-
by Dietrich Dörner. nectivity is required from the problem solver.
As an alternative, the use of computer-simulated 3. Dynamics of the situation. This feature explains the
scenarios was proposed. Such “microworlds” allow fact that interventions into a complex, networked
experimental research of complex problems under con- system might activate processes whose impact was
trolled conditions (Brehmer and Dörner 1993). For possibly not intended. A unique variant is the own
example, the scenario “Lohhausen” (Dörner 1997) (intern) dynamic (“eigen-dynamics”). It signifies
simulated the events in a fictitious village. The subject that in a lot of cases the problem does not wait for
had to act as the mayor of a small city for simulated the problem-solving person and his/her decisions,
10 years (essentially reduced to nearly 10 h of gaming but the situation changes itself over time. Dynamic
time) and had to care about the well-being of requires from the problem solver the consideration
the community and its financial wealth. For this task, of the factor “time.”
the fictitious mayor could control the events and shape 4. Intransparency concerning the variables involved
the town according to her or his visions. Based on the and concerning the definition of the goal. In an
data from successful and less successful subjects in this intransparent situation, not all required informa-
scenario, interesting hypotheses about the conditions tion about variables and possible goals are given.
of success and failure in dealing with uncertainty and Intransparency requires from the problem solver
complexity have been formulated. the active acquisition of information.
Since that early start of this research program with 5. Polytely. In a complex situation, reaching goals can
“Lohhausen” in the mid-1970s, numerous scenarios be complicated. Usually there is more than one
with varying extent and from different domains (e.g., goal in a complex situation that has to be consid-
economy, ecology, policy, technology) have been ered. Conflicts due to antagonistic goals require
developed and applied in both basic and applied the forming of compromises and the definition
research. In the following sections, I will outline char- of priorities.
acteristics of complex problems, describe tendencies in
Two approaches concerning research with complex
research, illustrate empirical results, and discuss prob-
problems differentiate with respect to procedures and
lems and perspectives of this approach.
to goals:
Characteristics of complex problems considerably
differ from requirements of simple problems. Five ● The experimental approach: “Systematic manip-
features have been differentiated traditionally (Funke ulation of scenarios.” Essential features of this
2003): approach are the experimental manipulation of
the stimuli (the complex systems) and its condition
1. Complexity of the problem situation. Traditionally, of presentation. Particularly the systematic manip-
complexity is defined based on the number of ulation of scenarios (or system features) became
variables in the given system. Surely, this is only a characteristic of this approach: degree of connec-
a first orientation for the estimation of problem tivity, presence or absence of eigen-dynamics, or the
difficulty, but additional characteristics permit degree of time delays show influences on knowledge
684 C Complex Problem Solving

acquisition (= identification of systems) and With respect to Situational Aspects, according to

knowledge application (= control of systems). early studies, transparency of a system leads to easier
● The correlational approach: “Search for information processing and increasing efficacy of
interindividual differences.” Essential features of intelligence concerning the success of problem solving.
this approach are the search for interindividual However, this moderator function of transparency is
differences and the search for correlations of suc- questioned repeatedly by current research.
cess and failure. Systems attributes were kept con- Passive observing of a system or active intervention
stant to see the space of behavioral possibilities. are two situational requirements, which lead to differ-
Additionally, individual trajectories through com- ent acquirements. While pure observing delivers
plex systems were analyzed and correlated with structural knowledge about the problematic system,
constructs like test intelligence, personality char- control knowledge arises out of intervention condi-
acteristics, and so on. tions (Osman 2010). An increase in training also leads
to improvement under complex conditions. However,
Important Scientific Research and there are certain conditions (e.g., existence of time
Open Questions delays), which do not profit from it.
Many empirical results for solving complex problems The semantic appearance of a system is very
are reviewed by Funke (2003) in detail. Here, only important, since several prior knowledge structures
selected but important results are presented. They are are activated and can be used. However, prior knowl-
ordered by their focus. edge is not always beneficial, especially if activated
With respect to Personality Aspects, general intelli- prior knowledge fitting only on the surface does not
gence measured by tests seemed to be an inappropriate correspond to deeper structures.
predictor for handling complex problems according With respect to System Aspects, the type of feedback
to previous research. However, by today’s knowledge is important for the success in solving the problem.
it seems clear that specific components of intelli- Generally one can say: the more indirect and delayed
gence (like processing capacity) are predictive for the a feedback for a certain condition of the system, the
successful handling of complex problems (Wenke more difficult the controlled intervention. Formal fea-
et al. 2005). Besides that, there are several forms of tures of systems also have proven their influential status
knowledge (e.g., system knowledge, control knowl- concerning identification (knowledge acquisition) and
edge, strategic knowledge) that have to be taken controlling (knowledge implementation) within the
into account. process of complex problem solving (for a review, see
The role of motivational parameters becomes Osman 2010).
apparent in the fact that problems which are considered Problems within complex problem-solving research
as more important get more attention (e.g., the differ- deal with the following issues:
ent handling of a simulated epidemic situation based
on deadly smallpox or innocuous influenza). As a con- ● Identifying the quality of solution. A decision about
sequence, there are changes in strategies of information the quality of simple problem solving is easily
processing. If really high-stake problems are dealt with, possible, because the criteria for success are
the search for risk-defusing operators increases. transparent. For complex problems the situation is
Emotional effects find expression, for example, in different, because mostly there are no obvious goal
“emergency reactions” of the cognitive system. After conditions. A one-dimensional evaluation is not
perceived failure of problem solving a decrease in possible in that case. Problems arise if success of
intellectual level follows, which is accompanied by handling complex problems is used for diagnostic
a tendency for fast acting and for degenerated hypothesis statements about the acting person.
generation. Also, the emotion regulation during com- ● Context effects. One of the most impressive abilities
plex problem solving plays an important role. Experi- of human cognition is its enormous context sensi-
ments showed that complex problem-solving situations tivity. Structural similar tasks are treated differently
with negative feedback of results lead to a higher infor- in different semantic contexts. Different contexts
mation retrieval and to a better performance. also become apparent in processing the same
 Complex Problem Solving C 685

requirements in different cultures. Cultural com- tasks set by the different scenarios. Thereby, one
parison does not mean changing between nations would get from blanket description to precise testi-
or continents, but could happen simply on the level monies. Scenarios have to be analyzed in form and
of “subcultures.” Assessing how variations in con- content. It has to be explained properly what is
text lead to variation in strategies and subjectively measured. C
constructed problem spaces within the process of ● Characteristics of the problem-solving process. Once
problem solving might be an important task of the requirements are known, cognitive processes
future research. within the acting person can be focused in detail.
● Training and the question of domain specificity or Particularly the differentiation between implicit
generalizability. The question of domain specificity and explicit processes and their relation to the dis-
of problem-solving activities is closely related to the tinction between novice and expert problem solving
issue of context sensitivity. In case of research in could be of peculiar interest. Based on this research,
complex problem solving, the question is one of training procedures could be designed. Existing
transfer of knowledge and strategies between spe- dynamic scenarios contributed to this purpose
cific scenarios. It is generally accepted that confron- already because of their differentiation between
tation with different scenarios leads to an extension different forms of knowledge, of strategies, and of
of the realm of experience – however, there are metacognition.
no empirical evidences. The simple repetition ● Heuristics. It seems promising to transfer our
of processing the same scenario leads to learning knowledge about heuristics found in research on
effects, but training itself means more: the acquisi- decision making to the field of complex problem
tion of strategic competences universally applicable. solving. Possibly simple heuristics control the
Finding rules for unpredictable situations could be processing of complex problems, an idea which
the squaring of a circle. Concerning application would be helpful for finding a global theory.
aspects, there is a huge challenge of psychological
research in problem solving. Cross-References
● Missing theory. The major problem of current ▶ Complex Problem Solving
research is the lack of a firm theory about dealing ▶ Learning and Thinking
with complex problems. It is not even clear if there ▶ Problem Solving
is a need for another theory besides a theory for ▶ Simulation and Learning: The Role of Mental
solving simple problems. Indeed a global theory of Models
cognition that describes and explains dealing with ▶ Simulation-Based Learning
all forms of problems is needed. But such a “unified
theory of cognition” (Alan Newell) does not seem
References
Brehmer, B., & Dörner, D. (1993). Experiments with computer-
to appear on the horizon.
simulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the
Perspectives. Within the major area called “psychol- laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field study. Computers in
Human Behavior, 9, 171–184.
ogy of thinking and reasoning,” the exploration of
Dörner, D. (1997). The logic of failure. Recognizing and avoiding error
complex problems represents a question that is of in complex situations. New York: Basic Books.
great significance beyond our discipline. Thereby, a Frensch, P. A., & Funke, J. (Eds.). (1995). Complex problem solving:
chance appears to devote psychology on a basis of The European perspective. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum
verified findings to a field of application within areas Associates.
like politics and business consulting (“give psychology Funke, J. (2003). Problemlösendes Denken. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Osman, M. (2010). Controlling uncertainty: A review of human
a-way”). For this reason, more intensive data pooling
behavior in complex dynamic environments. Psychological Bul-
and the refinement of appropriate theoretical approaches letin, 136, 65–86.
are needed. Interesting developments could be expected Wenke, D., Frensch, P. A., & Funke, J. (2005). Complex problem
in following areas: solving and intelligence: Empirical relation and causal direction.
In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Pretz (Eds.), Cognition and intelligence:
● Task and requirement analysis. It seems profitable to Identifying the mechanisms of the mind (pp. 160–187). New York:
undergo an analysis of requirements concerning the Cambridge University Press.
686 C Complex Psychology and Learning

Psychological researchers then took up the following

Complex Psychology and approaches to the study of creativity: psychometric,
Learning experimental, biographical, psychodynamic, biologi-
cal, computational, and contextual. These approaches,
▶ Analytical Psychology and Learning
particularly the psychometric, experimental, and con-
textual approaches, were used for much of the remain-
der of the twentieth century. Descriptive approaches to
the study of creativity are now becoming more popular,
Complex Tasks as well as studies that place musical creativity in the
context that it is intended to be used in practice. Where
▶ Cognitive Tasks and Learning previous research placed more of a value on under-
standing the people, processes, and products of musical
creativity, researchers now seem to be choosing to
examine how confidence, peer-interaction, motivation,
and self-efficacy interact with composition learning.
Composition Learning in Music Another strand of research is emerging that focuses
Education on teachers as creative music makers.

CLINT RANDLES1, JOHN KRATUS2, PAMELA BURNARD3 Important Scientific Research and
1
Center for Music Education Research, School of Open Questions
Music, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA Research in the area of music teaching and learning has
2
College of Music, Michigan State University, East been focused primarily on music performance for
Lansing, MI, USA much of the twentieth century. From about 1950
3
Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, on, small pockets of researchers began the study of
Cambridge, UK composition learning in the context of music educa-
tion. While some countries – most notably England,
Australia, and Finland – have adopted composition as
Synonyms a regular part of the music curriculum, composition as
Creative Thinking in Music; Creativity; Creativity in a major facet of the teaching and learning of music
Music; Music Creation in the United States has been far less common.
The following sections describe the most notable
Definition research efforts.
Composition learning in music education refers to the
result of creative thinking in music that takes shape in What Children Compose
a process of bringing a musical product into existence Pioneering research on children’s original music
by an individual or group of composers. Composition appeared in a series of monographs published in the
learning has specific meaning for the composer. 1940s by Gladys Moorhead and Donald Pond. These
Composition work takes the form of either notated studies examined the musical characteristics of vocal
music and/or audio recording. Composition learning and instrumental music created by children in an
in music education has traditionally held a secondary unstructured setting. Their research found that even
status to performance learning in music education the youngest school-aged children make use of simple
curricula around the world. melodic and rhythmic patterns in their compositions.
Later research by John Kratus looked at the character-
Theoretical Background istics of music composed by children aged 5–13 in
J. Paul Guilford is known for being a pioneer in the a more structured context. He found that between the
study of general creativity. His speech to the American ages of 5 and 11 there is steadily increasing use of
Psychological Association in 1950 marks the beginning melodic development, rhythmic patterns, tonal orga-
of the study of general creativity in the United States. nization, and metric organization, suggesting a greater
 Composition Learning in Music Education C 687

awareness and application of musical syntax as children Establishing an Environment for

age through the elementary years. Keith Swanwick and Composition
June Tillman used their analysis of music composed by Composition learning in music education does not
children in elementary and secondary school to sup- occur in a vacuum, for it is in classrooms, in teach-
port a theoretical sequence of musical development, ing and learning situations that composition must C
leading toward increasingly sophisticated use of mate- occur for it to be a part of the school curriculum.
rials, expression, form, and values. Other researchers Pamela Burnard suggests that various social struc-
have studied children’s use of invented or standard tures, including society, out-of-school contexts, in-
notation in their compositions, examining the visual school contexts, and culture, interact to influence
representation of music rather than the music itself. composition learning in the setting of music teach-
The growing body of research on children’s composi- ing and learning. Researchers such as Margaret
tions provides evidence that nearly all children are Barrett have described music composition as an
capable of composing music, just as nearly all children interaction between “freedom” and “constraint.”
are able to draw, paint, act, and dance. This distinction might be a way of framing composi-
tion pedagogy as restrictions are placed on the task of
How Children Compose composing as a way of channeling student creative
Research on how children compose examines the work. Other researchers have examined the nature
thinking and actions children engage in during the of feedback in aiding student compositions and
act of composing. The study of these compositional the idea of helping students find their voice in their
processes is fraught with methodological difficulties compositions.
because, unlike in the study of children’s composed
products, there is no created artifact to analyze. Instead Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Teaching
researchers must infer mental processes based on the Composition
actions, interactions, and verbalizations of children Work in this area of the literature could not have
engaged in an ambiguous task for which there is no been done, had music education researchers not first
correct answer. In a quantitative study of composi- invested time and effort in order to understand the
tional processes, Kratus found significant differences composition processes and products of children.
in the ways 7-, 9-, and 11-year-old children used explo- Their work has now paved the way for researchers to
ration, development, and repetition of musical ideas as examine contextual factors that can impact the imple-
they composed. He observed that the 11-year-olds in mentation of composition learning experiences in
his study spent a greater amount of time developing school settings. It is important that teachers first rec-
and repeating musical ideas and less time exploring ognize that music composition is an essential area of
new ideas than did 7-year-olds. Much of the research musical learning, one that merits inclusion in the cur-
on how children compose has been of a qualitative riculum, for it to be adopted more widely in schools.
nature and has focused on small group composition Recent work suggests that preservice teachers in the
in classroom settings. The emphasis of this research has United States plan to teach composition to a lesser
been primarily on the social interactions among stu- extent than their English and Welsh peers. Differences
dents (e.g., friendship) engaged in an assigned creative have been attributed to the lesser status of composition
task, rather than on musical thinking and decision as a curricular subject within the music education
making. Results of this line of research suggest that system in the United States. Teachers are socialized,
children rarely develop their musical ideas when by way of their experiences being a part of music
engaged in small-group classroom activities, and chil- education in their particular setting, to value and dis-
dren are more effective composers when they are credit certain aspects of teachable music experience in
friends with others in their group. Two promising favor of other such experience. Researchers are doing
areas of research on compositional processes are (a) work in this area in hopes of redefining and expanding
the use of the internet for collaborative composition, upon the traditionally held view of the music teacher.
and (b) group composition and arranging in the con- This line of research seeks to better understand
text of garage bands. teachers’ attitudes toward teaching composition as
688 C Composition of Groups

one of the missing links to composition’s inclusion as Moorhead, G. E., & Pond, D. (1941-1951/1978). Music of young
a major curricular area within music education. children. Santa Barbara: Pillsbury Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Music Education.
Randles, C. (2010). Creative identity in music teaching and learning
Assessment (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 2010). Disser-
Researchers have considered how to assess composition tation Abstracts International, __, ____A.
work. Generally speaking, the study of the assessment Swanwick, K., & Tillman, J. (1986). The sequence of musical devel-
of creativity started in the 1950s with J.P. Guilford. opment: A study of children’s composition. British Journal of
Music Education, 3(3), 306–339.
E. Paul Torrance built on this work by devising
Webster, P. (2009). Children as creative thinkers in music: Focus
standardized tests of creativity. Peter Webster then on composition. In S. Hallam et al. (Eds.), The oxford
took the knowledge gained from the work of these handbook of music psychology (pp. 421–428). New York: Oxford
researchers and developed the Measurement of Creative University Press.
Thinking in Music. The MCTM is likely the most
widely used assessment tool for measuring creative
thinking in music.
Regarding composition learning in music educa-
tion specifically, assessment has been a more frequent
Composition of Groups
topic of discussion in the United Kingdom than in the ▶ Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming
United States. Researchers in England have been work-
ing on sophisticated rubrics to help teachers rate the
composition work of students at all of the key stages.
Researchers such as Teresa Amabile and Maud Hickey
have taken up the task of developing ways of assessing Composition of Learning
student musical compositions. Groups
Cross-References BIEKE DE FRAINE, BARBARA BELFI, JAN VAN DAMME
▶ Cognitive Psychology of Music Learning The Education and Training Research Group,
▶ Developmental Psychology of Music K.U. Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

References
Amabile, T. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Synonyms
Springer. Average group level; Group configuration; Group
Barrett, M. (2003). Freedoms and constraints: Constructing musical homogeneity; Group heterogeneity; Group mix
worlds through the dialogue of composition. In M. Hickey (Ed.),
Why and how to teach music composition: A new horizon for music
education. Reston: MENC.
Definition
Burnard, P. (2006). The individual and social worlds of children’s The composition of a learning group refers to how
musical creativity. In G. McPherson (Ed.), The child as musician: a group of learners is composed. The learning group
A handbook of musical development. New York: Oxford University can refer to the school (school student body), a class
Press. group (class composition), or to the more flexible
Hickey, M., & Lipscomb, S. (2006). How different is good? How good
grouping of students within a class (within class group-
is different? The assessment of children’s creative musical think-
ing. In I. Deliege & G. A. Wiggins (Eds.), Musical creativity: ing). The term group composition is used in the sciences
Multidisciplinary research in theory and practice. New York: of learning and cognition to refer to the characteristics
Psychology Press. of the group in terms of ability, achievement level,
Kratus, J. (1985). Rhythm, melody, motive, and phrase characteristics gender, ethnicity, age, etc. The group can be described
of original songs by children aged five to thirteen. (Doctoral
from two main perspectives: the average level of the
dissertation, Northwestern University, 1985).
Kratus, J. (1989). A time analysis of the compositional processes used
group and the heterogeneity (mix) of the group. The
by children ages 7 to 11. Journal of Research in Music Education, group-level variables are calculated by aggregating
37, 5–20. the background characteristics of all individuals in the
 Composition of Learning Groups C 689

group to an average (level) or a measure of heteroge- average level. This also means that heterogeneous
neity (e.g., standard deviation). When both perspec- groups are generally beneficial for weak students’
tives are combined, three types of groups emerge: achievement and that homogeneous groups are best
homogeneous weak groups, homogeneous strong for strong students. However, heterogeneous grouping
groups, and heterogeneous groups. The gender com- is generally considered as the best grouping practice in C
position of learning groups, for example, has three most cases, since the benefits for weaker students tend
main categories: two types of single-sex groups (all to be larger than the disadvantages for the stronger
boys’ groups, all girls’ groups) and coeducational students. High-ability students tend to do well in
groups. Studies on tracking and ability grouping address either type of group. However, the range of abilities
the effects of grouping and mixing students by ability. within the group should not be too wide, to increase
Studies on multigrade and multiage classes address the productive interaction in cooperative small groups
effects of grouping and mixing students by age. (Wilkinson and Fung 2002).
The group composition effect (sometimes called con- With regard to the students’ academic self-concept,
textual effect) refers to the effect of the group-level the grouping advice is exactly the opposite (see
variable (level or heterogeneity) on learners’ outcomes BFLPE). High-ability students have a higher academic
over and above the effect of the individual-level vari- self-concept in heterogeneous classes; while for low-
able. Group composition influences both academic and ability students, it is better to be grouped in homoge-
nonacademic outcomes. neous classes.
One of the best-known group composition effects is Two main explanations have been put forward with
the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) (Marsh et al. regard to group composition effects: sociopsychologi-
2001). This effect indicates that equally able students cal processes and instructional processes.
have a lower academic self-concept when placed in The sociopsychological processes of group learning
a group with a higher average achievement level. It is (peer influences) refer to the normative and compara-
beneficial for students’ academic self-concept to be part tive processes in and between groups. The composi-
of a group with a low average achievement level. tion affects the group’s norms about effort and
investment in learning. The group rewards or pun-
Theoretical Background ishes individuals for conformity or deviant behavior.
It has been widely established that the learning out- Classes with an advantaged group composition develop
comes of an individual are not only affected by his/her a pro-academic culture in which academic achievement
individual background characteristics (age, gender, is highly valued, thereby stimulating everyone in the
general ability, socioeconomic status, achievement group to achieve. In disadvantaged groups, nonconfor-
level, etc.), but also by the composition of the group mity with academic objectives and alienation from
in which the learning takes place. school are often rewarded.
Class composition practices originated as an answer The group can also be a comparative reference
to the diversity in students’ instructional needs. In group, constituting a frame of reference against which
homogeneous classes, teachers can better adjust their the student evaluates his/her own accomplishments.
materials, level, and pace of instruction to the needs According to his/her perceived position, the student
and interests of individual students (Hattie 2002). develops feelings of relative deprivation or gratification
However, opponents claim that homogeneous group- that may affect his/her feelings and behavior. This is
ing denies students to learn from peers of other ability, also called the “frog–pond effect”: the student com-
sex, ethnicity, social class, and/or age. Furthermore, pares himself (size of the frog) to his/her fellow
lower tracks often get stigmatized, which leads to students (size of the pond). There is empirical evidence
teachers not wanting to teach lower-ability tracks and for comparative effects on the self-image, but not
lower-track students feeling discouraged (Hattie 2002). on achievement.
The majority of the studies on group composition Students compare themselves not only to the others
effects have found that it is generally beneficial for all in their group, but comparisons are also made across
students’ achievement to be part of a group with a high groups. Interclass comparisons produce labels, and these
690 C Composition Writing

collective labels influence expectations of teachers, peers, variable and the individual variable. Such an interac-
and parents. This process may stigmatize groups with an tion indicates that the group composition might have
unfavorable group composition and activate a self- another effect on different types of students. For exam-
fulfilling prophecy of failure. Through group identifica- ple, girls show higher math achievement in single-sex
tion and assimilation, the labels also affect students’ self- classes, whereas boys show higher achievement in coed-
concept and expectations. ucational classes.
The second main explanation of the group compo-
sition effect is the instructional process. Advantaged Cross-References
groups tend to show less disciplinary problems, more ▶ Ability Grouping (and Effects) on Learning
higher-order questions, a broader curriculum, etc. In
lower-ability groups, there is a more limited academic References
focus and a reduced opportunity to learn. Talented and Hattie, J. A. C. (2002). Class composition and peer effects. Interna-
motivated teachers are often teaching advantaged tional Journal of Educational Research, 37, 449–481.
groups while low-ability classes are assigned to the Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2001). Reunification of East
least well-prepared teachers. However, these are corre- and West German school systems: longitudinal multilevel
modeling study of the big-fish-little-pond effect on
lations between group composition and instructional
academic self-concept. American Journal of Educational Research,
practices, making it difficult to disentangle composi- 38, 321–350.
tion and instruction effects. They can have separate and Slavin, R. (1990). Achievement effects of ability grouping in second-
joint effects on student outcomes. ary schools: a best evidence synthesis. Review of Educational
Moreover, Wilkinson and Fung (2002) argue that Research, 60, 471–499.
Wilkinson, I. A. G., & Fung, I. Y. Y. (2002). Small-group composition
peer influences interact with instructional processes to
and peer effects. International Journal of Educational Research, 37,
mediate the effects of group composition on students’ 425–447.
learning.

Important Scientific Research and

Open Questions
The estimation of the effects of group composition on Composition Writing
individual outcomes has greatly benefited from statis-
tical advantages in the past decades. Especially multilevel ▶ Learning to Write
modeling (also called hierarchical linear modeling) has
improved correct estimations of the group composi-
tion effect, because this statistical method takes into
account the nesting of learners in groups.
The composition of learning groups is studied in
Comprehending
correlational studies, randomized controlled trials, and ▶ Reading and Learning
matched experiments (Slavin 1990). But there remains
a lack of understanding on what happens in groups and
how the group composition affects learning. A lot of
work still has to be done to fully grasp the ways in
which groups influence the individuals in the group. Comprehension
Some researchers also see the group composition as
▶ Receptive Learning
a phantom effect, an artifact of measurement error,
or resulting from a failure to correct for individual
differences.
One of the avenues for a better understanding of
group composition effects, is through the study of Comprehension Disorder
differential effects. These differential effects essentially
mean a cross-level interaction between the group ▶ Language-Based Learning Disabilities
 Comprehension Monitoring C 691

reading, or it can be an explicit process that proceeds

Comprehension Monitoring intentionally with the reader employing comprehen-
sion monitoring strategies, such as questioning, clari-
MATT C. KEENER, DOUGLAS J. HACKER fying, or summarizing, or with the reader making
Department of Educational Psychology, University of different types of metacognitive judgments. Most stud- C
Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA ies of comprehension monitoring have used (a) judg-
ments of comprehension that measure the degree of
understanding a text, (b) judgments of learning that
Synonyms measure the degree of understanding combined with
Calibration of comprehension; Metacognitive moni- the potential for successful recall at a later time, or
toring; Metacomprehension; Metamemory for text; (c) posttest judgments that reflect the degree of con-
Self-regulated comprehension fidence in specific answers retrieved from memory
(Maki et al. 2005; Nelson and Narens 1990). Other
Definition types of metacognitive judgments that have received
The definition of comprehension monitoring has var- less attention in metacomprehension research are
ied between two camps. In one, comprehension mon- ease-of-learning judgments and feeling-of-knowing
itoring is defined as a metacognitive process that judgments.
includes both the evaluation and regulation of under- On the one hand, the term comprehension moni-
standing derived from discourse, in other words, verbal toring is something of a misnomer in that only
communication or the reading of text (see Hacker 1994 part of the process is identified (Hacker 1998), with
for a review of the early literature on comprehension the regulation or control aspect sometimes included
monitoring). Evaluation requires a person to monitor and sometimes not. On the other hand, the term
and judge the degree to which understanding is suc- metacomprehension has remained relatively consistent
cessfully proceeding or has been successfully com- in the literature and refers mainly to monitoring, with
pleted. Regulation requires a person to exert control control treated as a separate process from monitoring.
to resolve problems and ultimately increase under- For example, people could be very effective at moni-
standing. In the other camp, comprehension monitor- toring their comprehension during reading but fail
ing is restricted to the evaluation of understanding, to exert control over their reading when comprehen-
and regulation is considered as a separate and unique sion failures are encountered. However, the model of
process. The distinction between evaluation and regu- metacognition proposed by Nelson and Narens (1990)
lation likely developed, in part, as a consequence of has control processes intimately tied to monitoring
research in the field of metacognition, in which meta- processes, and these processes “must be considered as
cognition has been conceptualized as consisting of both a system of interacting thought processes and not
a monitoring and control process (Nelson and Narens as a collection of independent parts” (Hacker 1998,
1990). Although in application, the monitoring of p. 169). For this reason and because comprehension
comprehension is distinct from and yet interwoven monitoring and metacomprehension recently have
with the control processes involved (Hacker 1998). In been studied largely in the context of self-regulated
both camps, the definition of comprehension monitor- learning, we suggest that the components of monitor-
ing and the focus of research changed from the study of ing and control should be integrated into the term
discourse, including verbal communication (e.g., self-regulated comprehension (Dunlosky et al. 2002;
Markman 1977), to examine primarily the reading of Hacker 1998).
text. Our discussion will focus on the reading of text
because the vast majority of studies have done so. Theoretical Background
Comprehension monitoring is also referred to as Ellen Markman’s work (e.g., 1977) was some of the
“calibration of comprehension,” “metacognitive mon- first to examine how people monitor their comprehen-
itoring,” or “metacomprehension” (e.g., Maki and sion. In her work with children, she used the error-
Berry 1984). The process of monitoring can be an detection paradigm in which inconsistencies were
implicit process that proceeds automatically during deliberately implanted in verbal instructions, and
692 C Comprehension Monitoring

children were asked to listen to them with the expec- Difficult text also could contribute to inaccurate judg-
tation that if they were monitoring their com- ments. Difficult text usually requires a diligent reader
prehension, the inconsistencies would be detected. to reread, and judgments of comprehension may be
Unfortunately, children proved to be quite poor at more strongly influenced by the amount of rereading
monitoring their comprehension, and the inconsis- than by actual comprehension. The amount of text that
tencies went largely undetected. Although Markman’s can be recalled after reading could affect the accuracy of
work ignited a great deal of research in the area of judgments. If readers are unable to recall verbatim
comprehension monitoring that mostly involved the much of what they have read, the assumption might
reading of text, questions about the use of the error- be made that the text was not understood, even though
detection paradigm arose concerning whether the the overall gist of the text was well remembered. Finally,
kinds of reading children used in the research were the kind of text could affect judgments of comprehen-
similar to the kinds of reading in which people nor- sion. Typically, readers view expository text to be more
mally engage, namely, reading considerate text that is difficult to understand than narrative text, and the
largely error free. Failures to detect inconsistencies may accuracy of judgments of comprehension will vary as
not necessarily indicate a failure to monitor compre- a function of perceived difficulty.
hension, but rather, may indicate that the reader is There has been much debate and theorizing over
monitoring for purposes unrelated to the implanted the issue of how metacomprehension judgments
errors (Hacker 1994). are made. People’s retrospective judgments of com-
Glenberg and Epstein (1985) and Maki and Berry prehension made after reading a text and their pro-
(1984) introduced an alternative paradigm. After spective judgments of future performance on a test
reading error-free texts, readers were asked to make about that text are likely tapping into unique but
metamemory judgments about whether they had overlapping psychological processes (Maki et al.
comprehended text material well enough to perform 2005). Understanding those processes is something a
accurately on a criterion task, such as judging infer- comprehensive theory of comprehension monitoring
ences based on the texts or answering questions about or metacomprehension will provide. Such a theory
the text. In subsequent research on calibration moni- has yet to be proposed. Dunlosky et al. (2002) have
toring or metacomprehension, people were typically suggested that an integration of theories of text com-
asked to read a text, make a judgment of comprehen- prehension with theories of metacognitive monitoring
sion of the text, and then asked to make a prediction of may lead to productive research that could contribute
how well they will perform on a criterion task designed to such a comprehensive theory.
to measure comprehension of the text. Most findings in
this literature have corroborated Markman’s findings: Important Scientific Research and
People are typically poor at monitoring their reading Open Questions
comprehension. In spite of the evidence that the accuracy of calibra-
Maki has added significantly to our understanding tion monitoring or metacomprehension is low, there
of metacomprehension. Across 25 studies from her lab, remains optimism that accurate monitoring and effec-
she reported that the mean correlation between ratings tive control of comprehension (i.e., self-regulated
of comprehension and test performance was only 27 comprehension) holds great promise in educational
(Dunlosky and Lipko 2007). Dunlosky, across 36 stud- contexts. This optimism has been fueled, at least in
ies of metacomprehension, also has reported similar part, by evidence from differing approaches showing
low correlations (Dunlosky & Lipko). Maki and asso- that improved accuracy of monitoring does correspond
ciates (2005) identified several factors that could with an increase in learning (e.g., Dunlosky et al. 2005).
account for such poor monitoring of comprehension. Moreover, the ability to exercise self-regulation was
When readers are unfamiliar with the domain being shown to be an important factor, such that “the efficacy
addressed in a text, their judgments of comprehension of monitoring to enhance learning was undermined
may be poorly gaged because the judgments are when the task did not afford self-regulation” (Dunlosky
influenced more by their unfamiliarity with the et al. 2005, p. 9). This evidence highlights the impor-
domain than by their comprehension of the text. tance of self-regulation in educational settings and the
 Comprehensive Learning C 693

need to improve students’ ability to monitor and con- Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., & Hacker, D. J. (2002).
trol their comprehension. Metacomprehension of science text: Investigating the levels-of-
disruption hypothesis. In J. Otero, J. León, & A. C. Graesser
New lines of research have shown promise in this
(Eds.), The psychology of science text comprehension (pp. 255–
endeavor. Huff and Nietfield (2009) improved fifth 279). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
grade students’ monitoring accuracy by explicitly Dunlosky, J., Hertzog, C., Kennedy, M. R., & Thiede, K. W. (2005). C
teaching comprehension monitoring strategies over The self-monitoring approach for effective learning. Cognitive
a 12-day period. Rawson, Dunlosky, and Thiede Technology, 10, 4–11.
Glenberg, A. M., & Epstein, W. (1985). Calibration of comprehen-
(2000, as cited in Dunlosky and Lipko 2007) doubled
sion. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and
metacomprehension accuracy simply by having partic- Cognition, 4, 702–718.
ipants reread passages twice, a strategy also known to Hacker, D. J. (1994). Comprehension monitoring as a writing pro-
improve reading comprehension. Thiede, Dunlosky, cess. In E. C. Butterfield (Ed.), Children’s writing: Toward a
Griffin, and Wiley (2005, as cited in Dunlosky and process theory of the development of skilled writing. Greenwich:
Lipko 2007) also nearly doubled accuracy by asking JAI Press.
Hacker, D. J. (1998). Metacognition: Definitions and empirical foun-
participants to summarize texts after a short delay.
dations. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.),
They also showed that summarizing texts after reading Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 1–23).
could be reduced to simply generating five key terms Mahwah: Erlbaum.
that captured the essence of a text, and still accuracy Huff, J. D., & Nietfield, J. L. (2009). Using strategy instruction and
was improved. confidence judgments to improve metacognitive monitoring.
Metacognition and Learning, 4, 161–176.
With respect to future research, any setting that
Maki, R. H., & Berry, S. (1984). Metacomprehension of text material.
involves self-regulated comprehension would benefit Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cog-
from new methods that improve the accuracy of com- nition, 10, 663–679.
prehension monitoring. Although individual differ- Maki, R. H., Shields, M., Wheeler, A. E., & Zacchilli, T. L. (2005). Indi-
ences such as verbal ability or test performance have vidual differences in absolute and relative metacomprehension
been examined in some detail (Maki et al. 2005), the accuracy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 723–731.
Markman, E. M. (1977). Realizing that you don’t understand:
complex nature of individual differences leaves a
A preliminary investigation. Child Development, 48, 986–992.
great deal of potential factors remaining for explora- Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1990). A theoretical framework and new
tion. In addition, studies in comprehension monitor- findings. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 26, 125–141.
ing have focused on the learning of text material,
but there may likely be other fields of education includ-
ing verbal communication that would be relevant to
and benefit from similar research. Finally, due to
the complex nature of comprehension monitoring, Comprehensive Learning
researchers should strive to be clear about the types of
metacognitive judgments that may be included in any KNUD ILLERIS
study of it. Department of Learning, The Danish University
School of Education, Aarhus University, Copenhagen
Cross-References NV, Denmark
▶ Calibration
▶ Metacognition and Learning
▶ Metacognitive Control Synonyms
▶ Reading and Learning Competence development; Everyday learning;
▶ Self-managed Learning Qualification
▶ Self-regulated Learning
Definition
References All normal learning includes the three dimensions of
Dunlosky, J., & Lipko, A. R. (2007). Metacomprehension: A brief content, incentive, and interaction (or the cognitive,
history and how to improve its accuracy. Current Directions in the emotional, and the social) (Illeris 2002, 2007).
Psychology Science, 16, 228–232. However, as the immediate understanding of learning
694 C Comprehensive Learning

is very often narrowly focused on the acquisition of research has estimated that people averagely spend
knowledge and skills and the emotional and social about 20% of energy on mental processes such as
dimensions are more or less neglected, it becomes thinking, remembering, and learning. The strength
important to emphasize that even when these dimen- and nature of this mobilization depend on what is
sions are not considered they are always involved and usually described as motivation, which has to do with
influence both the learning process and the learning emotion, interest, need, inclination, desire, volition,
result. Basically, this is due to the way the human brain duty – or with a general term incentive. A strong incen-
is working (Damasio 1994; Goldberg 2001) and to the tive favors a differentiated and durable learning result,
fact that people are social beings – and all this is what which can be activated in a broad range of different
the concept of comprehensive learning is referring to. situations, whereas a weak incentive will instead lead
to a learning result which is superficial, difficult to
Theoretical Background remember, and only turns up in situations which
The most fundamental understanding of how human strongly resemble or relates to the learning situation.
learning takes place is that all learning involves two very In Fig. 1, the interaction process of learning is
different processes. The one process is the interaction depicted as a vertical double arrow between the indi-
between the learner and his or her environment. In vidual and the environment, and the acquisition pro-
principle, this process is ongoing all the time when cess of learning is depicted at the individual level as
individuals are not asleep. Sometimes it is very vivid, a horizontal double arrow between the elements of
sometimes it is almost fading out. But whenever it content and incentive.
contains something which is new or different in rela- When the two double arrows of Fig. 1 are framed by
tion to what people have already learned, they have a triangle it gives an illustration of the three dimen-
a possibility to learn from it. sions, which are involved in all learning. Furthermore,
However, learning only takes place if people also by adding a circle around the triangle, indicating that
involve themselves in a mental process of acquisition. all learning is situated in and influenced by the envi-
In this process the new information, which learners ronment of a society, Fig. 2 shows the main elements
have perceived from the interaction by their senses, is and structure involved in human learning or what may
related to whatever prior learning learners subjectively be called a model of comprehensive learning.
and often unconsciously find relevant, and through this The claim of this model is that all learning involves
encounter the learning result is developed. Conse- the elements shown and, consequently, that no learning
quently, this result depends on both the nature of the process or learning situation can be fully understood,
new input information and the nature of what is
already developed in the mind, and this is why different
persons learn different things from the same input
information.
Content Incentive
Further, the acquisition process always contains two Acquisition
elements. The one is the learning content. This is, as Individual
mentioned, usually conceived of as knowledge or skills,
but in a comprehensive understanding of learning it
may also be opinions, insights, meanings, attitudes,
Interaction

values, conventions, habits, ways of feeling, ways of

behaving, working methods – everything which was
not there when people were born is something they
have acquired by learning. In more general terms,
one can also speak about abilities, qualifications, or
competences. Environment
But the acquisition process also involves a mobili-
zation of mental energy. It takes place through an active Comprehensive Learning. Fig. 1 The fundamental
electrochemical process in the brain, and recent brain processes of learning (© Illeris 2007, p. 23)
 Comprehensive Learning C 695

Society
into an already existing scheme. This is, for example,
what traditional school teaching is generally aiming at
and over the years people learn a tremendous lot of
things in this way. Assimilative learning is not very
energy demanding, the durability of the learning results C
Content Incentive
depends on how often there was a need to use them,
and they can be recalled in all situations when people
are mentally oriented toward the schema(s) to which
they are subjectively related.
Accommodative learning or accommodation is the
other main type of learning which people practice daily,
although certainly not as often as assimilation, because
Interaction it is much more energy demanding. People engage in
accommodative learning in situations in which they
cannot immediately understand or interpret what is
happening, but have a strong incentive to do so. In
such cases, learners have the possibility of breaking
Comprehensive Learning. Fig. 2 The elements of down parts of one or more existing schemas and recon-
comprehensive learning (© Illeris 2007, p. 26) struct them in a way so that the new impulse can be
included. This is typically experienced as something
people come to realize by a sort of break-through,
they suddenly understand a structure or a connec-
analyzed, planned, or in other ways dealt with if all of tion, a light is dawned on us, or the like. So it is by
these elements are not taken into account. accommodative learning that most important new
In addition to this, the theory of comprehensive insights are gained or people take a qualitative step
learning as presented by the Danish learning researcher in some direction. The learning result has precisely the
and theorist Knud Illeris (2002, 2007) expounds that nature of understanding, it will usually be remem-
the acquisition process can take place in four different bered until it may be changed by new accommodative
ways, the four fundamental types of learning. These learning, and it can be recalled in all kinds of relevant
are defined in relation to how the learning input is situations.
connected and incorporated into already developed Finally, transformative learning or transformation
learning schemas or schemata. is the most complex and demanding type of learn-
In the case of cumulative learning, the learning ing, in which several schemes are reconstructed involv-
results from the start of a new schema, that is, there is ing a change in the organization of the self or the
no existing schema to which it can be related. This identity. People engage in this type of learning only
happens frequently in the first years of human life, when they very much need or wish to do so as it is
but after a couple of years only in very few situations strongly personally demanding and often experi-
with the character of rote learning. One example from enced like the overcoming of some kind of crises.
later life could be the learning of a new pin-code (but The learning result becomes part of the self, it remains
even in this case people often try to invent some kind of with persons and can only be obliterated by a new
system, reference, or mnemonic rule, which actually transformation or by being completely irrelevant
implies that they try to relate the code to some already under changed life conditions. Earlier transformative
existing schema). The results of cumulative learning learning was closely related to psychotherapy, but
can be characterized as rigid and they can only be in modern life conditions are for many people
recalled in situations which are subjectively narrowly changing so often and so radically that this type of
related to the learning situation. learning becomes actualized, and today it is often
Assimilative learning or assimilation is the everyday related to schooling and education in youth and
type of learning in which a new element is integrated adulthood.
696 C Compressed Curriculum

It shall be mentioned that the learning types of ▶ Emotional Learning

assimilation and accommodation were introduced as ▶ Emotions and Learning
the two types of equilibrating learning already in the ▶ Generative Learning
1920s by Jean Piaget (1952). The term of cumulation ▶ Humanistic Approaches to Learning
was as a specific type of learning presented by the ▶ Incentives and Student Learning
Danish psychologist Thomas Nissen in 1970 and intro- ▶ Learning Defense
duced in English by Knud Illeris (2002). Finally, the ▶ Learning Resistance
term transformative was launched in 1978 by the ▶ Motivation, Volition, and Performance
American adult educator Jack Mezirow (1978), but ▶ Non-learning
several others have presented similar concepts with ▶ Piaget, Jean
different names, for example, Austrian Sigmund Freud ▶ Piagets Learning Theory
who already about 1900 spoke about catharsis as the ▶ Social Learning
successful result of psychoanalysis (Freud and Breuer ▶ Transformative Learning
1956), American Carl Rogers who in 1951 coined the
concept of “significant learning” (Rogers 1951), and References
Finnish Yrjö Engeström who in 1987 suggested the Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason and the
term of “expansive learning” (Engeström 1987). human brain. New York: Grosset/Putnam.
Finally, it shall be mentioned that the theory of Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity theoretical
comprehensive learning as introduced by Knud Illeris approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
also includes a theory of non-learning. This is, however, Freud, S., & Breuer, J. (1956 [1895]). Studies on hysteria. London:
Pelican Freud Library.
taken up in another entry in the encyclopedia.
Goldberg, E. (2001). The executive brain: Frontal lobes and the civilized
mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
Important Scientific Research and Illeris, K. (2002). The three dimensions of learning: Contemporary
Open Questions learning theory in the tension field between the cognitive, the
In a way the understanding of comprehensive learning emotional and the social. Leicester: NIACE. Malabar: Krieger.
Illeris, K. (2007). How we learn: Learning and non-learning in school
has been the ultimate aim of all learning theory. For
and beyond. London: Routledge.
example, behaviorists right back from the late 1800s Jarvis, P. (2006). Towards a comprehensive theory of human learning.
tried to find the fundamental mechanisms or building London: Routledge.
stones of learning – but by doing so had to make so Mezirow, J. (1978). Education for perspective transformation: Women’s
many reductions that they limited themselves to the re-entry programs in community colleges. New York: Teachers
study of a minor field of learning processes. Later College, Columbia University.
Piaget, J. (1952 [1936]). The origin of intelligence in children. New
especially the German Gestalt Psychologists and the
York: International Universities Press.
American school of Humanistic Psychology came Rogers, C. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-
considerably closer to a comprehensive learning psy- Mifflin.
chology, and in recent times British Peter Jarvis has
developed a broad covering theory of learning (Jarvis
2006), partly overlapping with the approach described
in this entry. There is certainly no reason to expect that
the desire to grasp the complexity of human learning in Compressed Curriculum
a coherent and comprehensive way will stop here.
▶ Accelerated Learning
Cross-References
▶ Affective Dimensions of Learning
▶ Approaches to Learning and Studying
▶ Assimilation Theory of Learning Compulsory Education
▶ Content-Area Learning
▶ Cumulative Learning ▶ Formal Learning
 Compulsory Education and Learning C 697

The process of nation-state building took place

Compulsory Education and during the Age of Enlightenment, when it was believed
Learning that the power of the human mind is ultimately able to
regulate everything. According to this view, it is possi-
ILHAN DULGER ble to use education to regulate the formation of the C
Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, state and the domestic market and engage in nation
Turkey building. Consequently, the three main functions of
compulsory public education became the formation
of the mind, the making of the citizen, and the training
Synonyms of the educated work force.
Democratization of education; Formal education; Compulsory public schools arose as a part of
Mandatory education; Obligatory education; Public the establishment requirements of the “nation-state”
education; Required schooling; Universal education form of government in the West. Firstly, some factors of
production – including labor – needed to be regulated
Definition and standardized in order to reinforce the competitive
Compulsory Education refers to the most crucial period position of each national industry. Accordingly, public
of formal education required by law of all children education was constructed as a means for the national
between certain ages in a given country. The period of economy to keep a sufficiently prepared national labor
compulsory attendance is usually determined by the force for production and a relatively uniform domestic
government as the students’ age for beginning and consumer market. Secondly, the state was in the pro-
ending obligatory formal education. The compulsory cess of liberating itself from religion and collecting
education service is generally the duty of the state and is the social and political power in its hands, and secu-
thus provided and/or inspected by the government. larization required an institution to replace religious
Compulsory Learning: Modern compulsory learning education. Thirdly, education is the means by which
required by formal schooling covers the shaping of a system, a society, and a culture reproduces itself,
the citizen with the skills and knowledge necessary to implants necessary improvements, and resists undue
prepare them to live in an economic and political change. The modern state stabilized and strengthened
system. itself on the basis of these three pillars and continued
on its route by becoming more and more centralized.
Theoretical Background The public schools are expected to be qualified
History has seen occasional periods of compulsory according to the laws of the state, can continue func-
education in various places of the world. The more or tioning as long as they follow its laws and regulations,
less regular ones were mostly related to religious teach- and have to maintain a constructive relationship with
ing and military training. All through history, tradi- its interests (Green 1990).
tionally accepted informal or non-formal learning of It is natural for a state to reflect the philosophy of its
social norms and education for the general public had founders, and this was so with the nation-states. When
been a private matter either handled by parents, reli- a philosophy gains an action plan through a regime, it
gious institutions, or communities, which sometimes is inevitable that it will turn into an ideology, thus
joined together to pay a teacher to educate their chil- giving rise to institutions designed to uphold the sys-
dren, primarily in issues of morality (O’Keeffe 2004). tem. Not all of the nation-states shared the same prin-
Compulsory public schooling is a relatively new ciples of establishment. There were different shades of
concept that emerged with the appearance of industrial ideologies, from autocratic to democratic. It is ironic
society and especially the nation-state after the French that the philosophies of economic liberalism (free-
Revolution. During the nineteenth century, a number market economy) and political liberalism (democracy),
of states passed laws on compulsory education; in the which constitute modern society, produced the idea of
twentieth century this practice became universal compulsory education as their tool to institutionalize
around the world (Green 1990). themselves. The mind of the average individual is
698 C Compulsory Education and Learning

formed to think within the principles of a given system, skills for everyday life and the performance of simple
even when the system is defined as free. The rationale of tasks, selects those who will be given further educa-
the dominant groups tends to give shape to a particular tion and training for higher technical and academic
system. These groups presume to have found the best vocations and professions, and determines the collec-
way to live and think and assume their right to enforce tive culture and values education should promote
it. Even high-quality compulsory education in most to enhance the integrity and unity of the nation. The
democratic states would be regarded by some critics basic compulsory curriculum is expected to act as
as mind-control par excellence. a harmonizing tool, both for the society and for
There are two parts to an education system: the the market. In addition to the compulsory curriculum,
connection of its structure and organization to the the secular state is also expected to make provisions
general system of the country, and its curricula. for the right to religion and freedom of conscience of
National education is connected to the demands of its citizens, to allow them to learn a religion through
the production system of the country by the state and is alternative means and freely practice it. Accordingly,
given the philosophy of the regime as its guiding prin- the public and private schools should not interfere with
ciple. The human model the system adheres to should the religious practices of the parochial schools (see for
be suited to these basic requirements (O’Keeffe 2004). an overview: Rotberg 2004).
Equivalent compulsory education is also possible in Obviously, the modern state arrogated to itself the
private schools and parochial schools. The basic struc- power to oversee the education of all of its citizens and
tural and organizational criteria all of these types of the people within its domain according to its interests.
schools need to meet for the compulsory years are the The individuals in charge of the state can keep design-
same: The law determines the rules for establishing ing the educational system and maintain their domi-
schools, organizing the stages of education, determin- nance as long as the circumstances are favorable.
ing the number of required years, the school model, the Primary education is the primary means by which
division of labor among the school types, etc., while the improvements in new generations can be introduced at
program structure and balance, hours per day, and days an early age, thereby benefitting the individual and soci-
per year the students are to be engaged in learning are ety. Traditionally, stages of education were, as much as
determined by the central authorities. The student child pedagogy permits, designed in keeping with the
assessment standards, the economics of vertical and technological levels in a country. Accordingly, as the
horizontal movement of students within the education utilization of technology rose, many countries intro-
system, diploma and certification equivalency, pas- duced compulsory education through at least the pri-
sages to life, and acceptance in the labor market are mary stage, often extending to the lower-middle level
all regulated. For these reasons, the system is criticized and some to the level of secondary education. Yet, it is
by some thinkers for supporting an economics of com- pivotal to understand that the content and length of
pulsion (Kanpol 1997). compulsory education are directly related to the demand
In compulsory education every nation has a unique for employment in an economy’s markets, which is in
agenda which makes its curricula national and serves to turn related to the development level of the country.
project the functional content for the formation of the Pushing for longer durations of compulsory education
mind, mold the citizen, and train the work force. Again, and starting vocational training at later ages creates
the soundness of the curricula must be approved; the unfair competition in economies that are not ready for
education and certification of teachers and the quality it. Compulsory schooling is not an area where the deci-
of teaching must be regulated according to the stan- sion of extending the length of education can be made by
dards set by the central authorities of the state. looking at others. The length of compulsory schooling
The compulsory curriculum should have certain must correspond to the demand for employment in the
characteristics: The state sets the official language of production sector. The system is meant to provide pas-
teaching, mandates civics courses for various age sages to life and offer further stages of education for
groups for the entire population of young children, those whose work is needed at a higher level.
offers courses in mathematics, science, and technology However, the universalization of modern education
appropriate for different age groups, includes necessary did not take place as it did in the Western world, even
 Compulsory Education and Learning C 699

though the promoters were Western. A few of the early and the government are exerting more pressure to
nation-states that extended their realm of activity increase the duration of compulsory formal education
to the colonies carried over the structure and organi- at both ends of the scale to include the kindergarten
zation of their education systems and schools but never years and secondary school and are vying to encompass
the content of their curricula. Colonial regimes could the whole globe with their ideology. C
not provide compulsory education to all of the young
natives but rather only educated a select few who would Important Scientific Research and
serve the masters with the colonizers’ language and Open Questions
their ways of handling work. If missionaries were able Four milieus of research are vital for functional solu-
to reach those remote places, the rest of the young tions for compulsory education and learning (Chappell
natives were left to their hands, who were preaching 2010):
proselytism. Another dilemma of the modern secular Firstly, decisions on the duration of compulsory
nation-state is that it found itself supporting religious education are generally propagated by international
indoctrination in the colonies. In the face of the impos- organizations, which rely on evidence from the level
ing superiority of the colonizer, compulsory national of technology and the market needs of the developed
education never came to the foreground in most coun- countries. This is evident in the ILO and UNESCO
tries until the second half of the twentieth century definitions of the child, UN and WB indexes, OECD
(Lauder et al. 2006). statistics, and WTO decisions, which end up making
In the course of its development, compulsory edu- the same recommendations to most countries. The
cation started under the authority of the state as the question of the duration of formal and compulsory
duty of the citizen and treated the child as a creature education has to be studied in its pedagogical, social,
of the state. As democratic thought took root in the and economic aspects and in relation to the individual
independent countries, education came to be per- needs of both developed and developing countries
ceived as the right of the individual and the duty of (Lauder et al. 2006).
the state. Compulsory education at the primary level Secondly, although there is research, the problem of
was affirmed as a human right by the 1948 Universal inclusion with regard to geographical, physical, social,
Declaration of Human Rights. Although they are still economic, and psychological differences will need to
far from being fully realized, the principles of social be solved at the compulsory primary education level,
justice and equal opportunity in education took prior- which is becoming more complicated as mobility,
ity in the governments’ policies. In the interest of a alienation, and bilingualism increase.
humanization of education, steps were taken to make Thirdly, there is abundant research on how to bring
physical, mental, social, and economic provisions for flexibility to compulsory learning and teacher prepara-
groups with special needs, and the demand for educa- tion for this purpose, and much of it is being put to use.
tional choices brought the individual into focus. Examples include individual learning strategies, the
In brief, in the developed countries the compulsory multiple-intelligence approach, constructivist learning,
national education and learning policies of the nation- student-based learning, minimal invasive education,
state have served their purposes. Production increased, freedom from unnecessary guidance, self-organizing
wealth accumulated, and their citizens enjoyed welfare group learning, and so on. Future research will need
and democracy. But this was not necessarily the case for to emphasize the education of the multi-dimensional
many countries. individual, take into account the free economic and
With the advent of a new era of globalization during political awareness needs of the child, and decrease
the last quarter of the twentieth century, the content the dose of ideology from a powerful center (Kanpol
and style of education came under debate, because 1997).
education now had to take into account new needs Lastly, the libertarians’ choice of educating their
of continuity and change. The liberal voices in the children on their own has attracted considerable
Western societies demand actual freedom for the family research activity (O’Keeffe 2004). Home schooling
and young individuals and a loosening of compulsory and school voucher systems are being applied, both
education. On the other hand, the market economy of which have problematic aspects for the parents.
700 C Computational Emotions

Research on alternative types of basic education and

organizational styles may help compensate for the Computational Modeling
function of compulsory education while at the same ▶ Learning Agent and Agent-Based Modeling
time supporting the free upbringing of the multi-
dimensional individual.

Cross-References
▶ Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning Computational Models of
▶ Curriculum and Learning Classical Conditioning
▶ Formal Learning
▶ Twenty-First Century Skills NESTOR A. SCHMAJUK
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience,
References Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
Chappell, C. (2010). Changing pedagogy: Contemporary vocational
learning. Adelaide: National Centre for Vocational Education
Research.
Green, A. (1990). Education and state formation: The rise of education
Synonyms
systems in England, France and the USA. London: McMillan. Associative learning; Mathematical models; Neural
Kanpol, B. (1997). Issues and trends in critical pedagogy. New Jersey: networks; Pavlovian conditioning
Hampton Press.
Lauder, H., Brown, P., Dillabough, J., & Halsey, A. H. (2006). Educa-
tion, globalization and social change. London: Oxford University
Definition
Press. Computational models of classical conditioning are
O’Keeffe, D. (2004). Compulsory education: An oxymoron of moder- mathematical models – including neural network
nity. London: Libertarian alliance. Retrieved September 17, 2010, models – that describe associative learning in terms of
from http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/educn/educn036.htm. the computation of different intervening variables, such
Rotberg, I. C. (Ed.). (2004). Balancing change and tradition in global
as attention, associations, predictions, and responses.
educational reform. Lanham: Scarecrow Education.
Most times, the models require the use of computer
simulations because they are formulated as nonlinear
systems for which analytical solutions are unknown
or difficult to obtain. The models can reproduce and
Computational Emotions predict experimental results under different condi-
tions. Explanations for the observed behaviors can be
▶ Emotion-Based Machine Learning derived from the observation of the model variables in
a given simulated experiment.

Theoretical Background
During classical (or Pavlovian) ▶ conditioning,
Computational Intelligence (CI) humans and animals change their behavior as a result
▶ Mathematical Models/Theories of Learning (TL) of their experience with different possible relationships
between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the uncon-
ditioned stimulus (US). Although apparently simple,
many models were proposed to account for the numer-
ous experimental results – described at the end of this
Computational Learning entry – regarding classical conditioning. Here, we intro-
Theory duce some of the most significant models, briefly explain
their mechanisms, and show how they address some
▶ Mathematical Linguistics and Learning Theory important experimental results.
 Computational Models of Classical Conditioning C 701

Competition to Gain Associations representations of the CS, the US, the interstimulus
interval (ISI) and the intertrial interval (ITI), direct
Competition Between CSs to Gain CS-US associations, and indirect CS-US associations
Association with a US through configural stimuli. Configural stimuli are cre-
Bush and Mosteller (1955) offered a differential equa- ated by combining the internal representations of sim- C
tion describing how the CS-US association increased ple CSs. Configural stimuli are maximally active when
whenever the CS was presented with the US and some specific CSs are present and others are absent.
decreased when the CS was presented by itself. Rescorla The model was the first model of classical condition-
and Wagner (1972) modified the Bush–Mosteller ing to include an individual error term (Blough 1975,
(Bush and Mosteller 1955) equation to reflect the p. 20) to limit the associations gained by a single CS.
assumption that CSs compete to gain association In addition to the results explained by the Rescorla–
with the US. The ▶ Rescorla–Wagner Model can Wagner model, the SD model also describes – among
describe acquisition, partial reinforcement, generaliza- other paradigms – conditioning with different CS dura-
tion, extinction by increasing the US strength, US- tions, rapid reacquisition, learning to learn, compound
preexposure effect, forward blocking, unblocking, conditioning, negative and positive patterning, ISI
supernormal overshadowing, conditioned inhibition, effects, ITI effects, serial feature-positive (FP) and fea-
conditioning, overexpectation, and simultaneous fea- ture-negative (FN) discriminations, and biconditional
ture-positive and feature-negative discriminations. discrimination. Schmajuk et al. (1998) extended the SD
Sutton and Barto (1981) introduced a version of the model to describe how the conditioned response (CR)
Rescorla–Wagner model that describes learning as is determined by both the US and the CS, an important
a moment-to-moment (“real time”) process. Van issue in occasion setting.
Hamme and Wasserman (1994) described a modified
version of the Rescorla and Wagner (1972) model. They Competition, Timing, and
proposed that the association of a CS with the US Configurations
decreases when the CS is absent, instead of staying Desmond and Moore (1988) offered a neural network
constant as in the original model. In addition to the that describes adaptive timing in classical condition-
paradigms listed above, the modified model can ing. Grossberg and Schmajuk (GS) (Grossberg and
explain paradigms recovery from overshadowing and Schmajuk 1989) presented a model that assumes that
blocking, and backward blocking. a CS generates multiple temporal representations and
can describe training with multiple USs. Buhusi and
Competition and Configurations Schmajuk (1999) combined the SD and the GS models
Kehoe (1988) offered a layered network model of asso- to describe timing of the peak CR, training with mul-
ciative learning in which the CS inputs, using a com- tiple USs, the temporal specificity of blocking, and
petitive rule as the previous models, learn to activate temporal specificity in serial FP discriminations.
configural hidden units when the US is presented. In
turn, the hidden units can become associated with the Competition Without Configurations
US. In addition to most of the results explained by the Some models incorporate competitive rules but do
original Rescorla–Wagner model, the model is able to not use configural representations to solve nonlinear
address rapid reacquisition, learning to learn, com- problems. For instance, McLaren and Mackintosh
pound conditioning, and negative and positive pat- (2000) developed an elemental associative theory
terning. Gluck and Myers (1993) also introduced which assumes that all stimuli activate a set of common
a model that also incorporates a competitive rule and elemental units which provide a solution to negative
configural stimuli. patterning and biconditional discriminations. The
Schmajuk and DiCarlo (SD) (Schmajuk and model is also able to describe latent inhibition and
DiCarlo 1992) presented a “generalized” version of perceptual learning. Similarly, Harris (2006) proposed
the Rescorla–Wagner (Rescorla and Wagner 1972) a model in which a limited-capacity attentional mech-
rule into a model that also included temporal anism boosts the activation of elements that enter an
702 C Computational Models of Classical Conditioning

attention buffer. Therefore, individual elements lose validity, conditioned inhibition as a slave process,
activation when a stimulus is part of a compound. inhibitory sensory preconditioning, and counteraction
The model explains negative patterning because more between overshadowing and latent inhibition.
elements enter the buffer when A or B are presented
separately on A+ or B+ trials, than when they are Attentional Models
presented together on AB
trials. On AB
trials,
inhibitory associations are formed between the stron- Attention Increases When the CS Is
ger elements of each CS (referred to as A and B) and the a Good Predictor of the US
weaker elements of the other CS (referred to as b and a), Mackintosh (1975) suggested that ▶ attention to a
because A and B are in the attention buffer and a and given CS increases when that CS is the best predictor
b are outside the buffer. However, this mechanism does of the US, and decreases otherwise. The model can be
not allow the model to describe learning to learn and applied to forward blocking, overshadowing, and
occasion setting. Among other paradigms, the model latent inhibition. At the same time, Grossberg (1975)
also explains positive patterning, biconditional dis- offered a ▶ neural network in which CSs compete to
criminations, latent inhibition, and the results of com- activate their input nodes in proportion to their
pound conditioning of an excitor and an inhibitor. salience and association with the US. Interestingly,
the network implements Mackintosh’s (1975) atten-
Pure Configurations tional rule. Along the similar lines, Moore and Stickney
Pearce (1987) proposed a purely configural model acti- (1982), Schmajuk and Moore (1989), and Schmajuk
vated by the whole pattern of stimulation. For instance, and DiCarlo (1991) presented real-time versions of
presentation of A activates node A and presentation of Mackintosh’s (1975) rule and Grossberg’s (1975) net-
the compound AB activates a different node AB, which works. Both Moore and Stickney (1982) and Schmajuk
allows the model to readily solve negative patterning and Moore (1989) incorporate simultaneous excitatory
and biconditional discriminations. and inhibitory associations.

Competition to Control the Attention Decreases When a CS Is

Conditioned Response Predicted
Miller and Schachtman (1985) proposed the compara- Wagner (1981) offered a Sometimes Opponent Process
tor hypothesis, which suggests if the strength of the (SOP) theory. The approach assumes that the type of
direct CS-US representation is greater than the indirect associations formed between a CS and a US depends on
representation that results from combining the CS- the state of activation of each stimulus. The theory
Comparator CS association with the Comparator CS- explains the results addressed by the Rescorla–Wagner
US association, the potential for excitatory responding model and also – among other paradigms – condition-
is larger than that for inhibitory responding. Denniston ing with different CS durations, ISI and ITI effects,
et al. (2001) introduced the extended comparator latent inhibition, backward conditioning, condi-
hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the CR is tioned diminution or facilitation of the unconditioned
still determined by the CS-US association compared response (UR), and pretrial CS and pretrial US effects.
with the CS-Comparator CS1 association combined Dickinson and Burke (1996) proposed a revised ver-
with the Comparator CS1-US associations. But, in sion of Wagner’s (1981) SOP theory that can describe
addition, both CS-Comparator CS1 and Comparator recovery from overshadowing and forward blocking,
CS1-US associations are the result of additional and backward blocking.
comparisons. More recently, Stout and Miller (2007)
offered a computational version of the extended Attention Increases When the CS Is
comparator hypothesis. The hypothesis successfully a Poor Predictor of the US
describes – among other paradigms – acquisition, Pearce and Hall (1980) proposed that attention to a
extinction, US-preexposure effect, forward blocking, given CS decreases when the US is accurately predicted.
overshadowing, conditioned inhibition, backward In addition to most of the results explained by the
blocking, potentiation, overexpectation, relative Rescorla–Wagner model, the model can incorporate
 Computational Models of Classical Conditioning C 703

simultaneous excitatory and inhibitory associations, mediated acquisition, mediated extinction, and medi-
explains latent inhibition, the Hall–Pearce effect, and ated attentional changes.
unblocking by decreasing the US. The model describes, among other paradigms, US-
preexposure effect, forward blocking, unblocking by
Attention Increases When the CS Is increasing the US, unblocking by decreasing the C
a Poor Predictor of the US or Any US, overshadowing, conditioned inhibition, super-
Other CS, and When the CS Is Poorly normal conditioning, overexpectation, recovery from
Predicted by Other CSs or the CX overshadowing, recovery from forward blocking, back-
Schmajuk, Lam, and Gray (SLG) (Schmajuk et al. 1996; ward blocking, recovery from backward blocking, con-
Schmajuk and Larrauri 2006; Larrauri and Schmajuk ditioning with different CS durations, ISI and ITI
2008; Schmajuk 2009) proposed a neural network effects, latent inhibition, recovery from LI, counterac-
model of classical conditioning. Figure 1 shows a tion and synergy between overshadowing and latent
block diagram of the network which includes (1) a inhibition, external disinhibition, spontaneous recovery,
short-term memory and feedback system, (2) an atten- renewal, reinstatement, rapid or slow reacquisition,
tion system, (3) an association system, and (4) a nov- extinction of conditioned inhibition, conditioned inhi-
elty system. The SLG includes equations that portray bition as a slave process, second-order conditioning,
behavior on a moment-to-moment basis, attentional excitatory and inhibitory sensory preconditioning, and
control of the formation and retrieval of CS-US learned irrelevance (Schmajuk 2010).
and CS-CS associations, competition among CSs to
become associated with the US or other CSs, and reen- Combined Architectures
trant feedback of predictions of the CSs. Attention to Buhusi and Schmajuk (1996) combined the mecha-
the CS is controlled by the CS-US associations, by nisms of the SLG and the SD models into a model
context-CS (CX-CS) associations, and by CS-CS asso- that explains all the results previously addressed by
ciations. The feedback system allows the model to each model. Along a similar line, Le Pelley (2004)
describe inferences and cognitive mapping, as well as presented a model that included excitatory and

Novelty’

CSs, US
Associations

VCS1–CS1

tCS + BCS VCS1–CS2

XCS
Short-term Attention VCS1–CX
Memory CR
VCX–CS1
ZCS
Feedback VCS1–US

Prediction of CS, BCS

Computational Models of Classical Conditioning. Fig. 1 Block diagram of the Schmajuk–Lam–Gray (SLG) (Schmajuk
et al. 1996) network. CS conditioned stimulus, US unconditioned stimulus, tCS short-term memory trace of the CS, BCS
prediction of the CS, zCS attentional memory, XCS internal representation of the CS, VCS1-CS1, VCS1-CS2, . . .,VCS1-US associations
CS1-CS1, CS1-CS2, . . ., CS1-US, CR conditioned response
704 C Computational Models of Classical Conditioning

inhibitory associations like Schmajuk and Moore (1989) 9. Conditioned ▶ inhibition. Stimulus CS2 acquires
model, an individual error term like Schmajuk and inhibitory conditioning with CS1 reinforced
DiCarlo (1992), an “attentional” associability similar trials interspersed with CS1-CS2 nonreinforced
to Mackintosh’s (1975), and a “salience” associability trials.
defined as in the Pearce–Hall (1980) model. 10. Supernormal conditioning. Reinforced CS1-CS2
presentations, following inhibitory conditioning
The Evolution of Computational of CS1, increase CS2 excitatory strength compared
Models of Conditioning with the case when it is trained in the absence
This entry presents a number of models that describe
of CS1.
many features of classical conditioning in terms of dif-
11. Overexpectation. Reinforced CS1-CS2 presenta-
ferent computations carried out on the conditioned
tions following independent reinforced CS1 and
and unconditioned stimuli. It is clear that the models
CS2 presentations result in a decrement in their
evolved – and are still evolving – from a few, relatively
initial associative strength.
simple equations to the present complex models able to
12. Simultaneous feature-positive discrimination.
account for many experimental results. The computa-
Reinforced simultaneous CS1-CS2 presentations,
tional complexity of these models puts our understand-
alternated with nonreinforced presentations of
ing of their workings beyond the ability of our intuitive
CS2, result in stronger responding to CS1-CS2
thinking and makes computer simulations irreplaceable.
than to CS2 alone. In this case, CS1 gains a strong
Interestingly, the complexity of the models frequently
excitatory association with the US.
results in function redundancy, a natural property of
13. Simultaneous feature-negative discrimination.
biologically evolved systems that is much desired in
Non-reinforced simultaneous CS1-CS2 presenta-
technologically designed products.
tions, alternated with reinforced presentations of
Some Important Classical CS2, result in weaker responding to CS1-CS2 than
Conditioning Results to CS2 alone. In this case, CS1 gains a strong inhib-
1. Acquisition. After a number of CS-US pairings, itory association with the US.
the CS elicits a conditioned response (CR) that 14. Recovery from overshadowing. Extinction of
increases in magnitude and frequency. the CS1 results in increased responding to the
2. ▶ Partial reinforcement. The US follows the CS overshadowed CS2.
only on some trials. 15. Recovery from forward blocking. Extinction of the
3. Generalization. A CS2 elicits a CR when it shares blocker CS1 results in increased responding to the
some characteristics with a CS1 that has been blocked CS2.
paired with the US. 16. Backward blocking. Conditioning to CS1 following
4. Extinction. When CS-US pairings are followed by conditioning to CS1-CS2 results in a weaker con-
presentations of the CS alone or by unpaired CS ditioning to CS2 than that attained with CS2-US
and US presentations, the CR decreases. pairings.
5. US-Preexposure effect. Presentation of the US in 17. Conditioning with different CS durations. Condi-
a training context prior to CS-US pairings retards tioning first increases and then decreases with
production of the CR. increasing CS durations when the US is presented
6. Forward blocking. Conditioning to CS1-CS2 fol- at the end of the CS.
lowing conditioning to CS1 results in a weaker 18. Rapid reacquisition. CS-US presentations follow-
conditioning to CS2 than that attained with CS2- ing extinction result in faster reacquisition.
US pairings. 19. Learning to learn. Learning a CS1-US association
7. Unblocking. Increasing the US increases facilitates the subsequent learning of a CS2-US
responding to the blocked CS2. association.
8. Overshadowing. Conditioning to CS1-CS2 results 20. Compound conditioning. Reinforced CS1-CS2
in a weaker conditioning to CS2 than that attained results in stronger responding to the compound
with CS2-US pairings. than to the components.
 Computational Models of Classical Conditioning C 705

21. Positive patterning. Reinforced CS1-CS2 presenta- 33. Latent inhibition. Preexposure to a CS followed
tions intermixed with nonreinforced CS1 and CS2 by CS-US pairings retard the generation of the CR.
presentations result in stronger responding to 34. Perceptual learning. Preexposure to a couple of CSs
CS1-CS2 than to the sum of the individual facilitates the acquisition of a discrimination
responses to CS1 and CS2. between them. C
22. Negative patterning. Nonreinforced CS1-CS2 pre- 35. Simultaneous excitatory and inhibitory associa-
sentations intermixed with reinforced CS1 and CS2 tions. A CS can simultaneously act as excitor and
presentations result in weaker responding to CS1- inhibitor of the CR.
CS2 than to the sum of the individual responses to 36. Backward conditioning. Excitatory conditioning is
CS1 and CS2. obtained when the US precedes the CS by a short
23. Interstimulus interval (ISI) effects. Conditioning is interval and inhibitory conditioning when the
maximal at an optimal ISI and gradually decreases interval is long.
with increasing ISIs. 37. Conditioned diminution or facilitation of the
24. Intertrial interval (ITI) effects. Conditioning to the unconditioned response (UR). A reduction in the
CS increases with longer ITIs. amplitude of the UR that immediately follows
25. Serial feature-positive discrimination. Reinforced a previously reinforced CS.
successive CS1-CS2 presentations, alternated with 38. Pretrial CS. Presentation of a CS before CS-US
nonreinforced presentations of CS2, result in stron- pairings decreases conditioning for short CS-CS
ger responding to CS1-CS2 than to CS2 alone. In intervals and increases conditioning for long CS-
this case, CS1 acts as an occasion setter. CS intervals.
26. Serial feature-negative discrimination. 39. Pretrial US. Presentation of a US before CS-US
Nonreinforced successive CS1-CS2 presentations, pairings decreases conditioning.
alternated with reinforced presentations of CS2, 40. Recovery from LI. Presentation of the US in the
result in weaker responding to CS1-CS2 than to context of preexposure and conditioning results in
CS2 alone. In this case, CS1 acts as an occasion renewed responding to the preexposed CS.
setter. 41. Unblocking by decreasing the US. Decreasing the
27. Biconditional discrimination. Four stimuli are US in the second phase of forward blocking can
paired in four different combinations, two that increase responding to CS2.
are reinforced (AB+ and CD+), and two that are 42. Hall–Pearce negative transfer effect. CS-US associ-
not (AC
and BD
). ations with a weak US slow down subsequent CS-
28. CR is determined by both the US and the CS. The US associations with a strong US.
nature of the CR is determined not only by the US 43. Counteraction between overshadowing and latent
but also by the CS. inhibition. The combined effect of latent inhibi-
29. Timing of the peak CR. The CR peaks at the time of tion and overshadowing results in stronger
the US presentation during training (equivalent to responding than that individually obtained with
responding at the ISI). each procedure.
30. Training with multiple USs. A CS trained with a US 44. Synergy between overshadowing and latent inhi-
presented at different ISIs will present peaks cen- bition. The combined effect of latent inhibition
tered at those ISIs. and overshadowing results in weaker respond-
31. Temporal specificity of the competition between CSs ing than that individually obtained with each
in blocking. Blocking is observed when the blocked procedure.
CS is paired in the same temporal relationship 45. External desinhibition. Presenting a novel stimulus
with the US as the blocking CS. immediately before a previously extinguished CS
32. Temporal specificity in serial FP discriminations. might produce renewed responding.
A serial feature-positive discrimination is best 46. Spontaneous recovery. Presentation of the CS after
when the feature-target interval during testing some time after the subject stopped responding
matches the training interval. might yield renewed responding.
706 C Computational Models of Classical Conditioning

47. Renewal. Presentation of the CS in a novel context Bush, R. R., & Mosteller, F. (1955). Stochastic models for learning.
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 Computational Models of Human Learning C 707

Classical conditioning II: Theory and research. New York: Definition

Appleton. The aim of computational models of cognition is to
Schmajuk, N. (2009). Attentional and error-correcting associative
propose very specific hypotheses about the underlying
mechanisms in classical conditioning. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 35, 407–418. cognitive architecture involved in some domain of
Schmajuk, N. A. (2010). Mechanisms in classical conditioning: A com- cognition (e.g., classical conditioning or language C
putational approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. processing). For this purpose, an artificial system is
Schmajuk, N. A., & DiCarlo, J. J. (1991). A neural network approach simulated, typically as a computer program. To imple-
to hippocampal function in classical conditioning. Behavioral
ment such an artificial system, all the computations it
Neuroscience, 105, 82–110.
Schmajuk, N. A., & DiCarlo, J. J. (1992). Stimulus configuration, clas- performs have to be specified exactly (hence the term
sical conditioning, and the hippocampus. Psychological Review, 99, computational model). In computational models of
268–305. human learning, the intention is to study human learn-
Schmajuk, N. A., & Larrauri, J. A. (2006). Experimental challenges to ing with the artificial system. Hence, a computationally
theories of classical conditioning: Application of an attentional specified learning rule is implemented, and the system
model of storage and retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychol-
learns some task (e.g., past-tense generation of verbs).
ogy. Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 1–20.
Schmajuk, N. A., & Moore, J. W. (1989). Effects of hippocampal
manipulations on the classically conditioned nictitating mem- Theoretical Background
brane response: Simulations by an attentional associative model. The aim of computational models of human learning
Behavioral Brain Research, 32, 173–189. (henceforth abbreviated as models) is to specify how
Schmajuk, N. A., Lam, Y., & Gray, J. A. (1996). Latent inhibition:
humans learn. This is done by constructing an artificial
A neural network approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology.
Animal Behavior Processes, 22, 321–349. system (typically implemented on a computer), which
Schmajuk, N. A., Lamoureux, J., & Holland, P. C. (1998). Occasion is given a (simplified) learning environment and a
setting and stimulus configuration: A neural network approach. learning rule that adapts the system to its environment.
Psychological Review, 105, 3–32. In the simplest case, the system consists of input units
Stout, S. C., & Miller, R. R. (2007). Sometimes-competing retrieval (which code the incoming stimuli), output units
(SOCR): A formalization of the comparator hypothesis. Psycho-
(which code the response given by the system), and
logical Review, 114, 759–783.
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (1981). Toward a modern theory of adaptive connection weights between input and output units.
networks: Expectation and prediction. Psychological Review, 88, For example, in the study of classical conditioning, the
135–170. system may have input units that code for particular
Van Hamme, L., & Wasserman, E. (1994). Cue competition in cau- conditional stimuli (CS) and output units that code for
sality judgments: The role of nonpresentation of compound
particular unconditional stimuli (US) (see Fig. 1). The
stimulus elements. Learning and Motivation, 25, 127–151.
Wagner, A. (1981). SOP: A model of automatic memory processing in
model’s task is to predict the US given each configura-
animal behavior. In N. E. Spear & R. R. Miller (Eds.), Information tion of CS. Learning consists of changing the connec-
processing in animals: Memory mechanisms (pp. 5–47). Hillsdale: tion weights between the units of the system. The
Lawrence Erlbaum. learning rule specifies how exactly connections should
be changed given the current CS and US.
Two indices can be distinguished to determine how
plausible a particular model is as a theory of the
Computational Models of domain of interest. One index of plausibility of a
Human Learning model is how well its performance compares to learn-
ing by humans (behavioral plausibility). One aspect of
TOM VERGUTS behavioral plausibility is whether the model is up to
Department of Psychology, Ghent University, tasks of the same complexity as humans. This refers
Ghent, Belgium to the computational power of a model. Another aspect
of behavioral plausibility is whether its performance
measures (e.g., error rates, error patterns, or reaction
Synonyms times) are similar to those of humans. Besides behav-
Connectionist models of human learning; Neural net- ioral plausibility, a second index is how well the model
work models of human learning adheres to biological principles (biological plausibility).
708 C Computational Models of Human Learning

Input units Output units To make this simple model more powerful,
researchers have extended it to include hidden units
CS1 (see Fig. 2). In this way, the computational power of the
US1 model greatly increased. As a simple example, deter-
mining the parity (odd/even) of the number of input
CS2 units that is active is impossible without hidden units,
but it becomes possible when hidden units are added.
US2 This type of model is applied to domains where com-
CS3
plex input–output transformations are required such
as reading aloud (orthography-phonology mapping),
sensory coordinate transformations (e.g., from eye-
to head-centered object representations), and mental
arithmetic. To train a model containing hidden units,
Teaching signal a learning rule is specified in which the training signal
given at the output level is passed backward in the
Computational Models of Human Learning. Fig. 1 network (from output to hidden units, a process called
Learning procedure in supervised model back propagation; see Fig. 2). Unfortunately, this pro-
cess is even less biologically plausible than the Rescorla-
Wagner learning rule.
These two indices are often in a trade-off relation (see Unsupervised models do not receive teacher signals,
below). as the name suggests, and are therefore more biologi-
Historically, two types of model have been influen- cally plausible. These models trace back to the influen-
tial: supervised and unsupervised models. In super- tial proposal by Donald Hebb that if two units (cells)
vised models, an external teaching signal is injected in are active together, their connection weight will be
the computational system and used in the model’s increased. Learning rules based on this principle are
learning rule (Fig. 1). This is then used to adapt the called Hebbian learning rules. Much data attest to the
configuration of the system. A seminal model from this biological plausibility of this learning rule. However,
class is the Rescorla-Wagner model to account for models based (only) on Hebbian learning typically
aspects of classical conditioning. One of the main have much less computational power than supervised
attractions of this model was that it was able to account learning models and are in this sense less behaviorally
for the phenomenon of blocking, observed in human plausible.
and nonhuman organisms, which holds that CS–US A third class of models is reinforcement learning
relations are learned only when the US is not predict- models. They strike a middle ground between the
able. This attests to the behavioral plausibility of the two traditional classes of model (supervised and
Rescorla-Wagner model, and made it extremely popu- unsupervised models) and may be called weakly super-
lar as a model of relatively simple learning tasks. On the vised. They have recently become very popular because
other hand, there is little direct biological evidence for of their biological plausibility. In such models, there is
the existence of this type of learning rule in the human no feedback to the system about what activation level
brain, except in very specific areas such as the cerebel- each of the units should have (as is the case in super-
lum (Gluck and Myers 2001). vised models), but instead a broad reinforcement signal
Researchers in cognitive science have applied and is provided which informs the system whether its per-
extended this model to human learning in domains formance was “good” or “bad” (Fig. 3). One reason for
well beyond conditioning. For example, Rumelhart the recent interest in reinforcement learning models is
and McClelland (1986) applied it to learning to gener- the remarkable convergence on similar concepts in two
ate the past tense of English verbs. Attesting to its traditionally separated research streams, computer sci-
behavioral plausibility, it was observed that during ence and neurophysiology. In computer science, so-
learning the model exhibited similarities to the error called temporal difference models of reinforcement
patterns of children. learning learn from a signal expressing the difference
 Computational Models of Human Learning C 709

Input units Hidden units Output units

(intermediate
(e.g., orthographic features) (e.g., phonological features)
computations)

Backpropagated
teaching signal

Teaching signal

Computational Models of Human Learning. Fig. 2 Learning procedure in supervised model with hidden units
(back propagation)

between two successive evaluations of the validity

Input units Hidden units Output units
(good/bad) of the environment (Sutton and Barto
(intermediate 1998). In neurophysiology, neurons in the monkey
computations)
brain stem have been identified that exhibit the
same properties as these temporal difference signals.
In particular, when learning that a cue predicts
reinforcement, these neurons initially fire when
the rewarding stimulus is presented, but after training
they respond to the cue and no longer to the reinforce-
ment itself. These brain stem neurons are dopaminer-
gic and project widely to the subcortical basal ganglia
and prefrontal cortex. Recent research shows that
reinforcement learning models are also behaviorally
plausible (Frank et al. 2004).

Important Scientific Research and

Open Questions
In recent years, the dual aims of behavioral and bio-
Reinforcement signal
logical plausibility are more and more successfully
Computational Models of Human Learning. Fig. 3 integrated. Some domains of human learning still
Learning procedure in reinforcement model remain challenging, however. In particular, high-level
710 C Computational Models of Learning

reasoning is at this time not easily accommodated by Roelfsema, P. R., & van Ooyen, A. (2005). Attention-gated reinforce-
the type of models described here. To address this, ment learning of internal representations for classification. Neu-
ral Computation, 17, 2176–2214.
recent models endow biologically plausible models
Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (1986). Parallel Distributed
with extra computational power. One interesting devel- Processing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
opment is to add hierarchical representations to rein- Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (1998). Reinforcement learning: An
forcement learning models (Botvinick et al. 2009) introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
which can be used for hierarchical planning. Another
is to add randomly connected neurons that have dif-
ferent activation states at different time points, which
can be used for precisely timed action sequences (e.g., Computational Models of
dancing; Buonomano and Maas 2009).
Learning
As mentioned above, Hebbian learning in itself
is not very powerful; however, it can be used as ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
a building block for more powerful rules. For example,
a reinforcement learning rule can be constructed
by modulation of a Hebbian learning rule. Hebbian
learning in a particular cortical region could be Computational Natural
increased whenever a dopaminergic reinforcement sig-
nal arrives there. This even allows construction of
Language Learning
learning rules with the same computational power as ▶ Machine Learning of Natural Language
backpropagation learning (Roelfsema and van Ooyen
2005). In recent years, other neurotransmitters have
been proposed to provide important learning signals
for the cortex (e.g., serotonin, noradrenalin). Also
Computer Adaptive Testing
these neurotransmitters could operate by modulating
Hebbian learning processes. Recent research investi- ▶ Adaptive Evaluation Systems
gates how these neurotransmitters interact with corti-
cal areas to obtain powerful devices for learning in the
human brain (Doya 2008).
Computer Simulation Model
Cross-References
▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning DIRK IFENTHALER
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning Institut für Erziehungswissenschaft, Albert-Ludwigs-
▶ Reinforcement Learning University Freiburg, Freiburg, BW, Germany

References
Botvinick, M. M., Niv, Y., & Barto, A. C. (2009). Hierarchically Synonyms
organized behavior and its neural foundation: A reinforcement
Simulation model; Simulator model; System simula-
learning perspective. Cognition, 113, 262–280.
Buonomano, D. V., & Maas, W. (2009). State-dependent computa- tion model
tions: Spatiotemporal processing in cortical networks. Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 113–125. Definition
Doya, K. (2008). Modulators of decision making. Nature Neurosci- A computer simulation model is a computer program
ence, 11, 410–416. or algorithm which simulates changes of a modeled
Frank, M. J., Seeberger, L. C., & O’Reilly, R. C. (2004). By carrot or by
system in response to input signals.
stick: Cognitive reinforcement learning in Parkinsonism. Science,
306, 1940–1943.
Gluck, M. A., & Myers, C. E. (2001). Gateway to memory: An intro- Theoretical Background
duction to neural network modeling of the hippocampus and learn- Simulation has become a widely used tool for training
ing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. and for research on human interaction with complex
 Computer Simulation Model C 711

work and learning environments. A simulation is Computer simulation models include three major
defined as a working representation of reality (Jones determinants: Time, behavior, and data (see Fig. 1).
1980). Further, a simulation may be an abstracted, The factor time defines a static or dynamic com-
simplified, or accelerated model of a process or system puter simulation model. A static computer simulation
which allows exploration where reality is too expensive, model includes variables and parameters which are not C
complex, dangerous, fast, or slow (de Freitas 2006). time dependent. Dynamic computer simulation
The richness in the use of simulations to support models include variables and parameters which model
learning is clearly documented in the literature and time-varying states of the simulated phenomenon.
numerous research projects. Training programs using The factor behavior defines a stochastic or determin-
simulations have been successfully applied in the fields istic computer simulation model. Stochastic computer
of flight training, health care education, dental educa- simulation models are characterized through their
tion, command and control training of large incidents, indeterminacy in future evolutions which are described
team-based decision making, simulations for the train- by probability distributions. Deterministic computer
ing of firefighters, teacher education, and many other simulation models include no randomization in the
domains (see Ifenthaler 2009). development of future events of the simulation.
Technically, computer simulations which model A special deterministic model is a chaotic computer
some specific domain of reality allow users to change simulation model whose behavior cannot be entirely
input variables by manipulating objects or entering predicted. The factor data defines a discrete or contin-
data. The results of the simulation are represented as uous computer simulation model. Discrete computer
dynamically generated graphs, numeric displays, and simulation models include variables which change only
texts (de Jong and van Joolingen 2008). Hence, three at specific points in time at which an event occurs.
major components of simulations can be identified: Continuous computer simulation models include vari-
(1) the simulation model, (2) the execution of the ables which change in a continuous way including
simulation model, and (3) the analysis of the executed infinite number of states.
simulation model. First, the simulation model may be The development of adequate computer simulation
based on declarative, conceptual, or functional under- models requires the definition of the three major
standing of a specific phenomenon to be simulated. determinants; time, behavior, and data. Besides these
Second, the execution of the simulation model is factors, numerous design decisions must be taken into
defined through specific algorithms, e.g., serial execu- account, e.g., the application area, the programming
tion, parallel execution, or fuzzy execution algorithms. framework, the user interface, the system support, the
Finally, the analysis approach of the executed simula- simulation engine, and so forth (for details see
tion model may focus on the input–output processes, Fishwick 1998; Sulistio et al. 2004).
the verification of results, the visualization of output
data, and the validation of the simulated output. How-
ever, a sufficient simulation requires a well-founded Behavior
model of the simulated phenomenon – the computer • Stochastic
simulation model. • Deterministic
Initially, a simulation model has been realized as Time Data
a mathematical model. These mathematical models • Static • Discrete
have become a useful tool in physics, chemistry, biol- • Dynamic • Continuous
ogy, economics, engineering, and social sciences. How-
ever, the ad hoc manipulation of variables from outside Computer
a predefined mathematical model is not possible. simulation
Accordingly, the application of computer programs or model
algorithms enables higher variability and stronger indi-
vidualized simulation runs. This is primarily realized
through the change of parameters of the computer Computer Simulation Model. Fig. 1 Determinants of
simulation model. computer simulation models
712 C Computer Simulation Model

e1
x1
p12 p12 e1
x1 y1
p21
y1
Computer Simulation Model. Fig. 2 Simple path model Y2
p11
including one independent variable

e2
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions Computer Simulation Model. Fig. 3 Expanded path
From a cognitive science perspective, learning initi- model
ated by simulation involves explorative thinking and
inductive and analogical reasoning. This places high
cognitive and metacognitive demands on the learner, The visualization of these two equations results in
who must generate hypotheses and test them by the following path model (see Fig. 3):
accomplishing learning tasks as well as performing The path coefficients can be used to decompose the
experiments in the simulated environment. Accord- correlations in the path model into direct and indirect
ingly, simulations of complex processes and systems effects (the total causal effect of variable i on variable j is
often require complex problem solving. Complex the sum of the values of all the paths from i to j). The
problem solving requires iterative steps of hypothesis total causal effect on y1 is the sum of all direct and
testing as well as increased time for constructing appro- indirect effects (see (4)):
priate mental models. Mental models are constructed
ef f total ¼ p12  p11 þ p21 ð4Þ
in order to hypothesize and understand the structure of
the simulation process or system and to simulate trans- Applying the mathematical assumptions of a path
formations of these processes and systems mentally. model and the related path coefficients, we are able to
Currently, research focuses on the development of transform a path model into equations for realizing the
adequate computer simulation models for the social necessary computer simulation model. All equations of
and cognitive sciences. Ifenthaler (2009) suggests the direct and indirect effects from the path model are
application of path models for the development of included in the computer simulation model.
computer simulation models. Path models include Future research should address a formal and struc-
path coefficients, which are standardized regression tural comparison of available computer simulation
coefficients showing the direct effect of an independent models as well as a meta-analysis of simulation models
variable on a dependent variable. Additionally, regres- and their effects in the field of learning and instruction.
sion residuals are considered in the equations. A simple
path model including one descriptive variable x1 is Cross-References
shown in (1): ▶ Modeling and Simulation
▶ Simulation and Learning: The Role of Mental
y 1 ¼ p12  x1 þ e1 ð1Þ
Models
e1 indicates the residual of the path model. ▶ Simulation-Based Learning
The path model described in (1) can be visualized as
follows (see Fig. 2): References
If the path model in Fig. 2 is expanded with an de Freitas, S. I. (2006). Using games and simulations for supporting
additional descriptive variable, it can be specified by learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(4), 343–358.
the following path equations (see (2), (3)): de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. R. (2008). Model-facilitated learning.
In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van Merrienboer, &
y 1 ¼ p11  y 2 þ p12  x1 þ e1 ð2Þ M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational com-
munications and technology (pp. 457–468). New York: Taylor &
y 1 ¼ p21  x1 þ e2 ð3Þ Francis.
 Computer-Based Learning C 713

Fishwick, P. A. (1998). A taxonomy for simulation modeling based

on programming language principles. IIE Transactions, 30(9), Computer-Based Learning
811–820.
Ifenthaler, D. (2009). Using a causal model for the design and devel-
DIRK IFENTHALER
opment of a simulation game for teacher education. Technology,
Instruction, Cognition and Learning, 6(3), 193–212.
Institut für Erziehungswissenschaft, Albert-Ludwigs- C
Jones, K. (1980). Simulations: A handbook for teachers. London: University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Kogan Page.
Sulistio, A., Yeo, C. S., & Buyya, R. (2004). A taxonomy of computer-
based simulations and its mapping to parallel and distributed Synonyms
systems simulation tools. Software Practice and Experience, 34,
Computer-based training; eLearning; Multimedia
653–673. doi:10.1002/spe.585.
learning; Online learning

Definition
In computer-based learning (CBL), the computer is
used for instructional purposes whereas the computer
Computer-Assisted Instruction hard- and software as well as the peripherals and input
(CAI) devices are key components of the educational envi-
▶ Interactive Learning ronment. CBL assists individuals in learning using
multiple representations of information for a specific
educational purpose. Common innovative realizations
of CBL to improve teaching and learning are hypertext,
simulations, and microworlds.
Computer-Assisted Learning
(CAL) Theoretical Background
The development of the first integrated circuit by
▶ Interactive Learning Noyce and Kilby in the late 1950s marked the dawn
of the role of computer technology in education.
In the following years the microcomputer was de-
veloped featuring audio, colors, peripherals, and
input devices, as well as a graphical user interface
Computer-Assisted Training (Ifenthaler 2010). In CBL, the computer is regarded
(CBT) as the key component of the educational environment.
▶ Interactive Learning Individuals are assisted in learning from multiple rep-
resentations of information for a specific educational
purpose. CBL provides promising opportunities for
fostering meaningful learning (Lajoie 2000). Common
innovative realizations of CBL to improve teaching
Computer-Based Collaborative and learning are hypertext (text that links to other
Learning information), simulations (characteristics of a system
can be influenced through change of underlying vari-
▶ Online Collaborative Learning ables), and microworlds (environment where individ-
uals explore information and construct or change the
environment).
In the 1960s and 1970s, PLATO (Programmed
Computer-Based Education Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) was the
(CBE) first computer system which was used for programmed
instruction (Lockee et al. 2008). Programmed ins-
▶ Interactive Learning truction has influenced modern instructional design
714 C Computer-Based Learning

processes and laid the foundations for computer- interests (Seel and Casey 2003), and a basic education in
mediated instruction (e.g., Glaser 1965; Hartley 1974; information technology became a real hit in these years
Stolurow 1961). (Altermann-Köster et al. 1990). Educators tried just
Especially the 1980s and 1990s produced a huge about everything they could to teach their students
range of CBL, e.g., computer-assisted learning how to use computers. More important than these
(McDougall 1985), multimedia learning environments changes in the classroom, however, was the fact that
(Mayer 2001), hypermedia environments (Dillon and information and communication technology were
Jobst 2005), or simulations, games, and microworlds increasingly becoming a part of the daily lives of chil-
(Reiber 2005). However, since the early days of CBL it dren, teenagers, and adults.
has been subject of scrutiny and debate with arguments Like it or not, the general proliferation of com-
being advanced both in support of and against the use puter-based information and communication tech-
of computers for learning and instruction. nologies is irreversible, and computers now play an
A quarter of a century ago Greenfield (1984) took important role in human learning in everyday life as
up the topic of new media and communication tech- well as at educational institutions (Ifenthaler 2010).
nologies and discussed their possible effects on the
learning and behavior of children. The topic was
approached from a fundamentally positive, albeit crit-
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
ical perspective. New technologies were understood
Today, there is widespread agreement among educa-
as cultural artifacts that demand complex cognitive
tional theorists on the point that educational applica-
skills for their use which are not learned or taught in
tions of modern information and communication
school, but rather only through active manipulation
technologies can be made more effective when they
and practice in everyday life. However, the discussion
are embedded in multimedia learning environments
in the 1980s was dominated more by critical voices.
created to enable productive learning. CBL environ-
Günther (1986), for instance, warned vehemently
ments should be designed to enable learners to
against an overly hasty introduction of computers in
explore them with various amounts of guidance and
schools and was only prepared to accept it if the schools
construct knowledge and develop problem-solving
also offered regular outdoor excursions and field trips.
methods independently (Ifenthaler 2009; Seel et al.
The well-known proponent of educational reform von
2009). The key to success is seen not so much in how
Hentig (1987) recommended waiting as long as possi-
the information is presented as in how well the learners
ble to offer computer courses to school students.
can manipulate the different tools available in the
Haft (1988) commented on this discussion by
CBL environment on their own. However, empirical
pointing out that every technological advancement in
research also shows that students often struggle while
history has led to a perceived loss of immediacy, belief,
confronted with a CBL environment (Lajoie and
and confidence in one’s own experiences but that
Azevedo 2006). Extensive use of a computer as a tool
in most cases the pessimistic predictions concerning
for solving problems can help learners to concentrate
the proliferation of new technologies has turned out to
on understanding and solving problems rather than the
be ungrounded. Whereas ardent educational reformers
finished product or the acquisition of declarative
warned of the dangers of the computer, parents and
knowledge and can awaken their curiosity and creativ-
children were quick to see the potential of the computer,
ity. Several characteristics of the new technologies con-
and the PC made its way rapidly into children’s bed-
tribute to this effect:
rooms – more rapidly, at any rate, than into schools.
Schools began reacting to this challenge in the ● The new information and communication technol-
1990s and made systematic efforts to improve the ogies are interactive systems.
information technology competence of their students. ● The learners themselves are placed in control of
Computer literacy, the ability to work competently what and how they learn.
and effectively with computer technologies and pro- ● The computer can model real situations and com-
grams, advanced increasingly to the fore of pedagogical plex systems and simulate their behavior.
 Computer-Based Learning C 715

● The learners can receive immediate feedback on can be supported effectively is sometimes left out of
their activities. the picture.
● In many cases the computer can also execute com- Much of what we discussed above is already dated
plex operations (e.g., simulations of dangerous sit- in a technological as well as a pedagogical sense and will
uations) which cannot be executed as well or at all in a few years be hardly more than a historical footnote C
by other media (Seel and Dijkstra 2004). like the Jasper Woodbury Series (Cognition and Tech-
nology Group at Vanderbilt 1997) or the goal-based
Indeed, when one considers that modern com- scenarios (Schank et al. 1994). We believe that the days
puters can represent all forms of information and of pre-programmed online courses are numbered, in
knowledge needed for learning and problem solving, which the learner – as in the classical paradigm of
the current state of computer technology seems to programmed instruction – is viewed more as an audi-
make the tedious process of integrating traditional ence than as an active constructor. In the near future,
media (such as texts, graphics, video) technically learners will be the constructors of their own environ-
superfluous and obsolete. Moreover, recent develop- ments and create the structures of the content units on
ments in the area of interactive software provide their own.
unique possibilities for creating virtual learning envi-
ronments and modeling complex systems without Cross-References
professional guidance. The options for independent ▶ Blended Learning
development of interactive environments are manifold, ▶ Learning Management Systems
and the graphical capabilities of new software programs ▶ Model-Based Learning with System Dynamics
include exciting animations and simulations of highly ▶ Programmed Instruction
complex processes. Last but not least, everything is
comparatively inexpensive and thus readily available
to the broader public (Ifenthaler 2010).
References
Altermann-Köster, M., Holtappels, H. G., Günther, H., Kanders, M.,
However, the advantages of CBL lie not only in the Pfeiffer, H., & de Witt, C. (1990). Bildung über computer?
area of education, but also in administrative, financial, Informationstechnische Grundbildung in der Schule. München:
and social domains. The main educational advantages Juventa.
may be summed up as follows: Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1997). The Jasper
project. Lessons in curriculum, instruction, assessment, and profes-
● The independence of learning and teaching from the sional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
constraints of time and space: Learners (e.g., college Dillon, A., & Jobst, J. (2005). Multimedia learning with hypermedia.
In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia
students) can follow a course from any point on the
learning (pp. 569–588). New York: Cambridge University Press.
earth and at any point in time, and the courses can Glaser, R. (Ed.). (1965). Teaching machines and programmed
be offered worldwide. instruction (Vol. II). Washington, DC: National Education
● The individuality of learning: Courses can be Association.
adapted to the needs of each individual learner Greenfield, P. M. (1984). Mind and media. The effects of television,
computers, and video games. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
and course materials can be reused and rearranged
Press.
as often as one likes (provided that they are orga- Günther, H. (1986). Jugend und computer. Auswertung einer
nized in modules). empirischen Untersuchung. Pädagogische Rundschau, 40, 669–686.
Haft, H. (1988). Einführung: Neue Medien und Sozialisation – Die
Although these advantages are actually all beyond Technik rennt, die Forschung humpelt. Unterrichtswissenschaft,
question, the discussion on the educational use of 16(4), 2–4.
learning in the digital age often suffers from being Hartley, J. (1974). Programmed instruction. Programmed Learning
limited to the technological potential of information and Educational Technology, 11, 278–291.
Ifenthaler, D. (2009). Using a causal model for the design and devel-
and communication technologies (Seel and Ifenthaler
opment of a simulation game for teacher education. Technology,
2009). The technological possibilities for designing Instruction, Cognition and Learning, 6(3), 193–212.
CBL environments are doubtlessly great, but the Ifenthaler, D. (2010). Learning and instruction in the digital age.
pedagogically significant question as to how learning In J. M. Spector, D. Ifenthaler, P. Isaı́as, Kinshuk, &
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D. G. Sampson (Eds.), Learning and instruction in the digital age:

Making a difference through cognitive approaches, technology- Computer-Based Learning
facilitated collaboration and assessment, and personalized commu-
nications (pp. 3–10). New York: Springer.
Environments
Lajoie, S. P. (Ed.). (2000). Computers as cognitive tools, volume two: No
more walls. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. SUSANNE P. LAJOIE, LAURA NAISMITH
Lajoie, S., & Azevedo, R. (2006). Teaching and learning in technology- Department of Educational and Counselling
rich environments. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Psychology (ECP), McGill University, Montreal,
Handbook of educational technology (2nd ed., pp. 803–821). QC, Canada
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lockee, B. B., Larson, M. B., Burton, J. K., & Moore, D. M. (2008).
Programmed technologies. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill,
J. van Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of Synonyms
research on educational communications and technology (3rd ed., Computers as cognitive tools; Computer-enhanced
pp. 187–197). New York: Taylor & Francis. learning; Technology-rich learning environments
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
McDougall, A. (1985). Input–output devices: some ways forward.
Definition
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 1(1), 33–39. The term computer-based learning environments (CBLEs)
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.1985.tb00006.x. refers to a broad array of uses of technology that are
Reiber, L. P. (2005). Multimedia learning in games, simulations, and aligned with theories that support learning. Researchers
microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook who design and evaluate CBLEs come from multiple
of multimedia learning (pp. 549–568). New York: Cambridge
disciplines including, but not limited to, education, psy-
University Press.
Schank, R. C., Fano, A., Bell, B., & Jona, M. (1994). The design chology, and computer science. Given this interdisciplin-
of goal-based scenarios. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), arity, there is a proliferation of phrases describing the
305–345. uses of technology in education, for instance, intelligent
Seel, N. M., & Casey, N. C. (2003). Changing conceptions of tech- tutoring systems, computer-assisted instruction, interac-
nological literacy. In P. Attewell & N. M. Seel (Eds.), Disadvan-
tive multimedia learning environments, computers as
taged teens and computer technologies (pp. 35–55). Münster:
Waxmann.
cognitive tools, simulations, microworlds, computer-
Seel, N. M., & Dijkstra, S. (Eds.). (2004). Curriculum, plans, and supported collaborative learning, E-learning, peda-
processes in instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. gogical agent-based environments, and virtual reality
Seel, N. M., & Ifenthaler, D. (2009). Online lernen und lehren. environments. The phrase CBLEs encompasses this
München: Ernst Reinhardt Verlag. broad range of technology where the learning envi-
Seel, N. M., Ifenthaler, D., & Pirnay-Dummer, P. (2009). Mental
ronment is designed for an instructional purpose and
models and problem solving: Technological solutions for
measurement and assessment of the development of exper- uses technology to support the learner in achieving
tise. In P. Blumschein, W. Hung, D. H. Jonassen, & J. Strobel the goals of instruction (Lajoie and Azevedo 2006).
(Eds.), Model-based approaches to learning: Using systems CBLEs have been designed in a variety of disci-
models and simulations to improve understanding and problem plines, for a variety of learner populations, ranging
solving in complex domains (pp. 17–40). Rotterdam: Sense
from elementary school learning to university educa-
Publishers.
Stolurow, L. M. (1961). Teaching by machine. Washington, DC:
tion and beyond to non-formal learning situations in
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. the real world and in professional practice. CBLEs are
von Hentig, H. (1987). Werden wir die Sprache der Computer typically discipline specific (e.g., mathematics, physics,
sprechen? Der paedagogische Aspekt. Neue Sammlung, 27, medical training), and the format of instruction varies
70–85. (e.g., drill-and-practice, problem-based, immersive,
case-based) based on the theories that underlie their
design.

Computer-Based Learning Theoretical Background

Environment Technology is ubiquitous but its mere presence does
not necessarily lead to better learning. CBLEs are envi-
▶ Model-Based Learning with System Dynamics ronments that align the design of the environment with
 Computer-Based Learning Environments C 717

theories and empirical research about what leads to context in which learning takes place. Cultural and
effective learning experiences. CBLEs can be designed societal issues are also considered in learning theories
to help students during thinking, problem solving, and that consider communities of learners and communi-
learning by providing them with opportunities to use ties of practice as a factor in learning. CBLEs can
their knowledge in complex contexts and meaningful provide situated learning experiences, where learners C
activities or situations. interact with complex problem-solving situations,
There is a long history of CBLEs and consequent using multiple media (e.g., text, video, animations,
theories underlying their design. Behaviorist stimulus- and diagrams). Theories of intelligence and aptitude
response theorists such as Skinner (1957) influenced tell us that learners differ in how they learn, for example
the use of computer-assisted instruction where multi- some learners respond better to verbal material and
ple-choice questions could be administered to students others respond better to visual material. There is not
automatically. The computer was seen as a “teaching one best way to teach individuals given these individual
machine” whose key benefit was its ability to provide differences and consequently CBLEs that use multiple
immediate feedback to reinforce correct responses or to representations can help to meet a variety of individual
correct incorrect responses with predetermined solu- learning needs (Moreno and Mayer 2007). Further-
tions. Questions would increase in difficulty as learners more, CBLEs can scaffold learners in the context of
demonstrated mastery at a particular level. Once stu- their learning by providing adaptive technological
dents mastered one set of problems they would then assistance in the form of computer tutoring (e.g., intel-
move on to the next level of difficulty. ligent tutoring systems) or pedagogical agents or with
The influence of developments in the information human assistance of those more proficient. The social
sciences (e.g., mathematical theory of communication, context of learning and collaboration using CBLEs is
computer programming, systems analysis) contributed a field in itself where complex methodologies docu-
to the development of cognitive theories that viewed ment how human dialogue by peers and mentors leads
learning as a form of information processing. Instead of to better understanding.
just looking at learning outcomes, problems could be
decomposed into the individual cognitive processes Important Scientific Research and
needed to solve them. The development of domain- Open Questions
specific cognitive models made it possible to identify As technology becomes part of our everyday lives,
and remediate errors that learners might make in the educators need to incorporate such changes in their
context of a particular problem-solving situation. classrooms. Researchers can support educators by
CBLEs could be designed to use complex production demonstrating the effectiveness of CBLEs and by
rules to detect and correct student misconceptions designing more interactive and engaging environ-
(Anderson 1996) and provide appropriate feedback ments. Technology can respond to individuals through
based on the identification of learning impasses. The- its actions be they text-based, verbal, or reactions of
ories of expertise led to the identification of complex personal/pedagogical agents or avatars. The prevailing
models of competency that could be used to help the view is that the more natural the interaction with
less proficient become more proficient more efficiently. computer-based learning environments, the less awk-
CBLEs could use such models as exemplars for novices ward and more realistic the learning situation. Identi-
to observe, as well as benchmarks for dynamic forms fying the optimal level of realism to promote effective
of assessment of individual learners, to determine the engagement and learning is an open question, though
type of feedback learners would need in the context many researchers strive toward passing Turing’s (1950)
of learning. test of machine intelligence, whereby a reasonable per-
Situated learning theories describe how human son would not be able to distinguish between a human
thought and action are best supported in contexts and computer response to his or her actions. Given that
that provide opportunities for learners to integrate situating learning in authentic, meaningful, and engag-
their information from multiple sources (Greeno ing settings is the goal of current CBLEs, it is very likely
1989). Learning theories are now looking at the inter- that we need to keep moving forward in pursuit of
section between cognition, motivation, and the social artificial intelligence techniques applied to education
718 C Computer-Based Music Instruction (CBMI)

practice. One particular area of current research is in in project-based activities where students may create
the use of natural language techniques and dialogue. their own content. This type of CBLE is a challenge
For example, Graesser has developed AutoTutor (www. to traditional modes of schooling and is often best
autotutor.org), a system that engages in dialogue with assessed in the context of design experiments and
students learning about Newtonian physics and adap- other participatory methodologies.
tively responds using a combination of explanations,
prompts, and feedback on errors. Cross-References
A second approach to enhancing engagement is to ▶ Agent-Based Modeling
detect and respond to changes in students’ emotions ▶ Computer-Based Learning
and levels of motivation as they use a CBLE. This builds ▶ Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
on the research of Lepper, Malone, and others that ▶ Human-Computer-Interaction and Learning
shows that successful human tutors are able to main- ▶ Interactive Learning Environments
tain and direct continuous attention to both cognitive/ ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments
informational and motivational/affective factors, and ▶ Virtual Reality Learning Environments
formulate specific goals to maintain students’ confi-
dence, challenge, curiosity, and control. Sensor tech- References
nology can be used to detect emotion through a Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition.
combination of physiological measures (e.g., EEGs, American Psychologist, 51, 355–365.
seat position, eye gaze, facial expression, skin conduc- Greeno, J. G. (1989). A perspective on thinking. American Psycholo-
gist, 44, 134–141.
tance). A relatively new area of research is investigating
Lajoie, S. P., & Azevedo, R. (2006). Teaching and learning in
how these physiological data can be used concurrently technology-rich environments. In P. A. Alexander &
with observational data, self-report, and outcome data P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology
to create motivating learning circumstances using (2nd ed., pp. 803–821). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
CBLEs. Building on previous work in gesture and Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning
environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 309–326.
face recognition, Lester has devised computational
Shute, V. J., Ventura, M., Bauer, M. I., & Zapata-Rivera, D. (2009).
models of affect recognition (automatically recogniz- Melding the power of serious games and embedded assessment
ing students’ affective states) and affect expression (that to monitor and foster learning: Flow and grow. In U. Ritterfeld,
automatically recognize and classify students’ affective M. Cody, & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Serious games: Mechanisms
states). Lester, Moreno, Azevedo, and VanLehn are each and effects (pp. 295–321). Mahwah, NJ: Routledge/Taylor and
currently examining how pedagogical agents (intelligent Francis.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
virtual tutors) can employ language, facial expressions,
Prentice-Hall.
and gestures to engage learners and create effective Turing, A. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind,
learning experiences. 236, 433–460.
Engagement is a necessary, but insufficient, condi-
tion for learning. New and innovative assessments need
to be created concurrently with new CBLEs to ensure
that we are collecting evidence of learning in these new
contexts. This can be a challenge given that different Computer-Based Music
domain-specific competencies are assessed in each Instruction (CBMI)
CBLE. One innovative approach to this challenge is
the use of stealth assessment, a process by which learner ▶ Technology in Music Instruction and Learning
performance data is continuously gathered during
the course of playing/learning. Stored in dynamic,
learner models, inferences are continuously drawn
about student competencies (Shute et al. 2009). Fur-
thermore, many of the more inquiry-based CBLEs pro-
Computer-Based Training
vide a significant amount of learner control to students ▶ Computer-Based Learning
 Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning C 719

such activity. We examine the components of “learn-

Computer-Enhanced Learning ing,” “collaborative,” “computer,” and “supported” in
▶ Computer-Based Learning Environments turn, before commenting briefly on the scope of the
research field.
Learning generally involves changes in behavior of C
some agent as a result of experience, but CSCL includes
various conceptions of learning that differ on (for
Computerized Learning example) what is taken to be the agent of learning.
Environment These differences are consequential for CSCL, so
are summarized in the theoretical discussion of the
▶ Interactive Learning Environments next section.
Collaborative activity is most strictly defined as
tightly coordinated activity in which participants seek
to maintain a joint conception of a problem and its
solution. Collaboration is sometimes contrasted with
Computer-Mediated
cooperation, in which learners divide up work to be
Communication done in parallel, occasionally coordinating their activ-
▶ Discourse in Asynchronous Learning Networks ity (Stahl et al. 2006). However, in practice, CSCL
▶ Online Collaborative Learning researchers and practitioners study both collaboration
and cooperation, and even competitive structures that
motivate students’ efforts.
The term computer in CSCL is now understood
broadly to include all ICTs, such as the Web, mobile
Computers as Cognitive Tools phones, and ubiquitous and embedded computing, as
well as desktop and laptop computers. Some of CSCL’s
▶ Computer-Based Learning Environments
results and insights can apply to other technologies,
including those predating the information revolution,
to the extent that they are designed and applied in ways
that support and guide interaction among peers lead-
Computer-Supported ing to learning.
Collaborative Learning CSCL may take place in face-to-face settings in
which students interact directly with each other. In
DANIEL D. SUTHERS such settings the ICT may support collaborative learn-
Department of Information and Computer Sciences, ing by serving as a resource or guide that improves the
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA learning interaction, for example, with representational
tools for organizing students’ ideas, agents that make
suggestions, or scripts that structure student interac-
Synonyms tion. The ICT may also itself be the object of study.
Computer-supported cooperative learning CSCL may also take place in online settings where ICT
plays the additional role of the medium through which
Definition participants interact. In the online case, CSCL may be
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) synchronous (interacting at the same time), or asyn-
refers to the activity of peers interacting with each chronous (interacting by leaving messages or other
other for the purpose of learning and with the sup- artifacts accessed by others at different times).
port of information and communication technologies The research field of Computer-Supported Collab-
(ICT). CSCL also refers to the learning that results orative Learning is supported by its own conference
from such activity, and to the research field that studies series by the same name, by the International Journal of
720 C Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning

Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, and the Four major empirical strands can be discerned
Springer (formerly Kluwer) Computer-Supported Col- as influential in CSCL. The experimental paradigm,
laborative Learning book series, among other venues. which typically compares an intervention to a control
The research field has been characterized by one if its condition by carefully manipulating variables, has
founders, Timothy Koschmann, as “a field centrally roots in cognitive and educational psychology. Exper-
concerned with meaning and practices of meaning- imentalism has been critiqued for failing to examine
making in the context of joint activity and the ways in learning in specific cases of interaction (most analyses
which these practices are mediated through designed aggregate the behavior of multiple individuals), and
artifacts” (Stahl et al. 2006). Understood in this way, for weak ecological validity due to the contrived situa-
CSCL is not merely a specialization of collaborative tions needed to control variables. The iterative design
learning within educational psychology, but rather is tradition continuously improves artifacts intended
relevant to any field of inquiry concerned with inter- to mediate learning and collaboration, with changes
subjective meaning-making (Suthers 2006). at each iteration driven by theory, observation, and
engagement of stakeholders. This tradition derives
Theoretical Background from CSCL’s roots in computer science and human–
Work undertaken in CSCL is based on several alter- computer interaction. Traditions of interaction analysis
native theoretical views of how social settings bear in CSCL are influenced by conversation analysis and
upon learning (Suthers 2006). Some theories treat the ethnomethodology, and examine how learning is
individual as the locus of learning. Research under accomplished in practice. These traditions privilege
a knowledge-communication epistemology examines participants’ own behavior and accounts rather than
how to more effectively present knowledge in some prior theoretical accounts, and typically focus on
medium, or how to otherwise communicate in ways short episodes of interaction (Stahl et al. 2006). Such
that cause or support learners’ acquisition of the methods are well suited to existentially quantified
desired knowledge. CSCL has moved decidedly away claims, yet are less developed for making predictive
from views of learning as transfer of knowledge, and generalizations. Finally, sociocultural analysis examines
toward more constructivist and interactional views. how institutional, cultural, and historical processes,
Constructivist epistemologies emphasize the agency of structures, and tools bear upon learning, identifying
the learner in constructing knowledge based on her how infrastructures produced at meso- and macro-
efforts to make sense of her experiences. These may scales influence learning in specific settings (Jones
include social experiences in which new ideas are et al. 2006).
encountered, some of which may conflict with one’s
own ideas, and the expectation to defend one’s own Important Scientific Research and
ideas. Some interactionalist epistemologies emphasize Open Questions
learners’ efforts to find “common ground” and share Some relevant findings in CSCL derive from or overlap
information with others. Other interactional episte- with the field of cooperative learning in education,
mologies, such as group cognition, treat learning as which has studied the conditions that affect whether
a process in which new ideas are jointly created through groups are beneficial for learning (e.g., group compo-
interaction. Here the agent of learning is the group sition, reward structures, task characteristics, role spe-
rather than the individual, and learning itself is not cialization, various forms process guidance). Due to
just a product of interaction but actually consists of space limitations, this article provides a sampling of
interaction. Participatory epistemologies bring the important trends within the field of CSCL itself and
agency of learning to the community level: becoming associated open questions. See Stahl et al. (2006) for
a member of a community of practice is not merely a brief history of CSCL and pertinent references.
a matter of an individual internalizing the knowledge A sampling of earlier research in CSCL may be found
and practices of that community, but also a process of in Koschmann et al. (2001).
the community’s own self-replication and growth as it A common strategy in CSCL is to identify interac-
takes on new members. tions that lead to learning and then try to get students
 Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning C 721

to engage in these kinds of interactions. Based on socio- knowledge differences in heterogeneous groups,
cognitive conflict theory and research showing the and how scripts can drive software agents participat-
beneficial effects of attempting to articulate and justify ing in the collaboration. Critical issues include the
one’s own ideas, a major thrust of work in CSCL has coerciveness of scripting and the danger of denying
sought to engage learners in argumentation with each participants’ agency in learning to direct their own C
other (Andriessen et al. 2003). Here, “argumentation” learning.
is not used as synonymous with verbal conflict, but Technology-centric work in CSCL is in a delicate
rather to include cooperative interactions in which position, requiring an understanding of the concept
participants take a critical stance to ideas and their of affordances. Affordances are relationships between
justifications, exposing them to tests and comparing agents and their environments, relationships that offer
alternative points of view in an effort to reach greater potentials for action. Because human beings are cul-
understanding. Interventions explored include ICT- tural agents, our use of technologies is not deter-
supported role-playing, sentence-opener prompts that mined by their properties. Affordances are enacted
make different argumentative moves explicit, and through the meaning-making activities of learners.
representational notations and tools that support argu- Yet, affordances are not purely socially constructed or
mentation by making ideas and their interrelations and entirely relativistic: the properties of technologies make
evidence visible. The effectiveness of different com- some kinds of practices more available than others.
puter-mediated communication tools for supporting Consequently, designers of technologies for CSCL can-
argumentation has also been studied. Argumentation not treat their designs as directly controlling or deter-
scripts lead us to the next major area of research mining learning. Rather, an indirect approach is called
in CSCL. for in which designers offer potentials for desirable
Learners do not spontaneously engage in practices practices and examine how these potentials are actually
that lead to effective collaborative learning, such as taken up (Jones et al. 2006). Open questions lie in the
coordinating their joint efforts, referencing each others’ design and study of fundamentally social technologies
contributions, and building and evaluating grounded that are informed by the affordances and limitations of
arguments. Furthermore, they may be distracted from those technologies for mediating intersubjective mean-
such practices when attention must be allocated to ing-making (Suthers 2006).
managing the ICT and their group processes. For An advantage of studying learning in small groups
these reasons, collaboration scripts are studied as ways is that participants will display their understanding
to make learners’ interactions more productive for to other participants in ways that are also accessible
learning (see Fischer et al. 2007, on which this para- to educators and researchers (Stahl et al. 2006). Small
graph is based). Scripts are understood in psychology groups are also of interest because they lie at the
to refer to memory structures that guide people in boundary of and mediate between individuals and
understanding and participating in social action a community: the knowledge building that takes place
sequences, in computer science as formal structures within small groups becomes “internalized by their
that may be visualized or used to drive computational members as individual learning and externalized in
processes, and in education as practical means for their communities as certifiable knowledge” (Stahl
organizing learning activities. Scripts may apply at et al. 2006). Yet there has been insufficient research
a “macro” level in advance of a session by organizing that actually makes connections between these levels
who is collaborating on what task in what roles; and of analysis: most work examines either individual
at a “micro” level, by specifying the processes by learning outcomes or group processes, and does not
which learners conduct their activities. Research exam- trace connections between these levels. Also, the ways
ines issues such as the most effective ways to struc- in which institutions select and implement the infra-
ture interaction (e.g., scripting collaboration versus structures of CSCL that influence local interaction need
scripting reasoning), the conditions under which to be made visible (Jones et al. 2006). Hence, some
collaboration scripts are internalized so that external CSCL researchers are examining ways to bridge
support can be removed, the use of scripts to bridge between levels of analysis.
722 C Computer-Supported Collaborative Work

The development of the Internet and Web into Koschmann, T., Hall, R., & Miyake, N. (Eds.). (2001). CSCL II.
technological infrastructures for networked individ- Carrying forward the conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
ualism and sociability has led to new challenges.
Stahl, G., Koschmann, T., & Suthers, D. D. (2006). Computer-
CSCL research has traditionally focused on strong supported collaborative learning: An historical perspective. In
relationships of cooperation and collaboration, but R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences
is now faced with the question of whether to also (pp. 409–426). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
embrace proliferating “weak ties” of the new Suthers, D. D. (2006). Technology affordances for intersubjective
meaning-making: A research agenda for CSCL. International
networked society, or instead to offer a critical voice
Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1(3),
in favor of strong relationships (Jones et al. 2006). At 315–337.
the community level, CSCL has also focused on cohe-
sive groups who share an enterprise and repertoire,
raising the question of whether “communities of prac-
tice” or “networked learning” based on weak ties is
more productive with respect to the learning of the Computer-Supported
individual participant (Jones et al. 2006). Promising Collaborative Work
topics for research in the networked society include
▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
identifying how the mutability and mobility of digital
artifacts can serve to recruit participants in new
social arrangements that make new forms of learning
possible, the conditions for productive entanglement
of multiple individual trajectories of participation, and Computer-Supported
how the social affordances of technologies operate over Cooperative Learning
larger spans of time and larger collections of actors
(Suthers 2006). ▶ Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning

Cross-References
▶ Asynchronous Learning Networks
▶ Collaboration Scripts Computer-Supported
▶ Collaborative Knowledge Building Cooperative Work
▶ Collaborative Learning
▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
▶ Online Collaborative Learning
▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies
▶ Collaborative Learning Supported by Digital Media
▶ Collective Learning
▶ Communication and Learning
▶ Online Collaborative Learning Computer-Supported
Intentional Learning
References Environment
Andriessen, J., Baker, M., & Suthers, D. (Eds.). (2003). Arguing to
▶ Online Collaborative Learning
learn: Confronting cognitions in computer-supported collaborative
learning environments. Boston: Kluwer.
Fischer, F., Kollar, I., Mandl, H., & Jaake, J. M. (2007). Scripting
computer-supported collaborative learning: Cognitive, computa-
tional and educational perspectives. New York: Springer.
Jones, C., Dirckinck-Holmfeld, L., & Lindstrom, B. (2006). Computer-Supported Learning
A relational, indirect, meso-level approach to CSCL design in
the next decade. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, ▶ Situated Prompts in Authentic Learning
1(1), 35–56. Environments
 Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions C 723

learning and remembering, reasoning, problem solv-

Computer-Task Paradigm ing, language comprehension, and decision making
Experimental procedure in which animals use joysticks, presuppose the existence of a system of concepts in
touchscreens, or other manipulanda to respond to memory. Concepts are defined as cognitive abstrac-
computer-generated stimuli in accordance with game- tions which represent classes of things, events, or C
like tasks, typically with rewards dispensed automati- ideas. In general, concepts are seen as natural semantic
cally for correct responding. categories which help to unite things, qualities, and
occurrences on the basis of a similarity of characteris-
tics. In fact, one of the most striking characteristics of
human thinking is the ability to make generalizations
on the basis of specific experiences and to form con-
Conation cepts which represent concrete ideas (e.g., what a CHAIR
is) as well as abstract constructions of our thought (e.g.,
▶ Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories what TRUTH is). More specifically, the construct “con-
cept” is defined in psychology on the basis of three
attributes: psychological meaning, structure, and trans-
ferability (e.g., Eckes 1991).
Concentration
Theoretical Background
▶ AIME (Amount of Invested Mental Effort)
▶ Alertness and Learning of Individuals with PIMD The Meaning of Concepts
From an early stage in the development of semiotic
functions, humans learn to use concepts in order to
cope effectively with the complexity of the world. Peo-
ple classify objects in their environment as CLOTHES,
Concept Formation FURNITURE, INSECT, TREE, BIRD, etc., and they use words

▶ Concept Learning of natural languages to express concepts and to com-

▶ Constructive Induction municate them with others. This leads to the question
▶ Learning by Chunking of the relationship between word and concept.
To make an initial distinction, a word is a unit
of language that can be characterized grammatically
whereas a concept is the result of cognitive abstraction.
Linguistic expressions fulfill both a significative role,
Concept Formation: namely as words, and a communicative role as a part
Characteristics and Functions of speech acts. As signifiers, words make sense and have
a meaning: The meaning of a word is that which it refers
NORBERT M. SEEL to as a linguistic sign whereas its sense is that which it
Department of Education, University of Freiburg, expresses. The sense of words in natural languages is
Freiburg, Germany always an “intended sense” which is expressed inten-
tionally by the speaker.
The distinction between the sense and meaning of
Synonyms words goes back to the essay “On sense and meaning”
Concept learning; Semantic classification by Frege (1892/1980), in which a distinction is made
between the functions of signification and meaning in
Definition language. According to this view, the bearer signified by
Concept formation has been a central issue of philoso- a proper name is understood to be the meaning of the
phy since ancient times (Ros 1989/1990), and it is name while the mode of “existence” of the bearer
generally assumed that cognitive activities such as constitutes the sense of the name. For instance, the
724 C Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions

same planet exists both as “morning star” and as “eve- objects and events designated and denoted by words;
ning star,” and the same person exists both as “Josef they also contain a personal component which includes
Ratzinger” and as “Pope Benedict XVI.” Two linguistic emotional judgments based on subjective experiences
expressions may thus have the same meaning but and feelings. It is known that even strong emotions can
a different sense. A general outline of this conception be associated with concepts. This connotative meaning
is provided in Fig. 1. of concepts changes in the course of an individual’s
Words allow people to communicate with their development in dependence on learning experiences
surroundings and to have a conception of things and and communication with others. Parallel to the con-
occurrences in the world. However, this presupposes tinuous development of cognitive operations and semi-
that words are considered as objects of knowledge. otic functions, humans learn concepts which are more
If people use words as a means of communicating and more abstract (e.g., SOCIAL WELFARE, TOLERANCE).
their knowledge they must be able to retrieve both the
signs and meanings of the words they wish to use. The Attributes of Concepts
German philosopher Lorenz (1987) therefore empha- Concept formation begins with a determination of the
sized the contrast between factual knowledge, which is common characteristics or attributes of things, quali-
independent of concrete speech acts, and linguistic ties, and events which can then be united to form
knowledge, which is knowledge about objects as well a semantic category on the basis of these similar attri-
as about possibilities of expressing those objects in butes. However, the attributes used to form these cat-
language and communicating them. egories can vary in quantity and quality (relevance,
distinguishability). A quadrilateral, for example, has
" A single word I say
four relevant attributes: a closed shape, a plane figure,
It’s only words,
And words are all four angles, and four sides. The same four attributes
I have to take your heart away. plus two additional ones – right angles and equal sides
The Bee Gees: Words, 1968. – are used to define a square. Thus, the attributes “right
angles” and “equal sides” are relevant for the concept of
From a psychological point of view, Bruner et al. (1956)
SQUARE but not for that of QUADRILATERAL.
determined that the meaning of a concept is the result
Cognitive psychology differentiates between pri-
of the association of perceived and learned characteris-
mary and secondary attributes of concepts, depending
tics of an object with attributes stored in memory. In on whether they ascribe to objects concrete character-
other words, the psychological meaning of a concept is
istics (e.g., form, location, color, and size), functional
determined by an individual’s existing knowledge of characteristics, or characteristics based on opinions
the world. It is formed by associating information
(e.g., characterizing an object as “beautiful,” “good to
about things, qualities, and events with attributes
sit on,” etc.). Accordingly, a distinction can be made
defined in memory. These attributes do not only con-
between sensory and categorical concepts. Clearly, sen-
tain information on the qualities and characteristics of
sory concepts classify objects on the basis of concrete
attributes and are represented in memory primarily by
Thing means of these attributes, whereas categorical concepts
Denotes
are formed on the basis of non-concrete and functional
Attribute
characteristics. The formation of categorical concepts
Signifies
Relation extends to abstract concepts, which result from cog-
Concept Word nitive processing and must not correspond to any
Individual concrete object or occurrence. Nevertheless, even
Class exceedingly abstract concepts like ETERNITY or ENDLESS-
Means
NESS still may have a residual concreteness for many
Structure
people. Abstract concepts encompass not only many
Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions. attributes of the underlying class of concepts; they are
Fig. 1 The relationship between concept and word in also often related to other concepts in the same subject
terms of three-dimensional semantics domain. This led Klix (1984) to the conclusion that the
 Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions C 725

more abstract a concept is the more relations it will them. More specifically, a subordinate concept is char-
have to other concepts. acterized by all attributes of its superordinate concept
The formation of concrete concepts and many cat- plus the attributes which characterize it and distinguish
egorical concepts is grounded in the assumption that it from the other concepts on the same level of the
attributes are separable, that is, easy to distinguish from concept hierarchy. Take for instance the concepts BIRD C
one another. However, in many cases this condition is and MAMMAL: Birds have warm blood like mammals,
not fulfilled, causing the semantic contour of a concept but they do not have mammary glands (or udders) and
to become indistinct and “blurred.” Actually, many of their offspring are not born live. But despite these
the concepts humans operate on in daily life are vague, differences, both birds and mammals possess common
and in consequence the boundaries between these con- attributes and are thus both classified as belonging to
cepts are not only indistinct but also variable. However, the TETRAPODA (vertebrates with four legs or limbs),
the less possible it is to differentiate between attributes a class which also includes reptiles and amphibians.
the more difficult concept formation becomes. The hierarchical organization of attribute con-
Another important structural feature of concept cepts correlates to a great extent with the degree of
formation has to do with the relations within a concreteness of the attributes. This also has conse-
concept. The first step in the process of associating the quences for the assignment of things, qualities, and
attributes of a concept is to establish the common and events to concepts on various hierarchical levels. Hoff-
distinguishing attributes of the objects of a domain. mann (1986) and others have shown that the first
Objects with common attributes can then be combined concept to be identified as such is the one which is
to form a class. Thus, all attribute concepts are based on characterized by both the smallest and most compre-
the one-attribute relation which ascribes certain char- hensive set of concrete attributes. This concept, which
acteristics to the objects. Examples are SUGAR – sweet, represents the “lowest common multiple” of the con-
JAGUAR – spotted, FROG – croak, DOG – bark, etc. The crete attributes of objects, is referred to as a primary
attribute relation is also used to construct semantic concept (e.g., Hoffmann 1986) and is the point of
categories by testing whether things, qualities, and departure for addressing the significant attribute classes
events can be combined to form a class on the basis of in memory.
common characteristics. This, however, presupposes From an extensional standpoint, a concept may be
that the attributes are separable. Then it is possible to defined by a class containing an undefined amount of
distinguish between several “relations within a con- objects. Many semantic classes, however, comprise only
cept,” for example (a) the contrastive characterization a single object – the MOON, the EARTH, the PRESIDENT OF
of two concepts with reference to a certain attribute THE UNITED STATES, FRANCE. Other concepts comprise
(e.g., HIGH – LOW, GIANT – DWARF, MOUNTAIN – VALLEY) and many objects (e.g., SONGBIRD = [nightingale, lark,
the comparative characterization of two concepts (e.g., robin, titmouse]), and others even comprise an infinite
SICK – INFIRM, WIND – STORM, JOG – RUN). amount of objects (e.g., RATIONAL NUMBER). Many con-
A far-reaching assumption of semantics and psy- cepts cam be characterized by examples and coun-
chology states that concepts are hierarchically orga- terexamples. Any rectangle is a good example of
nized. Two complementary aspects of concept QUADRILATERAL, but a bad example of TRIANGLE; and it is
hierarchies are emphasized in the literature: the inher- also a bad example of ANIMAL and all other concepts
itance of attributes and the intensification of attributes. which do not signify geometric forms. Finally, the
The inheritance principle, which states that a subordi- examples of a concept also vary in how open they are
nate concept always includes the attributes of its super- to sensory perception. On the one hand, there are
ordinate concept (as a more comprehensive class), can examples that one can see, hear, smell, or feel, but on
be understood as a cognitive operation of specializa- the other hand, there are concepts whose examples are
tion. The complementary operation consists in gener- not perceptible and thus also difficult to represent (e.g.,
alizing abstractions, which result in an intensification of ATOM, GENETIC CODE).
attributes. This is because superordinate concepts are Generally, a concept is defined by the attributes
formed on the basis of the conjunctive association of which all members of the semantic category it sig-
the common attributes of the concepts subordinate to nifies have in common. But Wittgenstein (1953)
726 C Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions

demonstrated with the example of the concept GAME understanding and solving a problem; (4) concepts
that not all members of a category share all of the facilitate the learning of other concepts. The first two
same attributes. Some games, like chess or checkers, usages have to do with the classification or, as Novak
require a board, others require cards, balls, or paddles, (1998) says, the assimilation of concepts, the last two
and some (like hide-and-go-seek or guessing games) with the transfer of concepts.
do not require any equipment at all. Many games are A central aspect of the transferability of concepts is
competitions, some are not. Some people who play that humans are capable of learning how to learn con-
games do it for fun, whereas others treat them like cepts. In fact, they acquire new concepts throughout
a sport and complain about stress and pressure. This their lives and learn with time the principles of acquir-
example makes it easy to understand why Wittgenstein ing new concepts. Referring to Piaget’s seminal work on
chose to work with the term family resemblance and to the development of the concepts of numbers, room,
assume that objects are combined to form a class and time, Aebli (1987) described concept formation as
because they resemble each another and not because a structural process which can be stimulated effectively
they possess all or even most of the same attributes. by external influence (e.g., instructional methods).
Whereas Wittgenstein argued along logical principles,
some decades later Rosch was able to demonstrate in Important Scientific Research and
numerous individual experiments that many natural Open Questions
categories include members which are judged to be As said in the introductory part of this entry, concept
more typical for a category than the rest. In one exper- formation has been a central issue of theoretical and
iment, for instance, Rosch (1975) presented to subjects practical consideration since ancient times. Ros (1989/
the names of members of everyday categories (e.g., 1990) described in full detail the history of the philo-
vegetables, furniture) and asked them to rate the sophical consideration of “rationale and concept” from
items in a list according to their value for the category. Socrates to Wittgenstein. In his description of the
The results revealed that carrots, for instance, are modern concept of “concept,” Ros centers on the def-
judged to be more typical for the category VEGETABLES inition of concepts as directly accessible subjects of self-
than pumpkins but less typical than peas. Typical items consciousness that are created autonomously by the
share many attributes with the other members of the human mind. This corresponds to Locke’s understand-
same category, but only few with members of other ing of concepts (or general ideas) as templates of
categories. Correspondingly, atypical representatives of existing mental images and Leibniz’s idea of concepts
a category have only little in common with other items as capabilities to imagine “forms” as well as to Kant’s
in the same category, whereas they may have more or definition of concepts as capabilities to produce many
less attributes in common with items from other cate- optional mental representations of concrete objects in
gories. Typicality is strongly dependent on the degree of compliance with a rule. This understanding of con-
family resemblance. In psychology, the most typical cepts, which has since been modified and revised by
member of a semantic category is referred to as the Wittgenstein, is clearly the fundamental basis of mod-
prototype (see Eckes 1991). It is assumed that the pro- ern philosophy of language and psychology. Actually,
totype is at the center of a category, whereas atypical apart from behaviorism all new movements of twenti-
members are at its margins. The prototype serves as eth century psychology referred more or less explicitly
a point of reference for the classification of objects in to Kant and his followers in discussing the formation of
a category. concepts. This can be demonstrated by the example of
the Würzburg school of psychology (e.g., Ach 1921)
Transferability of Concepts and its focus on the so-called imageless thoughts (i.e.,
Once individuals have learned a concept, there are conscious sets, awarenesses, and thoughts). Addition-
several ways in which they can use it in other situations: ally, developmental psychology has focused on concept
(1) New things, qualities, or events can be assigned to formation since Piaget’s seminal work on the formation
a concept; (2) concepts can be ordered in a hierarchy of the concepts of number, space, time, etc., in children
through the identification of superordinate or subor- (Wetzel 1980). Actually, Piaget’s epistemology and
dinate relations; (3) a concept can be used as an aid in early research on cognitive development initiated an
 Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions C 727

abundance of empirical studies on childhood concept learning and artificial intelligence but in particular also
learning and the origin and evolution of everyday con- on educational approaches to concept learning. As
cepts (see, e.g., Novak 1998). a consequence, there have been instructional princi-
In addition, Piaget also had a strong influence on ples pertaining to concepts in the literature of educa-
the ascent of cognitive psychology in the 1950s. For tional psychology for decades (see, e.g., Aebli 1987; C
instance, concept formation as semantic classification Klausmeier and Ripple 1971). However, probably the
was at the core of Bruner’s work (e.g., Bruner et al. most successful instructional application of research
1956) whereas Ausubel and others focused on the hier- on concept formation was the idea of visualizing
archical organization of concepts (see the entries on relations within and between concepts by means of
“▶ Assimilation Theory of Learning” and “▶ Meaning- maps and graphs (Novak 1998). There are hundreds of
ful Verbal Learning”). Since the paradigm shift known studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of concept
as the “cognitive revolution,” concept formation has mapping as a tool for structuring and assessing
become an important research topic throughout the domain-specific knowledge as well as for learning
world, and especially again in Europe. This can be new concepts.
illustrated by the research of Aebli (1980), a Swiss psy-
chologist and student of Piaget, and East German psy- Cross-References
chologists such as Hoffmann (1986) and Klix (1984). ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
Altogether, it can be said that concept formation is ▶ Bruner, Jerome S.
probably the most important branch of cognitive psy- ▶ Categorical Learning/Category Learning
chology ever. In consequence, it has also become an ▶ Categorical Representation
important topic for cognitive science and informatics ▶ Concept Maps
with its emphasis on machine learning and artificial ▶ Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning
intelligence (cf. Brodie et al. 1984; Sowa 1984). ▶ Conceptual Change
Machine learning refers to cognitive psychology, ▶ Conceptual Clustering
often especially to Bruner et al. (1956), and focuses ▶ Language Acquisition and Development
on the development of computational approaches to ▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning
concept formation and learning. Machine learning ▶ Prototype Learning Systems
may apply different approaches depending on how ▶ Psycholinguistics and Learning
concept formation is to be modeled. Discriminative ▶ Word Learning
approaches do not entail an explicit model of a
concept but only a procedure for discriminating References
between members and nonmembers of mutually Ach, N. (1921). Über die Begriffsbildung [On concept formation].
exclusive contrasting categories, whereas distribu- Königsberg: Buchner.
Aebli, H. (1980). Denken: das Ordnen des Tuns. Band I: Kognitive
tional approaches operate with a model of a concept
Aspekte der Handlungstheorie. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.
as a probability distribution and classify new instances Aebli, H. (1987). Zwölf Grundformen des Lehrens. Eine Allgemeine
as members of a category if their estimated probability Didaktik auf psychologischer Grundlage (3. Aufl.). Stuttgart:
of family resemblance exceeds a threshold. Distribu- Klett Cotta.
tional approaches are regularly based on Bayesian Brodie, M. L., Mylopoulos, J., & Schmidt, J. W. (Eds.). (1984). On
learning and include “novelty detection” techniques conceptual modelling. Perspectives from artificial intelligence, data-
bases, and programming languages. New York: Springer.
which operate not only with positive examples but Bruner, J. A., Goodnow, J. S., & Austin, G. J. (1956). A study of
also with negative examples of principled generaliza- thinking. New York: Wiley.
tion. The correspondences between approaches of Chater, N., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Yuille, A. (2006). Probabilistic models
cognitive psychology and machine learning are obvi- of cognition: Conceptual foundations. Trends in Cognitive Sci-
ous, and it can be said that computational approaches ence, 10(7), 287–291.
Eckes, T. (1991). Psychologie der Begriffe. Strukturen des Wissens und
attempt to close the gap between human and machine
Prozesse der Kategorisierung. Göttingen: Hogrefe (Psychology of
concept learning (Chater et al. 2006). concepts).
Cognitive psychology and its research on concept Frege, G. (1892/1980). On sense and meaning (M. Black, Trans.). In
learning not only had a strong influence on machine P. Geach & M. Black (Eds.), Translations from the philosophical
728 C Concept Learning

writings of Gottlob Frege (3rd ed., pp. 56–78). Oxford: Blackwell. concept horse refers to a largely domesticated mammal
(Original work published 1892). species with distinctive and well-recognized head and
Hoffmann, J. (1986). Die Welt der Begriffe. Psychologische
body shapes). Other concepts are more abstract and
Untersuchungen zur Organisation des menschlichen Wissens.
Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften (The world difficult to pin down in terms of specific, observable
of concepts). characteristics (e.g., the concept cousin is defined by
Klausmeier, H. J., & Ripple, R. E. (1971). Learning and human abilities. a particular familial relationship; the concept freedom is
Educational psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. defined by the lack of physical and social constraints on
Klix, F. (Ed.). (1984). Gedächtnis, Wissen, Wissensnutzung. Berlin:
one’s behavior). On average, concrete concepts are
VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften (Memory, knowledge,
knowledge use).
learned more quickly and easily than abstract ones.
Lorenz, K. (1987). Weltwissen und Sprachwissen. Ihre Rekonstruktion
in Dialogsituationen. In J. Engelkamp, K. Lorenz, & B. Sandig Theoretical Background
(Hrsg.), Wissensrepräsentation und Wissensaustausch (pp. 35–45). Some early behaviorists attempted to explain concept
St. Ingbert: Röhrig Verlag (World knowledge and language learning in terms of the strengthening of certain of S–R
knowledge).
associations; for example, children will form the con-
Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept
maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah: cept red if they are consistently reinforced for saying
Lawrence Erlbaum. “red” in response to red objects. Although this expla-
Ros, A. (1989/1990). Begründung und Begriff (3 Vols.). Felix Meiner: nation might at least partly explain concept learning
Hamburg. in very young children and nonhuman species, it did
Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories.
not hold up to close scrutiny in laboratory research
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 192–253.
Sowa, J. F. (1984). Conceptual structures. Information processing in
with older children and adult humans, who appear to
mind and machine. Reading: Addison-Wesley. mediate their overt responses to particular classes of
Wetzel, F. G. (1980). Kognitive Psychologie. Eine Einführung in objects with internal, mental responses (e.g., Kendler
die Psychologie der kognitiven Strukturen von Jean Piaget. et al. 1962).
Weinheim: Beltz. Cognitive psychologists have offered several alter-
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. (G. E. M.
native explanations regarding the nature of concepts
Anscombe, Trans.). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
and concept learning, at least for human learners.
Further Reading Perhaps the first prominent theory grounded in a cog-
Rosch, E. (1973). Natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 532–547.
nitively oriented framework was one involving hypoth-
esis testing (Bruner et al. 1956). In particular, when
confronted with a label that is believed to represent
an unknown class of objects, a learner forms and tests
Concept Learning a series of hypotheses regarding features that might
possibly define the concept (e.g., color, shape) either
JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD singly or in combination. However, laboratory studies
School of Psychological Sciences (Emerita), University supporting this perspective were highly contrived
of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA and unrepresentative of real-world concept-learning
situations.
Several other cognitively oriented theories do appear
Synonyms to have some relevance to real-world concept-learning
Categorization; Classification; Concept formation situations. For example, Eleanor Rosch (e.g., Rosch
1978) has proposed that many concepts are formed,
Definition at least in part, by acquiring mental prototypes that
A ▶ concept is a mental representation of a class of capture the features of a typical, average member of
objects or events that share one or more common a concept (e.g., a sparrow-like creature might be a good
properties. Some concepts are fairly concrete, in that prototype of the concept bird; a penguin or ostrich
the objects or events they encompass share certain would be less representative of birds in general).
easily detectable physical features (e.g., the concept Other theorists (e.g., Ross and Spalding 1994) have
red refers to a certain range of light wavelengths, the suggested that mental representations of many
 Concept Learning in Pigeons C 729

concepts may be based on a variety of examples, or Several factors have been found to facilitate concept
exemplars, that reflect the variability that concept learning in instructional settings. Explicit definitions
members may show (e.g., the concept fruit might be that identify critical features of concept members are
mentally represented by such diverse exemplars as helpful, as are visual or other modality-specific repre-
apples, bananas, and grapes) and can include atypical sentations that highlight those features. Illustrative C
concept members (e.g., although most mammals give examples are beneficial as well, but it is also important
birth to live young, platypuses and a few other mammal to show non-examples that are “near misses” to cate-
species lay eggs). gory membership (e.g., a spider is not an insect because
When concepts are not easily represented by pro- it has eight legs instead of six).
totypes or exemplars, a mental feature list of category Much of the existing research on concept learning
members may be involved (e.g., Ward et al. 1990). In has involved studies with adults (or in some cases
particular, learning a concept may involve learning the nonhuman animals) learning artificial concepts in lab-
one or more features that characterize many or all oratory settings. Such research is helpful in illuminat-
instances of the concept, along with probability esti- ing cognitive processes that might underlie concept
mates for each feature. Identifying an object or event as learning. However, the extent to which the principles
an example of a particular concept, then, is a matter of derived from such research can be generalized to more
determining whether the object or event includes natural concept-learning phenomena has yet to be
enough of these features to qualify. determined.
The various theoretical explanations just described
are not necessarily mutually exclusive (Ormrod 2008). Cross-References
Quite possibly, mental representations of concepts ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals
include (1) prototypes that capture a typical, average ▶ Categorical Learning
concept member; (2) exemplars that reflect variability ▶ Categorical Representation
among concept members; (3) a set of features that ▶ Concept Formation: Characteristics and Functions
facilitate identification of new examples; and (4) one ▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning
or more automatic responses to concept members. ▶ Prototype Learning Systems
Hypothesis testing may come into play in situations ▶ Schema(s)
where a learner is given a concept label and a set of References
examples and non-examples but no explicit definition. Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J., & Austin, G. (1956). A study of thinking.
New York: Wiley.
Important Scientific Research and Kendler, T. S., Kendler, H. H., & Learnard, B. (1962). Mediated
Open Questions responses to size and brightness as a function of age. American
Journal of Psychology, 75, 571–586.
Researchers have observed the ability – and, some
Ormrod, J. E. (2008). Human learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
might say, a natural tendency – to categorize objects NJ: Pearson.
and events in human infants as young as three months Rosch, E. H. (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch &
old, and also in several other mammal species. Acqui- B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27–48).
sition of any particular concept may occur over Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
a period of time, with learners sometimes initially Ross, B. H., & Spalding, T. L. (1994). Concepts and categories. In
R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of perception and cognition (Vol.
showing under-generalization (i.e., they fail to recog-
12, pp. 119–148). New York: Academic.
nize all concept members) or over-generalization (i.e., Ward, T. B., Vela, E., & Haas, S. D. (1990). Children and adults learn
they mistakenly include nonmembers as being exam- family-resemblance categories analytically. Child Development,
ples of the concept) before fully mastering the concept. 61, 593–605.
Also, learners may sometimes mistakenly identify the
essential features of concept members; for example,
many young children restrict their understanding of
the concept animal to creatures with four legs and Concept Learning in Pigeons
a lot of fur, thus disqualifying fish, insects, and people
as animals. ▶ Categorical Learning in Pigeons
730 C Concept Map

concepts, connecting lines representing the semantic

Concept Map connection of concepts, and labels on the lines specify-
▶ Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning ing the kind of semantic relation. Careful utilization of
colors and shapes further enhance the possibilities to
represent conceptual similarities, differences, and con-
nections. The inferential power of maps can be exempli-
fied by a map that subsumes cats as mammals and that
Concept Mapping also includes the mammal property that the children of
most mammals have milk teeth. Thus, learners can infer
It is a method to construct graphic representations of that it is very likely that kittens also have milk teeth.
information. There are several technical tools supporting There are various more or less closely related sub-
the process of producing concept maps. Such maps types and relatives of concept maps. Concept maps in
include concepts (usually represented as circles or which the set of connections such as P (part) or
boxes) and relationships between concepts represented C (characteristic) is fixed are sometimes labeled knowl-
as lines which are specified by words. Unlike mind maps edge maps. Even more formalized and used mainly in
concept maps are hierarchically structured. Concept computer science is the Unified Modeling Language
mapping has been shown to help different groups of (UML). Tree structures that are arranged around one
persons in education, research, and management. central concept and in which the concepts are written
directly onto the links are termed mind maps.

Theoretical Background
Concepts and relations can be conceptualized as key-
Concept Maps constructs of knowledge and thought. Epistemological
foundations of concept maps can be found within the
JOHANNES GURLITT realm of graphical knowledge representation that are
Department of Educational Science, University of based on logic and the study of ontology. While logic
Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany provides the formal structure and rules of inference,
ontology deals with questions about entities relevant
for the respective domain and how such entities can be
Synonyms grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided
Conceptual maps; Knowledge maps according to similarities and differences (Sowa 2000;
see also ▶ Ontology and Semantic Web in this encyclo-
Definition pedia). The earliest known semantic network appeared
Concepts can be defined as objects, events, situations, in a commentary on Aristotle’s categories, by the
or properties that possess common critical attributes philosopher Porphyry in the third century A.D. (see
and are represented by icons or symbols, such as key Sowa 2000).
words (Ausubel 2000). Concept maps are external From an educational point of view, concept map-
network structures that allow two-dimensional, spatial ping is based on the assimilation theory of David
processing along preconstructed or to-be-constructed Ausubel (see Novak and Gowin 1984; Ausubel 2000).
connecting lines. In its simplest form, a concept map In short, assimilation theory points out that all new
would consist out of two concepts and a linking word information is linked to relevant, preexisting aspects of
for example “cats – are ! mammals.” Although orig- the learner’s cognitive structure and that both, the
inally conceptualized as hierarchical structures (Novak newly acquired and the preexisting structure are mod-
and Gowin 1984), current conceptualizations use a ified in the process. The assimilation of new informa-
broader scope that is the basis for the following defini- tion includes establishing relations between same-level
tion: Concept maps provide an external network-like concepts (combinatorial learning), generalization pro-
representation of knowledge structures. They consist of cesses creating new subsumers (superordinate learn-
spatially grouped nodes with key words representing ing), and anchoring a new idea below a higher-level
 Concept Maps C 731

anchoring idea (subsumption learning). According to learners being overwhelmed by the unfamiliar repre-
Ausubels hierarchical view of knowledge, these pro- sentation or confused by the tasks to be carried out.
cesses of concept assimilation are perceived as the A second limitation is ambiguity: Concepts are usually
major learning activities of school children and adults represented by one or two key words only. Hence, the
(Ausubel 2000). Related to these processes described by justifications for certain connections may not be explicit. C
Ausubel, hypotheses about knowledge representation This limits external judgments, such as scoring or grad-
distinguished between inter-concept relations and ing procedures that are used to assess the learners’ prior
intra-concept relations (e.g., Klix 1980). Inter-concept knowledge. Negative effects of these limitations may
relations are relations between concepts and events be softened or overcome through self-assessment and
that have been directly observed and experienced for prestructuring: In self-assessments learners realize which
example “the boat is in the water.” Intra-concept rela- concepts or relationships they know or do not know yet.
tions are based on common or distinguishable features The “lost in mapping space” phenomenon may be
within the concepts that are not directly extractable reduced when the task is prestructured to a substantial
from experience or observed but have to be inferred, degree. However, prestructuring the task too much bares
for example, by comparative processes such as “high is the risk of superficial processing. When provided with
the opposite of low” or inferences such as “a hammer is a completely worked-out map, learners may not engage
tool.” These considerations lead to the still-debated in meaningful learning and rather process the mate-
question whether and which relations are pre-stored rial in a superficial mode, which may lead to rote
in semantic memory or have to be computed dynam- learning. Therefore it seems appropriate to design
ically. Based on empirical research, Klix hypothesized mapping tasks that leave certain achievable but chal-
that, in general, inter-concept relations are stored lenging tasks, targeted at deep-level cognitive and
directly in memory, while intra-concept relations are metacognitive processes.
not stored directly in memory but are derived or
generated dynamically depending on the respective Important Scientific Research and
task demand. Thus, although a direct relation between Open Questions
external and internal representations is naı̈ve, these O’Donnell et al. (2002) summarize that concept maps
considerations about internal processes and human facilitate the recall of central ideas, benefit especially
memory lead to the question how specific affordances those learners with low verbal abilities and low prior
of concept maps may trigger or facilitate internal knowledge, and facilitate cooperative learning. Further-
processes. more, they are more effective for learning when struc-
Concept maps focus on the visualization of key tured according to Gestalt principles (e.g., the use of
concepts and key relationships which makes them color and shapes to show similarity or groupings to
potentially valuable tools for planning, learning, show proximity). The meta-analysis from Nesbit and
and (self-)assessment. When used for planning activi- Adesope (2006) showed a small effect in favor of study-
ties, concept maps allow an overview and the detection ing maps compared to studying text, a small effect in
of the “red line” running through different topics, favor of studying maps compared to studying outlines
steps, or key concepts. In learning settings, concept or lists, and a small effect in favor of constructing maps
mapping can facilitate organization and elaboration compared to constructing text or outlines.
processes leading eventually to the construction of The benefits of concept maps outlined above raise
high-level schemas. For assessment, concept maps pro- the questions how concept maps should be used
vide the possibility to tap into a learner’s cognitive for learning and whether elicited cognitive and
structure and externalize, for both, the learner and metacognitive processes are different for different map-
the teacher, what the learner already knows and does ping tasks. With respect to the task, concept maps may
not know. However, it is important to keep in mind be created entirely by the student, or instructors can
two limitations of concept maps. First, many learners prepare incomplete maps that require learners to
are initially not familiar with this representation and perform specific activities, such as filling in some
therefore experience a “lost in the mapping space” nodes or labeling links. Empirical research indicates
phenomenon. This can be described as a feeling of that different mapping tasks lead to different cognitive
732 C Concept Similarity

processes (Gurlitt and Renkl 2010). Thus, on a finer

level concept mapping has to be differentiated based on Concept Similarity
the specific tasks left up to the learners. In general, less ▶ Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning
prestructured mapping tasks lead to more organization
processes and provide more flexibility for learners to
display their understanding. However, learners may be
overloaded with less-structured mapping tasks, and
thus they may lead to less elaboration. In addition,
less structured maps can be more difficult to interpret
Concept Similarity in
for others such as peers or the teacher.
Multidisciplinary Learning
Concluding, it is not enough to assume that con-
RUI ZHANG1, YIMIN ZHU2
cept mapping will automatically facilitate learning. 1
Harbin Institute of Technology, School of Humanities
Instead, instructors should consider the relationship
and Social Sciences, Nangang District, Harbin, China
between the affordances of the specific mapping task 2
Department of Construction Management, College of
and the focus of the lesson. Tentative recommendations
Engineering and Computing Florida International
indicate that an active, spatial grouping can facilitate
University, Miami, FL, USA
higher-level organization processes compared to just
studying the conceptually identical list of concepts.
Creating and labeling lines between provided concepts
leads learners to focus on organizational aspects of
Synonyms
Common understanding; Concept map; Concept
their knowledge, whereas the process of labeling
similarity; Knowledge structure; Multidisciplinary
connecting lines on provided relationships can lead to
learning
an elaboration of connected concepts.

Cross-References Definition
▶ Advance Organizer A common understanding can be regarded as the reflec-
▶ Learning Strategies tion of a shared knowledge structure of a team (Novak
▶ Ontology and Semantic Web and Gowin 1984). A knowledge structure on the other
hand can be characterized as an elaborated and highly
interconnected framework of related concepts (Mintzes
References et al. 1997). Although there are many different attempts
Ausubel, D. P. (2000). The acquisition and retention of knowledge: to capture knowledge structures, concept mapping is
A cognitive view. Boston: Kluwer.
regarded as a more direct approach and thus has been
Gurlitt, J., & Renkl, A. (2010). Prior knowledge activation: how
different concept mapping tasks lead to substantial differences often used to elicit and represent knowledge structures
in cognitive processes, learning outcomes, and perceived self- (Ruiz-Primo 2004).
efficacy. Instructional Science, 38, 417–433. Concept maps (CMAPs), as a collection of con-
Klix, F. (1980). On structure and function of semantic memory. In cepts and interconnections among concepts, make
F. Klix & J. Hoffmann (Eds.), Cognition and memory (pp. 11–25).
knowledge structures assessable. A CMAP is a graph
Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Nesbit, J. C., & Adesope, O. O. (2006). Learning with concept and
consisting of nodes representing concepts and labeled
knowledge maps: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational lines denoting relationships between a pair of nodes.
Research, 76, 413–448. One important characteristic of CMAPs is the expres-
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: sion of propositions, which is represented by using
Cambridge University Press. two or more concepts connected by linking words
O’Donnell, A. M., Dansereau, D. F., & Hall, R. H. (2002). Knowledge
or phrases to convey meaning. Thus, a CMAP can be
maps as scaffolds for cognitive processing. Educational Psychol-
ogy Review, 14, 71–86. described as a set of concepts and a set of propositions;
Sowa, J. F. (2000). Knowledge representation: logical, philosophical, and accordingly, the similarity of concepts can be deter-
computational foundations. Boston: MIT Press. mined as a function of the propositions.
 Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning C 733

Theoretical Background studies on assessing concept similarity and various

Currently, the mainstream thinking of multidisciplinary methods also have been developed, such as the informa-
learning has a clear focus on enhancing collaboration tion content approach, the feature-based approach, the
skills of students through team communication (e.g., path distance approach, and methods based on the
Fruchter and Luth 2004). On the other hand, studies similarity and dissimilarity of description logics. It is C
have shown that the performance of a team also noticed that these methods have their own application
depends on team cognition, of which team knowledge requirements and limitations:
is a major component (Cooke et al. 2003). Team knowl-
1. These methods are typically applied to the similar-
edge typically includes constructs such as shared
ity analysis of two concepts and their effectiveness
mental models representing a common understanding
for simultaneously analyzing the similarity of more
to task procedures, potential constraints, and task
than two concepts is not clearly stated in the exiting
strategies. Thus, it is important to understand the rela-
literature.
tionship between the common understanding of a
2. Since the triangle inequality property is true to all of
team and its performance, especially in a computer-
those methods, in some conditions, results derived
mediated environment.
from the methods may not be reasonable if more
Many researchers have already pointed out that
than two CMAPs are involved.
successful collaboration depends on the establishment
3. There exists an assumption that the concepts to
of a common understanding among students regarding
be compared are in the same structure or graph,
an interdisciplinary subject (e.g., Fruchter 1999).
especially to the path distance method and the
Developing such an understanding is a learning process
information content method.
as well. Consequently, it is important to have a measure
that can determine if the knowledge structures of stu- Therefore, when comparing multiple concepts
dents become similar after some teaching and learning represented by independent structures such as CMAPs,
activities. it is difficult to measure the path distance between con-
A traditional test score alone does not provide cepts, to only consider is-a relationships, or to limit the
enough details about the knowledge structure of a analysis to only two concepts at a time. Consequently,
student and thus cannot help in analyzing the common there is a need for a different similarity measure.
understanding of students, especially when learning is
mediated by information and communication technol- Important Scientific Research and
ogies (ICTs). In a computer-mediated learning envi- Open Questions
ronment, quantitatively measuring the similarity of If we consider the propositions associated with a
knowledge structures of students can help computers concept as features of the concept, based on the fea-
to determine if a common understanding is established ture-based method, the similarity of concepts can be
among the students. Therefore, such a quantitative measured by comparing the propositions of the con-
measure is critical in terms of assessing the effectiveness cepts. Since a CMAP can be described as a set of
of computer-mediated learning. concepts and a set of propositions. Each CMAP can
Although knowledge structures can be represented be used to represent the knowledge structure of a stu-
by CMAPs, which are in the form of graphs, comparing dent. Therefore, if there are n students, then there is
the similarity of multiple graphs is still with great a set of n CMAPs defined as follows:
computational complexity, and no reasonable solu-
tions are known. This is the reason that existing CMAP ¼ fCMAPi j1 i ng ð1Þ
graph-based methods are mainly applied to the com-
parison of two graphs. where CMAPi = CMAP of the ith student and n =
To reduce complexity, the similarity of knowledge number of CMAPs or students. Each CMAPi is defined
structures can potentially be determined by measuring as a pair of concept and associated propositions.
the similarity of concepts since concepts are the key   
component of a knowledge structure. There are many CMAPi ¼ cij ; Fij j1 i n; 1 j mi ð2Þ
734 C Concept Similarity in Multidisciplinary Learning

where cij = jth concept in the ith CMAP; Fij = set of Whether concepts in Sk are identical, similar, or
propositions associated with cij; mi = number of con- dissimilar is determined by the propositions in
cepts in CMAPi; and Fij is defined as the shared, overlapping, or distinctive set. If both
the overlapping and distinctive sets are empty and the
Fij ¼ fðpijl Þj1 i n; 1 j mi ; l 1g ð3Þ
shared set is not, then the concepts are identical. Con-
where pijl = lth proposition associated with the jth cepts are dissimilar if both the shared and overlapping
concept in the ith CMAP. sets are empty and the distinctive set is not. For all
To compare concepts from different CMAPs, this other situations, concepts are considered similar.
study defines a set, Sk, which is a collection of con- In the following, formal definitions are given.
cepts, as well as their associated propositions, selected Definition 1: A set of concepts in Sk is identical, if
from different CMAPs for similarity comparisons, and only if, for any Fijk
i.e., no two concepts in Sk are from the same CMAP. \
n
In this way, the comparison of a set of CMAPs is Fijk ¼ Fijk ð9Þ
transformed into the similarity analysis of a set of Sk, i¼1

named as S. Thus Definition 2: A set of concepts in Sk is dissimilar, if

and only if, for any subset S^ Sk ( ^S ¼ t; 2 t n),
Sk S ð4Þ ^ and associated propositions, F^ k
all cijk 2 S,
n o ij
Sk ¼ ðcijk ; Fijk Þj1 i n; 1 j mi ; 1 k w \
t
F^ijk ¼ f ð10Þ
ð5Þ i¼1

where w = total number of concept sets to be compared Definition 3: Concepts in Sk are similar, if and only
or S . if, (1) there exists at least one Fijk (1 i n, 1 j mi),
An Sk merely regroups the concepts and proposi- such that
tions contained by CMAP. Thus
\
n

cijk ¼ cij ð6Þ Fijk 6¼ Fijk ð11Þ

i¼1

Fijk ¼ Fij ð7Þ and (2) there exists at least one S^ Sk ( S^ ¼ t;

2 t n) for all cijk 2 S^ and associated proposi-
The total number of propositions associated with
tions, F^ijk
the set of concepts, Sk, is defined as
X \
t

Nk ¼ Fijk ð1 i n; 1 j mi ; 1 k wÞ F^ijk 6¼ f ð12Þ

i¼1
ð8Þ
According to the aforementioned definitions, the
There are three types of relationships among the similarity of concepts is determined as a function of
concepts in Sk , i.e., identical, similar, and dissimilar. On the three types of propositions. Intuitively, if the num-
the other hand, the propositions associated with Sk ber of propositions in the shared set increases and/or
can be classified into three subsets, shared, overlapping, the number of propositions in the distinctive set
and distinctive. The shared set contains propositions reduces the overall similarity of concepts increases.
that are shared by all concepts to be compared. The This study also assumes that the impact of the
overlapping set includes propositions that are not overlapping set on concept similarity is related to the
shared by all but are shared by at least two concepts. number and the type of overlapping propositions. For
The distinctive set contains propositions that belong to example, if there are four CMAPs, an overlapping
each individual concept and are not shared at all. There proposition may appear in either two maps or three
are different situations in an overlapping set because maps. Between these two categories, if the proposition
a proposition can be shared by two concepts, three belongs to three maps, its contribution to the overall
concepts, or up to n
1 concepts. similarity of concepts is larger.
 Conceptual Change C 735

Thus, the similarity measure, sim(Sk), can be defined immediately associated with concepts to be compared.
as follows: Sometimes, propositions that are not directly associ-
ated with the concepts may also have an impact on
1. Condition 1: when distinctive = Ø and overlapping =
similarity analyses. Such an impact is not considered
Ø, sim(Sk) = 1
2. Condition 2: when shared = Ø and overlapping =
in the proposed similarity measure. C
Ø, sim(Sk) = 0 and
3. Condition 3: when overlapping = Ø or
Cross-References
▶ Concept Formation
overlapping = Ø but Distinctive 6¼ Ø and
▶ Concept Mapping
shared 6¼ Ø
▶ Knowledge Representation
Yn
^

i Ni
simðSk Þ ¼ i ð13Þ References
i¼1
n Nk
Cooke, N. J., Kiekel, P. A., Salas, E., & Sout, R. (2003). Measuring
team knowledge: A window to the cognitive underpinnings of
Where n = number of concepts, CMAPs, or stu-
team performance. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Prac-
dents; i = number of concepts that a proposition tice, 7(3), 179–199.
belongs to; Ni = number of propositions that are shared Fruchter, R. (1999). A/E/C teamwork: A collaborative design and
by i concepts (2 i n
1); and Nk = total number of learning space. Journal of Computational Civic Engineering,
propositions associated with Sk. 13(4), 261–269.
Fruchter, R., and Luth, G. P. (2004). ThinkTank – A web-based
Once the similarity of concepts is obtained, this
collaboration tool. Proceedings of the ASCE Structures Conference.
study uses an average method to measure the similarity Reston, VA: ASCE.
of CMAPs by aggregating the results of concept simi- Mintzes, J. J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. D. (1997). Meaningful
larity analyses. In other words, the similarity of CMAPs learning in science: The human constructivist perspective. Hand-
is proportional to the similarity of concepts in CMAPs. book of academic learning (Series in Educational Psychology,
After a concept analysis, a similarity value is derived for pp. 405–447). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cam-
each Sk; thus the similarity of CMAPs is
bridge: Cambridge University Press.

1 Xw Ruiz-Primo, M. A. (2004). Examining concept maps as an assessment

sim CMAP ¼  simðSk Þ ð14Þ tool. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Concept
w k¼1 Mapping. Pamplona, Spain: The Institute for Human and
Machine Cognition.
where w = total number of concept sets in CMAP to be
compared for similarity analysis and Sk = kth concept
set in CMAP.
The proposed measure is evaluated by (1) compar-
ing it with the Dice coefficient for analyzing two sets of Conceptual Change
concepts; (2) analyzing its performance in a generic
case of four CMAPs; and (3) a case study. Based on MICHAEL SCHNEIDER1, XENIA VAMVAKOUSSI2,3,
initial evaluations, the proposed measure has demon- WIM VAN DOOREN2
1
strated promising features for determining the similar- Institute for Behavioral Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich,
ity of multiple knowledge structures or the common Switzerland
2
understanding of students. Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology,
However, there are some areas that need further Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
3
research. First, when the number of knowledge struc- University of Athens, Athens, Greece
tures increases, concept similarity analyses become
more complicated because uncertain situations arise
due to ambiguous human perception to propositions Synonyms
that are shared by multiple concepts. In addition, the Change of concepts; Knowledge restructuring;
proposed method only considers propositions that are Restructuring of knowledge
736 C Conceptual Change

Definition Posner et al. (1982) argued that a very similar set of

The structure and content of a learners’ prior knowl- conditions determines whether conceptual change takes
edge determines how new information is interpreted place in learners. These conditions include (1) a dissat-
and stored in memory. New concepts that are not fully isfaction with existing conceptions, (2) the intelligibility
compatible with prior knowledge can, thus, only be of the new concept, (3) the plausibility of the new
learned when the network of prior knowledge is concept, and (4) the fruitfulness of the new concepts
restructured. This process of knowledge restructuring for explaining observations.
is also referred to as conceptual change. Conceptual Extrapolating insights from Kuhn’s ideas,
change can be gradual as well as abrupt and can take cognitive-developmental psychologists described cog-
various forms. Some of these are the differentiation of nitive development in terms of the reorganization
concepts (e.g., differentiating density from weight), the of initial, domain-specific knowledge structures
coalescence of concepts (e.g., subsuming solids, liquids, (Carey 1985). This research strand highlighted the
and gasses under a general category of matter), and fact that changes in domain-specific knowledge and
changes in a concept’s ontological status (e.g., from reasoning are more important driving forces of chil-
weight as a property of an object to weight as a relation dren’s cognitive development than domain-general
between two objects). Conceptual change occurs natu- processes. This challenged older theories, for example,
rally during a child’s conceptual development but Jean Piaget’s (1896–1980) model of four domain-
can also be elicited and facilitated by means of instruc- general stages of cognitive development that progress
tional interventions. from concrete to abstract thinking. Contrary to this
model, research on conceptual change shows that
Theoretical Background even young children can understand advanced and
The conceptual change approach to learning has roots abstract concepts in a domain where they already
in the science education research tradition (Posner, have a lot of helpful prior knowledge. At the same
Strike, Hewson and Gertzog 1982) as well as in the time, older children and sometimes even adults can
cognitive-developmental research tradition (Carey struggle to grasp concrete concepts in content areas
1985). In line with pedagogical constructivism, it where they have incompatible or not enough prior
emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge knowledge.
and the active role of the learner in knowledge con- One of the current central theoretical issues in
struction. In accordance with cognitive-developmental research on conceptual change is the organization of
approaches, conceptual change theories explain devel- learners’ naı̈ve ideas, that is, learners’ initial conceptual
opmental phenomena in terms of changes of the knowledge structures in a domain. There is a variety of
underlying knowledge structures. Due to their explan- alternative theoretical positions, which can be broadly
atory and predictive power, for example, regarding grouped in two categories: On the one hand, there is
students’ persistent difficulties and misconceptions, the “knowledge as theory” perspective that assumes
conceptual change perspectives are among the most that initial knowledge structures are theory-like, in
widely used paradigms in research on science learning the sense of a structure consisting of a relatively coher-
and related disciplines. ent body of domain-specific knowledge characterized
Basic ideas of research on conceptual change orig- by distinct ontology and causality, which helps chil-
inated from Thomas S. Kuhn’s (1922–1996) analysis of dren to understand their environment and make pre-
the role of paradigm shifts in the history of the sciences. dictions about it (Vosniadou et al. 2008). From this
Kuhn emphasized that any change of a scientific para- perspective, conceptual change can be described as
digm also alters the meaning of the concepts rooted in theory change. The “knowledge as elements” perspec-
this paradigm. In the 1980s, educational researchers tive, on the other hand, describes initial knowledge
began to notice the usefulness of this notion for as a loose structure of multiple, quasi-independent
explaining how learners’ understanding of a new con- elements, which have been acquired in various situa-
cept depends on their prior knowledge. Kuhn argued tions. Only over time and with increasing competence
that scientists are likely to substitute an older paradigm learners start to see their abstract interrelations, thus,
with a newer one when specific conditions are satisfied. constructing more and more integrated knowledge
 Conceptual Change C 737

structures (diSessa 2006). Empirical evidence to date is from the more familiar domain to the other. This could
inconclusive with respect to which of the two views lead to conceptual restructuring in the target domain.
is more adequate. The two perspectives agree on the Closely related to analogies, the role of providing
importance of prior knowledge for subsequent learning adequate models or external representations has been
and on conceptual understanding as based on a com- shown as important in promoting conceptual change, C
plex system of knowledge rather than on single and because these models and representation can be used to
unitary ideas. clarify aspects of a scientific explanation that are not
In addition to describing conceptual change in apparent in other models.
learners, research on conceptual change also investi- Yet another implication of conceptual change
gated how these processes can be influenced by means research relates to the curriculum and the way in
of instructional interventions (for an overview, see which it is organized. If certain concepts in science
Mason 2001). One central idea is that to achieve con- and mathematics are particularly difficult and give
ceptual change, a cognitive conflict should be elicited in rise to misconceptions, it may be more profitable
learners, by confronting them with information that to focus more deeply on a limited number of topics
contradicts their current state of knowledge. However, rather than superficially dealing with many topics.
several conditions have to be met for a cognitive con- Moreover, the order in which concepts are dealt with
flict to be meaningful. Learners have to be motivated should be carefully considered in order to avoid certain
to process the anomalous information, they need misconceptions.
sufficient prior knowledge to understand the anoma-
lous character of the new information, their episte- Important Scientific Research and
mological beliefs about the subject matter or about Open Questions
learning and teaching may hinder a revision, and they In order to analyze the content and structure of
need adequate reasoning abilities to detect conflict learners’ conceptual knowledge in scientific domains
and revise existing knowledge. Despite all these poten- and how these structures change over time, conceptual
tial difficulties, cognitive conflict is still acknowledged change researchers typically conduct interviews. For
as an important condition which can lead to concep- example, Vosniadou and Brewer (1992) asked various
tual change. first-, third-, and fifth-graders questions about the
There are several ways in which cognitive conflict shape of the earth, such as “Can you draw a picture of
can be achieved through instruction. One way is to use the earth?” or “If you walked for many days in a straight
refutational texts, which directly explain common mis- line, where would you end up?” They categorized
conceptions and why they are wrong. Another way is children’s answers as indicating one of six alternative
through peer collaboration and discussion, since social mental models of the earth. There was a clear age trend
interaction with peers may promote learners’ aware- leading away from more naı̈ve conceptions (e.g., the
ness of their own beliefs and therefore of a possible earth as a flat square) over several conceptions mixing
conflict with new information. The common denomi- naı̈ve and scientific ideas, toward more scientifically
nator is that these approaches attempt to develop correct concepts (the earth as a sphere) with increasing
learners’ metaconceptual awareness: Learners are not age. The answer patterns could be interpreted in terms
always aware of their presuppositions and beliefs that of conflicts between new information about the earth
constrain their learning, and when they are, they do not as a sphere and children’s prior knowledge that the
always understand their theoretical or contradictory ground they stand on appears to be flat and that objects
nature, or that they are open to falsification. fall from underside of a sphere in everyday life. This
A further important approach is the use of analo- study is paradigmatic for many subsequent studies with
gies. Analogical reasoning, in particular, cross-domain a similar methodology, that is, interviews with children
mapping, has been shown to play a major role in of different ages about their physics concepts.
restructuring learners’ existing knowledge. This is Although interview methods are still used in
because the comparison between two domains may most studies on conceptual change, there is a growing
highlight their common features and reveal unnoticed awareness of the importance of complementing them
commonalities, and foster the projection of inferences by alternative approaches. Interviews yield only very
738 C Conceptual Clustering

indirect evidence of mental knowledge structures. Cross-References

Category systems for interview data are always arbi- ▶ Analogy-Based Learning
trary and can, thus, lead to contradictory results. ▶ Categorical Learning
Cross-sectional age-group comparisons do not allow ▶ Cognitive Conflict and Learning
for the investigation of individual developmental path- ▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
ways of conceptual change. Therefore, researchers are ▶ Constructivist Learning
currently exploring how to complement these tradi- ▶ Deep Approaches to Learning in Higher Education
tional approaches by alternative methods, either to ▶ Epistemological Beliefs and Learning
unravel underlying reasoning processes (e.g., by using ▶ Human Cognition and Learning
eye-tracking data and reaction time measures) or to ▶ Learning and Understanding
reveal learners’ individual developmental pathways of ▶ Learning with External Representations
conceptual change (by using longitudinal designs). ▶ Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning Processes
Written tests containing several items targeting the ▶ Simulation and Learning: The Role of Mental
same concept from slightly different angles might be Models
helpful for assessing gradual changes in how strongly
a person adheres to this concept. Finally, latent variable
References
Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge,
analyses are used to account for the indirect relation
MA: MIT.
between overt behavior and the underlying knowledge diSessa, A. A. (2006). A history of conceptual change research:
structures. Threads and fault lines. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook
In recent years, research has also taken into con- of the learning sciences (pp. 265–281). Cambridge, UK:
sideration further factors that influence conceptual Cambridge University Press.
change learning, in addition to cognitive ones. For Mason, L. (Ed.). (2001). Instructional practices for conceptual change
in science domains [Special issue]. Learning and Instruction, 11
example, the term hot conceptual change has been
(4–5).
used to emphasize this importance of the learner’s Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982).
motivation and intentions for conceptual change. Like- Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of
wise, learner’s epistemological beliefs of the nature of conceptual change. Science & Education, 66(2), 211–227.
knowledge, the nature of learning, the nature of scien- Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (1992). Mental models of the earth:
A study of conceptual change in childhood. Cognitive Psychology,
tific evidence have been shown to crucially determine
24(4), 535–585.
how learners’ perceive and regulate their own concep- Vosniadou, S., Vamvakoussi, X., & Skopeliti, I. (2008). The frame-
tual change. work theory approach to the problem of conceptual change. In
Finally, the mechanisms of conceptual change are S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on con-
not only relevant for science learning but whenever ceptual change (pp. 3–34). New York: Routledge.
learners acquire complex knowledge structures. There
is research on conceptual change in physics, biology,
medicine, and history, and several other domains.
Recently, the conceptual change approach has also Conceptual Clustering
been extended to mathematics. This might seem sur-
prising, because mathematics is a formal content KENNETH A. KAUFMAN
domain with clearly defined concepts, where children’s Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory,
naı̈ve theories and everyday life experiences might play George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
little role. However, empirical research shows that the
opposite is true. For instance, when children try to
understand fractions, they struggle with their prior Synonyms
knowledge about the nature of numbers, infinite divis- Learning from observation; Symbolic clustering
ibility, successor relations, and so on. These implicit
assumptions might have been acquired with objects in Definition
everyday life or with whole numbers and hinder the A clustering algorithm is one that takes a collection
understanding of fractions. of entities and divides them into a set or hierarchy
 Conceptual Clustering C 739

of groups based on some predefined preference

criteria. Conceptual Clustering refers to those cluster-
ing algorithms that largely select their groupings based
on the quality of the resulting concept descriptions.
Thus, it is not sufficient that the entities in each C
group generally display similarity to one another, and
dissimilarity to those in other groups; the groups
should also have understandable descriptions that
characterize their membership. Michalski and Stepp
(1983) defined the process of conceptual clustering
as creating “classifications in which a configuration
of objects forms a class only if it can be closely
circumscribed by a conjunctive concept involving rela- Conceptual Clustering. Fig. 1 An illustration of the value
tions on selected object attributes.” Each class should be of concepts in clustering
disjoint from others and optimize a quality criterion,
which may be a simple criterion or a more complex
selection specification. On the other hand, a human presented with the same
task would likely place them into different groups,
Theoretical Background because the groups created would conform to the sim-
Conceptual clustering attempts to divide input ple concepts: points that form the letter A and points
entities into groups that will be meaningful to the that form the letter B. A conceptual clustering program
user and useful for future tasks. It is an unsupervised given the appropriate background knowledge could
method, that is, there is no “oracle” to determine make a similar classification.
the “correctness” of the classifications. Therefore, Conceptual clustering algorithms generally create
it belongs to the “learning from observations” class hierarchies of classes, and may build them in top-
of methods. down or bottom-up manners. In the former, the set
Traditional clustering methods work best on attri- of objects is divided into a small number of classes, each
butes with ordered attribute domains, in which one can of which may be divided into subclasses, iterating until
measure and compare distances between pairs of values a termination condition is met. In bottom-up cluster-
of an attribute. In such algorithms, an entity will typ- ing, each object is initially considered to be in its own
ically be grouped with those that are very “close” to it. class; they are then grouped together, and the resulting
In unordered (categorical) attribute domains, where groups are then brought together into superclasses,
the proximity relationship is replaced by a Boolean until the top level is reached. Another form of cluster-
equality relationship, numerical clustering has more ing algorithm is incremental, meaning that it analyzes
difficulty in determining useful groupings. examples one at a time, creating and modifying classes
In conceptual clustering on the other hand, criteria based on the new information.
other than proximity have a large effect on the place- Among the pioneering programs for conceptual
ment of an entity. The other entities in the group are clustering are the CLUSTER series (e.g., Michalski and
considered, and it is vital that a high-quality concept Stepp 1983), UNIMEM (Lebowitz 1987) and COBWEB
description characterizes the group (Michalski 1980; (Fisher 1987). These programs have been applied to
Fisher and Langley 1986). Entities are grouped together such diverse areas as creating classifying hierarchies of
if they belong to the same concept, even if physically plant diseases, Spanish folk songs, and taxpayers for the
located “far” from each other. purpose of compliance enforcement.
To illustrate the difference, consider the points in
Fig. 1 and the task of dividing them into two groups. Important Scientific Research and
A traditional clustering method would likely place the Open Questions
two points indicated by the arrows into the same group, A major advantage of conceptual clustering in compar-
as they are the closest ones to each other in the figure. ison to traditional clustering methods is the way in
740 C Conceptual Configurations

which its classifications closely reflect how we ourselves

would classify groups of entities. Accordingly, an invit- Conceptual Dependency
ing area for further research is the further modeling of Structure
how humans group objects and developing the means
The basic assumption of conceptual dependency the-
to implement such models into conceptual cluster
ory (Schank 1975) is the idea that conceptualizations
selection criteria. In general, the ability to take advan-
can be represented in terms of a small number of
tage of available background knowledge will allow the
primitive acts performed by an actor on an object.
clustering algorithm to select groupings with meaning-
Conceptualization attribute cased to actions: Actor,
ful concept descriptions.
object, recipient, direction, state (of an object), and
instrument. The various cases can be filled through
Cross-References individuals that belong to corresponding concept
▶ Classification of Learning Objects categories (and a vocabulary). The important catego-
▶ Concept Formation ries are
▶ Learning task(s)
▶ Observational Learning ● ACT is the action which occurs,
▶ Unsupervised Learning ● Picture Producer as totality of all physical objects
(e.g., actor and recipient),
● LOC, i.e., the location where ACT occurs;
References
● Time, i.e., the point of time when ACT occurs;
Fisher, D. H. (1987). Knowledge acquisition via incremental concep-
tual clustering. Machine Learning, 2, 139–172. ● Picture aider, i.e., the current state of the Picture
Fisher, D. H., & Langley, P. W. (1986). Conceptual clustering Producer.
and its relation to numerical taxonomy. In W. A. Gale (Ed.),
Artificial intelligence and statistics (pp. 77–116). Reading: Addi-
ACTs are primitive actions that are at the core of
son-Wesley. conceptual dependency. Schank (1975) has defined
Lebowitz, M. (1987). Experiments with incremental concept forma- eleven primitive actions (e.g., propel, move, speak,
tion. Machine Learning, 2, 103–138. attend, ptrans) from which all verbs of natural lan-
Michalski, R. S. (1980). Knowledge acquisition through con- guage can be derived by means of combinations.
ceptual clustering: A theoretical framework and an algorithm
Additionally, there is a number of causal relations
for partitioning data into conjunctive concepts. Internat-
ional Journal of Policy Analysis and Information Systems, 4, (such as reason, result, and enablement) to link the
219–244. ACTs with each other.
Michalski, R. S., & Stepp, R. E. (1983). Learning from observation:
Conceptual clustering. In R. S. Michalski, J. G. Carbonell, &
T. M. Mitchell (Eds.), Machine learning: An artificial intelligence References
approach (pp. 331–363). Palo Alto: Tioga. Schank, R. (1975). Conceptual information processing. New York:
Elsevier.

Conceptual Configurations
Conceptual Framework
▶ Representations, Presentations, and Conceptual
Schemas ▶ Advance Organizer

Conceptual Conflict Conceptual Graphs

▶ Cognitive Conflict and Learning ▶ Semantic Networks
 Conditional Discrimination C 741

the same behavior, i.e., if there is an attribute Q for

Conceptual Growth which “‘all S1 are P’ and ‘all S2 are P’ are true (tertium
▶ Deep Approaches to Learning in Higher Education comparationis), it is then possible to conclude ‘all S2 are
P’ from ‘all S1 are P’ by analogy, provided that ‘all Q are
P’ is true.” Consider the following simple example: Let C
M be the family of quadrangles, S1 a rectangle and S2
a rhombus, and Q the attribute that the opposing sides
Conceptual Maps have the same length. As you know, this attribute is
shared by all rectangles and rhombi. Thus, all S1 have
▶ Concept Maps
the attribute Q and all S2 do as well. If it is stated
that a rectangle is a parallelogram by virtue of this
attribute, then the statement is also true that a rhombus
is a parallelogram.
Conceptual Model of School
Learning
▶ Bloom’s Model of School Learning
▶ Carroll’s Model of School Learning Concrete–Abstract Objects and
Cognition
▶ Cognitive Artifacts, Technology, and Physics
Learning
Conceptual Representations
▶ Representations, Presentations, and Conceptual
Schemas
Concurrent Discrimination
Learning
▶ Learning Set Formation and Conceptualization
Conceptual Structures
▶ Representations, Presentations, and Conceptual
Schemas
Conditional Association
▶ Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals
Conceptualization
▶ Models and Modeling in Science Learning
Conditional Discrimination
An experimental procedure in two or more discrimi-
native stimuli is presented on each trial and which
Conclusion by Analogy
stimulus is designated as correct changes depending
From a logical point of view, analogy – or more pre- on the stimulus context. The matching-to-sample pro-
cisely, the relation of analogy – is the product of a cedure is an example of a conditional discrimination:
conclusion by analogy, which has been defined as Which comparison stimulus is correct on a given trial
follows: If two species, S1 and S2, of a genus M show depends on which sample stimulus was presented.
742 C Conditional Discrimination Learning

Cross-References when performing complex tasks, animals should par-

▶ Matching to Sample Experimental Paradigm tition discriminanda consistent with the truth-table
manifestations for the conditional in symbolic logic
(see example below). Conditional reasoning is repre-
sentative of relational concept learning at the next-
Conditional Discrimination to-highest level of intellectual capabilities based on
Learning Thomas’s approach to assessing animal intelligence
(e.g., Thomas 1980; Bailey et al. 2007).
▶ Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals
Theoretical Background
It is generally accepted in the human concept learn-
ing literature that a nonverbal, experimental demon-
Conditional Effects stration of conditional reasoning must result in the
partitioning of discriminanda consistent with the truth-
In the context of statistical analysis, a conditional effect
table manifestations specified for those discriminanda
occurs when the relationship between an independent
by the conditional in symbolic logic (Bourne 1970).
variable and a dependent variable depends on the spe-
Attending first only to the bold print letters and
cific value of a third variable.
symbols in the truth-tables below, consider both the
conditional and the conjunctive, because all known
experiments using nonhuman animals have con-
founded conjunctive and conditional reasoning as
Conditional Knowledge potential explanations for successful performances.
This conception describes knowledge about the context
Conjunctive Conditional
and influencing factors of a certain issue, i.e., when and
p Q p and q p q p>q
how to use which procedure or skill (and when not to
T T T T T T
use it). As such, it is often crucial for applying knowl-
red square correct red square correct
edge and skills successfully in practice.
T F F T F F
red not-square incorrect red not-square incorrect

F T F F T T
not-red square incorrect not-red square correct
Conditional Reasoning by F F F F F T
Nonhuman Animals not-red not-square incorrect not-red not-square correct

ROGER K. THOMAS Truth-tables are abstractions. To adapt them for exp-

Department of Psychology, The University of Georgia, erimental research, Bourne (1970) used discriminanda
Athens, GA, USA that varied in color and form. Referring again to the
truth-tables and using red and square as focal attri-
butes, substitute red when p is T and not-red when p
Synonyms is F and substitute square when q is T and not-square
Conditional association; Conditional discrimination when q is F. Regarding partitioning outcomes, beneath
learning; Conditional rule learning; if–then reasoning; p and q or beneath p > q, read Tas denoting a “correct”
if–then rule learning; Logical reasoning; Relational partition and F as denoting an “incorrect” partition
concept learning according to contingencies for each row in the truth-
tables. As may be seen in the truth-tables and in the
Definition illustration below (adapted from Bourne), the only
Conditional reasoning (conditional association or condi- correct partition for the conjunctive is when the object
tional rule-learning might be better terms) means that, is a red-square. For the conditional, the only incorrect
 Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals C 743

Conjunctive correct Conjunctive incorrect

Disjunctive (inclusive) correct Disjunctive incorrect

C

Conditional correct Conditional incorrect

Biconditional correct Biconditional incorrect

Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals. Fig. 1 Correct and incorrect assignments according to conjunctive,
disjunctive, conditional, and biconditional rules when Red and square are focal attributes

partitions are red objects that are not-square; no con- author (Bourne 1970) relied partly on the subjects’
ditions are specified for being incorrect when p is verbal explanations to confirm how they had reasoned.
not-red. In Bourne’s (1970) research, subjects had to It is hoped that one result of the present article will be
infer which truth-table was applicable based on exper- to prevent future researchers from misinterpreting or
imenter feedback, such as, saying “correct” or “incor- misrepresenting, either inadvertently or intentionally,
rect” according to whether the discriminanda were the results of typical conditional-discrimination, rule-
being partitioned consistently with a given truth- learning research using nonhuman animals.
table’s contingencies. The illustration also shows
how discriminanda must be partitioned according Important Scientific Research and
to conjunctive, disjunctive, conditional, or bicondi- Open Questions
tional truth-tables when red and square are the focal The typical conditional learning task used with
attributes. nonhuman animals involves two successively presented
There is an extensive history of investigating “con- discriminanda, represented here as A and B, only one of
ditional discrimination learning,” “conditional rule which is presented on a given trial, and two simulta-
learning,” “if–then rule learning,” etc., by nonhuman neously presented discriminanda, represented here as
animals using various procedures, and often it is stated X and Y, which appear on every trial. A or B serves as an
or implied that the animals had demonstrated condi- associative cue to select either X or Y. It is tempting to
tional reasoning corresponding to forms such as, “if p, describe and conceptualize such tasks, as many inves-
then q.” However, this article questions whether there tigators have done, as embodying conditional reason-
has ever been a valid demonstration of conditional ing such as: “If A, then X and if B, then Y.”
reasoning by nonhuman animals. Typically, relatively few discriminanda are used and
Previous investigators used methods that either they are presented more than once. Repeated presenta-
(a) confounded conditional reasoning with the possi- tions make it likely that the relatively few specific con-
bility of rote-memorization or (b) confounded the figurations afforded by the discriminanda might be
possibility of conditional reasoning with conjunctive learned by rote-memorization. As others have noted,
reasoning. The only nonverbal procedure of which I am such configuration learning is confounded with the
aware that might be used to show unequivocal condi- possibility that the animals used conditional reasoning.
tional reasoning by an animal was developed for use However, such confounding prevents such studies
with humans. However, that experiment appears to be from providing conclusive evidence for conditional
impractically difficult for nonhuman animals, and its reasoning by animals. Even if specific configuration
744 C Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals

learning is precluded, there remains a fundamental object-member of the difference-pair that was closest
problem that all known experiments using animals to the center door.
have confounded the possibility of conjunctive with In the final stage of training, the center door was
conditional reasoning. raised to expose either a triangle or a heptagon; then,
There are three basic ways to avoid specific config- it was closed to cover the triangle or heptagon before
uration learning: (a) use exemplars from conceptual the outer doors were raised to expose the same and
categories for the successive discriminanda, (b) use different pairs of objects. Intervals between closing the
exemplars from conceptual categories for the simul- center door and concurrently raising the outer doors
taneous discriminanda, or (c) use exemplars from were increased systematically. The best performing
conceptual categories for both the successive and monkey met a stringent criterion of correct responding
simultaneous discriminanda. Burdyn and Thomas’s (13 of 15 correct on 15 triangle-same trials and 13 of
(1984) investigation will illustrate both the use of con- 15 correct on 15 heptagon-different trials within a 30-
ceptual categories as discriminanda and how conjunc- trials session) with a 16 s. interval. Therefore, when the
tive and conditional reasoning are confounded. successive cues were visually absent, “triangularity”
Burdyn and Thomas (1984) used exemplars of the and “heptagonality” had to be retained symbolically
conceptual categories “same” and “different” as the in working memory as cues for “same” and “different,”
simultaneous discriminanda; an exemplar of “same” respectively.
was an identical pair of objects and an exemplar of It is tempting to conceptualize the monkeys’ suc-
“different” was a nonidentical pair of objects. New cessful performances as conditional reasoning which
pairs of objects were used on each trial in the con- might be expressed as “if triangle, then same” and “if
ceptual category phases of the testing which pre- heptagon, then different.” However, Burdyn and
cluded the monkeys from memorizing specific Thomas realized that they could not conclude that
discriminanda and reinforcement associations. The unequivocally, because it was also possible that the
successive discriminanda involved the conceptual cat- monkeys were reasoning conjunctively such as “triangle
egories “triangularity” and “heptagonality” which were and same” and “heptagon and different.” This general
represented by using 120 discriminable triangles and interpretational problem appears to have affected all
120 discriminable heptagons. Such a large number of other so-called conditional rule-learning studies in ani-
discriminanda together with trial-unique exemplars of mals. It should be noted also that most animal studies
“same” and “different” made it unlikely that the mon- have not used conceptual-category discriminanda
keys memorized and associated specific triangles and which means their subjects might have memorized
heptagons with same and different. the specific configurations associated with the
An apparatus with three guillotine doors was used. discriminanda-reinforcement contingencies.
During most of the training, all three doors were raised Bourne (1970) also realized that his subjects might
and lowered concurrently. On a given trial, (a) either have performed on some basis other than implementing
a triangle or a heptagon appeared as the center door the requirements of the appropriate truth-table, but he
was raised, (b) a pair of identical objects appeared as was able to determine through a series of transfer exper-
a result of raising one of the outer doors, and (c) a pair iments that his subjects had learned the rules. Some of
of nonidentical objects appeared as a result of raising the transfer experiments involved the experimenter and
the other outer door; the choice of triangle or heptagon the subjects discussing the applicable rule. It is unlikely
and the left-right locations of the same and different that such verbal validation will be available to animal
pairs were determined quasi-randomly for each trial. researchers, and it remains to be seen whether animals
When a triangle was presented, the correct response will show the kind of perfect or near-perfect transfer of
was to displace the object-member of the same-pair training that is necessary otherwise to confirm that the
that was closest to the center door; doing so revealed subject reasoned conditionally. By “near-perfect,” it is
a food well with a bit of fruit reinforcement beneath meant that there must be so few mistakes that the subject
the object. When a heptagon was presented, the likely could not have memorized specific discriminanda
correct response, similarly reinforced, was to the and reinforcement relationships.
 Conditioned Avoidance C 745

A minimum of four trials is necessary merely reasoning based on methods that embody truth-
to present the minimal information to show which functional logic.
rule is operating, namely, one trial each to manifest
each row contingency in a given truth-table. After Cross-References
being trained on a succession of problems based on ▶ Abstract Concept Learning in Animals C
the same logical operation, Bourne’s human subjects ▶ Animal Intelligence
learned to use the four informational trials to attain ▶ Associative Learning
thereafter perfect or near-perfect performances on new ▶ Categorical Learning
problems. Presumably, this could be done only if the ▶ Complex Learning
subjects had inferred correctly and followed the appro- ▶ Complex Problem Solving
priate truth-table. ▶ Concept Learning
Future animal research on conditional reasoning ▶ Conditional Reasoning
can and must be improved by precluding the possibility ▶ Conditions of Learning
of rote-memorization of the discriminanda or con- ▶ Discrimination Learning Model
figurations of the discriminanda. This is best done by ▶ Evolution of Learning
using conceptual-category discriminanda. Response ▶ Inductive Reasoning
contingencies that allow the subject to affirm or negate ▶ Laboratory Learning
exemplars might be helpful. If animal experiments ▶ Logical Reasoning and Learning
are based on Bourne’s procedure, they would involve ▶ Measures of Similarity
reinforcing an animal’s responses that correctly affirmed ▶ Nature of Creativity
or negated each discriminandum in accordance with the ▶ Problem Solving
applicable truth-table. A series of problems should be ▶ Rote Memorization
administered according to a single operation, until,
following the administration of the four mandatory, References
Bailey, A. M., McDaniel, W. F., & Thomas, R. K. (2007). Approaches
informational trials on new problems, the animal con-
to the study of higher cognitive functions related to creativity in
tinued with perfect or near-perfect performances,
nonhuman animals. Methods, 42, 3–14.
or until it seemed unlikely that the animal would be Bourne, L. E., Jr. (1970). Knowing and using concepts. Psychological
able to attain such performances. If perfect or near- Review, 77, 546–556.
perfect performances were seen on new problems, it Braine, M. D. S., & O’ Brien, D. P. (Eds.). (1998). Mental logic.
should be reasonable to attribute the use of the condi- Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Burdyn, L. E., Jr., & Thomas, R. K. (1984). Conditional discrimina-
tional reasoning to the animal (or conjunctive rea-
tion with conceptual simultaneous and successive cues in the
soning, etc., depending upon which truth-table was squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Journal of Comparative Psy-
being applied). chology, 98, 405–413.
This article would be incomplete without acknowl- Thomas, R. K. (1980). Evolution of intelligence: An approach to its
edging that some scholars have tried to reconcile stan- assessment. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 17, 452–474.
dard logic with what some refer to as “natural” or
“mental logic” (e.g., Braine and O’ Brien 1998). Such
logic is said to apply to cases of reasoning that reflect
genuine, “if–then” conditional reasoning without Conditional Rule Learning
using procedures that fulfill the requirements of the
truth-table for the conditional. However, consideration ▶ Conditional Reasoning by Nonhuman Animals
of natural versus standard logic has not revealed how
the methods associated with natural logic will enable
us to design experiments to distinguish how animals
may have reasoned. Thus, it appears that the most
conservative and justifiable approach is to continue to
Conditioned Avoidance
attempt to investigate animals’ use of the conditional ▶ Aversive Learning in Drosophila melanogaster
746 C Conditioned Inhibition

the sound of the metronome. Nowadays, the concept

Conditioned Inhibition of conditioned inhibition is still closely tied to neural
inhibition, which suggests a fundamental soundness in
DOUGLAS A. WILLIAMS his thinking. The difference is rather than interrupting,
Psychology Department, University of Winnipeg, reducing, or blockading the transmission of a neural
Winnipeg, MB, Canada message, a change in a publicly observable behavior is
the ultimate criterion for the existence of conditioned
inhibition.
Synonyms Under what situations does conditioned inhibition
Inhibitory conditioning develop, how is conditioned inhibition best assessed,
and what is the underlying mechanism? In addition to
Definition the standard method involving unreinforced com-
A conditioned inhibitor conveys information that a pound trials, it seems that any circumstance in which
possible future event is less likely than it would be a prior expectation is not fulfilled is the key to the
otherwise. In a conditioning experiment, the presence development of conditioned inhibition (Wagner and
of an inhibitory conditioned stimulus (CS
) may Rescorla, 1972). Some examples include:
identify the trials on which an excitatory conditioned
● Omitting the US after a well-trained CS+ in exper-
stimulus (CS+) will not be followed by the uncondi-
tioned stimulus (US). In the real world, a patient may imental extinction
● Reinforcement of CS+, and nonreinforcement of
be encouraged to use a talisman as a safety signal that
no harm will occur outside the therapist’s office. CS–, on separate trials in differential conditioning
● Introducing the US before the CS in backward
conditioning
Theoretical Background ● Slowly extending the time delay from CS onset until
Some of what we have previously learned may not be
US delivery in inhibition of delay
applicable in other places and at other times. Perhaps
the best studied example of this caveat is conditioned It is worth mentioning that many other factors are
inhibition, a term introduced by I. P. Pavlov (1927) known to influence the effectiveness of these methods
to describe the objective circumstances and mecha- (LoLordo and Fairless 1985). Furthermore, the preced-
nistic processes involved in the suppression of a well- ing list does not include all procedures that may lead to
conditioned behavior. In one classical conditioning conditioned inhibition.
experiment, he taught a hungry dog to salivate at the What brain mechanisms are engaged by the unex-
sound of a beating metronome (the CS+) by having it pected absence of the US in a conditioning experiment?
signal the delivery of food (the US), and to withhold One of the most intriguing recent findings in neuro-
responding when the signaling metronome was accom- science is the discovery of dopaminergic neurons in the
panied by the illumination of a light (the CS
) without reward system of monkeys which seem to encode the
food presentation (unreinforced). His discovery of this surprise value of the US. These midbrain neurons
unreinforced compound method is the objective cir- respond vigorously when unexpected juice US is first
cumstance most closely identified with the term con- delivered. Over trials, this initial neural response
ditioned inhibition, although there are other methods diminishes as the animal learns the CS-US relationship,
leading to the same result. Motivated by his background and is presumably no longer surprised at US delivery.
as a physiologist, Pavlov inferred that a counteracting Interestingly, the surprising absence of the US on
internal force must have gradually dampened the gener- a test trial is registered as a decline in neural activity
alization of the learned behavior from the metronome- at the exact time the US would normally have been
alone trials to the compound metronome-light trials. In delivered. Thus, the unfulfilled expectation of the US
particular, the light seemed to have acquired inhibitory on a test trial is revealed as a change opposite to the
properties which gradually came to suppress activation surprising occurrence of the US (Tobler, Dickinson,
in cortical areas of the dog’s brain normally excited by and Schultz, 2003).
 Conditioned Inhibition C 747

The proper assessment of conditioned inhibition for responding, both tests create a nonzero response
has long been a contentious issue. Some of this contro- baseline which allows a negative tendency to be distin-
versy revolves around what treatments should serve guished from simply not responding at all. The intro-
as a control for experience with the CS and US, and duction of the two-test strategy by Rescorla (1969)
the relationship between them. It is both convenient provided a solid foundation for a rich set of later exp- C
and theoretically meaningful to regard the signaling erimental findings in an area largely dormant since
power of a CS as falling somewhere on a scale from Pavlov’s original observations.
+1.0 (excitor) to
1.0 (inhibitor) with a zero neutral One of these new findings is that conditioned inhi-
point. The best control treatment then would theoret- bition is mediated by multiple mechanisms. Some con-
ically leave the control CS with zero signaling power. ditioned inhibitors seem to cancel a US expectation
One possibility might be to schedule the control CS that evoked a specific CS (negative occasion setter)
at random times during the experimental session. but not all other CSs (standard conditioned inhibi-
Unfortunately, chance forward pairings of the control tion). Conditioned inhibitors in the former class reduce
CS with the US can sometimes lead to elevated the behavioral effects of the specific excitor they previ-
responding, leaving the neutrality of the control CS in ously accompanied, but less so a new excitor in
question. Any alternative procedure in which one of a summation test. The negative occasion-setting mech-
the two main players in the relationship is omitted, anism seems to be favored when the inhibitory CS on
the CS or the US, is difficult to defend. This state of the trial terminates shortly before its excitatory partner
affairs has led to the tailoring of control procedures is nonreinforced. Situational or apparatus cues are also
to suit the experiment at hand. For example, if arbi- more likely to act as negative occasion setters than
trary letters are used to stand for which of several conditioned inhibitors. A short list of other generally
possible conditioned stimuli in the experiment are agreed characteristics of conditioned inhibition are:
actually present on a given trial (A, B, C. . .), and the
presence (“+”) or absence (“
”) of a subsequent US is ● Learned expectations must be acquired before they
indicated, the compound trial method can be denoted can be suppressed by conditioned inhibition.
as A+, AB
. Here, B is the conditioned inhibitor. ● Conditioned inhibition is less well retained than
Accordingly, we might schedule A+, AB
, and C
conditioned excitation over a retention interval.
trials in the experimental group, and A
, AB
, and C ● A CS
will not lose its inhibitory power when
+ trials in the control group. In theory, B should be unreinforced in isolation outside of the original
more inhibitory in the experimental group than in the unreinforced compound.
control group because it clearly signals the omission ● Instrumental actions can serve as conditioned
of an otherwise expected US (evoked by A). However, inhibitors in avoidance learning. Here, the action
it is possible the intermixing of trials in the A
, AB
, signaling that a potentially aversive event will not
C+ control arrangement could also lead to some inhi- occur serves as the inhibitory stimulus.
bition as AB
is differentiated from C+. This has led ● Conditioned inhibition develops whenever an
to the adoption of multiple control procedures in expectation of the forthcoming US is greater than
some experiments, none of which on its own is the the US actually obtained on the trial; hence,
single best. two excitors previously trained on separate trials
Historically, the most troublesome aspect of the will lose associative strength if they occur in
assessment question is how best to distinguish between compound and are actually followed by the US
a subject curtailing an otherwise likely response and (overexpectation).
simply not responding. The general approach has been ● A neutral stimulus reinforced in the presence of
to insist the inhibitor show the ability to suppress a conditioned inhibitor will gain strength extraor-
responding evoked by another known excitor (summa- dinarily quickly because of the larger than normal
tion test), as well as to show the inhibitor is not easily discrepancy between the subject’s “negative” expec-
converted into a signal for the presence of the US tation and the delivery of the US on the trial (super-
(retardation test). By providing an alternative impetus normal conditioning).
748 C Conditioned Response

● An excitatory CS can be protected from extinction Information processing in animals: Conditioned inhibition
if it is accompanied by a conditioned inhibitor (pp. 1–49). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. New York: Dover.
when nonreinforced.
Rescorla, R. A. (1969). Pavlovian conditioned inhibition. Psycholog-
● Conditioned inhibitors sometimes, but not always, ical Bulletin, 72, 77–94.
convey information about the omission of a partic- Tobler, P. N., Dickinson, A., & Schultz, W. (2003). Coding of
ular identifiable event, such as the absence of sugar- predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in
water but not the absence of food. a conditioned inhibition paradigm. Journal of Neuroscience, 23,
10402–10410.
Urcelay, G. P., & Miller, R. R. (2006). A comparator view of Pavlovian
Important Scientific Research and and differential inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Open Questions Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 271–283.
Some of the properties of conditioned inhibitors Wagner, A. R., & Rescorla, R. A. (1972). Inhibition in Pavlovian
remain open to question. Researchers have reported conditioning: Application of a theory. In R. A. Boakes &
that extensive extinction of the particular CS+ associ- M. S. Halliday (Eds.), Inhibition and learning (pp. 301–336).
New York: Academic.
ated with the CS
can eliminate conditioned inhibi-
tion. The conditions under which such deactivation
occurs continue to be studied (Urcelay and Miller
2006). Another question of continuing interest is to
what degree inhibitory conditioning plays a role in
human causal inference. Is a preventative cause just
Conditioned Response
an inhibitory signal that an expected effect will not When the pairing of one stimulus with another
occur? Much applied research has been directed at results in some specific change in response to either
enhancing the effectiveness of extinction (conditioned stimulus, then that change can be identified as
inhibition) to dampen traumatic memories. Can phar- having a conditioned basis. The oft-cited example of
macological agents be used to both quicken the process a conditioned response is Pavlov’s serendipitous
of extinction and make it stick in new contexts? Alter- observation that hungry dogs will come to salivate
natively, does fast extinction simply create the condi- to a bell that has previously signaled the delivery
tions for response recovery? Finally, do unreinforced of food.
trials given in the short temporal window after acqui-
sition prevent consolidation of a freshly learned CS-US
association?

Cross-References Conditioned Sensitization

▶ Associative Learning
▶ Avoidance Learning ▶ Drug Conditioning
▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning
▶ Conditioning
▶ Contingency in Learning
▶ Extinction Learning
▶ Human Causal Learning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
▶ Inhibition and Learning
▶ Learning Not to Fear This is a stimulus that, owing to its having appeared
▶ Pavlov, Ivan P. repeatedly and anticipatedly upon arrival of an uncon-
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning ditioned stimulus (US), its mere presence ends up
triggering a response similar to that of the US. For
References example, the sound of the dentist’s drill triggers the
LoLordo, V. M., & Fairless, J. L. (1985). Pavlovian conditioned inhibi- anticipatory anxiety of the pain caused by the contact
tion: The literature since 1969. In R. R. Miller & N. E. Spear (Eds.), with the dental nerve.
 Conditioned Suppression C 749

versus contiguity in Pavlovian conditioning and tests

Conditioned Suppression of comparator theory and of computational models
of learning.
JOHN J. B. AYRES Estes and Skinner (1941) entitled their paper “Some
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, quantitative properties of anxiety.” So from the start, it C
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA was thought that conditioned suppression reflected
learned anxiety or fear. For this reason, the procedure
is often called the conditioned emotional response
Synonyms (CER) procedure. If conditioned suppression truly
CER (Conditioned Emotional Response) reflects learned anxiety or fear, then the suppression
technique should offer an excellent animal model for
Definition the study of the acquisition and hopefully the elimina-
Like many terms in the field of learning, ▶ conditioned tion of learned anxiety disorders in humans. Much
suppression is defined jointly in terms of a procedure recent research has been directed toward this end
and a result. The procedure involves pairing a relatively (e.g., see Thomas et al. 2005 and citations therein).
neutral stimulus, such as a change in ambient noise or There are two techniques for demonstrating condi-
illumination, with a relatively aversive stimulus, such as tioned suppression. In the on-line technique, each
mild electric shock. The result is that a subsequent pre- CS-US pairing is superimposed upon the ongoing or
sentation of the previously neutral stimulus suppresses baseline behavior. In the off-line technique, CS-US
the rate of an ongoing behavior. In most research, the pairings are given in the absence of the ongoing or
subject of the experiment is a food- or water-restricted baseline behavior. Later, one or more CS-alone trials
laboratory rat, the shock is delivered through a grid floor are superimposed upon that behavior to allow suppres-
in the conditioning chamber, and the ongoing behavior sion to be measured. Each technique has important
consists of pressing a lever for food or licking a filled advantages and disadvantages.
water bottle. The reader will notice immediately that the The main advantage of the on-line technique is that
conditioned suppression procedure is a Pavlovian one in it allows performance on every CS trial to be observed.
that it involves the pairing of a relatively neutral stimulus The disadvantage is that each time the US is paired with
(the to-be-conditioned stimulus, CS) with a non-neutral the CS, it is also paired with the context (the chamber
stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, US). The result is that contains the subject). To the extent that the context
the Pavlovian result – a change in the behavior evoked by evokes suppression in CS absence, measurement of sup-
the CS. pression to the CS itself is complicated. In the extreme, if
suppression evoked by the context is complete, no sup-
Theoretical Background pression to the CS can be measured. This problem can be
Conditioned suppression was first demonstrated by mitigated by appropriate spacing of CS-US pairings. The
Estes and Skinner (1941). About 10 years later, its spacing needs to be great enough to allow suppression to
popularity as a research tool began to soar, probably the context to extinguish between pairings.
because it provided a vehicle for studying Pavlovian If the acquisition process itself is not of interest, the
conditioning without requiring the surgical skill of CS-US pairings can be given off-line. Since no suppres-
Pavlov or the use of dogs, and because it produced sion can be measured during acquisition with the off-
orderly and robust results. Certainly, most of the phe- line technique, many CS-US pairings can be given in
nomena that Pavlov demonstrated with his salivary a single session. Later, the CS can be superimposed on
conditioning procedure have been replicated with the ongoing behavior in a new context, and suppression to
conditioned suppression procedure. More importantly, the CS can be measured without complication from
the procedure became one of the more popular tools suppression evoked by the test context. An alternative
for testing theories of learning. Among the major to changing the context is to insert “recovery” sessions
theoretical issues addressed using the procedure in between acquisition and test. Such sessions allow the
the last 40 years are the role of CS-US contingency ongoing behavior to occur unimpeded by programmed
750 C Conditioned Suppression

CSs or USs and promote extinction of suppression to suppression to each was equal. They then conducted
the context. The experimenter can see if the ongoing a series of assays designed to see if learning was weaker
behavior rate is adequate for testing the CS, and, if to light than to tone, but that did not appear to be so.
so, can measure suppression to it in a subsequent ses- Finally, they arranged for suppression to be weaker to
sion. Off-line conditioning procedures also allow the tone than to light but still found more freezing to tone.
use of short CSs (except on test trials) if that is desired. The results suggest that conditioned suppression may
CS durations of 1–15 s. are common. In contrast, with be a more sensitive measure of fear than directly
on-line techniques, the CS must be long enough to observed freezing (at least as freezing was defined).
permit a reliable measure of the ongoing behavior in Importantly, the fact that the degree of freezing and
its presence. So in the on-line procedure, CSs are typ- suppression are correlated supports the idea that con-
ically 1–3 min. in duration. ditioned suppression in rats does indeed reflect fear
A danger in using off-line techniques arises when the and therefore should be a good animal model for the
experiment requires complex procedures and multiple study of fear acquisition and elimination in humans.
phases. When these phases are conducted off-line before Frequently, rats will show strong suppression to
an ultimate test trial, the experiment can resemble a novel CSs, particularly when they are brief. Looking
magic act. The audience sees the magician pull the rabbit only at suppression of the measured baseline
out of the hat on the test trial but can only guess how the responding, one might be tempted to believe that the
rabbit got there. In contrast, a similar experiment novel CS is frightening. Direct observation, however,
conducted on-line is fully transparent (for a discussion reveals otherwise (e.g., Ayres et al. 1987). Novel CSs
of this issue, see Rauhut et al. 2000, pp. 106–107). tend to evoke a great deal of activity, including a lot of
rearing (standing up on the hind legs). This behavior
Important Scientific Research and seems to reflect an orienting or investigatory response
Open Questions rather than a conditioned response. Thus, asking what
A criticism of conditioned suppression is that it tells us the rat actually does during the CS can help to deter-
what the subject is not doing during the CS (it is not mine whether CS-evoked suppression does or does not
engaging in the ongoing or baseline behavior), but it depend upon CS-US pairings.
does not tell us what the subject is doing. If Estes and
Skinner were correct in assuming that conditioned sup- Cross-References
pression reflects fear, then we should be able to predict ▶ Associative Learning
what the animal actually does during the CS. A basis for ▶ Comparator Hypothesis and Learning
such a prediction is an observation by Fanselow and ▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning
Lester (1988), who noted that fear restricts an animal’s ▶ Conditioned Inhibition
behavior to a small number that have an evolutionary ▶ Conditioning
history of thwarting predation. They stated that in the ▶ Context Conditioning
laboratory rat, the most dominant of these behaviors ▶ Contingency in Learning
seems to be freezing or defensive immobility. Usually, ▶ Emotional Learning
but not always, freezing occurs in a crouched position. ▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans
A number of studies have directly observed behav- ▶ Pavlovian Conditioning
ior during conditioned suppression and have system-
atically measured freezing (e.g., see Kim et al. 1996 and References
citations therein). They have found that freezing does Ayres, J. J. B., Haddad, C., & Albert, M. (1987). One-trial excitatory
indeed occur during the CS and that the degree of backward conditioning as assessed by conditioned suppression
suppression is correlated with the degree of freezing. of licking in rats: Concurrent observations of lick suppres-
(Freezing was defined as the absence of any movement sion and defensive behaviors. Animal Learning & Behavior, 15,
212–217.
save that of the sides needed for breathing.) Interest-
Estes, W. K., & Skinner, B. F. (1941). Some quantitative properties of
ingly, Kim et al. found that freezing was not the whole anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 390–400.
story of conditioned suppression, because subjects Fanselow, M. S., & Lester, L. S. (1988). A functional behavioristic
froze more to tone CSs than to light CSs even though approach to aversively motivated behavior: Predatory
 Conditions of Learning C 751

imminence as a determinant of the topography of defensive

behavior. In R. C. Bolles & M. D. Beecher (Eds.), Evolution and Conditions of Learning
learning (pp. 185–212). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Kim, S. D., Rivers, S., Bevins, R. A., & Ayres, J. J. B. (1996). Condi-
ROBERT A. REISER
tioned stimulus determinants of conditioned response form in
Pavlovian fear conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Department of Educational Psychology and Learning C
Animal Behavior Processes, 22, 87–104. Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Rauhut, A. S., McPhee, J. E., DiPietro, N. T., & Ayres, J. J. B. (2000).
Conditioned inhibition training of the competing cue after com-
pound conditioning does not reduce cue competition. Animal Synonyms
Learning & Behavior, 28, 92–108.
Dispositions for learning
Thomas, B. L., Longo, C. L., & Ayres, J. J. B. (2005). Thwarting the
renewal (relapse) of conditioned fear with the explicitly unpaired
procedure: Possible interpretations and implications for treating Definition
human fears and phobias. Learning and Motivation, 36, 374–407.
The conditions of learning, which were first postulated
by Robert M. Gagné in the mid-1960s (Gagné 1965),
and elaborated upon in many of his later works (e.g.,
Gagné 1985; Gagné and Medsker 1996), describe the
Conditioned Taste Aversion specific events, both internal and external to the
learner, Gagné postulated as supporting the various
▶ Taste Aversion Learning categories of learning outcomes that he identified in
his work.

Theoretical Background
Conditioned Tolerance In order to understand the conditions of learning, one
first must have an understanding of the five categories
▶ Drug Conditioning of learning outcomes that Gagné identified. These five
categories are verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills. Each
of these five categories, along with the external instruc-
Conditioning tional conditions that support learning within that
category, is described below.
▶ Associative Learning
▶ Learning in Honeybees: Associative Processes
▶ Psychology of Learning (Overview Article)
Verbal Information
Gagné (1985) indicates that verbal information in-
volves the ability to state, tell, or describe facts, names,
labels, and/or principles, either as individual entities
or as interrelated elements, also known as bodies of
Conditioning Applications knowledge (such as the names of all the capital cities in
a particular region of the world). A person is said to
▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied have acquired, or learned, some verbal information
Behavior Analysis and Learning when that person is able to state, tell, or describe that
information in sentence form. Gagné points out that an
essential characteristic of verbal information learning is
that the learner states that information in essentially
Conditioning Therapies the same form in which it was presented, simply as
a fact, name, label, and so on. In other words, the
▶ Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, Applied learner is said to have acquired that information simply
Behavior Analysis and Learning by being able to restate it; the learner need not have to
752 C Conditions of Learning

apply that information in order to demonstrate that he recall that information on multiple occasions over
or she has learned it. time, is likely to aid retention.

Conditions of Learning for Verbal Intellectual Skills

Information Intellectual skills, also known as procedural knowl-
What are the conditions external to the learner that will edge, involve the ability to actually perform some
facilitate the acquisition of verbal information? First, intellectual task. Rather than simply being able to
Gagné and Driscoll (1988) indicate that it is important state some verbal information, the learner is able to
to draw the learner’s attention to the information to be use that information to perform a more complex intel-
learned. Oftentimes instruction entails a great deal of lectual task.
written and/or oral communication, only a small por- Gagné (1985) describes a variety of types of intel-
tion of which actually presents the verbal information lectual skills, including concrete concepts, defined con-
that the learner is expected to recall. To help the learner cepts, rules, and higher-order rules. He indicates that
identify and encode this information it is useful to concrete concepts are classes or groups of objects that
employ verbal cues, such as the phrase “this is the key can be identified by observation, in other words by
point to remember,” or visual cues, such as a table, examining their physical features, and which can then
chart, or slide listing the key information. be classified by name. Examples would include types of
Second, learners are more likely to remember infor- columns, triangles, vehicles, and so on. Defined con-
mation that is presented in small chunks. Presenting cepts are things or ideas that cannot be identified solely
the to-be-learned information in short sentences facil- by their physical features, but rather by their defini-
itates encoding and recall. Limiting to four or five the tions. For example, in order to classify someone as
number of items presented at one time is another an uncle, a learner cannot simply look at a person’s
useful chunking technique. physical features. Instead, the learner must know that
Third, it is important to provide the learner with an uncle is defined as a person who is the brother of
a meaningful context that will help the learner encode someone’s mother or father, and determine whether
that new information into the learner’s existing cogni- the individual in question has that relationship.
tive structure. If names or labels are to be learned, Rules are statements that describe a procedure
placing that information into sentences or phrases is for solving a particular class of problems. Rule using
likely to help the learner remember that information. involves the ability to apply that procedure in order to
The rhyme that begins “Thirty days hath September . . . ” solve a class of problems. An example of a rule is “to add
is an example. Using visual imagery, having the learner fractions with the same denominator, add the numera-
create images that relate the new name or label with tor and place the total over the common denominator.”
items that have already been learned, is another effec- An individual who is able to add fractions by applying
tive strategy. For example, a learner trying to learn that that rule is said to have learned the rule. Higher-order
the Spanish word for a letter is “carta” is likely to be rule learning involves applying a combination of rules in
aided if the learner visualizes a letter being transpor- order to solve a task that cannot be solved via the use of
ted in a shopping cart (Pressley et al. 1982). Another a single rule. For example, in order to write a business
effective strategy involves the use of advance orga- letter an individual must apply a wide variety of gram-
nizers (Ausubel 1978), brief textual passages that pre- matical rules, including many rules involving grammar
cede the information to be learned and which attempt and sentence structure.
to link that information to the learner’s preexisting
knowledge. Conditions of Learning for Intellectual
Fourth, repetition is likely to improve learning and Skills
retention of verbal information. Learners may not According to Gagné and Driscoll (1988), to increase the
encode some new information the first time they read likelihood that a learner will be able to perform a
or hear it, so repetition may be useful. Moreover, once particular intellectual skill, one must insure that the
a learner has encoded some information, providing the learner can perform the component skills that are sub-
learner with spaced practice, requiring the learner to ordinate to the skill being taught. For example, in most
 Conditions of Learning C 753

cases a learner must be able to identify independent beginning the instruction by demonstrating the entire
clauses and coordinating conjunctions (concept learn- process to learners so that they get a preview of the
ing) before the learner can correctly insert commas into whole task.
sentences that contain those elements. Thus, before Providing learners with opportunity to practice
being taught the desired new skill, learners should be applying the rules they are being taught is another C
asked to recall the component skills, if they have already crucial condition of learning Gagné and Driscoll dis-
learned them, or should be taught those skills if they cuss. In doing so, they emphasize that simply because
have not as yet acquired them. a learner can state a rule does not mean he or she can
In instances where the desired learning outcome apply it; thus the need to have the learner practice
involves concept learning, it is important that instruc- application of the rule. Moreover, Gagné and Driscoll
tion direct a learner’s attention to the distinctive fea- indicate that spaced practice, practice of the same rule
tures of the concept to be learned. Moreover, if learners on multiple occasions over an extended period of time,
are likely to have difficulty distinguishing between two will greatly facilitate a learner’s ability to retain the skill
closely related concepts, Gagné and Driscoll indicate he or she has learned. Gagné and Driscoll also point to
that it is important to direct learner attention to the the value of having learners practice applying a skill in
features that serve to differentiate the two. Thus, for a variety of situations and contexts, thus promoting
example, if the goal is to teach learners to identify transfer of that skill.
proper fractions, the instruction should not only Finally, Gagné and Driscoll point to the importance
include definitions and examples of proper fractions, of feedback during rule using. They discuss the value of
but should also provide examples of fractions in which reinforcing correct responses and point to the impor-
the numerator is larger than, or equal to, the denomi- tance of corrective feedback when learners are having
nator and an accompanying explanation as to why such difficulty performing a rule-using task properly.
fractions are not proper fractions.
Inasmuch as rule learning often involves per- Cognitive Strategies
forming a series of steps, Gagné and Driscoll indicate According to Gagné, cognitive strategies are the means
that one of the key instructional strategies for teaching via which learners guide their own remembering,
such skills is to provide learners with cues that will thinking, and learning. For example, a learner might
help learners recall the sequence of steps, or a particular use a mnemonic device in order to recall the names of
step, in the process. For example, a verbal cue that is the planets in our solar system.
likely to help a learner recall how to divide by fractions
would be “invert the divisor and multiply.” Obviously, Conditions of Learning for Cognitive
in most cases stating this cue will just serve as one of Strategies
many instructional events that will be employed as Cognitive strategies are often developed by learners
a learner is being taught the desired skill. Nonetheless, independently as they engage in some learning activity.
this cue is quite likely to be a crucial one, one that will Nonetheless, Gagné and Driscoll (1988) indicate that
help the learner recall the necessary procedure for there are at least three categories of instructional activ-
dividing by fractions. ities that can be employed in order to help learners
Gagné and Driscoll also suggest that rules that acquire and use cognitive strategies. First, cognitive
involve a large number of steps should be taught in strategies may be demonstrated and/or described to
chunks. That is, if a rule-using task involves more than the learners. For example, when learners are being
one or two steps (e.g., balancing a checkbook), the taught how to solve complex problems, a strategy for
learner might first be provided with instruction and identifying the essential and irrelevant ideas presented
practice on the one or two steps in the process before in the problem situation can be described and dem-
the learner is presented with instruction and practice onstrated to the learners. As additional problems of
on any of the other steps. It is important to point out this nature are presented, demonstrations of how
that the employment of this approach, which has been to apply the strategy may be faded and replaced by
labeled by some as a “part-task approach” (e.g., van simple instructions reminding the learners to apply
Merrienboer 2007) does not preclude the possibility of the strategy.
754 C Conditions of Learning

Second, Gagné and Driscoll discuss the importance Moreover, Gagné and Driscoll indicate that in some
of providing learners with frequent opportunities to cases it may be valuable to have learners engage in
practice employing cognitive strategies. They suggest mental practice of physical skills, indicating that
that providing students with a variety of novel prob- learners may benefit from forming mental images of
lems within a particular content area will facilitate their how to perform the skill.
ability to apply a particular cognitive strategy or set of As Gagné and Driscoll indicate, when learners are
strategies to other novel problems within the same area. engaged in the physical practice of a motor skill, it is
Third, Gagné and Driscoll point to value of providing also very important to provide learners with feedback
learners with informative feedback as they are learning regarding their performance. The authors pay particu-
cognitive strategies. They indicate that this type of lar attention to two characteristics of the feedback that
feedback does not simply inform the learner as to should be provided to learners when they are engaging
whether his or her proposed solution to the problem in physical practice of motor skills. First, they discuss
was correct; in addition it might indicate the extent to the importance of immediate feedback, indicating that
which the process the learner employed in arriving at if feedback is not immediate, learners may get into
the solution was original, creative, or inventive (this the habit of performing a skill incorrectly, making it
assumes that the strategies that were employed are that much harder to teach them the proper execution
observable). In addition, one might presume that of the skill. Second, they discuss the need to provide
such feedback could also focus on the efficiency of the informative feedback, namely feedback that indicates
strategies the learner used. Moreover, in those cases in to the learner what aspect of performance was faulty
which strategies did not meet particular criteria, it and describing or demonstrating the correct manner of
would be useful to provide feedback recommending performing that action.
alternative techniques.
Attitudes
Motor Skills Attitudes, according to Gagné (1985), are the internal
Gagné indicates that motor skills usually involve feelings or beliefs that influence the choice of personal
a sequence of physical movements that “constitute actions an individual takes. For example, a person’s
a total action that is smooth, regular, and precisely beliefs about the value of wearing a seat belt while
timed” (Gagné 1985, p. 62). Examples include a wide driving is likely to influence his or her decision as to
array of physical activities, such as serving a tennis ball, whether to use one.
driving a car, printing the letters of the alphabet,
performing a type of dance, and innumerable other Conditions of Learning for Attitudes
physical actions. Gagné and Driscoll (1988) describe a variety of learning
conditions that can be employed to promote learner
Conditions of Learning for Motor Skills acquisition of particular attitudes. One involves the use
According to Gagné and Driscoll (1988), one of the of human modeling. They suggest that learners may be
important steps in teaching learners how to perform influenced to adopt a particular attitude if they are
a particular motor skill is to describe and demonstrate shown examples of a positive role model, someone
the various physical procedures (also called the execu- they admire or respect, displaying that attitude. The
tive subroutines) which constitute that skill. They also authors point out that usually it is not sufficient to
suggest that for complex skills, in addition to demon- simply have the model talk about the value of adopting
strating the skill as a whole, it is valuable to divide the a particular attitude, it is important that the model
skill into parts and describe and demonstrate each part actually display the action that reflects that attitude.
separately. For example, rather than simply stating it is important
The authors also point to the importance of pro- that drivers bring their cars to a complete stop at stop
viding learners with many opportunities to engage signs, a model should also display that behavior.
in the physical practice of a motor skill so that learners Another strategy involves establishing an expec-
can not only learn how to perform the skill, but can tancy for success on the part of the learner. Gagné and
have opportunities to fine-tune that performance. Driscoll indicate that if learners are rewarded or
 Conditions of Learning C 755

experience some form of success after engaging in some centered around Gagné’s views regarding a particular
action based on personal choice, they are more likely to event, such as providing learning guidance (Alutu
continue to engage in such actions. In other words, the 2006) or presenting instructional cues (Tomic 1980).
learners will be more likely to adopt the attitude that In a much larger number of cases, researchers have
led to that choice of action. For example, an individual examined how various levels of a particular instruc- C
who receives praise for recycling an item is more likely tional event, such as modeling behaviors (West and
to continue to engage in recycling. In a similar vein, Graham 2007) or providing feedback (Ifenthaler 2011),
Gagné and Driscoll indicate that when a role model affect learning. However, most of these studies have
engages in some attitudinal behavior, it is important to not specifically focused on Gagné’s views regarding
demonstrate how the role model is rewarded or receives these events.
some satisfaction from taking that action. For example, While some studies related to Gagné’s work have
a role model might discuss the satisfaction he or she focused on a single instructional event or condition,
received from doing some voluntary service activity several studies have focused on lessons or materials
(such as the satisfaction I have received from preparing that incorporate several of the events of instruction
this entry for this encyclopedia!). described by Gagné and have examined how the pres-
ence versus absence of one or more of these events
Important Scientific Research and affected student learning and attitudes. In several
Open Questions such studies (Martin et al. 2007; Martin and Klein
Many of the studies that have examined Gagné’s views 2008), providing learners the opportunity to practice
regarding the conditions of learning have focused on desired skills proved to be the instructional event
a particular instructional event or condition that he that had the greatest effect on learning. These studies
postulated as facilitating a particular type of learning call for further examination of how a combination of
outcome. For example, as noted earlier, Gagné (1985) Gagné’s events of instruction affect student learning
indicated that intellectual skills that involve a large and attitudes.
number of steps should be taught in small chunks, Other studies have focused on the degree to which
with the learner receiving instruction and practice on Gagné’s events of instruction are employed during a
a few steps at a time. In recent years, several authors lesson, and have examined how various levels of use
(e.g., van Merrienboer 2007; Merrill 2009) have raised are correlated with student learning and attitudes. For
questions about this viewpoint. As a result, several example, in a study examining the instructional activ-
researchers have compared instructional approaches ities employed in 37 sections of undergraduate com-
that employ this “part-task approach” with a “whole- puter science and chemistry courses, Hampton and
task approach” in which, from the outset of a lesson, Reiser (2004) found that student learning and motiva-
the practice activities presented to learners require tion were positively correlated with the degree to which
them to perform all the skills or steps that constitute Gagné’s events of instruction were employed.
the whole task, starting with a simple version of the Many models of teaching that are often character-
whole task and, over time, progressing to more com- ized as “direct instruction” (Magliaro et al. 2005) pre-
plex versions of the task. Results of a recent study scribe the use of a set of instructional activities similar
revealed that skill acquisition and transfer was greater to Gagné’s events of instruction. Given the current
among students in a whole-task condition than among debate about the appropriate degree of instructional
students in a part-task group (Lim et al. 2009). How- guidance that should be provided to learners (Clark
ever, the researchers clearly indicated that a great deal and Hannafin 2012), there is a need for additional
of additional research is necessary in order to get research examining the effects of direct instructional
a clearer picture of the relative merits of these two approaches such as those proposed by Gagné.
approaches across a wide variety of cognitive skills
and learners. Cross-References
Research has also been conducted on many of the ▶ Abilities to Learn: Cognitive Abilities
other instructional conditions or events of instruction ▶ Attitudes: Formation and Change
described by Gagné. In a few instances, research has ▶ Chunking Mechanisms and Learning
756 C Cone of Experience

▶ Cognitive Skill Acquisition Van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (2007). Alternate models of instructional

▶ Feedback Strategies design: holistic design approaches and complex learning. In
R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instruc-
▶ Learning by Chunking
tional design and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River:
▶ Learning Strategies Pearson Education.
▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning West, R. E., & Graham, C. R. (2007). Benefits of using live modeling
▶ Mnemotechnics and Learning to help preservice teachers transfer technology integration
▶ Motor Learning principles. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 23(4),
131–141.
▶ Rule Formation

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 Confidence Judgments in Learning C 757

▶ cognitive learning students assess their own knowl- text. Then she judges how well she has understood the
edge themselves at certain points of time during their text and how good she will be at the examination, that
learning. In this regard three kinds of judgments are of is, she judges her learning (JOL). As she feels that she
particular interest: ease of learning (EOL) judgments has not got everything right, she decides to reread some
that are taken before the learning begins, judgments of parts of the text and to have a look at the boxes that she C
learning (JOL) that are taken after learning but before neglected during her first reading. Coming to the end
a performance test, and retrospective confidence (RC) of the text again, Jennifer fills in the practice test at the
judgments that are taken after testing. end of the chapter. Because she feels very confident that
her answers in the practice test are correct (RC judg-
Theoretical Background ments) she decides not to read anymore about steam
In the framework of metacognition proposed by engines. From an educational perspective the core
Nelson and Narens (1992), cognitions are split into question is: How well will Jennifer do at her examina-
two levels, namely, the object-level and the meta-level. tion? The answer to this question partly depends on the
All cognitions about the content to be learned are accuracy of her judgments, because her decisions dur-
located at the object-level, for example, activities like ing learning are conductively only if the judgments
reading or elaborating, and representations like the reflect the actual knowledge at that point of time in
definitions of terms or mental images of pictures. Men- the learning process. Otherwise she will allocate study-
tal representations about these cognitions are located at time toward texts that she already knows, reread text
the meta-level, for example, the belief that a certain parts superfluously, and she will not invest additional
learning strategy will be efficient, the plan to reach effort for learning following an illusion of knowing.
a learning goal, the belief that one has comprehended Thus, confidence judgments are a central component
the content, etc. Thus, the learner constructs a mental of ▶ self-regulated learning and affect the learning pro-
model at the meta-level that maps the cognitions at the cess and the learning outcome. But how are judgments
object-level, and this model may be altered as the learn- and their accuracy obtained? We will give a brief intro-
ing process continues, that is, the model at the meta- duction into the methods in the next section.
level changes. One of the processes that potentially To obtain confidence judgments learners are
alter the mental model is monitoring that is defined as usually asked questions like “How well will you be
assessing the cognitions at the object-level. Confidence able to complete a test over this material?” The answer
judgments are an important part of this monitoring as is often given using a scale from 0% to 100%.
they assess the current state of knowledge about the If a multiple choice test is used the lower limit is
learning content. After the knowledge has been judged adjusted to guessing, for example, 20% for an answer
and the mental model has been updated, the cognitions format using five alternatives. As the actual parameter
on the object-level may be controlled. Thus, besides for guessing can differ from this value depending on
monitoring control is the second important process in the used distracters – see 3-PL models in item response
the framework by Nelson and Narens (1992). During theory – we suggest using open answer formats or other
learning such control may lead to rereading, selection formats with a guessing nearby 0% whenever possible.
of another study-strategy, etc. Judgments can be obtained as local or global judg-
We will elaborate on the role of judgments in ments. Local EOL judgments or JOLs are obtained for
learning more deeply using an example. Assume that each content or text section to be learned; local RC
Jennifer reads a text about the functioning of a steam judgments are obtained after each item of a test. In
engine as a part of her preparation for an exam. Before contrast global judgments are made for the whole
she begins to read she asks herself how difficult it will be learning material or the whole test. As we have argued
to comprehend this text, that is, she judges her EOL. above, the accuracy of judgments is crucial for self-
Depending on her judgment she will reserve time for regulated learning and for learning outcome. There
reading about steam engines and allocate less or more are mainly two different kinds of accuracy measures
study-time to other themes. Afterward she begins read- calculated: Absolute accuracy (aka calibration) is based
ing, but she decides not to read some of the additional on the difference or the absolute difference between the
material that is printed in boxes throughout the main judgment and the performance indicating how much
758 C Confidence Judgments in Learning

learners’ judgments derivate from their performance. learning (see, e.g., Dunlosky and Metcalfe 2009).
Absolute accuracy can be visualized plotting calibra- Study-time allocation was mainly studied in laborato-
tion curves (see, e.g., Fig. 1) that are indicating under- ries using word pairs or short sentences as learning
and ▶ overconfidence at each level of confidence. A material. One result is that JOLs predict the allocation
prerequisite for calculating absolute accuracy is that of study-time in a following learning phase. There are
judgments either are made on the same scale as the two hypotheses explaining this result. The discrepancy-
performances (e.g., “I will solve 12 items correctly”) or reduction hypothesis states that study-time is allocated
on a percentage scale. Relative accuracy (aka resolution) to those items that are judged as least known, whereas
indicates to what extend learners discriminate bet- the region-of-proximal-learning hypothesis states that
ween test performances on correct vs. incorrect items. study-time is allocated to those items that are judged
Relative accuracy is calculated as the within-person as not yet known, but among these items the easiest
correlation between the judgments and performances, ones will be chosen first. There is evidence for both
often using the nonparametric gamma correlation. hypotheses found in the literature, and maybe both
A prerequisite for calculating relative accuracy is that mechanisms are used by learners. However, each of
local judgments have been used. the hypotheses explains why the accuracy of judgments
is related via the mediator study-time allocation to the
Important Scientific Research and learning outcome. And indeed, there is evidence for
Open Questions JOLs’ relative accuracy being correlated to the learning
In this section we will briefly review core research about outcome in text comprehension (Maki and McGuire
confidence judgments in learning and stress major 2002). Beyond that experiments have shown that
research questions. Four topics are addressed: (1) judg- enhancing JOLs’ accuracy causes an increase in learn-
ments, study-time allocation, and learning outcome; ing outcome. Moreover researchers have shown that
(2) enhancing JOLs’ accuracy; (3) stability and gener- the relative accuracy of RC judgments is correlated with
ality of judgments and their accuracy; and (4) calibra- comprehension in reading too. In sum this body of
tion in classroom studies. research supports the claim that JOLs and RC judg-
Researchers have been interested in study-time ments are important for the control of learning pro-
allocation as a part of metacognitive control during cesses, and that self-regulation is effective only if the
accuracy of these judgments differs from zero.
Based on the function of confidence judgments for
Intermediate test
learning there has been considerable effort made to
100
enhance the accuracy of judgments (see, e.g., Dunlosky
and Metcalfe 2009; Dunlosky and Lipko 2007). There
(698)
are several interventions found to be effective in push-
Percentage correct

80
ing the relative accuracy of JOLs: (a) JOLs are more
(84) (372)
accurate if they are obtained delayed rather than imme-
60 (458) diately after learning. One explanation is that delayed
judgments include processes of activation from ▶ long-
(648)
40 term memory only whereas immediate judgments
additionally rely on ▶ working memory. In contrast
performance in a knowledge test is based on long-
term memory and therefore the delayed judgments
40 60 80 100
reflect the knowledge more accurately than immediate
Judgments (%)
judgments. (b) Deeper understanding of texts facili-
Confidence Judgments in Learning. Fig. 1 Example of tates the relative accuracy of judgments, for example,
a calibration curve using RC judgments. Frequencies of throughout rereading, writing summaries, and gener-
judgments are given in brackets. The dotted line ating key terms before taking the JOLs. But how is this
indicates perfect calibration. Cited from Mengelkamp effect explained? Firstly, it is known from the ▶ levels
and Bannert (2010) of processing approach that deep processing leads to
 Configural Cues in Associative Learning C 759

better comprehension of texts. Secondly, techniques was trained explicitly and incentives for accurate judg-
like generating key terms are indicative for the depth ments were given, a positive effect on calibration and
of processing. As JOLs reflect the depth of processing performance in the final test was achieved.
and the performance reflect the depth, too, the relative Confidence judgments are important for learning.
accuracy of the judgments increases. Nevertheless it is often ignored that judging ones C
From an interindividual perspective, the stability knowledge during learning is a highly complex process,
and generality of judgments and their accuracy was and in order to improve learning significantly theories
investigated (see, e.g., Mengelkamp and Bannert of SRL and metacognition need to be integrated.
2010). There is evidence that the judgments themselves
Cross-References
are considerably stable over the time at least within
▶ Comprehension Monitoring
each kind of judgment, and this corresponds to evi-
▶ Metacognition and Learning
dence from research using RC judgments in test-taking.
▶ Metacognitive Strategies
This stability may reflect stable characteristics of per-
▶ Self-regulated Learning
sons like beliefs about one’s own ability or self-confi-
dence. Further, it was questioned if there is a stable and References
general metacognitive ability; thus the stability and Dunlosky, J., & Lipko, A. R. (2007). Metacomprehension: A brief
generality of the judgments’ accuracy is of interest. history and how to improve its accuracy. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 16(4), 228–232. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
Results indicate that relative accuracy is not stable at
8721.2007.00509.x.
all and generalizes not across different domains. In
Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Thousand Oaks:
contrast absolute accuracy seems to be moderately Sage.
stable and generalizable. But as absolute accuracy is Hacker, D. J., Bol, L., & Keener, M. C. (2008). Metacognition in
not mathematically independent from the magnitude education: A focus on calibration. In J. Dunlosky & R. A. Bjork
of judgments and the magnitude of performances, the (Eds.), Handbook of metamemory and memory (pp. 429–456).
New York: Psychology.
latter result potentially is an artifact. To sum up this
Maki, R. H., & McGuire, M. J. (2002). Metacognition for text:
section, relative accuracy of judgments seems not to be Findings and implications for education. In T. J. Perfect &
much of a trait but it is sensitive to characteristics of the B. L. Schwartz (Eds.), Applied metacognition (pp. 68–92).
learning situation and thus open for interventions. Cambridge, UK: University Press.
The research presented so far was mainly conducted Mengelkamp, C., & Bannert, M. (2010). Accuracy of confidence
judgments: Stability and generality in the learning process and
in laboratories using relative measures of accuracy.
predictive validity for learning outcome. Memory & Cognition,
Since the late 1990s, there is a growing body of research
38, 441–451. doi:10.3758/MC.38.4.441.
that has been conducted in classrooms using absolute Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1992). Metamemory: A theoretical
measures of accuracy (see, e.g., Hacker et al. 2008). framework and new findings. In T. O. Nelson (Ed.), Metacogni-
One result is the replication of the “unskilled but tion: Core readings (pp. 117–130). Needham Heights: Allyn
unaware” effect in educational settings, that is, low- and Bacon.
achieving persons overestimate themselves whereas
high-achieving persons are quite well calibrated or
show slight underconfidence. Further, almost all stud-
ies found a correlation between the absolute accuracy Configural Cues in Associative
of JOLs or RC judgments and the final test perfor- Learning
mance. Therefore, one aim of research in the class-
room is to get students better calibrated in order to STEVEN GLAUTIER
improve the learning outcome. There are some studies School of Psychology, Southampton University,
addressing this aim using RC judgments. One obvious Southampton, UK
way is to give practice tests toward the students in order
to increase their accuracy of judgments. First results
show that giving the students practice tests together Synonyms
with judgments and feedback is not increasing the Conjunction; Part; Pattern; Stimulus configuration;
absolute accuracy of their judgments. But if monitoring Whole
760 C Configural Cues in Associative Learning

Definition
Configural cues are stimuli provided by the juxtaposi-
tion, in time or space, of individual stimulus elements.
Associative learning is said to have taken place when
presentation of a stimulus elicits a new response as
a result of a history of pairing with another stimulus.
The outcomes of many associative learning experi-
ments demonstrate that organisms use configural cues
during learning.

Theoretical Background
As long ago as 350 BC, Aristotle considered the distinc-
tion between individual elements and their assembly:
“In the case of all things which have several parts and in
which the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the
whole is something beside the parts . . .” (Aristotle,
350 BC, Book VIII, Part 6; as cited by Ross (2009)).
More recently the Gestalt psychologists are commonly
associated with the expression “the whole is greater Configural Cues in Associative Learning. Fig. 1 Stimuli
than the sum of its parts” for which Aristotle’s words exhibiting “configuration“ effects. Left-hand-side two
are one precursor. The general principle referred to arrangements of four corners, and right-hand-side, the
is straightforward and there are many nice visual exam- Thatcher Illusion
ples from the perception literature, such as the one
shown on the left of Fig. 1. The arrangement of
four corners in the top left gives the impression of between features and thus facilitates rapid identifica-
a square shape, which is quite different to the impres- tion of anomalies such as feature inversion.
sion formed when the same elements are rearranged, as Early demonstrations of configural effects in asso-
shown in the bottom left of the figure. Discussions of ciative learning appeared in the western literature
stimulus configuration effects are not confined to the during the 1930s. Following-up on the work of other
perception literature. Other examples arise in different Russian investigators, including Pavlov, Gregory
areas of psychology including attention, face percep- Razran documented faster learning in humans when
tion, and associative learning. In studies of divided compound stimuli were used as conditioned stimuli
attention it has been argued that response times when than when individual elements were used. Salivation
two signals (e.g., tone and letter) are presented together responses were acquired more rapidly to an alternating
are faster than could be expected if the signals are pattern of red and green lights which signaled food
processed separately on independent channels. Instead, than to a single red or green light of the same duration.
it has been suggested that attention is allocated to A little later, Charles Woodbury was working with dogs
a third signal internally generated from the combina- and found that the dogs could learn a negative pat-
tion of the two experimenter defined signals. The terning discrimination. This discrimination involves
Thatcher illusion has been proposed as evidence in reinforced presentations of two stimuli presented indi-
support of the view that configurations of facial fea- vidually but non-reinforcement of the two stimuli
tures play an important part in face perception. The presented in compound, a procedure which can be
face of Margaret Thatcher, shown on the right of Fig. 1, summarized as a series of intermixed A+, B+, and
does not appear dramatically unusual at first glance. AB
trials. The fact that conditioned responding
However, when viewed after a rotation of 180 the can be lower to a compound than to either of the
corruption of the image is readily apparent. Upright elements presented alone shows that the animals
viewing uses configural cues coding the relationships were responding to something that was unique to the
 Configural Cues in Associative Learning C 761

compound, distinguishing it from the elements from Important Scientific Research and
which it was composed. Other discriminations, such as Open Questions
a biconditional discrimination (AB+, BC
, CD+, and Although it is clear that humans and animals can
AD
trials), which can be readily solved by humans represent and learn about stimulus configurations
and animals, also suggest that stimulus configurations the best characterization of those representations is C
are attended to during associative learning. In the not firmly established. Wagner recently proposed an
biconditional discrimination, all stimulus elements elaborated version of the configural cue hypothesis,
are reinforced and non-reinforced equally often; there- the Replaced Elements Model. In the Replaced Ele-
fore, alone, they cannot inform the subject of the ments Model stimulus compounds not only generate
response requirement. Instead, to respond appropri- new configural cues but also, simultaneously, these
ately in this type of task it is necessary to processes configural cues inhibit components of the original ele-
stimulus conjunctions such as “A and B.” ments. So, a compound of A and B generates a repre-
Of course, because these configural cues are sentation of the conjunction, c, and at the same time
unobservable theoretical entities, inferred as a means produces some changes in A and B so the final charac-
to understand behavior in particular experimental sit- terization of the compound is A0 B0 c (see Wagner 2008).
uations, there has been considerable speculation about One of the advantages of such a model is that it natu-
their underlying nature. It is commonly thought that rally predicts asymmetrical generalization gradients
configural cues are processed in the same way as ele- from adding and removing elements. According to
mental cues and, following Clark Hull’s lead, that they this model, after conditioning of A, if a test trial
arise as the result of a perceptual interaction between of an AB compound is presented then the loss of
simultaneously or successively presented stimuli. So, it responding will be proportional to the difference
is supposed, for example, that a tone sounds slightly between A and A0 (the novel B0 and c components of
different when presented in compound or soon after the compound are not assumed to affect responding).
a buzzer (and the sound of the buzzer is changed in On the other hand, after conditioning of an AB
a similar way) and the “unique elements” generated by compound, should a test trial of A be presented then
the compound code the conjunction. Hull coined the the loss of responding will be proportional to the
phrase “afferent neural interaction” to capture this difference between A0 B0 c and A. In most situations
idea. However, one challenge to this notion has arisen it would be expected that the difference between
from the suggestion that the unit of analysis should A0 B0 c and A would be greater than the difference
be the pattern itself, rather than the elements. Pearce between A and A0 . Studies with humans and animals
(1994) argued that all of the elements present in a have confirmed this result (Brandon et al. 2000;
stimulus are represented as a single configural unit, or Glautier 2004). Moreover, this “Replaced Elements
pattern, and it is this pattern which is processed by the Model” is significant in that it allows for a degree of
learning mechanism. Thus, during biconditional dis- flexibility in the extent to which cue conjunctions are
crimination four different patterns (AB, BC, CD, and encoded. This idea is consistent with a developing view
AD) gain associative strength. Although reinforcement in the literature that different experimental prepara-
is distributed evenly across the elements (A, B, C, and tions can result in a more or less configural represen-
D) rendering a simple elemental account of learning of tation of the stimulus compounds which are presented
this discrimination inadequate, there is differential (Melchers et al. 2008).
reinforcement at the level of pattern. The fact that the
patterns in a biconditional discrimination share some Cross-References
elements, and hence have nonzero similarities, means ▶ Associative Learning
that this discrimination should be more difficult to ▶ Computational Models of Classical Conditioning
learn than one which just involves A+, B
, C+, and ▶ Conditioning
D
trials. The fact that biconditional discrimination is ▶ Discrimination Learning
learned more slowly than a simple discrimination is ▶ Formal Learning Theory
consistent with this analysis. ▶ Representation Changes in Learning
762 C Confirmation Bias

References
Brandon, S., Vogel, E. H., & Wagner, A. R. (2000). A componential Confucian Educational
view of configural cues in generalization and discrimination in Philosophy and Its Implication
Pavlovian conditioning. Behavioural Brain Research, 110, 67–72.
Glautier, S. (2004). Asymmetry of generalization decrement in causal
for Lifelong Learning
learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57B,
315–329. QI SUN
Melchers, K. G., Shanks, D. R., & Lachnit, H. (2008). Stimulus coding Adult and Post Secondary Education, Department of
in human associative learning: Flexible representation of parts Professional Studies, College of Education, University
and wholes. Behavioural Processes, 77, 413–427. of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Pearce, J. M. (1994). Similarity and discrimination: A selective review
and a connectionist model. Psychological Review, 101, 587–607.
Ross, W. D. (2009). Metaphysics by Aristotle book VIII.
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.8.viii.html. Accessed Synonyms
20 Dec 2010. Confucian educational philosophy; Confucianism;
Wagner, A. R. (2008). Evolution of an elemental theory of Pavlovian Confucius; Lifelong education; Lifelong learning
conditioning. Learning & Behavior, 36, 253–265.

Definitions
Confucius (551 B.C.E. – 479 B.C.E.) was the greatest
educator, philosopher, and eminent figure in the his-
Confirmation Bias tory of China. Confucius is a latinized name for “Kong
Fu Zi” by the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552 C.E. –
The tendency to search and select information
1610 C.E.), when Confucian works started to be intro-
confirming personal hypotheses and beliefs, ignoring
duced to the Western world during the late sixteenth
contrary evidence.
century. His last name was Kong, people generally
called him “Kong Fu Zi.” “Fu Zi” added following a
surname was an honorific title back then, which meant
Master. “Kong Fu Zi,” translated as Confucius, thus has
Conformist Bias been known to the world.
▶ Theory of Conformist Social Learning Confucianism started from the thoughts of Confu-
cius (Huang 2006; Zhang 2009), developed, enriched,
and joined by the thoughts of Mencius (372 B.C.E. –
289 B.C.E.), Xun Zi (298 B.C.E. – 238 B.C.E.), and
other followers. Historically, Confucianism has gone
Conformist Transmission through many stages, such as the “original Confucian-
▶ Theory of Conformist Social Learning ism,” the “Han Confucianism (206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.),”
and the “Neo-Confucianism.” For over 2,500 years,
Confucian philosophy has exerted a profound influ-
ence on almost every aspect of Chinese society, partic-
Conformity ularly, in the education arena.
Lifelong learning is a broad concept. It generally
▶ Reproductive Learning denotes that learning, either for personal, profes-
sional, institutional/organizational, and/or societal
purposes, continues via all kinds of learning activities
throughout life span, whether formal, nonformal,
Confucian Educational and/or informal. Lifelong learning has been inter-
Philosophy changeably utilized with concepts such as lifelong edu-
cation, continuing education, continuing professional
▶ Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implica- education, recurrent education, adult learning, and
tion for Lifelong Learning adult education.
 Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implication for Lifelong Learning C 763

Theoretical Background instrument for social mobility, equality of life chances,

Although both Eastern and Western cultures can social cohesion, and active citizenship, ensuring that
trace their origins and the use of the concept in histor- all, young and old acquire and maintain the skills,
ical documents, A. B. Yeaxlee, a British educator, first know-how and dispositions needed to adapt to chang-
addressed the need for lifelong education in the UK at ing jobs and labor markets” (2006, p. 292). C
the beginning of the twentieth century (Holford and Other scholars (e.g. Wain 2004) pointed out that the
Jarvis 2000; Wain 2004). Then, two noteworthy publi- first phase followed the Faure report in 1972, which was
cations have made the concepts of lifelong learning and philosophically utopian, aiming at holistic education
lifelong education become consciously discussed and that respects the unity and complexity of the person.
internationally accepted. Learning to Be (1972), Faure’s Wain used Lengrand’s statement that caters to “every
report for the United Nations Educational, Scientific aspect and dimension of the individual as a physical,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), became the intellectual, emotional, sexual, social and spiritual
benchmark of advocating lifelong learning opportuni- beings” (1975, p. 96) and corresponds with the activity
ties for everyone, independent of class, race, or finan- of multiplying the dimensions of human existence
cial means, and independent of the age of the learner. rather than shrinking them to one kind, the intellectual.
Paul Lengrand’s book, An Introduction to Lifelong The second phase, started in late 1970s, which looked for
Education (1975) made the concept of lifelong edu- concrete practices of lifelong education, was a pragmatic
cation become widely spread. More importantly, approach, reacting to the criticism of the utopian
many nations and policy makers have considered and approach, and focusing on present issues rather than
applied lifelong learning as a strategic plan for national future visionary possibilities.
development. Still others (e.g. Dehmel 2006) believe there are
UNESCO, Organization for Economic and Co- three phases in the development of the concept.
Operation and Development (OECD), the Council of Dehmel described that the first phase was from the
Europe (CU), European Union (EU), and World Bank early 1970s to mid-1970s. The second phase began in
have been the major players in publicizing and devel- the early 1990s. Between the two phases was a valley of
oping these concepts among their member countries decreasing. He argued that the first phase was strongly
since the 1970s. They have also made policies that influenced by humanistic ideals, calling for education
turned the concepts into strategies and practices signif- for all throughout their lives toward extensive social
icantly during the past decades. and cultural aspects and via various kinds of educa-
Since the 1970s, the development of lifelong learn- tional systems. During the “valley” time, the interest
ing and lifelong education has gone through different decreased due to the economic crisis at the time, when
stages characterized by different goals and purposes international and intergovernmental interests shifted.
under certain philosophical orientations. Schuetze Starting in the1990s, the fast movement of globaliza-
(2006), in his analysis of the work and documents of tion, new information technology, and an aging society
UNESCO, OECD, the World Bank, and EU, depicted were just a few facets that influenced the shift toward
that the first stage began in the 1970s and ended in the utilitarian and economic objectives.
late1980s, during which time lifelong learning was In Europe, the concept has recently kept on chang-
humanistic and democratic oriented. It aimed to pro- ing due to criticisms of the narrow scope that focuses
vide learning opportunities for everyone without dis- on work skills formation, labor markets perspectives,
tinctions of class, race, gender, age and financial means. and a knowledge-based economy or society (Schuetze
The second stage started in the 1990s and married 2006). UNESCO, OECD, and EU have combined social
economic rationale with wider societal objectives, and cultural goals with the economic rationale since
becoming a convenient umbrella term for an evolving late 1990s (Dehmel 2006; Green 2006). One example
“new educational order” to fill the social demand for would be Learning for all published by OECD in 1996,
education and for learning opportunities outside the which says, “We are all convinced of the crucial impor-
formal system, which illustrated pragmatism in nature. tance of learning throughout life for enriching personal
Schuetze described that the goal of lifelong learning in lives, fostering economic growth and maintaining
this phase, as seen by many European countries, “as an social cohesion” (OECD 1996, p. 21).
764 C Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implication for Lifelong Learning

Today, the emergence of the knowledge economy perspective, Ren is the knowledge of morality and
in an era of globalization evidently leads to an increasing humanity. Confucius believed Ren is gained through
economic competitiveness, thus makes lifelong learning lifelong self-cultivation. In fact, the processes of lifelong
primarily a governmental instrument for the promotion learning deepen the facets of developing morality and
of a knowledge society, skills’ formation, transferable humanity toward a multidimensional world of which
skills, multiskilling and careership, which all reflect humans are a part.
human capital theory (Green 2006; Olssen 2006). Sage: It is the Confucian ideal human model, who
As can be seen, from a humanistic tradition, the has realized Ren. “Sage is one who has reached the
concept understands individual growth and develop- highest realm and become (1) the undivided “I” with
ment. Embedded in the pragmatism, it sees the need for the Universe; (2) the unity of “I” with other humans and
societal and organizational improvement, for social other beings; and (3) the wholeness of “I” with self” (Sun
development or transformation. Then, influenced by 2004, p. 79). With this nature, sage, being at the most
the utilitarianism and human capital theory, it centers perfect stage, can fully develop his or her own nature.
on economic effectiveness as opposed to a social polit- More importantly, he or she can fully develop the nature
ical perspective advocating citizenship. of his or her fellows and all other things. In fact, he or she
We would all agree that each argument embraces is able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers
valid points. However, from the Confucian perspective, of Heaven and Earth, and ultimately form a triad with the
all seems to exclude other equally important dimen- Universe. Confucius positively advocated that through
sions of human development via lifelong learning. It is lifelong learning and practice every human being was
in this context that the Confucian educational philos- capable of gaining access to Ren, to be a Sage. This
ophy presents us significant implication for lifelong ideal human model framed the realistic purpose of
learning and lifelong education. the Confucian learning, which is to educate Jun Zi.
The core of Confucian educational philosophy is Jun Zi: A term Confucius adopted and replenished
how we learn to be human. Human beings are the ends the meaning to refer to a person who is willing to learn
not the means. Confucius believed that the ultimate and practice Ren via lifelong learning and cultivation.
end of learning was to realize the true nature of human Jun Zi also stands for the Confucian educated, an
beings – become fully human. We are all human beings. exemplary and model characterized by outstanding
However, we are not born fully human. Each of us must knowledge, courage, and multiple skills. Ideally, Jun
still consciously learn to be so. To Confucius, lifelong Zi learns to realize and manifest his or her true nature
learning enables human beings to realize and practice toward the universe, the natural world and other
their true nature and live happily in and with the beings, the social world and other humans, and the
worlds of different kinds: universe, nature, society/ inner world of self. Toward the universe, Jun Zi respects
other human beings, and inner self (Sun 2004). Thus, the Tao of Heaven and understands each human’s fate
the Confucian educational philosophy has a fuller per- (Lun Yu, [the Analects], XVI, 8; XX, 3). Toward society,
spective on purposes and functions of lifelong learn- Jun Zi has strong social accountability. Toward other
ing. Several conceptions Ren, Sage, and Jun Zi reviewed beings, Jun Zi follows the precept “do not impose on
by Sun (2004, 2008) are critical in understanding the others what you do not desire (Lun Yu, XII, 2; XV. 24).”
Confucian multidimensional learning. Toward self, Jun Zi never ceases self-strengthening.
Ren: Generally translated as humanity, morality, Jun Zi holistically develops the wholeness and
and righteousness, it is the backbone of Confucian becomes a multidimensional model of learning and
philosophy, which has manifestly influenced Confu- doing, to be harmonious in both internal and external
cian educational thought and practice. From an axio- qualities. In the social sphere, for instance, he or she not
logical perspective, Ren is the utmost virtue of the only cultivates the self but also establishes others. He or
Universe. It is the totality of morals. It leads human she is not only a self-directed learner but also an edu-
beings to manifest their true nature. Confucius under- cator of others. He or she is not only knowledgeable but
stood that humans are potentially moral. Yet, the also action oriented.
potentials need to be cultivated and developed through Hence, the Confucian educational philosophy
lifelong learning and practice. From an epistemological presents significant implications for the practice of
 Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implication for Lifelong Learning C 765

today’s lifelong learning. Comparing with the Western importantly, could lifelong learning resolve all kinds of
approaches to lifelong learning, Confucian educational social ills and economic problems, without looking at
philosophy through the ideal human model of Sage the center that is our human beings? These fundamental
and realistic educational end Jun Zi, presents holistic yet overlooked questions invite us to critically ponder
and multidimensional goals and functions for human and move beyond our own paradigms of thoughts. C
beings to learn lifelong. As can be seen, the Confucian Although Western thought and way of thinking
lifelong learning includes but also goes beyond the have become dominated through its “scientific”
purposes advocated by each stage of the development research, more and more scholars (Merriam and Asso-
of lifelong learning during past several decades, ciates 2007) acknowledge that there are truly huge
whether humanistic for personal development, or missing parts of non-Western outlooks that could ben-
pragmatic and utilitarian for economic crisis. For Con- efit the whole human beings’ learning. Optimistically,
fucius, human beings live in and interact with different Confucian philosophy and his educational practice
worlds: universe, nature, society, and self. Thus, human may provide us alternative lens and perspectives to
beings need to learn for and from, live with, and live find possible solutions if we are willing to explore and
in each reality. All help realize the true and complete open to perspectives other than our own (Sun 2008).
nature of being human. In other words, any single
aspect of development no matter how successful and Cross-References
full will only lead to an incomplete of a human being. ▶ Experiencing Wisdom Across the Lifespan
▶ Learning and Fluid Intelligence Across the Lifespan
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning
Open Questions ▶ Mental Models and Life-Long Learning
Since 1970s, the functions and goals of lifelong learning ▶ Values in Education and Life-Long Learning
have been changed from one set to another to practi-
cally meet needs under new contexts. These modifi- References
cations also reflect efforts of scholars’ debates and Dehmel, A. (2006). Making a European area of lifelong learning
criticism on the narrowly focused purposes associated a reality? Some critical reflections on the European union’s
with certain philosophical beliefs (Dehmel 2006; lifelong learning policies. Comparative Education, 42(1), 49–62.
Green, A. (2006). Models of lifelong learning and the ‘knowledge
Holford and Jarvid 2000; Schuetze 2006). Researchers
society’. Compare, 36(3), 307–325.
have called for an overarching conceptual framework, Hinchliffe, G. (2006). Re-thinking lifelong learning. Studies in Phi-
“one that describes the basic dimensions, relates central losophy and Education, 25, 93–109.
elements and points to strategic issues and consider- Holdford, J., & Jarvis, P. (2000). The learning society. In A. L. Wilson
ations relevant for policy and practice” (Tuijnman and & E. R. Hayes (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education
Boström 2002: 105). In a changing society, lifelong (new edn., pp. 643–659). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Huang, Z. (2006). Confucian moral education theory review. Wuhan:
learning must be on the condition of human beings
Wuhan University.
(Lindgren 2002). However, we are experiencing, “the Lindgren, A. (2002). Lifelong learning in a changing world. In
key driver of the development of lifelong learning is K. Harney, A. Heikkinen, S. Rahn, & M. Schemmann (Eds.),
thus the emergence of the knowledge economy in an Lifelong learning: One focus, different systems (pp. 55–72).
era of globalization” (Hinchliffe 2006, p. 94). Evidently, New York: Peter Lang.
Merriam, S. B., & Associates. (2007). Non-Western perspectives on
the current practice of lifelong learning leaves some of
learning and knowing. Malabar: Krieger.
the other dimensions of human existence out that they OECD. (1996). Lifelong learning for all: Meeting of the educational
have vanished from sight. What do we miss? Should we committee at ministerial level. Paris: OECD.
revisit the centuries’ old question: What is the purpose Olssen, M. (2006). Understanding the mechanisms of neoliberal
of learning and education? Are human beings the ends control: Lifelong learning, flexibility and knowledge capitalism.
or the means of lifelong learning? Do we now have The International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25(3), 213–230.
Schuetze, H. G. (2006). International concepts and agendas of life-
different understandings of ends and means than did
long learning. Compare, 36(3), 289–306.
ancient sages such as Confucius? What can we learn Sun, Q. (2004). To be Ren and Jun Zi: A confucian perspective of
from the Eastern ancient educational philosophy for the practice of contemporary education. The Journal of Thought,
the modern practice of lifelong learning? More 39(2), 77–91.
766 C Confucianism

Sun, Q. (2008). Confucian educational philosophy and its implica- and Cohen 2003). Confusion indicates an uncertainty
tion for lifelong learning and lifelong education. International about what to do next or how to act (Graesser et al.
Journal of Lifelong Education, 27(5), 559–578.
2007). Thus, confusion accompanies cognitive disequi-
The analects of Confucius Bao, S. (Trans. into Modern Chinese)
Lao, A. (Trans. into English), (1992), (Shandong, Ji Nan: librium which plays an important role in comprehen-
Shandong Friendship Press). sion and learning processes (Piaget 1952; Graesser and
Tuijnman, A., & Bostrom, A. (2002). Changing notions of lifelong Olde 2003).
education and lifelong learning. International Review of Educa- Under this theory, people start in a state of equilib-
tion, 48(1/2), 93–110.
rium. In this phase, they are processing information
Wain, K. (2004). The learning society in a postmodern world: The
educational crisis. NewYork: Peter Lang.
from the world around them, but not always at a deep
Zhang, X. (2009). Review and interpretation of the phenomenon of level. Deep comprehension occurs when learners con-
Confucius: Ritual and music in life and philosophy. Shanghai: front contradictions, anomalous events, obstacles to
China Eastern Normal University. goals, salient contrasts, perturbations, surprises, equiv-
alent alternatives, and other stimuli or experiences that
fail to match expectations (Mandler 1976; Schank
1986). At this point, the person moves into a state of
Confucianism cognitive disequilibrium where a misunderstanding
is realized and attempts are started to reconcile the
▶ Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implica- conflicting internal and external sources of informa-
tion for Lifelong Learning tion. Cognitive disequilibrium has a high likelihood of
activating conscious, effortful cognitive deliberation,
questions, and inquiry that aim to restore cognitive
equilibrium. The affective state of confusion is diag-
Confucius nostic of cognitive disequilibrium (Graesser and Olde
2003; Graesser et al. 2007) and the resolution of the
▶ Confucian Educational Philosophy and Its Implica-
confusion is essential to restoring equilibrium.
tion for Lifelong Learning
Important Scientific Research and
Open Questions
Recent, empirical evidence substantiates the predic-
Confusion’s Impact on Learning tions that confusion is related to learning. Craig et al.
(2004) conducted an observational study in which
SCOTTY D. CRAIG confusion among other affective states (i.e., boredom,
Department of Psychology/IIS, The University of eureka, flow, frustration, and neutral) were observed
Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA during a learning session with an intelligent tutoring
system. Of the observed affective states, confusion
and flow displayed significant positive correlates with
Synonyms learning. Boredom was observed to be negatively cor-
Uncertainty related. Of the affective states, only confusion was
observed to predict learning, accounting for 27% of
Definition the variance. Further, when learner’s performance for
Confusion is a cognitive-affective state that occurs sessions with and without confusion present was com-
when a person is aware of an inconsistency between pared, significant differences were revealed. Partici-
their knowledge and observed information and is pants in confusion-present sessions exhibited a 46%
actively seeking to reconcile the discrepancy. increase in learning (Cohen’s d = .64) over participants
with confusion-absent sessions.
Theoretical Background However, the presence of confusion might not
Recent empirical research has pointed to confusion as always produce ideal learning. Since confusion occurs
an important affective state for scientific study (Rozin during cognitive disequilibrium, the learner could
 Connectionism C 767

either resolve the confusion and move back into a Graesser, A. C., & Olde, B. (2003). How does one know whether
state of equilibrium or fail to resolve it. D’Mello and a person understands a device? The quality of the questions the
person asks when the device breaks down. Journal of Educational
Graesser (2010) demonstrated this empirically using
Psychology, 95, 524–536.
an offline self-report methodology. Under this meth- Mandler, G. (1976). Mind and emotion. New York: Wiley.
odology, learners viewed a video of their interaction Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence. New York: International C
with an intelligent tutor and indicated their affective University Press.
states from a fixed list of affective states: Confusion, Rozin, P., & Cohen, A. B. (2003). High frequency of facial expressions
corresponding to confusion concentration, and worry in an
Boredom, Flow, Frustration, Delight, Surprise, and
analysis of naturally occurring facial expressions of Americans.
Neutral. They found that confusion states associated Emotion, 3, 68–75.
with more learning showed conflict resolution and Schank, R. C. (1986). Explanation patterns: Understanding mechani-
thus a return to cognitive equilibrium of neutral or cally and creatively. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
flow states. However, when participants exhibited con-
fusion states that were not resolved they tended to
transition to frustration and boredom and decreased
learning.
When the learner is confused, there might be a
Congruence
variety of potential paths to pursue. The learner could Congruence, realness, or genuineness is a most basic
be allowed to continue being confused during the attitude for the facilitation of learning. It means that
cognitive disequilibrium (and the affiliated increased the feelings the facilitator is experiencing are available
physiological arousal that accompanies all affective to his or her awareness, that he or she is able to live
states). The learner’s self-regulated thoughts might these feelings, to be them, and able to communicate
hopefully restore equilibrium when feedback to learner them if appropriate (Rogers 1983).
errors is delayed. Alternatively, after some period of
time waiting for the learner to progress, indirect hints
could be provided to nudge the learner into more References
productive trajectories of thought. However, the opti- Rogers, C. R. (1983). Klientenzentrierte Psychotherapie. In
J. R. Corsini (Ed.), Handbuch der Psychotherapie (S. 471–512).
mal paths have yet to be determined.
Weinheim: Beltz.

Cross-References
▶ Affective and Cognitive Learning in the Online
Classroom
▶ Boredom of Learning
Conjunction
▶ Emotions: Functions and Effects on Learning ▶ Configural Cues in Associative Learning
▶ Flow Experience and Learning

References
Craig, S. D., Graesser, A. C., Sullins, J., & Gholson, B. (2004). Affect Connectionism
and learning: An exploratory look into the role of affect in
learning. Journal of Educational Media, 29, 241–250.
THEMIS N. KARAMINIS, MICHAEL S. C. THOMAS
D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. (2010). Modeling cognitive-affective
dynamics with hidden Markov models. In R. Catrambone & Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck
S. Ohlsson(Eds.), Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Cognitive College, University of London, London, UK
Science Society (pp. 2721–2726). Austin: Cognitive Science
Society.
Graesser, A. C., Chipman, P., King, B., McDaniel, B., & D’Mello, S.
(2007). Emotions and Learning with AutoTutor. In R. Luckin, K.
Synonyms
R. Koedinger, & J. Greer (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education: Artificial Neural network modeling; Connectionist
Building technology rich learning contexts that work (AIED07) modeling; Neural nets; Parallel Distributed Processing
(pp. 554–556). Washington, DC: IOS Press. (PDP)
768 C Connectionism

Definition neurons perform the simple function of discriminating

Connectionism is an interdisciplinary approach to the between different levels of input activation. The detec-
study of cognition that integrates elements from the tor model of the neuron (Fig. 1) is a crude approxima-
fields of artificial intelligence, neuroscience, cognitive tion of the role of dendrites and synaptic channels
psychology, and philosophy of mind. As a theoretical in biological neurons. According to this model, each
movement in cognitive science, connectionism suggests neuron receives a number of inputs from other neu-
that cognitive phenomena can be explained with respect rons. The neuron integrates the inputs by computing
to a set of general information-processing principles, a weighted sum of sending activation. Based on the
known as parallel distributed processing (Rumelhart value of the total input activation, an activation func-
et al. 1986a). From a methodological point of view, tion (e.g., a threshold function) determines the level of
connectionism is a framework for studying cognitive the output activation of the neuron. The output acti-
phenomena using architectures of simple processing vation is propagated to succeeding neurons.
units interconnected via weighted connections. The pattern of connectivity between the processing
These architectures present analogies to biological units defines the architecture of the neural network and
neural systems and are referred to as (Artificial) Neural the input–output functions that can be performed.
Networks. Connectionist studies typically propose and The processing units are usually arranged in layers.
implement neural network models to explain various It is notable that a layered structure has also been
aspects of cognition. The term connectionism stems observed in neural tissues. Many different neural net-
from the proposal that cognition emerges in neural work architectures have been implemented in the con-
network models as a product of a learning process nectionist literature. One that has been particularly
which shapes the values of the weighted connections. common is the three-layer feed-forward neural network
Connectionism supports the idea that knowledge is (Fig. 2). In this network, the units are arranged in three
represented in the weights of the connections between layers: input, hidden, and output. The connectivity is
the processing units in a distributed fashion. This feed-forward, which means that the connections are
means that knowledge is encoded in the structure of unidirectional, and connect the input to the hidden,
the processing system, in contrast to the symbolic and the hidden to the output layer. The connectivity is
approach where knowledge is readily shifted between also full: Every neuron of a given layer is connected to
different memory registers. every neuron of the next layer.
A key property of neural networks is their ability to
Theoretical Background learn. Learning in neural networks is based on altering
Artificial Neural Networks are abstract models of the extent to which a given neuron’s activity alters
biological neural systems. They consist of a set of iden- the activity of the neurons to which it is connected.
tical processing units, which are referred to as artificial Learning is performed by a learning algorithm which
neurons or processing units. Artificial neurons are determines appropriate changes in the weight values
interconnected via weighted connections. to perform a set of input–output mappings. For exam-
A great deal of biological complexity is omitted in ple, the Backpropagation of Error algorithm (Rumelhart
artificial neural network models. For example, artificial et al. 1986b) can be used to train a feed-forward

X1 W1

input Σ XiWi
activity from W2 output to
other weighted threshold other
X2 y
neurons sum of input activation neurons
activity function
W3

X3

Connectionism. Fig. 1 The detector model of the real neuron

 Connectionism C 769

of studies proposed neural network models to address

various cognitive phenomena.
Although connectionist models are inspired by
computation in biological neural systems, they present
a high level of abstraction. Therefore, they could C
not claim biological plausibility. Connectionist models
are usually seen as cognitive models, which explain
input hidden output
cognition based on general information-processing
layer layer layer principles. One of the main strengths of connec-
tionism is that the neural network models are not
Connectionism. Fig. 2 A three-layered feed-forward verbally specified but implemented. In this way, they
neural network with three units in the input layer, four are able to suggest elaborate mechanistic explana-
units in the hidden layer, and two units in the output layer tions for the structure of cognition and cognitive
development. They also allow the detailed study of
developmental disorders by considering training
under atypical initial computational constraints, and
multilayered network (Fig. 2) using supervised learn- acquired deficits by introducing ‘damage’ to trained
ing. For this type of learning, the learning algorithm models.
presents the network with pairs of input patterns and One of the most influential connectionist models
desired output patterns (or targets). The algorithm is that of Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) for the
computes the output error, i.e., the difference between acquisition of the English past tense (Fig. 3). The
the actual output of the network and the targets. Next, domain of the English past tense is of theoretical
the algorithm propagates appropriate error signals interest to psycholinguists because it presents a pre-
back down through each layer of the network. These dominant regularity, with the great majority of verbs
error signals are used to determine weight changes forming their past tenses through a stem-suffixation
necessary to achieve the minimization of the output rule (e.g., walk/walked). However, a significant group
error. For a more detailed discussion of learning in of verbs form their past tenses irregularly (e.g., swim/
neural networks, see connectionist theories of learning. swam, hit/hit, is/was). Rumelhart and McClelland
Other issues that are considered in neural network trained a two-layered feed-forward network (a pattern
modeling concern the representation of the learning associator) on mappings between phonological rep-
environment. For example, a localist or a distributed resentations of the stems and the corresponding
scheme can be used to represent different entities. In past tense forms of English verbs. Rumelhart and
the former, a single unit is used to encode an entity, McClelland showed that both regular and irregular
while in the latter an entity is encoded by an activation inflections could be learned by this network. Further-
pattern across multiple units. Furthermore, the differ- more, they argued that their model reproduced a series
ent input–output patterns which compose the learning of well-established phenomena in empirical studies of
environment can be presented in different ways (e.g., language acquisition. For example, the past tense rule
sequentially, randomly with replacement, incremen- was generalized to novel stems, while the learning of
tally, or based on a frequency structure). irregular verbs followed a U-shaped pattern (an initial
period of error-free performance succeeded by a period
Important Scientific Research and of increased occurrence of overgeneralization errors,
Open Questions e.g., think/thinked instead of thought).
The concept of neural network computation was ini- The success of this model in simulating the acqui-
tially proposed in the 1940s. However, the foundations sition of the English past tense demonstrated that
for their systematic application to the exploration of an explicit representation of rules is not necessary
cognition were laid several decades later by the influ- for the acquisition of morphology. Instead, a rule-
ential volumes of Rumelhart, McClelland, and col- like behavior was the product of the statistical proper-
leagues. Following this seminal work, a large number ties of input–output mappings. The Rumelhart and
770 C Connectionism

phonological representation of the past tense

decoding

‘Wickelfeature’
representation of past
tense

‘Wickelfeature’
representation of verb
root

encoding

phonological representation of verb root

Connectionism. Fig. 3 The Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) model for the learning of the English past tense. The core of
the model is a two-layered feed-forward network (pattern associator) which learns mappings between coarse-coded
distributed representations (Wickelfeature representations) of verb roots and past tense forms

McClelland (1986) model posed a serious challenge to

existing ‘symbolic’ views, which maintained that the output layer
acquisition of morphology was supported by two sep-
arate mechanisms, also referred to as the dual-route
model. According to the dual-route model, a rule-
based system was involved in the learning of regular
mappings, while a rote-memory was involved in the hidden layer

learning of irregular mappings. A vigorous debate, also copy

known as the ‘past tense debate,’ ensued in the field of
language acquisition (c.f., Pinker and Prince 1988). By
the time this debate resided, connectionist studies had context layer
moved on to addressing many aspects of the acquisi- input layer

tion of past tense and inflectional morphology in

greater detail. For example, Thomas and Karmiloff- Connectionism. Fig. 4 The Simple Recurrent Network
Smith (2003) incorporated phonological and lexical- (Elman 1990)
semantics information in the input of a three-layered
feed-forward network and studied conditions under
which an atypical developmental profile could be the SRN uses a three-layered feed-forward architec-
reproduced, as a way of investigating the potential ture in which an additional layer of ‘context units’ is
cause of developmental language impairments. connected to the hidden layer with recurrent connec-
Another important connectionist model is the sim- tions. Time is separated into discrete slices. On each
ple recurrent network (SRN) proposed by Elman subsequent time slice, activation from the hidden layer
(1990). The significance of this network lies in its in the previous time slice is given as input to the
ability to represent time and address problems, which network via the context layer. In this way, SRN is able
involve the processing of sequences. As shown in Fig. 4, to process a new input in the context of the full history
 Connectionist Theories of Learning C 771

of the previous inputs. This allows the network to learn

statistical relationships across sequences in the input. Connectionist Models of Human
Learning
Acknowledgments
▶ Computational Models of Human Learning
The studies of the first author are funded by the C
Greek State Scholarship Foundation (IKY). The work
of the second author is supported by UK MRC Grant
G0300188.
Connectionist Networks
Cross-References ▶ Learning in Artificial Neural Networks
▶ Computational Models of Human Learning
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning
▶ Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and
Learning Connectionist Theories of
▶ Human Cognitive Architecture Learning
▶ Learning in Artificial Neural Networks
▶ Neural Network Assistants for Learning THEMIS N. KARAMINIS, MICHAEL S. C. THOMAS
Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck
References College, University of London, London, UK
Elman, J. L. (1990). Finding structure in time. Cognitive Science, 14,
179–211.
Pinker, S., & Prince, A. (1988). On language and connectionism: Synonyms
Analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language
Associative learning; Backpropagation of error algo-
acquisition. Cognition, 28, 73–193.
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). On learning the past rithm; Correlational learning; Hebbian learning; Self-
tense of English verbs. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart, & organizing maps
The PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing:
Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 2: Psycho- Definition
logical and biological models (pp. 216–271). Cambridge, MA: The majority or the connectionist theories of learning
MIT Press. are based on the Hebbian Learning Rule (Hebb 1949).
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986a).
According to this rule, connections between neurons
A general framework for parallel distributed processing. In
D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, & The PDP Research Group presenting correlated activity are strengthened. Con-
(Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the micro- nectionist theories of learning are essentially abstract
structure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations (pp. 45–76). Cam- implementations of general features of brain plasticity
bridge, MA: MIT Press. in architectures of artificial neural networks.
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & Williams, R. J. (1986b). Learning
internal representations by error propagation. In D. E. Rumelhart, Theoretical Background
J. L. McClelland, & The PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel
Connectionism provides a framework (Rumelhart et al.
distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cogni-
tion. Volume 1: Foundations (pp. 318–362). Cambridge, MA:
1986a) for the study of cognition using Artificial Neural
MIT Press. Network models. Neural network models are architec-
Thomas, M. S. C., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2003). Modeling language tures of simple processing units (artificial neurons)
acquisition in atypical phenotypes. Psychological Review, 110(4), interconnected via weighted connections. An artificial
647–682. neuron functions as a detector, which produces an
output activation value determined by the level of the
total input activation and an activation function. As
a result, when a neural network is exposed to an envi-
Connectionist Modeling ronment, encoded as activation patterns in the input
units of the network, it responds with activation pat-
▶ Connectionism terns across the units.
772 C Connectionist Theories of Learning

In the connectionist framework an artificial neural The environment is presented as pairs of input patterns
network model depicts cognition when it is able to and desired output patterns (or targets), where the
respond to its environment with meaningful activa- target is provided by an external system (the notional
tion patterns. This can be achieved by modifications “supervisor”). The network is trained on the task of
of the values of the connection weights, so as to regulate producing the corresponding targets in the output
the activation patterns in the network appropriately. when an input pattern is presented.
Therefore, connectionism suggests that learning involves The Backpropagation of Error algorithm (Rumelhart
the shaping of the connection weights. A learning algo- et al. 1986b) as proposed for training such networks.
rithm is necessary to determine the changes in the Backpropagation is an error-driven algorithm. The aim
weight values by which the network can acquire of the weight changes is the minimization of the output
domain-appropriate input-output mappings. error of the network. The Backpropagation algorithm
The idea that learning in artificial neural networks is based on the delta rule:
should entail changes in the weight values was based on
DWij ¼ ðti
ai Þaj ð2Þ
observations of neuropsychologist Donald Hebb on
biological neural systems. Hebb (1949) proposed his The delta rule is a modification of the Hebbian
cell assembly theory also known as Hebb’s rule or Hebb’s learning rule (Eq. 1) for neurons that learn with super-
postulate: vised learning. In the delta rule, the weight change
"
(Dwij) is proportional to the difference between the
When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell
target output (ti ) and the output activation of the
B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it,
receiving neuron (ai ), and the output activation of
some growth process or metabolic change takes place
the sending neuron (aj ).
in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of
Backpropagation generalizes the delta rule in net-
the cells firing B, is increased. (1949, p.62)
works with hidden layers, as a target activation value is
Hebb’s rule suggested that connections between not available for the neurons on these internal layers.
neurons which present correlated activity should be Internal layers are necessary to improve the computa-
strengthened. This type of learning was also termed tional power of the learning system. In a forward pass,
correlational or associative learning. the Backpropagation algorithm calculates the activations
A simple mathematical formulation of the Hebbian of the units of the network. Next, in a backward pass the
learning rule is:
DWij ¼ ai aj ð1Þ
Target activity values
The change of the weight (Dwij) from a sending unit
Output patterns
j to a receiving unit i should be equal to the constant 
multiplied by the product of output activation values Output
units
(ai and aj) of the units. The constant  is known as
learning rate.

Important Scientific Research and Internal (hidden)

Open Questions units
Different learning algorithms have been proposed
to implement learning in artificial neural networks. Input
These algorithms could be considered as variants of units
the Hebbian rule, adjusted to different architectures
and different training methods.
Input patterns
A large class of neural networks models uses
a multilayered feed-forward architecture. This class Connectionist Theories of Learning. Fig. 1 Supervised
of models is trained with supervised learning (Fig. 1). learning in a three-layered feed-forward neural network
 Connectionist Theories of Learning C 773

algorithm iteratively computes error signals (delta terms) O’Reilly and Munakata (2000) proposed the
for the units of the deeper layers of the network. The LEABRA (Local, Error-driven and Associative, Biolog-
error signals express the contribution of each unit to ically Realistic Algorithm) algorithm. This algorithm
the overall error of the network. They are computed combines error-driven and Hebbian Learning,
based on the derivatives of the error function. Error exploiting bidirectional connectivity to allow the C
signals determine changes in the weights which mini- propagation of error signals in a biologically plausible
mize the overall network error. The generalized delta fashion.
rule is used for this purpose: The supervised learning algorithms assume a very
detailed error signal telling each output how it should
DWij ¼ di aj ð3Þ
be responding. Other algorithms have been developed
According to this rule, weight changes equal to the that assume less detailed information. These approaches
learning rate times the product of the output activation are referred to as reinforcement learning.
of the sending unit (aj) and the delta term of the Another class of neural networks is trained with
receiving unit (dii ). unsupervised learning. In this type of learning, the
Although the Backpropagation algorithm has been network is presented with different input patterns.
widely used, it employs features which are biologically The aim of the network is to form its own internal
implausible. For example, it is implausible that error representations which reflect regularities in the input
signals are calculated and transmitted between the neu- patterns.
rons. However, it has been argued that since forward The Self-Organizing Map (SOM; Kohonen 1984)
projections between neurons are often matched by is an example of a neural network architecture that is
backward projections permitting bidirectional signal- trained with unsupervised learning. As shown in Fig. 2,
ing, the backward projections may allow the imple- a SOM consists of an array of neurons or nodes. Each
mentation of the abstract idea of the backpropagation node has coordinates on the map and is associated with
of error. a weight vector, of the same dimensionality as the input
Pursuing this idea, other learning algorithms patterns. For example, if there are three dimensions
have been proposed to implement error-driven learn- in the input, there will be three input units, and each
ing in a more biologically plausible way. The Contras-
tive Hebbian Learning algorithm (Hinton 1989) is
a learning algorithm for bidirectional connected net-
x1 x2 x3
works. This algorithm considers two phases of training
in each presentation of an input pattern. In the first
Input vector
one, known as the minus phase or anti-Hebbian update,
the network is allowed to settle as an input pattern is
wij
presented to the network while the output units are free
to adopt any activation state. These activations serve
as noise. In the second phase (plus phase or Hebbian
update), the network settles as the input is presented
while the output units are clamped to the target out-
puts. These activations serve as signal. The weight
change is proportional to the difference between the Pattern class 1
products of the activations of the sending and the
receiving units in the two phases, so that the changes
reinforce signal and reduce noise: Pattern class 2
  Array of nodes
DWij ¼  ai þ aj þ
ai
aj
ð4Þ (output layer)

Learning is based on contrasting the two phases, Connectionist Theories of Learning. Fig. 2 Unsupervised
hence the term Contrastive Hebbian Learning. learning in a simple self-organizing map (SOM)
774 C Conscientiousness

output unit will have a vector of three weights microstructure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations (pp. 45–76).
connected to those input units. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & Williams, R. J. (1986b).
The aim of the SOM learning algorithm is to pro-
Learning internal representations by error propagation. In
duce a topographic map that reflects regularities in the D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, & The PDP Research Group
set of input patterns. When an input pattern is (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the micro-
presented to the network, the SOM training algorithm structure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations (pp. 318–362).
computes the Euclidean distance between the weight Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
vector and the input pattern for each node. The node
that presents the least Euclidean distance (winning node
or best matching unit [BMU]) is associated with the
input pattern. Next, the weights vectors of the neigh- Conscientiousness
boring nodes are changed so as to become more similar
to the weights vector of the winning node. The extent One of the big five personality factors. Individuals
of the weight changes for each of the neighboring scoring high on this dimension tend to be organized
nodes is determined by its location on the map using and mindful of details.
a neighborhood function. In effect, regions of the output
layer compete to represent the input patterns, and
regional organization is enforced by short-range excit-
atory and long range inhibitory connections within Consciousness and Emotion:
the output layer. SOMs are thought to capture aspects Attentive vs. Pre-attentive
of the organization of sensory input in the cerebral Elaboration of Face Processing
cortex. Hebbian learning to associate sensory and
motor topographic maps then provides the basis MICHELA BALCONI
for a system that learns to generate adaptive behavior Department of Psychology, Catholic University of
in an environment. Milan, Milan, Italy

Cross-References
▶ Adaptive Learning Systems Synonyms
▶ Bayesian Learning Aware; Facial expression; Implicit elaboration;
▶ Computational Models of Human Learning Unaware; Unconscious processing
▶ Connectionism
▶ Hebbian Learning Definition
▶ Learning in Artificial Neural Networks Emotional facial expressions represent facial displays of
▶ Reinforcement Learning in Spiking Neural Networks emotions which determine different patterns of mus-
▶ Self-Organized Learning cular correlates, cognitive responses, and brain activa-
tion. Autonomic and central nervous systems cooperate
References in order to provide a coherent pattern of mimic
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological responses to specific contextual cues. Positive (i.e., hap-
approach. NewYork: Wiley. piness) vs. negative (i.e., anger) facial expressions are
Hinton, G. E. (1989). Deterministic Boltzmann learning performs
produced respectively in consequences to aversive or
steepest descent in weightspace. Neural Computation, 1, 143–150.
Kohonen, T. (1984). Self-organization and associative memory. Berlin: appetitive contexts. People are able to consciously pro-
Springer-Verlag. duce and comprehend facial expressions, but in many
O’Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cases, they may obtain emotional information from
cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the face by using an unconscious processing (pre-attentive
brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
processing). Typically, tasks that can be performed in less
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986a).
A general framework for parallel distributed processing. In than 200 ms are considered pre-attentive. Simple fea-
D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, & The PDP Research Group tures are extracted from the visual display in the pre-
(Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the attentive system and later joined in the focused attention
 Consciousness and Emotion: Attentive vs. Pre-attentive Elaboration of Face Processing C 775

system into coherent objects. Pre-attentive processing is predisposition to respond to emotional situations.
done quickly, effortlessly and in parallel. Taking advan- This fact is in line with previous research that have
tage of pre-attentive processing can greatly improve used autonomic (skin conductance measures or
intuitiveness of representations yielding in a faster and cardiovascular indexes) measures or ▶ conditioned
more natural way of acquiring information. Contrarily, responses, that pointed out unconscious affective C
conscious production and comprehension of facial stimuli may have effect for the appraisal of conscious
expressions allow a more detailed and complete way of stimuli. It seems that the information presented under
processing information, it being a serial and effortful way pre-attentive conditions may be perceived and cogni-
of take information. tively processed. For this reason, facial expressions of
emotion are considered unique in their ability to orient
Theoretical Background the subjective cognitive resources, even if people are
Rapid detection of emotional information is highly unable to process information consciously.
adaptive, since it provides critical element on environ- Also the responses to unconscious stimulation
ment and on the attitude of the other people (Darwin showed to be sensitive to the emotional content of the
1872). Specifically, motivational significance of emotions facial stimuli, as revealed by different behavioral and
has an effect on subjects’ responses, since it was found physiological measures. That is, it was hypothesized
that emotionally salient stimuli (unpleasant compared that subjects are able to assign a semantic value to the
to neutral; more arousing compared to less arousing) emotional content of faces even in an unaware condi-
generate greater magnitude cognitive, cortical, and tion. Unconsciously processing for facial stimuli can
autonomic system responses. Thus, significance of also be demonstrated in clinical context, such as in
emotional facial expressions in terms of the relevance case of prosopagnosia. In most cases, prosopagnosics
of the emotional patterns for the subjective safeguard appear to recognize familiar faces even though they fail
influences the degree of attentional resources allocated. to identify the persons verbally. Therefore, the patients
It was showed that each emotion and its facial showed an unconscious recognition that cannot be
expression represents a specific response to a particular accessed consciously (Tranel and Damasio 1985).
kind of significant event, that is it is evaluated by the Similarities in processing between attentive vs. pre-
subject in line with its motivational significance. This attentive stimulation can also be assessed from neural
▶ appraisal process is regulated by two main criteria: point of view: Consistent analogies in the aware and
the arousing power of the stimulus (high or low); unaware processing structure were well-founded,
the ▶ valence of the emotional stimulus (positive or suggesting that similar neural activity is involved. In
negative) (Russell 2003). Thus, the entire emotional humans, evidence for the unconscious perception of
universe is representable by the two axes, and the “sig- emotional face has been revealed in terms of subjective
nificance” attributed to the emotional expressions may reports, autonomic reactions, brain imaging measure,
have a direct effect on the cognitive level and the degree as well as ERPs (event-related potentials) and brain
of attention allocated. oscillations. Brain areas generally involved in evalua-
Moreover, significant affective processes happen tion of the emotional and motivational significance of
outside consciousness (LeDoux 1996). It has been facial expressions appear to be mediated by the amyg-
shown that the affective information contained in facial dala and orbitofrontal cortex, while structures such as
expression is perceived involuntarily, and is able to the anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex, and somato-
constrict automatically the focus of attention. Infor- sensory areas are linked to the conscious representation
mation presented under the conscious threshold may of emotional facial expression for the strategic control
be processed on a high level even if the subject is of thought and action (Adolphs 2003).
unaware of this information, since pre-attentive
response to emotional faces is effective in eliciting Important Scientific Research and
coherent subjective responses. Two main factors seem Open Questions
to be relevant in orienting subject’s response to the Numerous studies have sought to demonstrate that
emotional cues in case of unconscious stimulation: emotional information can be perceived without aware-
the content of the stimulus and the subjective ness. The conclusion that emotional facial expressions
776 C Consciousness and Emotion: Attentive vs. Pre-attentive Elaboration of Face Processing

can be perceived without consciousness is not surpris- comprehension, such as ERP. Specifically, ERP mea-
ing given the importance of emotional information sures are very useful tools to examine the time course
for human survival. Nevertheless, although the exis- of the conscious vs. unconscious stimulus elaboration
tence of unconscious affect elaboration was accepted, at a very high temporal resolution (Balconi and Mazza
the question concerning its relevance for emotional 2009). ERPs furnish a valid measure of the qualitative
decoding is still open. Specifically, what remains nature of the emotional mechanisms, checking the
unclear was the specific semantic value this perception resemblance of the underlying processes for attentive
has and in what measure the subject can elaborate the and not attentive emotional elaboration. For this rea-
unconscious emotional stimuli. son, it is interesting to compare ERP profiles in con-
Only a limited number of studies have explored scious vs. unconscious condition, in order to verify the
the significance of conscious vs. unconscious face com- similarity of the comprehension processes. Therefore,
prehension, based on ▶ priming effect or subliminal the main topics to be explored in the future about
stimulation. The short stimulus presentation in pre- attentive vs. pre-attentive processing are related to the
attentive condition prevents the subjects to have a semantic significance of unconsciously processed emo-
clear cognition of the stimulus. Generally, an objective tional stimulus. Specifically:
threshold for pre-attentive condition is provided. It
– The resemblance of the two processes, attentive and
was defined by an identification procedure, the case
pre-attentive, from a qualitative point of view
where stimulus is perceived by the subject no more
– The existence of some differences in terms of the
than in 50% of the times. According to signal detection
type and the amount of cognitive resources required
theory (SDT), when detection threshold sensitivity is at
to activate the two processes
chance (d0 = 0), it is unlikely that there is conscious
– The temporal course of these mechanisms, with
awareness of the stimulus.
a delayed or anticipated effect for unconscious
Moreover, another useful measure to analyze con-
elaboration
scious and unconscious perception of faces is the
– The resemblance of attentive vs. pre-attentive
masking procedure. By low intensity and brief expo-
process in response to different emotional facial
sure, a target stimulus can be made unrecognized
expressions
when another stimulus is presented simultaneously,
shortly before (forward masking), or shortly after
(backward masking). This paradigm is used to investi-
Cross-References
▶ Attention and Implicit Learning
gate below awareness response to emotional perception
▶ Emotional Mental Models
in which facial expressions are followed immediately
▶ Emotional Schema(s)
by a masking face. Evidence for the unconscious per-
▶ Explicit Versus Implicit Learning
ception of masked faces has been revealed in terms of
subjective reports, autonomic activity, and functional References
brain imaging measures. Nevertheless, the effect of this Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behav-
masking technique was not largely used for the emo- iour. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 4, 165–178.
tional face detection, and there is no precise knowledge Balconi, M., & Mazza, G. (2009). Brain oscillations and BIS/BAS
of the actual effect of masked emotional stimulus on (behavioral inhibition/activation system) effects on processing
the elaboration of the target one. masked emotional cues. ERS/ERD and coherence measures
of alpha band. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 74,
Most of the recent research on the detection and
158–165.
analysis of emotionally significant information from Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals.
face have used fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance London: John Murray.
Imaging) measures, which are based on relatively LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpin-
slow hemodynamic brain responses, and the studies ning of emotional life. New York: Simon and Schuste.
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of
on the time course of emotional processing have
emotion. Psychology Review, 110, 145–172.
been relatively scarce. Thus, these methods need to be Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1985). Knowledge without awareness:
completed with measures that provide insights An automatic index of facial recognition by prosopoagnosics.
into temporal parameters of unconscious emotional Science, 228, 1453–1454.
 Constraint Satisfaction for Learning Hypotheses in Inductive Logic Programming C 777

Definition
Consensus Learning Inductive logic programming is a subfield of machine
▶ Brainstorming and Learning learning which uses first-order logic as a uniform rep-
resentation of examples, background knowledge, and
hypotheses. In many works, it is assumed that examples C
are clauses and the goal is to find a consistent hypoth-
esis H, that is, a clause entailing all positive examples
Consolidation and no negative example. Entailment is frequently
checked using y-subsumption which is a decidable
The time-dependent strengthening of a memory after restriction of logical entailment. Given a clause T
a training trial (or trials) that results from biological called a template, the template consistency problem
processes in the brain. deals with finding a substitution s such that H=Ts
is a consistent hypothesis. Both entailment checking
Cross-References and template consistency problems are combinatorial
▶ Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning problems that can be solved using constraint satisfac-
tion techniques.

Theoretical Background
In the core form, Inductive Logic Programming (ILP)
Constraint Networks deals with the problem of finding a hypothesis covering
all positive examples and excluding negative examples
A constraint network is a set of variables and con- (Muggleton and De Raedt 1994). For the sake of com-
straints that interrelate and define the valid values plexity analysis, a formalization of core ILP tasks was
for the variables. Constraint networks have proven proposed by the seminal paper (Gottlob et al. 1999).
to be a useful mechanism for modeling computa- Gottlob defines two basic ILP problems: the bounded
tionally intensive tasks in artificial intelligence. They consistency problem and the template consistency
operate by expressing a problem as a set of variables, problem. In both, it is assumed that examples are
variable domains, and constraints and define a clauses and the goal is to find a consistent hypothesis
search procedure that tries to satisfy the constraints H, that is, a clause entailing all positive examples and
by assigning values to variables from their specified no negative example. Entailment is checked using
domains. y-subsumption (Plotkin 1970) which is a decidable
restriction of logical entailment. For simplicity of nota-
tion, we can assume clauses to be expressed as sets
of literals, and, without loss of generality, we can only
work with positive literals, that is, non-negated atoms.
Constraint Satisfaction for All terms in the learning examples (hypotheses, respec-
Learning Hypotheses in tively) are constants (variables) written in the lower
Inductive Logic Programming (upper) cases. For instance, E = {arc(a,b), arc(b,c),
arc(c,a)} is an example and H = {arc(X,Y), arc(Y,Z)}
ROMAN BARTÁK1, FILIP ŽELEZNÝ2, ONDŘEJ KUŽELKA2 is a hypothesis. Hypothesis H subsumes example E, if
1
Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, there exists a substitution y of variables such that Hy
Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic E. In the above example, substitution y={X/a, Y/b, Z/c}
2
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical implies that H subsumes E.
University, Prague, Czech Republic In the bounded consistency formulation, the num-
ber of literals in H is polynomially bounded by the
number of examples. In the template consistency for-
Synonyms mulation, it is instead required that H = Ts for
Template consistency problem some substitution s, where T is a given clause called
778 C Constraint Satisfaction for Learning Hypotheses in Inductive Logic Programming

a template. Since all terms in H are supposed to be constraints). The constraint is arc consistent if all
variables, the task lies in determining which subsets values in the domains of constrained variables have
of variables in T should be unified. For generality, we some support in the constraint; in particular, the
assume that all variables in T are mutually different, value is part of a tuple satisfying the constraint. The
that is, each variable occurs exactly once in T, as in T= values without a support are removed from the vari-
{arc(X1,X2), arc(X3,X4)}. An exemplary hypothesis ables’ domains. For example, the constraint A=B,
H may be obtained from this T by applying unification where the domain of A is {1,2} and the domain of B is
X2 = X3 (and then suitably renaming the variables). {1,2,3}, is made arc consistent by removing value 3
Clearly, if no unification is applied and the template from the domain of B. If any domain becomes empty
consists only of the predicates in the example (arc/2 then the problem has no solution. If all the constraints
in our case) then the hypothesis subsumes that exam- are arc consistent and the domains are still not single-
ple. The reason for introducing unifications is thus ton then some variable is selected, its domain is
to prevent H from subsuming negative examples. In split into two (or more) disjoint subsets, and the
our case, hypothesis obtained by applying unifications obtained subproblems are solved using the same tech-
X2 = X3 and X1 = X4 to T does not subsume the above nique. This domain splitting forms a choice point in
example E. the search procedure. Other branching strategies exist,
Gottlob shows that both bounded consistency and for example, taking some constraint in the form of
template consistency problems are equivalent in terms exclusive disjunction such as C∨ C 0 and adding C to
of computational complexity and belong among S2P the problem in one search branch and C 0 to the prob-
complete problems. In both cases, the complexity arises lem in the second search branch. An optimization
from two sources: version of a CSP called a Constraint Optimization
Problem (COP) adds a objective function that evalu-
1. “The subsumption test for checking whether
ates the solutions. The task is to find a solution to a CSP
a clause subsumes an example”
that minimizes (or maximizes) the value of the objec-
2. “The choice of the positions of variables in the
tive function.
atoms (of the clause)”
Informally, (2) corresponds to the task of searching Important Scientific Research and
the space of admissible clauses, and (1) corresponds to Open Questions
evaluating an explored clause. Both task (1) and (2) can Maloberti and Sebag (2004) used constraint satisfac-
be solved using constraint satisfaction techniques. tion techniques to address the above complexity source
Constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) is a triple (1). In particular, they proposed a y-subsumption
(X, D, C), where X is a finite set of decision variables, algorithm called Django that is based on reformulation
for each xi 2 X, Di 2 D is a finite set of possible values of y-subsumption as a binary constraint satisfaction
for the variable xi (the domain), and C is a finite set of problem. Thanks to powerful CSP heuristics, Django
constraints (Dechter 2003). A constraint is a relation brought dramatic speed-up for y-subsumption and
over a subset of variables (its scope) that restricts the consequently for the entire ILP system. The constraint
possible combinations of values to be assigned to the model for each example looks as follows. First, for each
variables in its scope. The constraints can be expressed predicate symbol p with arity k we collect all k-tuples of
in extension using a set of compatible value tuples. values from atoms of this predicate in the example.
A solution to a CSP is a complete instantiation of vari- These value tuples define in extension a k-ary con-
ables such that the values are taken from respective straint cp. Now, for each atom of predicate p with vari-
domains and all constraints are satisfied. Constraint ables {Y1,. . ., Yk} in the hypothesis we post constraint cp
satisfaction techniques are frequently based on the over these variables. Clearly, based on instantiation
combination of inference techniques and search. The of variables {Y1,. . ., Yk} we can find an atom in the
most widely used inference technique is arc consistency example to which a given atom from the hypothesis
(the name goes from the graph representation of a CSP, is mapped to. Let {arc(a,b), arc(b,c), arc(c,a)} be all
where nodes describe the variables and arcs specify the atoms of predicate arc/2 in the example. Then binary
 Constraint Satisfaction for Learning Hypotheses in Inductive Logic Programming C 779

constraint carc is defined in extension by a set of value where n is the total number of variables (in constraint
pairs {(a,b), (b,c), (c,a)}. Atom arc(X,Y) from the element(X,List,Y) X and Y are variables and L is list of
hypothesis is represented by constraint carc(X,Y) and variables; the constraint describes a relation that Y
instantiation X=a, Y=b means that that this atom is equals to the X-th element of List.). In other words, if
mapped to arc(a,b) in the example. In summary, variable Xi is mapped to Xj (Ii = j) then Xj is not C
any solution to a CSP defined by constraints cp mapped to any preceding variable (Ij = j, i.e., IIi = Ii).
describes a substitution y such that Hy E. The fol- For example, [1,1,2] is not a valid list of indices (it
lowing example demonstrates the constraint model represents X1 = X2 and X2 = X3), the correct represen-
for the subsumption problem (let us call it a subsump- tation of this unification should be [1,1,1] (X1 = X2
tion model): and X1 = X3). The element constraints thus ensure that
each set of unifications is represented by a single list of
Example: indices. The following example demonstrates the base
arc(a,b), arc(b,c), arc(c,a), red(a), red(c) unification model:
Hypothesis:
Template:
arc(Y1,Y2), arc(Y2,Y3), red(Y2)
arc(X1,X2), arc(X3,X4), arc(X5,X6), red(X7), red(X8), red(X9),
Subsumption model: green(X10)
Variables Y1, Y2, Y3 Unification model:
Domains {a,b,c} Variables I1, . . ., I10
Constraints carc(Y1,Y2), carc(Y2,Y3), cred(Y2) Domains Di = {1,. . .,i} 8i = 1,. . .,10
Solutions {Y1 =c, Y2 =a, Y3 =b}, {Y1 =b, Y2 =c, Y3 =a} Constraints element(Ii, [I1,.., I10], Ii) 8i = 1,. . .,10

To address the above complexity source (2) Barták The unification model needs to be connected to the
(2010) proposed a constraint model and dedicated subsumption models for individual examples. This can
search strategy for specifying which variables in the be done again via the element constraints in the fol-
template should be unified to obtain a consistent lowing way. Assume that n is the number of variables in
hypothesis. Recall that each variable appears exactly the template. Then for each example Ej we plug a set
once in the template so one can order the variables. Xj,1,. . ., Xj,n of fresh variables into H, where these vari-
Indices in the following example show this ordering T ables participate in the subsumption model for prob-
={arc(X1,X2), arc(X3,X4), arc(X5,X6)}. The model is lem Ej. Note that each example may define different
based on the observation that if a set of variables is compatible tuples for the constraints and hence
unified then we can select the variable with the smallest a different solution (subsumption) yj. The constraints
index to represent this set and all other variables in the element(Ii, [Xj,1,.., Xj,n], Xj,i) ensure that the variables in
set are mapped to this variable. For example, unifica- the subsumption models are properly unified based on
tion X2 =X3 can be represented by mapping X3 to X2. the decision about unifications done in the unification
The constraint model uses index variable Ii for each model. These constraints can be posted in advance all
variable Xi in the template to describe the mapping. together as we require all positive examples to be sub-
The domain of Ii is {1,. . .,i} (variable Xi can only be sumed. However, for the negative example, we require
mapped to itself or to some preceding variable). To that the corresponding CSP has no solution. This can
express that variables Xi and Xj are unified we simply be ensured by trying to solve the CSP for the negative
post a constraint Ii = Ij (both variables are mapped to example (while respecting the so far decided unifica-
an identical variable). To ensure that each variable is tions) and if there is any solution found, this solution is
mapped to the first variable in the set of unified vari- broken by additional unification introduced to the
ables we use a constraint unification model (which is immediately propagated
to the constraint models for positive examples to
8i ¼ 1; . . . ; n elementðIi ; ½I1 ; . . . ; In ; Ii Þ; validate whether it does not conflict the positive
780 C Constraints on Learning

examples). The following algorithm scheme shows Acknowledgments

how the search strategy is integrated with the con- The authors are supported by the project 201/08/0509
straint models: of the Czech Science Foundation.
1. Generate a unification model with index variables I
2. For each positive example p do
Cross-References
▶ Inductive Logic Programming
(a) Generate a subsumption model with fresh
▶ Learning Algorithms
hypothesis variables Xp.
▶ Machine Learning
(b) Connect hypothesis variables Xp to index
variables. References
3. For each negative example e do Barták, R. (2010). Constraint models for reasoning on unification in
(a) Generate a subsumption model with fresh inductive logic programming. In D. Dicheva, & D. Dochev
hypothesis variables Ye. (Eds.), Artificial intelligence: Methodology, systems, and appli-
(b) Connect hypothesis variables Ye to index cations (pp. 101–110), LNAI 6304. Heidelberg: Springer.
variables. Dechter, R. (2003). Constraint processing. San Mateo: Morgan
Kaufmann.
(c) While exists instantiation y of hypothesis vari-
Gottlob, G., Leone, N., & Scarcello, F. (1999). On the complexity of
ables Ye do. some inductive logic programming problems. New Generation
(i) Select variables Ye,i and Ye,j such that Ye,iy Computing, 17, 53–75.
6¼ Ye,jy. Maloberti, J., & Sebag, M. (2004). Fast theta-subsumption with
(ii) Introduce choice point Ii = Ij or Ii 6¼ Ij. constraint satisfaction algorithms. Machine Learning, 55,
137–174.
(d) Remove the variables Ye with corresponding
Muggleton, S., & De Raedt, L. (1994). Inductive logic programming:
constraints. Theory and methods. Journal of Logic Programming, 19, 629–679.
4. Instantiate index variables I. Plotkin, G. (1970). A note on inductive generalization. Machine
5. For each positive example p do. Intelligence, 5, 153–163.
(a) Instantiate hypothesis variables Xp.
Further improvements of the base unification
model were proposed (Barták 2010) such as symmetry
breaking (the base model assumes the template to be a Constraints on Learning
list of atoms while it is a set of atoms which introdu-
ces symmetrical solutions), stronger consistency tech- ▶ Biological or Evolutionary Constraints on Learning
niques (global reasoning over equality and inequality
constraints introduced in step (3-a-ii)), and hints in the
form of forbidden unifications derived from the posi-
tive examples. Constructing Meaning
The above models were proposed for a strict sep-
aration of positive and negative examples. In prac- ▶ Historical Thinking
tice, for example, due to noisy data, this is not
possible and the task is stated differently – for exam-
ple, to maximize the number of covered positive
examples while minimizing the number of covered Construction of Schemas
negative examples. The open question is whether
the proposed models can be updated by exploiting ▶ Schema Development
constraint optimization technology for solving this
modified problem. Another open question is how to
effectively obtain the template. A straightforward
approach is to incrementally build the template by Constructionist Thinking
adding predicates to it, but this seems too inefficient
for practical problems. ▶ Learning in Practice (Heidegger and Schön)
 Constructive Induction C 781

definition. The units involved may be any aspect of

Constructive Alignment reality; entities, attributes, actions, qualities, relation-
A form of outcomes-based education that outlines the ships, etc.; they may be perceptual concretes or other,
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) of a course in earlier-formed concepts. The act of isolation involved
terms of a verb that states what the learner is supposed is a process of abstraction: i.e., a selective mental C
to be able to do with the content taught. That verb focus that takes out or separates a certain aspect of
denotes a learning activity that teaching needs to activate reality from all others (e.g., isolates a certain attribute
if the outcomes are to be optimally achieved. Assessment from the entities possessing it, or a certain action from
tasks likewise need to embody the verbs in the ILOs, the entities performing it). The uniting involved is
together with assessment rubrics, that enable judge- not a mere sum, but an integration, i.e., a blending of
ments to be made about how well the students achieve the units into a single, new mental entity which is used
the intended learning outcomes. thereafter as a single unit of thought (but which can be
broken into its component units whenever required)”
Cross-References (Rand 1990).
▶ Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning Concept learning has been an active research area
in machine learning, a scientific discipline that is
concerned with design and development of com-
puter systems to simulate human thought processes
(Michalski 1983). The main goal of concept learning
Constructive Induction is derivation of generalized concept descriptions from
observations in order to facilitate concept recognition.
JANUSZ WNEK Concept recognition identifies a learned concept that
Science Applications International Corporation, a given observation appertains. In congruence with the
Rockville, MD, USA epistemological description of a concept formation
process, computer-based concept learning modeling
starts with a substantial assumption concerning obser-
Synonyms vations, namely, the observations are already abstracted
Concept formation and contained within a well-defined domain using
specific terminology, that is, representation space. For
Definition example, one of the early concept learning tasks was
Constructive induction is a process of inducing a con- learning descriptions of eastbound and westbound
cept definition that employs expansion of terminology. trains (Michalski 1978) from five examples in each
Terminology is a collection of specialized terms that category, described in terms of eleven descriptors,
describe observations. Observations consist of concept such as car-shape, in front of, contains load, length,
examples (units) and examples of other comparable and number of wheels. The human-based process of
concepts. Concept definition is the generalization abstracting this task for concept learning involved not
of the collection of observations. Taking origin in only separating the concept of trains from other con-
concept examples, concept definition specifies the cepts but also made various abstractions of specific
distinguishing characteristics of the units, and indicates descriptors (car features, relationships, etc.).
the domain of observations in which they were differ- Constructive induction is a process of learning
entiated. The expanding terms are better suited to both a concept definition that involves two intertwined
differentiate and characterize the concept. Their con- searches: one for the best representation space, and the
struction involves process of concept formation. second for the best concept definition in that space. It
can be viewed as an adaptive process of self-improving
Theoretical Background the representation space by constructing additional
Epistemologically, “a concept is a mental integration descriptors aligned with the learning task at hand.
of two or more units which are isolated according The new descriptors are supporting concepts that focus
to a specific characteristic(s) and united by a specific on better distinguishing characteristics of the target
782 C Constructive Induction

concept. This incremental process involves the three- textual databases as sources of observations, and use
step concept formation cycle, that is, the abstraction, propositionalization, a form of abstraction, and aggre-
integration (generalization), and assigning a concept gation techniques to transform representation space
definition/name, which introduces a new concept (Kietz and Morik 1994; Perlich and Provost 2006).
(descriptor).
A fundamental role in the constructive induction Important Scientific Research and
process plays the representation space, as it provides Open Questions
context for learned concept definitions. The target Independent of the strategy for generating new descrip-
concept never changes. Its definition does change tors is control over conceptual vocabulary. Machine
according to essential characteristics found in the space. learning methods can surely benefit from human expe-
In the formation of any concept, the capability of making rience in this regard, where philosophy is the founda-
comparisons among observations is critical. In this con- tion of science, and epistemology is the foundation of
text, “similarity is the relationship between two or more philosophy. The requirements of cognition determine
observations that possess the same characteristics but in the objective criteria of conceptualization. They can be
different measure or degree” (Rand 1990). summed up best in the form of an epistemological
The process of abstraction can be realized by many “razor”: concepts are not to be multiplied beyond neces-
methods capable of conceptually clustering (grouping, sity – the corollary of which is; nor are they to be
agglomerating, sorting) observations. The need and integrated in disregard of necessity (Rand 1990).
complexity for abstracting depends on the current Another challenge for constructive induction is
state of the representation space: starting with empty naming of constructed concepts. The challenge is not
representation space (with no observations and no in assigning a name, as such can easily be generated by
descriptors) to fully developed, that is, having examples a computer program, rather assigning a meaningful
described in terms of relevant descriptors, where it is name, understandable in human language. This might
a matter of selecting terms for building consistent and require some human–computer interaction to allow
complete descriptions with regard to the learning task. understanding of concept definition or the factors
Constructive induction term was first used in that contributed to differentiation of concept examples
machine learning, specifically in the context of con- from other examples and then scope of generalization
cept learning from examples (Michalski 1978). Con- of the selected concept examples.
structive induction systems may employ different The underlying premise included in the above
strategies for generating new descriptors. Based on challenges is the need for maintaining synergy in
the primary strategy employed, the systems can be human–computer interaction to preserve consistency
divided into four categories: data-driven, hypothesis- in modeling real-world problems.
driven, knowledge-driven, and multistrategy (Wnek
Cross-References
and Michalski 1994). Data-driven constructive induc-
▶ Concept Learning
tion systems analyze and explore the observations,
▶ Conceptual Clustering
including the interrelationships among their descrip-
▶ Feature Selection (Unsupervised Learning)
tors, and on that basis introduce changes in the
▶ Inferential Theory of Learning
representation space. Hypothesis-driven constructive ▶ Machine Learning
induction systems incrementally transform the repre-
▶ Multistrategy Learning
sentation space by analyzing inductive hypotheses
generated in one iteration and then using detected References
patterns as attributes for the next iteration. Knowl- Kietz, J.-U., & Morik, K. (1994). A polynomial approach to the
edge-driven constructive induction systems apply constructive induction of structural knowledge. Machine Learn-
expert-provided domain knowledge to construct new ing, 14, 193–217.
Michalski, R. S. (1978). Pattern recognition as knowledge-guided com-
terms. Multistrategy constructive induction systems
puter induction (Tech. Rep. No. 927). Urbana-Champaign: Uni-
combine different approaches and methods for versity of Illinois, Department of Computer Science.
constructing new terms. Real-world applications of Michalski, R. S. (1983). A theory and methodology of inductive
constructive induction systems utilize relational or learning. Artificial Intelligence, 20, 111–161.
 Constructivist Learning C 783

Perlich, C., & Provost, F. (2006). Distribution-based aggregation for Definition

relational learning with identifier attributes. Machine Learning, The word constructivist is an adjective that comes
62, 65–105.
from the noun constructivism which specifies the
Rand, A. (1990). Introduction to objectivist epistemology, expanded
second edition. In H. Binswanger & L. Peikoff (Eds.). New York: theory about the nature of reality and the theory of
Meridian. knowledge (epistemology) founded on the basis that C
Wnek, J., & Michalski, R. S. (1994). Hypothesis-driven constructive humans generate knowledge and meaning from their
induction in AQ17-HCI: A method and experiments. Machine experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are
Learning, 14, 139–168.
used to interpret objects and events. Constructivism
focuses on the importance of the individual knowl-
edge, beliefs, and skills through the experience of
learning. It states that the construction of understand-
Constructivism ing is a combination of prior knowledge and new
information. Individuals can accept new ideas or fit
This epistemology is based on the premise that learning them into their established views of the world. Con-
is collaborative, learner centered, and requires activity structivist learning is a theory about how people learn.
from the learner without the primary need for an It states that learning happens when learners construct
authoritative provider of information in the form of meaning by interpreting information in the context
a teacher. The teacher becomes instead a catalyst or of their own experiences. In other words, learners
coach in organizing learning activities. construct their own understandings of the world by
reflecting on their experiences. Constructivist learning
Cross-References
is related with pedagogic approaches that promote
▶ Humanistic Approaches to Learning
active learning, effective learning, meaningful learning,
constructive learning, and learning by doing.

Theoretical Background
Constructivism: Sociocultural Constructivist learning has emerged as a prominent
Approaches approach to learning and teaching on the basis of the
work by John Dewey (1858–1952), Jean Piaget (1896–
▶ Meaning Development in Child Language: A
1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), Jerame Bruner
Constructivist Approach
(1915–), Maria Montessori (1870–1952), and Ernst
von Glasersfeld (1917–), who, among others provide
historical precedents for constructivist learning theory.
Constructivist learning claims that learners do not just
Constructivist Agents absorb information. Instead, learners construct infor-
mation by actively trying to organize and make sense of
▶ Anticipatory Learning Mechanisms it in unique ways.
In the literature of constructivism in education,
there are many types of paradigms including
cognitive/personal constructivism, social constructiv-
Constructivist Learning ism, radical constructivism, critical constructivism,
cultural constructivism, genetic epistemology,
AYTAC GOGUS constructionism, information-processing constructiv-
Center for Individual and Academic Development, ism, interactive constructivism, cybernetic systems,
Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey and sociocultural approaches to mediated action.
Although there are many paradigms with different
emphases, they share many common perspectives
Synonyms about teaching and learning. These common perspec-
Effective learning; Meaningful learning tives provide the basis for constructivist learning.
784 C Constructivist Learning

Constructivist learning is articulated in contrast to The major foundation for cognitive constructivist
objectivist learning. Jonassen (1999) compares objectiv- approaches to teaching and learning is Piaget’s theory of
ist conceptions of learning by constructivist concep- cognitive development (1973), which describes how
tions of learning: children develop cognitive abilities. Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development (1973) has two major parts:
" Objectivist conceptions of learning assume that knowl-
ages and stages. According to Piaget there are four
edge can be transferred from teachers or transmitted
stages through birth to 12 years: the sensorimotor
by technologies and acquired by learners. Objectivist
period (birth to 2 years), preoperational thought (2–
conceptions of instructional design include the analy-
6/7 years), concrete operations (6/7–11/12 years), and
sis, representations, and resequencing of content and
formal operations (11/12 to adult). According to Piaget
tasks in order to make them more predictably and
(1973), learners must construct their knowledge
reliably transmissible.
through experiences by relying on ▶ cognitive struc-
Constructivist conceptions of learning, on the
ture (i.e., schemas and mental models). These cognitive
other hand, assume that knowledge is individually
structures are changed and enlarged through three
constructed and socially coconstructed by learners
complementary processes of ▶ assimilation, ▶ accom-
based on their interpretations of experiences in the
modation, and correction. Within Piagets’s theory
world. Since knowledge cannot be transmitted, instruc-
(1973), the basis of learning is discovery: “To under-
tion should consist of experiences that facilitate knowl-
stand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and
edge construction. (p. 217)
such conditions must be complied with if in the future
Objectivist learning expects that teachers trans- individuals are to be formed who are capable of
mit knowledge and learners replicate the presented production and creativity and not simply repetition”
content and gain the same understanding as the (Piaget 1973, p. 20).
teacher (Jonassen 1999). Objectivist learning approach Social constructivism suggests that reality takes on
assumes that learner can gain the same understanding meaning which is formed and reformed through the
when systematic rules are used for logical conclusion. social process. Vygotsky’s constructivist theory (1978),
Therefore, objectivist learning does not provide appro- which is called social constructivism, emphasizes the
priate training for creative thinking, higher-order importance of culture and social context for cognitive
problem solving, transferring and applying knowledge development. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
to concrete experiences. On the other hand, construc- (1978) concept argues that learners can master con-
tivist learning provides an opportunity for reflection cepts, which they cannot understand on their own,
and critical thinking to make sense of the world and with help from instructors and peers. Vygotsky (1978)
create understanding, not just the memorizing of right divides the child’s language development into three
answers (Brooks and Brooks 1999). Learning is a search stages (at age 2, 3, and 7). In each stage, the child
for meaning, which requires understanding of the learns through observing and interacting with his/her
whole content as well as its parts, so the learning pro- immediate social environment. According to Vygotsky
cess focuses on individual understanding, not isolated (1978), the culture provides the cognitive tools to the
facts (Brooks and Brooks 1999). child for development such as cultural history, social
Two major types of the constructivist learning context, language, and technology. Adults such as
perspectives are cognitive constructivism and social con- instructors and parents guide learning by means of
structivism. While Piaget (1973) developed the cogni- these cognitive tools. The type and quality of
tive constructivism view of learning, Vygotsky (1978) these tools play an important role on learning and
developed the social constructivism view of learning. development.
These two constructivist view of learning are different Like Piaget and Vygotsky, Bruner studied cognition
in emphasis, but there is also a great deal of overlap and language learning in young children and defined
between them. Vygotsky shares many of Piaget’s learning as an active process in which a learner
assumptions about how children learn, but Vygotsky constructs new ideas or concepts based upon his/her
puts more emphasis on the social context of learning. both current and past knowledge by selecting and
 Constructivist Learning C 785

transforming information, constructing hypotheses, world, so people create their own mental models to
and making decisions through representing individual make sense of their experiences. Also, constructivist
experiences in a cognitive structure (Brooks and learning emphasizes that the social and cultural context
Brooks 1999). In the constructivist classroom, the has a huge impact on learning. Therefore, learning is
instruction should be surrounded by an active dialog defined as a social process in which learners share, C
between the instructor and student while the instructor compare, and reformulate ideas to restructure new
tries to encourage students to discover principles by understandings. If an instruction or training allows
themselves. Therefore, the role of the instructor is to learners to exchange their personal views and test
translate information to be learned into a format them with others’, learners can build their own under-
appropriate to the learner’s level of understanding so standings with empirical evidence through activities
that the student constantly builds upon what he/she and observations. Since learners’ level of potential
has already learned. development has a critical impact on understanding,
Dewey (1966) is a reformer in educational policy. learners’ cognitive maturity, their interests, previous
He emphasizes that schools should not focus on repet- experiences should be considered in instructional
itive, rote memorization and that they should be design besides their social, cultural, and other contex-
engaged in real-world, practical training to be able to tual characteristics. Therefore, constructivist learning is
demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and defined as both an individual and a social process.
collaboration. Dewey’s book “Democracy and Educa-
tion” (1966) states that processes of instruction should
Important Scientific Research and
focus on the production of good habits of thinking so
that students should have opportunities to think them-
Open Questions
Constructivist learning views learning as a social activ-
selves and articulate their thoughts. According to
ity. Learning is influenced by social interaction and the
Dewey, students should be involved in meaningful
language that the learner uses. Besides social interac-
activities and apply the concepts they are trying to
tion and language, other major factors that influence
learn. Dewey (1966) uses term active learner by
learning is learner’s pervious knowledge, learner’s
stressing that learning is an active process in which
motivation, and learner’s characteristics such as beliefs,
the learners construct their own meaning. In other
prejudices, and fears. These factors are associated with
words, learning is not a passive acceptance of presented
individual, social, and cultural aspects of learning.
knowledge by teachers, but is constructing meaning.
Constructivist learning requires educators to think
Constructing meaning happens in the mind; therefore,
about epistemology and pedagogy to be able to allow
educators should design both hands-on activities and
learners construct knowledge individually and socially.
mental activities. Dewey (1966) emphasizes that learn-
In order to teach well, educators must understand the
ing happens through reflective activities as a product of
mental models to support and challenge the learner’s
critical thinking. Learners should reflect on what they
thinking (Brooks and Brooks 1999). Brooks and
understand.
Brooks (1999) list 12 characteristics for teaching by
According to von Glasersfeld (1996), the human
implementing constructivist learning theory into class-
mind can only know what the human mind has
room instruction:
made. In radical constructivist approach, there is an
important point that how we know is more essential ● Encourage and accept student autonomy and
than what we know. There are two main principles of initiative.
radical constructivism (von Glasersfeld 1996): ● Use raw data and primary sources along with
(1) knowledge is not passively received but actively manipulation, interaction, and physical materials.
built up by subject; (2) cognition is adaptive and serves ● Use cognitive terminology such as “classify,” “ana-
the organization of the experiential world, not the lyze,” “predict,” and “create” when assigning tasks
discovery of ontological reality. to the students.
In summary, constructivist learning emphasizes ● Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift,
that people construct their own understanding of the instructional strategies, and alter content.
786 C Constructivist Learning Environments

● Inquire students’ understanding of concepts before their experiences. The teachers’ understanding of the
sharing their own understanding of these concepts. approach is limited to their personal experiences.
● Encourage students to engage in a dialog both with Therefore, teachers should gain a proper understand-
the teacher and with one another. ing of constructivist philosophy and approaches in
● Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry order to create effective instructional activities that
by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions, and are reflective of constructivist orientation.
encourage students to ask questions to each other.
● Seek elaboration of student’s initial response. Cross-References
● Engage students in experiences that might engender ▶ Active Learning
contradictions to their initial hypotheses and then ▶ Bruner, Jerame (1915–)
encourage discussion. ▶ Constructive Learning
● Allow wait time after posing questions. ▶ Dewey, John (1858–1952)
● Provide time for students to construct relationships ▶ Piaget, Jean (1896–1980)
and create metaphors. ▶ Piaget’s Learning Theory
● Nurture students’ natural curiosity through fre- ▶ Project-Based Learning
quent use of the learning cycle models. ▶ Social Construction of Learning
Constructivist learning allows students to take ▶ Social Learning Theories
responsibility for their own learning and establish con- ▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning
nections between ideas and thus to analyze, evaluate,
and defend their ideas (Brooks and Brooks 1999). References
Jonassen (1999) describes constructivist learning Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1999). In search of understanding: The
environment (CLE) as having eight characteristics: case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria: ASCD - Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
active/manipulative, constructive, collaborative, conver-
Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.
sational, reflective, contextualized, complex, and inten- Jonassen, D. (1999). Designing constructivist learning environments.
tional. Construction of knowledge by learners should In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models:
have these eight qualities. In constructivist learning A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 215–239).
environment, the student as an active learner mediates Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent. New York: Grossman.
and controls learning by engaging in meaningful
von Glasersfeld, E. (1996). Introduction: Aspects of constructivism.
social interaction with other students and teacher. In C. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and
The teacher as a moderator provides students with practice (pp. 3–7). New York: Teachers College Press.
variety of activities that promote collaboration, inter- Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psy-
action, reflection, experimentation, interpretation, and chological processes. MA: Harvard University Press.
construction (Brooks and Brooks 1999). The challenge
for educators is to design instructional strategies to
actively engage learners in knowledge construction,
being able to negotiate meaning, and solving complex
problems (Jonassen 1999). Constructivist Learning
Educators at all levels have tried to improve their Environments
instructional practices through experimenting with
▶ Open Instruction and Learning
constructivist learning principles. This is because con-
structivism focuses on how people learn and it sug-
gests that learning occurs through active engagement in
problem solving, and not simply from taking in infor-
mation, replicating the information. The challenge Constructivist Learning
in teaching is to create experiences that engage stu-
Principles
dents in learning activities and support their own
explanation, evaluation, and communication about ▶ Cybernetic Principles of Learning
 Content-Area Learning C 787

Definition
Constructivist Learning Theory Content area learning is closely associated with the
Constructivist learning theory takes on several forms – academic skills and instructional pedagogies needed
individual, social, cognitive, postmodern – but all to succeed within various core academic courses. Each
emphasize that learners construct knowledge using content area has its own traditions, knowledge base, C
their own activities, and that they interpret concepts and pedagogies, including strategies for teaching and
and principles in terms of the schemata that they have learning. Content area learning is typically driven and
already developed. The verbs used in constructive defined by the unique learning traditions of the four
alignment (above) are the “construction tools” that major specialty areas taught in secondary schools (i.e.,
students use to meet the learning outcomes intended. social studies, mathematics, science, English Language
Arts); although content area learning can also refer to
learning that takes place in other courses (e.g., art
history, business-related courses). Furthermore, con-
tent area teachers play a substantial role in shaping
Contemplation learning goals and instructional pedagogies within
▶ Mindfulness and Meditation their courses via individually constructed understand-
ings of the discipline’s knowledge and learning tradi-
tions. Content area specialists in secondary (middle
and high) schools typically demonstrate proficiency
Contemplative Science in their area through completion of a full degree or
other closely related coursework. Several nations main-
▶ Mindfulness and Meditation tain the tradition of content area teachers completing
an adjoining degree in teaching, which leads to national
or local professional licensure.
Within each content area, there is voluminous
Content Area Literacy information to transfer to students; teachers typically
organize content within units of study guided by
▶ Content-Area Learning national or local standards and other curricular guide-
lines. A common understanding of content area learn-
ing is that each discipline’s academic demands revolve
around students’ cognitive and academic capacity (e.g.,
Content-Addressable Memory reading comprehension, writing skills) to efficiently
navigate voluminous background knowledge and liter-
▶ Associative Memory and Learning acy demands. Rich background knowledge helps facil-
itate student constructions of conceptual knowledge
within a particular discipline; however, this cognitive
construction process is often enabled or restricted
Content-Area Learning by students’ literacy skills. Students need strong liter-
acy skills to successfully interact with the substantial
DONALD D. DESHLER, BELINDA B. MITCHELL, demands generated by academic coursework, but simul-
MICHAEL J. KENNEDY, LESLIE NOVOSEL, FRANCES IHLE taneously need strong literacy skills to demonstrate
Department of Special Education, University of understanding and proficiency on assessments and
Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA other course requirements.
Embedded within the cognitive construction of
content area material is (a) a requirement to master
Synonyms significant quantities of vocabulary terms, including
Adolescent Literacy; Content Area Literacy; Disciplin- complex concepts through a combination of reading
ary Literacy and in-class instruction; (b) the need for students
788 C Content-Area Learning

to develop and use metacognitive strategies for in secondary-level content courses, and contain signif-
interacting with the discipline’s content; and (c) the icant quantities of vocabulary terms and concepts,
teacher’s roles in providing explicit instruction that and many are written with the assumption that readers
structures readiness to process, comprehend, and possess vast background knowledge about the
critique discipline-specific texts. Furthermore, as stu- corresponding content area (Kamil et al. 2008). The
dents progress within their respective academic pro- mixture of significant quantities of new vocabulary
grams, content area learning demands, especially those terms and “newness” of content without existing cog-
related to literacy, are augmented in significant quan- nitive schemas to activate during learning can hinder
tities (Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Lit- the comprehension of all students, but especially those
eracy 2010). In summary, content area learning is a with reading or other learning challenges.
multifaceted, generative process shaped by the knowl- Content area courses employ discipline-specific
edge construction traditions unique to each content texts as well as primary source documents (e.g., journal
area, but is largely dependent on learners’ basic literacy entries, laboratory notes, letters, and policy docu-
and higher-order thinking skills and processes (Kamil ments). Primary source documents often contain
et al. 2008). wide disparities in terms of text structure, purpose,
use of jargon, and levels of reading difficulty. In short,
Theoretical Background these documents, while rich in terms of building stu-
Foundational Literacy Skills. The foundation for success dents’ conceptual understanding of persons, events,
in content area learning is strong basic literacy skills. and processes, can be very difficult to read with the
To succeed in content-specific courses, especially at the efficiency and effectiveness needed for success in class-
secondary level, a strong base of literacy skills, includ- rooms. Content area teachers need to provide students
ing comprehension (and its component parts), writing, with explicit instruction in order to successfully engage
and capacity to participate in discourse, is required challenging discipline-specific texts and related docu-
(Kamil et al. 2008). The demands of content area ments. Promoting and nurturing student metacogni-
courses, especially at the secondary level, frequently tion is a critical element of content area learning that
include substantial demands of discipline-specific must be carefully addressed by teachers.
texts in terms of reading levels and overall accessibility Another commonality across the content areas is
of document(s). Policymakers, researchers, practi- the quantity of information that is transmitted from
tioners, and other stakeholders have brought signifi- the teacher (and text and other materials) to students.
cant attention to the issue of literacy learning within Content area courses are built from and organized
the content areas across the past 30 years (Carnegie around standards derived from national and/or local
Council for Advancing Adolescent Literacy 2010). education agencies. In the current age of accountabil-
Despite this attention, effective interventions for pro- ity, the demands for content coverage have been
moting content area learning for all subpopulations augmented, while available instructional time has
have not been widespread. Thus, for many practi- often not kept pace. This has resulted in what is
tioners and teacher preparation programs, the empha- sometimes called a “pedagogy of telling” which
sis for content area teachers revolves around the results in teachers being compelled to cover a wide
content and methods for teaching, while readiness to breadth of material by way of sacrificing depth of
promote literacy instruction is marginalized (Moje understanding. For many students, including those
2007). This area is currently receiving substantial with learning challenges, the pedagogy of telling is
attention in the professional literature, and will con- a mismatch for their learning needs and preferences,
tinue to be a source of new research and innovation and frequently results in academic struggles and fail-
in the future. ures. A critical area of research in the field is the
Commonalities Across Content Area Learning. There design and validation of instructional methods for
are several characteristics of content area learning addressing the compounding demands of state and
that remain constant despite preexisting differences in local standards and curricula while not ignoring best
subject matter. The first hallmark of content area pedagological practices within each respective disci-
learning is the use of texts. Textbooks are a mainstay pline area (Moje 2007).
 Content-Area Learning C 789

Teacher Preparation. Shulman (1987) pedagological corroboration, helps teachers explicitly teach students
content knowledge (PCK) is a well-known construct to think and act as historians do, which promotes
for organizing and understanding how content area deeper engagement with content. In order to partici-
teachers make sense of content and select/design pate in the active discourse of content it is necessary for
appropriate methods for teaching students. Methods students to possess adequate background knowledge, C
for organizing this content to efficiently and effectively along with sufficient literacy skills to engage complex
convey content to students (pedagogy) differ from text-based documents or materials. In science courses,
content area to content area. For teacher educators students are often taught to participate in active
and practitioners, understanding how PCK informs inquiry activities, which require significant know-how
teaching in the respective content areas is essential. on the part of students that has been transmitted from
That said, students’ basic literacy skills are essential their teachers.
for proficient content area learning; hence, teachers Shulman’s PCK and Moje’s DLP frameworks help
have the dual responsibility of promoting literacy inform the work of content area teachers by specifying
learning in the service of enabling advanced content and promoting the norms and practices of experts in
mastery (Kamil et al. 2008). the respective fields. These norms and practices guide
Teacher preparation programs for content special- orchestration of hands-on learning made possible
ists feature coursework on discipline-specific teach- through underlying background knowledge and liter-
ing methods, but frequently are limited in terms of acy tools needed to promote active and independent
disciplinary literacy pedagogy (DLP) (Moje 2007). student learning. This constructivist approach con-
Moje’s construct of DLP is an expansion of Shulman’s trasts significantly from traditional “stand and deliver”
PCK in that it reflects the need to specifically highlight and pedagogy of telling methods that rely on passive
and implement discipline-specific knowledge creation learning on the part of students.
traditions from the respective content areas. Highlight-
ing and explicitly teaching students the epistemo- Important Scientific Research and
logical practices of the discipline is a substantial Open Questions
departure from many traditional approaches to con- Research in the field of content area learning can be
tent area learning. In addition, a DLP framework characterized as the study of methods for helping
focuses on infusing specific literacy instruction into teachers organize and deconstruct content (graphic
teaching, so that students develop capacity within the organizers, vocabulary instruction) in order to help
respective content areas to meaningfully interact with students access subject matter. Research that is needed
course texts. This epistemological approach is essential in this area includes furthering understanding of
for understanding content area learning, as the capacity how discipline experts can capture the metacognition
to understand the respective content area traditions involved in knowledge construction and critique that
and construction methods holds the key for higher- translates into instructional materials relevant for nov-
order thinking and learning on the part of students. ice learners. In addition, significant attention in the
That said, publicizing the discipline’s respective episte- professional literature has been dedicated to strategy
mologies and translating those traditions into struc- instruction. Students can become cognitively active
tured lessons for novice learners is an extraordinarily when they are explicitly taught how to learn and are
complex undertaking for many practitioners, and con- given authentic opportunities to engage in the learn-
stitutes an area of significant need within the field of ing activities of experts in the respective disciplines
content area learning in terms of future research and while receiving ongoing feedback from teachers. Fur-
innovation (Moje 2007). ther research is needed in order to create teacher
Given the unique demands of each content area, preparatory programs and practices that lead to the
teachers must make decisions about how to deliver preparation of content area teachers to implement a
their content in the most efficient and effective disciplinary literacy framework in their classroom.
manner. In social studies courses, for example, Research in strategy instruction as it relates to
Weinberg’s (1991) framework for knowledge con- content area learning has focused on cognitive and
struction, (a) sourcing, (b) contextualization, and (c) metacognitive processes that learners must employ in
790 C Content-Extending Reasoning

order to master subject matter. Cognitive strategies References

(cognitive processes) are constructive interaction with Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy. (2010). Time to
texts, both written and digital, and include activities act: An agenda for advancing adolescent literacy for college and
such as asking questions to interrogate texts, summa- career success. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Moje, E. B. (2007). Developing socially just subject-matter instruc-
rizing, activating prior knowledge, and organizing and
tion: A review of the literature on disciplinary literacy teaching.
engaging prior knowledge with newly learned infor- Review of Research in Education, 3(1), 1–44.
mation. A learning strategy is a person’s approach to Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the
learning and using information. Students use learn- new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.
ing strategies (metacognitive processes) to help under- Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the
cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary
stand information and solve problems. Some students,
and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1),
including many with learning disabilities, who do not 73–87.
know or use learning strategies are characterized as
passive learners and ultimately struggle to succeed in
rigorous content area coursework. Learning strategy
instruction focuses on making students active learners
by teaching them how to learn and how to use what Content-Extending Reasoning
they have learned to solve problems and be successful.
The use of learning strategies by content area specialists ▶ Inferential Learning and Reasoning
allows teachers to directly embed instruction in a spe-
cific strategy through direct explanation, modeling,
and required application in relation to content assign-
ments. By teaching students strategies that are directly
relevant to the demands of their courses, instructional
Context and Semantic
emphasis is shifted from learning course content to Sensitivity in Learning
acquiring the necessary cognitive processes to master
the content. NORBERT M. SEEL
An open question is the debate in the profes- Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
sional literature and in classrooms between the use of Freiburg, Germany
discipline-specific versus discipline-general teaching
and learning strategies. Many existing content area–
learning strategies are designed specifically to be appro- Synonyms
priate for use in any content classroom. Empirical Context awareness; Contextual cueing; Resource
research for each has also provided evidence that dis- sensitivity
cipline-generic strategies are effective for promoting
content area learning and/or comprehension. There Definition
is a growing movement in the field of content area The concept of context sensitivity refers to people’s
learning toward discipline-specific teaching. Learning ability to recognize key stimuli in their environment
strategies help students meet the widely discrepant and to use them to create subjective plausibility of the
learning demands of the respective content areas. An given task or situation. This corresponds with a con-
example is Weinberg’s sourcing, contextualization, structivist perspective which considers human learning
and corroboration framework for learning in history as an active process of knowledge construction that is
courses. More research is needed to address this open dependent to a large extent on the learner’s ability to
question. strategically manage and organize all available infor-
mation resources. Besides the information already
Cross-References stored in memory, information presented by the exter-
▶ Aligning the Curriculum to Promote Learning nal environment is especially relevant.
▶ Curriculum and Learning Semantic sensitivity is a core concept not only in
▶ Literacy and Learning cognitive psychology and linguistics but also an
 Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning C 791

important requirement for modern information and discussed with regard to speech behavior (see, e.g., the
communication systems where context sensitivity context-sensitive associate theory of Wickelgren 1969)
of applications refers to the adaptivity to the situ- and word processing (Schvanefeldt and McDonald
ations in which a system needs to act. This enables 1981); and in the area of machine learning context-
more efficient and robust functioning in dynamic sensitive learning methods for text categorization are C
environments. comparable (e.g., Cohen and Singer 1999).
In contrast with schema-based argumentations,
Theoretical Background researchers in the field of mental models argue that
A basic assumption of constructivist approaches of
context sensitivity occurs consciously and inten-
learning is that learners respond sensitively to charac-
tionally. Among others, Anzai and Yokoyama (1984)
teristics of the environment, “such as the availability of
assume that learners encode information on a problem
specific information at a given moment, the duration
in a mental model as soon as they begin working on it
of that availability, the way the information is struc-
in order to gain a basic understanding of the situation
tured” (and presented), “and the ease with which it
and its demands. This initial experiential model can –
can be searched” (Kozma 1991, p. 180). However, this
and the learner is generally aware of this – be false or
seems dependent on the learning strategies which
insufficient for accurately representing the subject
students use in a more or less consistent manner.
domain in question. However, it is semantically sensi-
Entwistle (1981), for example, assumes that some
tive toward key stimuli in the learning environment
learners are more consistent in their use of strategies
and can thus be transformed into a new model through
while others behave more opportunistically or with
accurate processing and interpretation of these key
more sensitivity to the requirements of their immediate
stimuli. The results of the experimental study of
situation. This argumentation corresponds, to a large
Anzai and Yokoyama (1984) as well as those of other
extent, with the concept of a biological sensitivity to
studies (e.g., Ifenthaler and Seel 2005; Seel and Dinter
context as discussed in the area of psychopathology
1995) indicate the following characteristics of contex-
where biological reactivity to environmental stressors
tual semantic sensitivity in the learning-dependent
is widely discussed (see, e.g., Boyce and Ellis 2005).
progression of mental models:
Furthermore, what Kozma says also corresponds with
the idea of contextual cueing within the realm of cogni- ● If the learner’s initial mental model is strongly
tive psychology, where powerful and sophisticated dependent on previous knowledge from experience
selection mechanisms exist to spontaneously focus rather than on acknowledged principles (for instance
on aspects of a complex scene that are of significant of physics) and if specific key stimuli from the learn-
relevance for information processing. For example, ing environment capture the learner’s attention, the
in complex visual search tasks, the global context initial experiential model is semantically sensitive
may direct attention toward specific elements involved toward these key stimuli and can be changed into
in the scene. This contextual guidance of visual a more correct model.
attention reflects context sensitivity to meaningful reg- ● Semantic sensitivity requires for the key stimuli to
ularities and covariances between objects within a be related to the knowledge on which the initial
scene (cf. Treisman and Gelade 1980). In accordance model is based. Key stimuli which capture the
with schema-theoretical approaches of information learner’s attention but are not related to the knowl-
processing, it has been argued (e.g., Chun and Jiang edge on which the “experiential model” is based are
1998) that relevant contextual knowledge is mainly ineffective for changing this mental model.
acquired through implicit learning processes which ● Which key stimuli in the environment are taken
occur without intention or awareness. Incidentally into account for the further development of a
acquired contextual knowledge forms a highly robust, model depends primarily on the learner’s domain-
instance-based, implicit memory for context and con- specific knowledge. The mental model created at
stitutes the fundamental basis of contextual cueing the beginning of a problem-solving process is only
as a form of schema-based automaticity. Similarly, sensitive toward key stimuli in the environment if
in cognitive psychology context sensitivity has been the learners are able to recognize the principles
792 C Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning

which their knowledge indicates to being relevant The experimental condition for the second problem
for mastering the given situation. was designed in the same way.
The results of both experiments demonstrate the
We can summarize that context and semantic
effectiveness of the analogues on display in the exper-
sensitivity is widely accepted in various disciplines
imental room and thus also the context sensitivity of
which are concerned with learning and information
the learners. However, the learners’ context sensitivity
processing. Not only cognitive and educational psy-
was only effective when they were given enough time to
chology operates with this theoretical term but also
solve the problems.
linguistics, machine learning, and artificial learning
Similarly, some research on mental models focused
research.
on the effects of semantic sensitivity on learning and
problem solving. A prominent example has been pro-
Important Scientific Research and vided by Anzai and Yokoyama (1984) who distinguish
Open Questions between the stage of initial model construction and
Context sensitivity is fundamental to intelligent behav-
the subsequent process of model development which is
ior. It is the context of the learners that determines
dependent on the learner’s semantic sensitivity toward
which stimuli will be perceived, how interpretations
relevant key stimuli in the learning environment. The
are placed on incoming information, and how the
starting point of their study was the observation that
learner responds to the stimuli. By paying attention to
many students have only fragmentary knowledge of
the context, an intelligent agent can spontaneously
physics. Although they acquire a good deal of formal
select appropriate responses to stimuli, especially of
knowledge in school, they are unable to apply this
unanticipated events.
knowledge to new physics problems. Rather, they
From an educational perspective, an excellent
tend to devote their attention to, and to let themselves
example for illustrating the relevance of context sensi-
be distracted by, surface attributes of the problems
tivity for learning is an experimental study of Dreistadt
and end up forming naive internal representations
in 1969 (Dreistadt 1969). In this study, adults had to
on the basis of these attributes. However, as Anzai
solve two well-defined problems: In the first problem,
and Yokoyama could show that students sensitively
the subjects had to separate the area of a farm into four
adjusted their mental models to particular information
parts of equal size and shape (see Fig. 1), and in the
provided by the learning environment. This observa-
other problem they had to plant 20 trees in five straight
tion could be replicated in experimental studies done
rows of four trees each. For the experimental condition,
by Seel and Dinter (1995) and Ifenthaler and Seel
Dreistadt provided pictures of various objects in the
(2005).
experimental room which supplied analogues to the
Alternatively to this research on mental models,
given problems and indicated an idea for a solution.
various schema-theoretical approaches demonstrate
The first experiment provided the subjects with a
also the effectiveness of context sensitivity, for instance,
map of the USA on which Texas and several flight
in visual processing as well as verbal processing. Actu-
paths were highlighted, a diagram with curves, and a
ally, many researchers have used concepts such as “con-
clock on a dresser half covered by a radio (see Fig. 2).
text” or “typicality” in order to explain the influence of
knowledge structures on processing visual and verbal
stimuli (see, e.g., Antes et al. 1981; Schvanefeldt and
McDonald 1981; Treiman, Kessler and Bick 2002).
When we view a visual scene, we are able to determine
rapidly and effortlessly the scene’s constituent objects,
spatial relations, and to what semantic class the scene
belongs. This corresponds largely with the schema
hypothesis, according to which a visual scene is rapidly
Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning. Fig. 1 The identified as a member of a semantic category, and
farm problem in Dreistadt’s (1969) study on the use of contextually sensitive predictions are then used for
analogies subsequent object identification (Henderson 1992).
 Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning C 793

11 12 1
10 2

9 3

8
7

Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning. Fig. 2 The provided analogies for solving the farm problem
(Dreistadt 1969)

According to this hypothesis, schemas function as contextual associations between an object and other
a framework which promotes context-bound under- objects with which it typically appears. In addition to
standing and coherence when we process visual object-based facilitation, a context-based mechanism is
information. At the same time, schemas regulate the proposed to trigger top-down facilitation through con-
attention we devote to information depending on textual associations between objects in scenes. Fenske
whether it is related to a schema or not. Everyday et al. point out that object- and context-bound top-
experiences and observations by psychologists indicate down processes operate together in promoting efficient
that information which is atypical for a schema attracts recognition by framing early information about a
more attention and is thus more likely to be retained. visual scene within the constraints provided by a life-
Context sensitivity does not only play an important time of experience with contextual associations.
role in psychological research on visual and verbal
processing but rather also in the field of machine learn- Cross-References
ing and Artificial Intelligence where schema-based ▶ Anticipatory Schema(s)
approaches of context-sensitive reasoning are popular ▶ Schema(s)
since the 1990s (see, e.g., Cohen and Singer 1999; ▶ Schema-Based Reasoning
Turner 1994; Turney 1996). ▶ Visual Perception Learning
Schema-based approaches of context sensitivity ▶ Word Learning
operate basically with a top-down mechanism in suc-
cessful recognition as discussed in recent neuropsy- References
Antes, J. R., Penland, J. G., & Metzger, R. L. (1981). Processing global
chological models and research findings (e.g., Fenske
information in briefly presented pictures. Psychological Research,
et al. 2006). Actually, there is sufficient evidence for 43(3), 277–292.
top-down facilitation of recognition that is triggered Anzai, Y., & Yokoyama, T. (1984). Internal models in physics problem
by early information about an object, as well as by solving. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 397–450.
794 C Context Awareness

Boyce, T. W., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context:

I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and Context Conditioning
functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology,
17, 271–301.
THOMAS J. GOULD1, RICK A. BEVINS2
Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (1998). Contextual cueing: Implicit learning 1
and memory of visual context guides spatial attention. Cognitive
Center for Substance Abuse Research and Director of
Psychology, 36, 28–71. the Neuroscience Program, Temple University Area of
Cohen, W. W., & Singer, Y. (1999). Context-sensitive learning Psychology, Weiss Hall Philadelphia, PA, USA
2
methods for text categorization. ACM Transactions on Informa- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
tion Systems, 17(2), 141–173.
Dreistadt, R. (1969). The use of analogies and incubation in obtaining
insights in creative problem solving. The Journal of Psychology,
71, 159–175. Synonyms
Entwistle, N. J. (1981). Styles of learning and teaching. Chichester: Contextual conditioning; Pavlovian context
Wiley. conditioning
Fenske, M. J., Aminoff, E., Gronau, N., & Bar, M. (2006). Top-
down facilitation of visual object recognition: Object-based
and context-based contributions. Progress in Brain Research,
Definition
155, 3–21. Context conditioning is the process in which contex-
Henderson, J. M. (1992). Object identification in context: The visual tual information becomes associated with another
processing of natural scenes. Canadian Journal of Psychology, stimulus. Mention classical conditioning or Pavlovian
46 (Special Issue), 319–341. conditioning to any former student of an introductory
Ifenthaler, D., & Seel, N. M. (2005). The measurement of change:
psychology class, and it may evoke images of dogs
Learning-dependent progression of mental models. Technology,
Instruction, Cognition, and Learning, 2(4), 321–340.
salivating to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This is
Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational because Pavlov’s seminal experiments establishing
Research, 61(2), 179–211. classical conditioning paired a CS with food as the
Schvanefeldt, R. W., & McDonald, J. E. (1981). Semantic context and unconditioned stimulus (US). Initially during classi-
the encoding of words: Evidence for two modes of stimulus cal conditioning, a US produces an unconditioned
analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception
response (UR), for example salivation; with repeated
and Performance, 7(3), 673–687.
Seel, N. M., & Dinter, F. R. (1995). Instruction and mental model pairings of a CS with the US, however, the CS will evoke
progression: Learner-dependent effects of teaching strategies on a conditioned response (CR) that is often, but not
knowledge acquisition and analogical transfer. Educational necessarily, similar to the UR. Over the years, numer-
Research and Evaluation, 1(1), 4–35. ous experiments have used various stimuli as a CS or
Treiman, R., Kessler, B., & Bick, S. (2002). Context sensitivity in the
US. For example, classical fear conditioning commonly
spelling of English words. Journal of Memory and Language, 47,
448–468.
employs a discrete tone as the CS and a mild shock as
Treisman, A. M., & Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of the US. Nonetheless, it has become clear that in addi-
attention. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 97–136. tion to discrete stimuli, such as a tone, environmental
Turner, R. M. (1994). Adaptive reasoning for real-world problems: stimuli, such as the context in which the conditioning
A schema-based approach. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. takes place, can serve as a CS. This ability of the context
Turney, P. D. (1996). The management of context-sensitive features:
to serve as CS provides a mechanism in which contex-
A review of strategies. In 13th international conference on machine
learning (ICML96), workshop on learning in context-sensitive tual information can exert strong control over behav-
domains (pp. 60–66), Bari. ioral responses.
Wickelgren, W. A. (1969). Context-sensitive coding, associative mem-
ory, and serial order in (speech) behavior. Psychological Review,
76(1), 1–15.
Theoretical Background
Contextual stimuli are different from discrete stimuli
such as a tone in that contextual stimuli are composite
stimuli consisting of multiple individual stimuli (or
elements) that together form a whole. For example, if
Context Awareness an individual becomes sick after eating a meal at a
restaurant, they might develop a conditioned aversion
▶ Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning to the food they ate. This aversion to the particular type
 Context Conditioning C 795

of food would be a discrete association between the of context conditioning may involve different pro-
food and the illness. However, returning to the restau- cesses. Background context conditioning may require
rant in the absence of the offensive food may also be more attention or vigilance in order to form a strong
sufficient to evoke nausea. This would be because the context association because the discrete CS may be in
context of the restaurant has become associated with competition with the context for cognitive resources. In C
the illness. As stated, in context conditioning, the indi- support of the idea that background and foreground
vidual stimuli that compose the context are bound conditioning involve different processes, inhibition of
together as a gestalt such that an individual stimulus protein synthesis immediately after training disrupted
from the environment may not be sufficient to evoke foreground but not background contextual fear condi-
a response, but when the contextual stimuli are pre- tioning (Stiedl et al. 1999). Because foreground and
sented as a whole, a strong response is evoked. background context conditioning may involve differ-
Research examining the neural substrates of classi- ent processes, experimental variables may not have the
cal conditioning suggests that the classical conditioning same effects on each type of conditioning. This fact
of discrete stimuli such as a tone and the classical should be considered when designing and interpreting
conditioning of contextual stimuli may involve differ- experiments.
ent systems. In classical fear conditioning, lesions of the Other forms of context conditioning exist in addi-
amygdala disrupt both the conditioning of a discrete tion to contextual fear conditioning. Conditioned place
stimulus and the conditioning of the training context; aversion is a type of context conditioning in which
however, lesions of the dorsal hippocampus only dis- subjects are exposed to different contexts that are sep-
rupt context conditioning, leaving conditioning to a arated by an opaque Plexiglas wall. One context is
discrete stimulus intact. The hippocampus is involved repeatedly paired with a control substance such as
in processing contextual and spatial stimuli and is saline and the other side is repeated paired with
thought to play a role in binding stimuli together. a potentially noxious stimulus such as an aversive
Further suggestion that context conditioning and con- dose of a drug. After multiple trials, the Plexiglas
ditioning of discrete stimuli involve separate processes divider is removed and the time subjects spend in
comes from pharmacological studies demonstrating each context is measured. If the subjects have learned
that a drug can selectively affect one type of condition- to associate the noxious stimulus with the context in
ing without affecting the other. For example, nicotine which it was administered, they should spend less
administration enhances contextual fear conditioning time in that context. Just as a context can be associated
but not fear conditioning using a discrete auditory with aversive stimuli, context conditioning can occur
stimulus as the CS (Kenney and Gould 2008). If con- with appetitive stimuli. One example of this is condi-
text conditioning and conditioning with a discrete CS tioned place preference. The training of conditioned
involved the same processes, then they should be sim- place preference is similar to the training previously
ilarly affected by pharmacological manipulations or by described for conditioned place aversion except that
inactivation of brain regions. instead of pairing a noxious stimulus, an appetitive or
Just as there are multiple types of classical condi- rewarding stimulus is paired with one context. If the
tioning, there are multiple types of context condition- subjects form an association between the context and
ing. One distinction is whether the context is the that stimulus, they should spend more time in that
primary CS or a secondary CS. Using classical fear context at testing. The paradigm is often used to exam-
conditioning again as an example, when a discrete ine how drugs of abuse become associated with con-
auditory CS is paired with a mild shock US, the context textual information and the processes that support this
is a secondary CS. The context conditioning in this case type of learning.
would be background context conditioning (Odling- Another context association that can occur with
Smee 1975). However, if no discrete CS is paired with drugs of abuse is context conditioned tolerance. With
the US, the context becomes the primary CS; this is repeated administration of a drug, the same dose of the
called foreground context conditioning. The distinc- drug may come to elicit less of a response; this is known
tion between foreground and background context con- as tolerance. When a drug is repeatedly administered in
ditioning is an important one because these two types the same context, the context can become associated
796 C Context Conditioning

with the drug administration and this context-specific pharmacological classes (e.g., stimulant versus halluci-
association can lead to the expression of tolerance. nogen) do not substitute their control of the condi-
However, because the context is controlling the expres- tioned response unless they share a common effect in
sion of tolerance, administration of the same dose in the nervous system. Unfortunately, there is very little
a novel context can result in an overdose. For example, research in this area with humans and it potential
in a study that examined conditioned tolerance, rats import. The limited research with nonhuman animals
were injected with doses of heroin that escalated over suggests that it could be quite important in such areas
time; injections occurred in one of two contexts and the as drug addiction and eating disorders.
paring of injection condition with context remained
stable throughout the experiment. Rats were then given Important Scientific Research and
a test dose that was nearly twice as high as the last dose Open Questions
of heroin administered. Rats given the test dose of One important issue for understanding context condi-
heroin in the environment in which heroin was previ- tioning is clarifying whether context conditioning is
ously administered were less likely to show signs of one learning process where the context becomes asso-
overdose than rats given the same dose in an environ- ciated with a stimulus or two different learning pro-
ment that was heroin naı̈ve (Siegel et al. 1982). In cesses where the context is learned as one process and
addition to the context being able to elicit tolerance, the representation of the context is then associated with
contextual stimuli can also elicit cravings. Environ- a US. In contextual fear conditioning, the context and
ments associated with self-administration will evoke the US are presented during the same trial, which
drug-seeking behaviors in rodents and reports of drug makes it difficult to determine if learning a context is
craving in humans. This ability of the context to con- different from context conditioning. This issue has
trol the expression of tolerance and cravings has serious been clarified through a series of experiments that
implications for understanding and treating addiction. demonstrates that context learning and context condi-
As just one example, treating a patient for substance tioning can occur as separate processes. If a rodent is
abuse in a clinic and then returning them to the envi- put into a conditioning chamber, immediately admin-
ronment where they consumed the drugs may greatly istered the unconditioned stimulus, and then removed;
increase the likelihood of relapse. the rodent does not show robust context conditioning,
Drugs such as the heroin discussed in previous par- though conditioning can occur and changes in exper-
agraph have perceptible interoceptive effects. These imental design can change this outcome. However, if
perceptible effects can serve as an internal contextual the previous experiment is repeated except this time
stimulus much like the exteroceptive cues that compose the naı̈ve subject is also allowed to passively explore
the room where the addict takes drug, or the chamber the training context on the day before the immediate
where experiments are conducted. Like exteroceptive conditioning, context conditioning results. This dem-
context stimuli, the internal context induced by a drug onstrates that for context conditioning to occur, the
can acquire control of approach or avoidance-related context must be first learned and then entered into an
conditioned responses when the drug state is paired association with the unconditioned and suggests that
with an appetitive or aversive stimulus, respectively the context learning and the context conditioning may
(Bevins and Murray 2011). As an example, rats can be separate processes (Fanselow 2000).
receive daily nicotine sessions intermixed with daily Contextual associations play an important role in
saline sessions. On nicotine sessions, sucrose is avail- several types of mental illness. One example in anx-
able intermittently; no sucrose is available on saline iety disorders includes posttraumatic stress disorder.
days. The internal context induced by the nicotine Contextual stimuli can become associated with a
comes to control an anticipatory approach and search stressful or anxiogenic event. Reexposure to these con-
in the area where sucrose had been previously given. textual stimuli can result in reexperiencing stress and
Research in this area has indicated that the internal anxiety. This becomes problematic if the repeated
context is specific to the neurobiological process exposure does not lead to a decrease or extinction of
underlying the drug. Thus, drugs within and across the stress and anxiety responses. In addition, further
 Context Fear Learning C 797

complications can arise if the contextual stimuli begin

to generalize to other contexts, resulting in general- Context Fear Learning
ized expression of anxiety. Another example already
discussed is the effects of contextual stimuli on drug JESSE D. CUSHMAN, MICHAEL S. FANSELOW
addiction. Contextual stimuli can contribute to toler- Department of Psychology, University of California, C
ance and also cravings for drugs. Therefore, understand- Los Angeles, CA, USA
ing the processes and situations in which contextual
associations can generalize across contexts, the factors
that contribute to or prevent the extinction of contex- Synonyms
tual associations, and the factors that allow contextual Contextual fear conditioning
associations to have a strong influence on behavior may
facilitate the development of better treatments for these Definition
and other disorders. A form of Pavlovian conditioning where static environ-
mental cues become associated with an aversive event
Cross-References and subsequently come to elicit a conditional fear
▶ Associative Learning response.
▶ Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning
▶ Conditioning Theoretical Background
▶ Context Fear Learning Context fear learning is a form of Pavlovian fear con-
▶ Drug Conditioning ditioning where the static, background contextual
▶ Evolution of Learning cues that define an experimental apparatus become
▶ Extinction Learning, Reconsolidation and the Inter- associated with an aversive event and subsequently
nal Reinforcement Hypotheses come to elicit a fear response. Context specifically
▶ Neuropsychology of Learning refers to the particular arrangement of visual,
▶ Pavlov, Ivan P. (1849–1936) auditory, tactile, and olfactory cues that define the
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning experimental apparatus (the terms context and exper-
▶ Place Preference Learning imental apparatus or conditioning chamber are often
used interchangeably). Together, these stimuli consti-
References tute the contextual conditional stimulus (CS) that
Bevins, R. A., & Murray, J. E. (2011). Internal stimuli generated becomes associated with the aversive event, or uncon-
by abused substances: Role of Pavlovian conditioning and ditional stimulus (US). The learning of this associa-
its implications for drug addiction. In T. Schachtman & tion subsequently drives a conditional response (CR)
S. Reilly (Eds.), Associative learning and conditioning theory:
of fear when the contextual CS is encountered again.
Human and animal applications. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Fear is a defensive motivational system that evolved
Fanselow, M. S. (2000). Contextual fear, gestalt memories, and the to optimize survival in threatening situations. It
hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research, 110, 73–81. involves a constellation of behavioral and physiologi-
Kenney, J. W., & Gould, T. J. (2008). Modulation of hippocampus- cal responses that prepare the organism for rapid
dependent learning and synaptic plasticity by nicotine. Molecular expenditure of energy, such as increased autonomic
Neurobiology, 38(1), 101–121.
arousal, and activates species-specific defensive reac-
Odling-Smee, F. J. (1975). The role of background stimuli during
Pavlovian conditioning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental tions (SSDRs). SSDRs are highly varied throughout
Psychology, 27(3), 387–392. the animal kingdom; however, the most commonly
Siegel, S., Hinson, R. E., Krank, M. D., & McCully, J. (1982). Heroin measured SSDR in context fear learning experiments
“overdose” death: Contribution of drug-associated environmen- involving rodents is that of freezing. Freezing is
tal cues. Science, 216(4544), 436–437.
defined as complete immobility except that necessi-
Stiedl, O., Palve, M., Radulovic, J., Birkenfeld, K., & Spiess, J. (1999).
Differential impairment of auditory and contextual fear condi-
tated by breathing. In the rodent, it evolved to prevent
tioning by protein synthesis inhibition. Behavioral Neuroscience, detection by predators and to prevent predatory
113(3), 496–506. attack once the animal has been detected.
798 C Context Fear Learning

Context fear learning is believed to be a two- information via its three-layered laminar structure to
stage process. First, through active exploration of the form a multi-modal spatial representation, or cognitive
experimental apparatus, the animal must integrate the map, of the environment. It is this cognitive map that
multimodal stimuli into a unified “contextual repre- serves as the contextual representation in context fear
sentation” that can be used as a CS. Second, this con- conditioning. The site of the context-shock associa-
textual representation is then associated with the tion is believed to be in the amygdala where hippocam-
aversive US. The context-shock association then sub- pal inputs and shock-related information converge.
sequently drives the fear CR. A number of phenomena Strengthening of the hippocampal-amygdala synapses
in contextual fear conditioning have led to this view. via Hebbian long-term potentiation allows subse-
Most important among these is the immediate shock quent activation of these inputs to drive amygdala
deficit. If the aversive US is presented immediately after activity. Amygdala activation by the contextual CS
the subject is placed in the context it will acquire no then activates downstream structures, such as the
contextual fear, and it thus exhibits the immediate peri-aquedectual gray (PAG), which coordinate the
shock deficit. Extensive experimentation has demon- fear response. Thus, when comparing context fear learn-
strated that this deficit occurs because the formation of ing with learning fear of a simple discrete cue such as
contextual representation has not yet occurred prior to a sound, the hippocampus is involved in context but not
the immediate shock and therefore there is no CS to cued fear. However, the amygdala is equally important
associate the shock with. Pre-exposure to the condi- for both types of fear.
tioning chamber prior to the immediate shock rescues There are a number of important caveats to this
the immediate shock deficit. This pre-exposure rescue view. The first is that context fear learning can readily
indicates that if the subject has already formed the occur in the absence of the hippocampus as long as
contextual representation it can retrieve this represen- more than one shock is presented during training.
tation prior to the immediate shock and thereby form Thus, animals with lesions or pharmacological inacti-
the context-shock association. The length of time vation of the hippocampus prior to training with
between placement in the conditioning chamber and two or more shocks can acquire normal levels of
presentation of the shock is referred to as the “place- contextual fear. Lesions after training or pharmacolog-
ment to shock interval” or PSI. Short PSIs produce ical inactivation prior to testing, however, consistently
little to no conditioning, as just described. As the PSI produce context fear deficits, even when multiple
is increased the level of conditioning increases, up to shocks are used. This discrepancy between pre- versus
approximately 3 min when the level of conditioning post-training manipulations has been interpreted in
becomes asymptotic. This placement to shock interval the following way: When hippocampal function is
function indicates that the formation of the contextual compromised during training, alternate structures are
representation occurs very rapidly, but is clearly not able to compensate and generate a contextual represen-
instantaneous. It requires integration of multi-modal tation that is sufficient to support conditioning. Post-
sensory experience over time. training lesions are more effective because normally the
hippocampus actively inhibits and/or outcompetes these
Important Scientific Research and alternate structures. Therefore when training occurs with
Open Questions an intact hippocampus, the alternate structures are not
A major area of current research is focused on deter- recruited. In addition, these alternate structures are less
mining the underlying neural mechanisms of context efficient, which is why more training is required in the
fear learning. The current view is that formation of the absence of the hippocampus. Furthermore, they are less
contextual CS occurs in the hippocampus, a region that accurate, resulting in inappropriate fear responses to
is critical in many forms of learning and memory. It other contexts that were not paired with shock. The
receives highly processed multi-modal sensory infor- exact site of these alternate structures is still a matter of
mation from the lateral entorhinal cortex and precise debate; however, the slower learning rate and reduced
spatial information from the medial entorhinal cortex. specificity are consistent with theoretical predictions of
It is believed to further process and integrate this learning in cortical structures.
 Context-Based Learning C 799

Another caveat is that context fear becomes less

dependent on the hippocampus as time elapses Context of Learning
between training and testing. The general term for ▶ Deutero-learning
this phenomenon is “temporally graded retrograde
amnesia” that occurs after hippocampal lesions or C
pharmacological inactivation. If hippocampal function
is disrupted immediately after training this results in
severe impairments in contextual fear. If hippocampal
Context-Based Learning
function is disrupted weeks after training, however,
DAVID EDWARD ROSE
contextual fear is intact. This indicates that context
Philosophical Studies, Newcastle University,
fear becomes increasingly independent of the hippo-
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
campus over time. Information that is initially stored
only in the hippocampus is thought to be transferred to
extra-hippocampal structures over time, via a process
referred to as systems consolidation. The underlying
Synonyms
Object-based learning
mechanisms of this process are not well understood;
however, there is compelling evidence to suggest that Definition
prefrontal cortical regions play a critical role. Context-based learning is a pedagogical methodology
that, in all its disparate forms, centers on the belief that
Cross-References both the social context of the learning environment
▶ Fear Conditioning in Animals and Humans and the real, concrete context of knowing are pivotal
▶ Linking Fear Learning to Memory Consolidation to the acquisition and processing of knowledge. The
▶ Pavlovian Conditioning approach is based on the firm conviction that learning
▶ The Role of Attention in Pavlovian Conditioning is a social activity that is badly served by most class-
room situations due to an inherent misrepresentation
Further Reading of how the mind acquires, processes, and produces
Fanselow, M. S. (2000). Contextual fear, gestalt memories, and the knowledge. Learning is a communal activity centered
hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research, 110, 73–81. on the interactions between persons with substantial
Fanselow, M. S. (2010). From contextual fear to a dynamic view of interests and standard classroom structures that do not
memory systems. Trends in Cognitive Science, 14(1), 7–15. respond to this may well inhibit the success of learning.
Kim, J. J., & Fanselow, M. S. (1992). Modality-specific retrograde
amnesia of fear following hippocampal lesions. Science, 256, Theoretical Background
675–677.
The German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel succinctly
Rudy, J. W., Huff, N. C., & Matus-Amat, P. (2004). Under-
standing contextual fear conditioning: Insights from a two-
critiqued theoretical approaches to questions of practi-
process model. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(7), cal philosophy in his subtle comment about the Owl of
675–685. Minerva flying only at dusk. The comment asserts that
Sanders, M. J., Wiltgen, B. J., & Fanselow, M. S. (2003). The place of in areas of human discipline and practical activity (and
the hippocampus in fear conditioning. European Journal of Phar- education is a human activity), theory can only be a
macology, 463(1–3), 217–223.
descriptive practice that arises when the trial and error
Wiltgen, B. J., & Silva, A. J. (2007). Memory for context becomes less
specific with time. Learning & Memory, 14(4), 313–317. and nitty-gritty of actual practical engagement with the
Wiltgen, B. J., Brown, R. A., Talton, L. E., & Silva, A. J. (2004). New world and people has become a stable institution. Only
circuits for old memories: The role of the neocortex in consoli- when such activities and conventions have progressed
dation. Neuron, 44(1), 101–108. to an effective level are general principles and rules of
Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., & Bontempi, B. (2010). Memory
conduct, in short theory, distilled out of everyday per-
formation and long-term retention in humans and animals:
Convergence towards a transformation account of hippocam-
formances and practices. Context-based learning is
pal-neocortical interactions. Neuropsychologia, 48(8), perhaps only just entering into the self-conscious
2339–2356. phase whereby thinkers reflect on the theory that can
800 C Context-Based Learning

best capture an overtly practical engagement with the However, as indicated, it is the actual practice
learning environment. The approach is still, in many of context-based learning that, for the most part,
ways, an immanent response to the day in day out reveals its commitments and implicit assumptions.
process of learning and transmitting knowledge, The method redefines the roles of both learner and
whereby new techniques have been developed bot- teacher: the former is to be actively involved in the
tom-up rather than inspired and determined by learning process and the latter is to facilitate the
preexisting theoretical commitments. And nowhere is learners’ taking possession of the knowledge for him
such a pragmatic approach more appropriate than in a or herself. The learning process is not about rote learn-
pedagogical methodology that seeks to integrate the ing of facts, but is interest governed in the sense that
interests of the would-be knower with the body of the learner perceives that there is something at stake
knowledge before him or her. in the learning rather than the mere propensity to pass
Of course, theoretical precedents have been sought an examination or gain credit. Learning is no longer
in the educational literature, and two thinkers above all seen as something happening to one, but an activity
others seem to stand out: John Dewey, the American in which one is engaged. Consequently, the teacher
pragmatist, and Lev Vygotsky, the Russian psycholo- becomes a facilitator or a supervisor of tyro researchers;
gist. From the former, context-based learning derives he or she is no longer a dispenser of facts and theories,
an overtly pragmatic commitment: learning is an activ- but an organizer of a social community of equal
ity bound up with human interests. Just as the standard learners.
of truth and knowledge in Dewey’s deeper philosophical As the learner becomes the center of their own
theory is their utility, a statement is true if it is useful, so educational experience situated within a communal
must learning prepare the subject for social engagement. group, so he or she reflects upon the first axis of the
In response to his theoretical commitments, Dewey context (the social environment), the object (the inter-
believed that education ought to be dominated by real- section of the knowledge with empirical reality), and
life tasks and challenges and that theory and facts were to the experience of learning. The advantage is obvious:
be learned through activity, rather than the standard through learning, the leaner is also learning to learn and
model of a passive student receiving knowledge from progresses from a dependent student to an indepen-
an expert or superior. The latter thinker, Vygotsky, dent subject. The second axis of the context concerns
asserted that culture and the learner’s immediate envi- the engagement with real-life learning challenges.
ronment determine both how he or she thinks, that is, These activities would ideally involve both intellectual
the processes of reasoning, and also the content of his or and physical activity: the movement of the students, the
her thinking, that is, the elements of knowledge that are seeking out of data, the measuring of objects, and so
combined and used in the thinking process. One’s suc- on. The learning context must be both a concrete real-
cess in learning is dependent upon the environment of ity and the site of an investment of abstract ideas and
learning and the activity is best facilitated through epistemological mores. So, one approach would be to
a process of problem solving in collaboration with invest academic knowledge of philosophy, physics, lit-
peers, relations, or teachers. Intellectual development erature, and so on into a real context such as health
depends greatly on the social situation of learning and care, art galleries, the music industry, political events,
how interactions with teachers, relations, and peers and so on, reflecting the interests of the learners them-
around the learner occur. So, the context in which learn- selves. A second approach would be to frame the
ing is based is a dual axis: on the one hand, the context pursuit of academic knowledge in terms of real-life
is the social situation of learning whereby knowledge is challenges: the objective of making river water safe
acquired, processed, and produced through collabora- to drink (chemistry) or the understanding of why
tion and use rather than direct dissemination; on the public consensus is so outraged when cadaver’s
other hand, the context must be an engagement with organs are used without consent (philosophy). In
a real-life task whereby knowledge interfaces with an both approaches, it is obvious that the epistemological
actual, empirical reality. Both axes instigate a move base of the discipline is broadened (in the chemistry
away from the hierarchical model of passive-learning example, there must be an explicit discussion of why
in the traditional lecture hall or classroom situation. we would want safe water and where the technology
 Context-Based Learning C 801

would be useful) and that the acquisition of knowledge (Anthony et al. 1998; Hansman 2001; Rose 2009). The
crosses disciplines (in the philosophy example, data on majority of this empirical research is concerned with
the medical use of organs would have to be compiled). the effectiveness of imparting skills and relating aca-
The process of learning should involve distinct demic knowledge to real-life challenges. In these stud-
phases. One, the learner begins with empirical engage- ies, there is an attempt to compare the acquisition of C
ment with the site or interaction of the knowledge that knowledge concepts through traditional means and
relies on facts and theories already belonging to the through context-based approaches. The hypothesis
learner as well as knowledge shared with peers and that underpins much of the research is that if a learner
the encounter with new knowledge in situ. Two, the can understand why they are learning what they are
learner then conceptualizes that reality in terms of learning, it will somehow be of significance to them
concepts and theories is drawn from one or more and hence retained. The empirical case needs to show
academic disciplines. The knowledge acquired from that this is more than a mere truism and the theoretical
a traditional discipline is perceived as useful to the work has to articulate a framework that explains why
completion of a task or in the satisfaction of the this is the case.
learner’s self-directed interest. Three, the concepts There are, however, also some theoretical assump-
and theories of the discipline are applied or used and tions that deserve more attention. Most obviously,
thus engage reality and a concrete problem or object, so the reduction of epistemology to simple pragmatism
that the student sees and commands them in action. whereby discipline-specific knowledge is only of value
The learner takes possession of the knowledge in order if it can be utilized or applied to tasks and social
to satisfy an interest. Four, the results and conclusions integration seems to prioritize skill learning over
acquired and generated are disseminated in a variety of facts. Moreover, context-based learning ought to per-
ways, determined by appropriateness: presentations, haps be conditional and not a universal theory. It may
reports, theses, web pages, and so on. The approach perhaps be more suited to specific disciplines and the
encourages higher-order thinking alongside the passive balance between student-led and facilitator-governed
acquisition of discipline-based knowledge and involves learning will differ from discipline to discipline and
the learner in the social construction of knowledge that perhaps also from learner to learner. A core dissemi-
interfaces with a concrete reality. nation of knowledge is required at the dependent
The advantages of the approach are that the learn- stage and should not be discounted: independence
ing environment facilitates the internalization of develops from dependence and the use of context-
knowledge and facts because they are connected to based approaches should be attentive to these consid-
the reality of learners’ lived experience. Learners are erations. Empirical investigations are required to
involved in the production of the knowledge in a tyro measure the effectiveness of the technique and to dis-
researcher role whereby a hands-on experience makes cern the correct balance between the dependence and
learning into a doing and not just a happening. Further- independence at the various stages of an education.
more, learners are motivated to acquire the knowledge
and see it as valuable because it solves a specific prob- Cross-References
lem or engages a distinct reality. The motivation to ▶ Bottom-Up and Top-Down Learning
engage in learning is interest rather than punitively ▶ Collaborative Learning
driven. As a pedagogical method, it implicitly builds ▶ Dewey, John
upon the knowledge that learners already possess and ▶ Interests and Learning
so increases confidence and independence through ▶ Learner-Centered Teaching
active involvement and social collaboration. ▶ Personalized Learning
▶ Problem-Based Learning
Important Scientific Research and ▶ Project-Based Learning
Open Questions
Much of the research into context-based learning References
is rather appropriately an active engagement with Anthony, S., Mernitz, H., Spencer, B., Gutwill, J., Kegley, S., &
new pedagogical techniques in specific disciplines Molinaro, M. (1998). The ChemLinks and ModularCHEM
802 C Contextual / Context Stimuli

consortia: Using active and context-based learning to teach stu-

dents how chemistry is actually done. Journal of Chemical Edu- Contingencies of
cation, 75(3), 322–324.
Hansman, C. (2001). Context-based adult learning. New Directions
Reinforcement
for Adult and Continuing Education, 89, 43–51. ▶ Schedules of Reinforcement
Rose, D. (2009). Weaving philosophy into the fabric of cultural life.
Discourse, 9(1), 165–182.

Contingency
Contextual / Context Stimuli
▶ Contingency in Learning
Stimuli in the background whenever learning and
remembering occur. These stimuli can be external
(e.g., room cues) or internal (e.g., drug or emotional
states).
Contingency in Learning
CHARLES R. GALLISTEL
Contextual Conditioning Cognitive Science and Behavioral Neuroscience,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
▶ Context Conditioning

Synonyms
Assignment of credit; Association; Contingency;
Contextual Control Correlation; Dependence; Prediction; Retrodiction

▶ Effects of Physical Context Change and Perceptual

Learning on Generalization Definitions
Contingency: the extent to which knowledge of one
event reduces uncertainty about another. Prediction:
the extent to which knowledge of one event’s occur-
rence enables one to anticipate whether and/or when
Contextual Cueing another event will occur. Assignment of credit: deter-
▶ Context and Semantic Sensitivity in Learning mining to which past event an outcome event should be
▶ Statistical Learning in Perception attributed (retrodiction). Association: perceived con-
tingency. Instrumental conditioning: a learning protocol
in which a desired or undesired is contingent on an
action of the subject (or agent). Pavlovian conditioning:
a learning protocol in which the contingency between
Contextual Fear Conditioning two events is varied. Entropy: the measure of amount of
▶ Context Fear Learning uncertainty, aka the amount of information available in
a probability distribution. Mutual information: the sum
of the entropies of the marginal distributions minus the
entropy of their joint distribution. Uncertainty coeffi-
Contiguity cient: the percent reduction in uncertainty about
whether and/or when a predicted event will occur
Contiguity is a fundamental precondition of associa- that is produced by the occurrence of a predictor
tion. It refers to the co-occurrence between two or event: a broadly useable measure of contingency or
more inputs or outputs in time or space. association.
 Contingency in Learning C 803

Theoretical Background laboratories called into question the assumption that

The concept of contingency plays a central role in the the temporal pairing was what drove the formation of
analysis of commonly studied learning paradigms and an association between two stimuli or events (hereafter
also in research on human judgments of dependence, called the CS and US, with the CS being the predictor
contingency, and causality. Despite its conceptual and the US the predicted event or stimulus). Rescorla C
importance, there is surprisingly little psychological (1968) posed the question whether it was the temporal
literature focusing on the following question: What is pairing of CS and US or the CS–US contingency that
the proper definition or measure of contingency? led to the emergence of a conditioned response (a
response to the CS that anticipates the US). He fixed
In Instrumental/Operant the number of co-occurrences (temporal pairings) of
Conditioning the CS and US and varied the contingency by varying
The concept of contingency is important in the study of the frequency of the US during intervals when the CS
instrumental conditioning, because the reinforcing was absent. When there were no the US in the absence
event only reinforces the instrumental response if it is of the CS, a strong conditioned response was seen on
contingent on that response. In the operant condition- the post-conditioning test trials, even when p(US|CS),
ing literature, the concept has often been treated as the probability of the US given the CS, was as low as 0.1.
unproblematic, perhaps because the experimenter Regardless of the value of p(US|CS), as the frequency
specified the contingencies that were taken to be of of the US in the absence of the CS increased, the
interest. However, implicit in many treatments of rein- strength of the conditioned response on test trials
forcement – and explicit in discussions of the role of diminished (see Fig. 1). When p(US| CS) = p(US|
delay of reinforcement – is the assumption that what CS), that is, when the contingency was eliminated,
really matters is not contingency per se but rather there was no conditioned response. Thus, it is predic-
the close temporal pairing of response and reinforce- tive (and retrodictive) power or contingency rather
ment. This makes the question of the role of contin- than temporal pairing that drives conditioning. That
gency in instrumental conditioning the same as the is also the implication of the phenomena of blocking,
question of its role in Pavlovian conditioning. The overshadowing, and relative validity, which were discov-
challenge in both cases is to specify what constitutes ered at about the same time. All of these phenomena
“close.” imply that the critical aspect of a conditioning protocol
As the study of reinforcement learning from a com- is the predictive power of the CS (or of the response in
putational perspective has become a significant focus of instrumental conditioning), the extent to which it
research in computer science and cognitive neurosci- improves the subject’s ability to anticipate when the
ence, there has been a greater realization that it was not US will occur.
obvious which aspects of a sequence of actions should
be regarded as the aspects on which the feedback-
Measures of Contingency
providing outcome was contingent. How to determine
Most measures of contingency in the psychological
this is the assignment of credit problem. It is the con-
literature derive from the numbers in a 22 contin-
tingency problem seen from the other end. It can be
gency table (Table 1). Several have been used, but only
reformulated as: What aspect or aspects of an action
two have suitable mathematical properties, such as
sequence is an outcome contingent on? One wants
ranging from 0 to 1 and not depending on N. Both of
a measure of contingency or dependency that is
these are properties of the correlation coefficient,
mathematically well grounded and lends itself to the
but that measure cannot be computed for dichotomous
apportionment of contingency or dependency among
variables. For dichotomous variables in psychological
possible predictors.
experiments, Pearson’s mean square coefficient of
contingency
In Pavlovian/Classical Conditioning
The concept of contingency became important in sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðad
bcÞ2
the study of Pavlovian conditioning in the late f ¼ w2 =N ¼
1960s when a series of experiments from different ða þ b Þðc þ d Þða þ c Þðb þ d Þ
804 C Contingency in Learning

a b
1 1
p(US |CS)=.1
0.8 p(US |CS)=.2 0.8
Strength of CR p(US |CS)=.4
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
p(US|~CS) UC Contingency
c d
1 1

0.8 0.8
Strength of CR

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
f Contingency ΔP Contingency

Contingency in Learning. Fig. 1 (a). The strength of the CR on first test trial as a function of p(US|CS) and p(US| CS) in
Rescorla’s (1968) experiment on the role of CS–US contingency as against temporal pairing. Although in each of the three
conditions, the temporal pairing of US and CS [hence p(US|CS)] was held constant, the strength of the CR declined to zero
as the contingency was degraded by increasing p(US| CS). (b) Performance data in a plotted against the uncertainty
coefficient (UC) measure of contingency. (c) Performance data in a plotted against the f measure of contingency.
(d) Performance data in a plotted against the DP measure of contingency

Contingency in Learning. Table 1 22 contingency Table-based measures are, however, problematic
table when applied to instrumental and Pavlovian condi-
#US #~US Row totals
tioning experiments, which do not reliably have a
definable trial structure (Gallistel and Gibbon 2000).
#CS: a b a+b
This is apparent when one considers how to construct
#~CS: c d c+d the contingency table for Rescorla’s experiment. In that
Col totals: a+c b+d experiment, the CS always lasted 2 min. The interval
between CSs varied around an average of 10 min.
There is no doubt about how many CSs and USs
there were, so the first cell (a in Table 1) is readily
is recommended by Gibbon et al. (1974), while the determined. All the other cells are problematic, because
difference in the conditional probabilities of the US, there is no objectively justifiable answer to the ques-
tion: How many not-USs and how many not-CSs
a c
DP ¼ pðUS jCS Þ
pðUS j CS Þ ¼
were there? The values of contingency underlying
aþb cþd
Fig. 1 were obtained by following the common practice
has been used extensively in studies of human contin- of assuming that the intervals between CS presenta-
gency and causality judgment (see, e.g., Allan et al. tions are composed of “trials” of 2-min durations
2008). each, during which a US either occurs or does not.
 Contingency in Learning C 805

The number of CSs is taken to be the number of such the surprisal. Intuitively, the less probable the event, the
arbitrary subdivisions. The number of USs is the total more unexpected or surprising it is, the more we are
number of 2-min intervals, including those when the informed by its occurrence – but, by the same token,
CS was present, minus the number in which a US the less often we are so informed. As may be seen from
occurred. However, the 2-min “trials” during the inter- Eq. 2, the entropy, H, of a distribution is simply the C
vals between CSs are a fiction, as is the number of not- average surprisal, that is, the amount of information
USs. Absent objectively defined trials, not-USs, and provided by each of the possible events weighted by its
not-CSs have no objectively definable relative fre- relative frequency.
quency, so one cannot construct a contingency table. Entropy is the technical term for the amount of
This problem is acute in the instrumental conditioning uncertainty in a probability distribution, which is the
case, because there are no trials in those protocols. same as the amount of information available from
A second problem with measures based on a con- that distribution, because information reduces uncer-
tingency table, and with the correlation coefficients as tainty. The mutual information between two events
well, is that they take no account of time. The contin- with observed or experimenter-defined probability
gencies of ordinary experience are defined over time, distributions is:
and the temporal intervals between the events are
I ðCS; US Þ ¼ H ðCS Þ þ H ðUS Þ
H ðCS; US Þ;
centrally relevant to the psychological perception of
contingency and causality. The importance of “close” where H ðUS; CS Þ is the entropy of the joint CS–US
temporal pairing – of response and reinforcer, or of distribution. In the case where a contingency table can
CS and US – has always been stressed in the condi- be constructed, the US distribution is given by the
tioning literature. However, attempts to specify what normalized column totals, that is, the column totals
constitutes “close” have never succeeded. Clearly, a in Table 1 divided by N; the CS distribution is given
psychologically useful measure of contingency must by the normalized row totals; and the joint distribution
take time into account. is given by the normalized cell values (a/N, b/N,
A measure that does this is the uncertainty coeffi- c/N, d/N). For each distribution, the entropy is:
P
cient, also known as the entropy coefficient. It is the H¼ pi lnð1=pi Þ.
percent reduction in uncertainty about when (or The UC measure applies to temporal uncertainty as
whether) a predicted event (US) will occur gained well (Balsam and Gallistel 2009). If USs (or reinforcers)
from knowledge of the times at which (or trials on occur at random times, then the uncertainty regarding
which) the predictor event (CS) occurred: when the next US will occur is the entropy of an
exponential distribution, which depends only on the
UC ¼ I ðCS; US Þ=H ðUS Þ: ð1Þ
average US–US interval (the reciprocal of the base
I ðCS; US Þ is the mutual information between CS and rate). This entropy is the basal uncertainty about
US. H ðUS Þ is the entropy of the US distribution. It is when the next US will occur. It is the amount of avail-
also called the amount of “available” or “source” infor- able information. If a CS always precedes a US and
mation. It is the information-theoretic measure of the always tells us exactly when to expect the US, then
uncertainty regarding when and/or whether a US will there is no residual objective uncertainty about when
occur. In the case of atemporal dichotomous variables, the next US will occur once the CS has occurred. In
where there are objectively definable trials, hence objec- that case, the UC is 1, that is, the CS reduces the
tive probabilities for the failure of a US to occur, uncertainty about when the next US will occur by
X 100%. However, humans and other common labora-
HðUSÞ ¼ pi Inð1=pi Þ ¼ pðUS Þ lnð1=pðUS ÞÞ tory animals can only estimate the duration of an
ð2Þ
þ pð US Þ lnð1=pð US ÞÞ: elapsing interval with about +/
15% accuracy. To be
useful, the CS must precede the US by some interval.
The lnð1=pi Þ is the amount of information pro- Our residual uncertainty about when exactly to expect
vided by the occurrence of the ith event in the set of the US is then determined by our imprecision in esti-
possible events over which a probability distribution is mating when the remembered CS–US interval has
defined (e.g., the US and US events). It is also called elapsed. Thus, the effective percent reduction in our
806 C Contingency Learning

uncertainty depends on the ratio between the basal References

interevent interval (the average US–US interval) and Allan, L. G., Hannah, S. D., Crump, M. J., & Siegel, S. (2008).
the CS–US interval (the delay of reinforcement). The The psychophysics of contingency assessment. Journal of Exper-
greater this ratio is, the greater the percent reduction imental Psychology: General, 137(2), 226–243.
Balsam, P., & Gallistel, C. R. (2009). Temporal maps and informa-
in our uncertainty. Thus, this way of measuring con-
tiveness in associative learning. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(2),
tingency explains why “close” temporal pairing is 73–78.
important. However, “close” is relative (to the basal Gallistel, C. R., & Gibbon, J. (2000). Time, rate, and conditioning.
interevent interval), not absolute; there is no critical Psychological Review, 107(2), 289–344.
interval that defines whether two events are or are not Gibbon, J., Berryman, R., & Thompson, R. L. (1974). Contingency
spaces and measures in classical and instrumental conditioning.
temporally paired.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21(3), 585–605.
Rescorla, R. A. (1968). Probability of shock in the presence and
Important Scientific Research and absence of CS in fear conditioning. Journal of Comparative and
Open Questions Physiological Psychology, 66(1), 1–5.
The UC measure of contingency provides a rationale
for the two ideas in the famous Rescorla–Wagner
P
model of association formation: DV ¼ aðl
V Þ,
where V is associative strength. This formula rests on
two assumptions: (1) The sum across all the associa-
Contingency Learning
tions from differents CS to one US cannot exceed ▶ Associative Learning
some limit, which is represented by the asymptote ▶ Causal Learning
parameter, l. (2) Associative strengths are additive; ▶ Causal Learning and Illusions of Control
their sum is subtracted from l in determining the
amount by which any associative strength is to be
incremented, DV . The entropy of the US distribution,
which determines the amount of available informa-
tion, puts an upper limit on the amount of information
Continuing Education and
that all predictors combined can provide. Moreover, Training
the entropies of independent events (and independent
▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning
conditional entropies) are additive. An open question
is how far this can take us in understanding the
objective basis for the phenomena of cue competition
(blocking, overshadowing, relative validity) – see
Balsam and Gallistel (2009). Continuing Professional
Another open question is whether and how the Development
brain can compute the uncertainties on which the UC
measure of contingency depends. ▶ Professional Learning and Development

Cross-References
▶ Association Learning
▶ Associationism Continuous Assessment
▶ Bayesian Learning
▶ Communication Theory ▶ Formative Assessment and Improving Learning
▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning
▶ Formal Learning Theory
▶ Human Contingency Learning
▶ Law of Effect Continuous Improvement
▶ Reinforcement Learning
▶ Temporal Learning in Humans and Other Animals ▶ Learning Cycles
 Contradictions in Expansive Learning C 807

Handlungsfähigkeit) (Holzkamp 1983). Accord-

Contradictions in Expansive ingly, the mastery of societal problems is under-
Learning stood as part of a fundamental process of
sociohistorical development, which is seen as
INES LANGEMEYER being driven by the contradictory nature of human C
InterMedia, Faculty of Education, University of Oslo, activities under capitalist societal relations.
Oslo, Norway 2. By contrast, Klaus Holzkamp (1993) focuses on
learning mainly as individual action. In general
and irrespective of any particular influence of cap-
Synonyms italist relations or other forms of subordination, he
Expansive learning; Expansive learning and its conditio sees learning as directed toward overcoming feel-
sine qua non ings of powerlessness, dependence, fear, or despair
Definition and thus improving one’s quality of life. However,
The term “expansive learning” designates a mode of given the disciplinary power regime of institution-
learning which enhances the quality of one’s life by alized education (or schooling) – including tech-
increasing power and control over one’s own societal niques of selection, individualization, punishment,
living conditions. Thus, the concept addresses indi- and normalization (cf. Foucault 1977) – this poten-
vidual or collective learning processes with the goal tial is structurally restrained or even foreclosed.
of extending agency, action possibilities, and self- Learning often turns out to be rather mechanical
determination – as well as, more generally, free with little sustainability because learners tend to
human development. “Contradictions in expansive adopt a passive attitude: Efforts are made to avert
learning” refer to two different matters: Firstly, soci- negative consequences (such as bad grades), to pass
etal contradictions which obstruct development are an exam, or merely to please a teacher. Subjective
subjected to collective learning to resolve them. Expan- reasons for embracing the endeavor and the risks
sive learning is then seen as a method (similar to action that come along with learning remain “defensive”
research) to improve cooperative activities and their rather than “expansive” (Holzkamp 1993). Regard-
organizational structures. However, secondly, contra- ing this problem, the concept of expansive learning
dictions may occur as a specific effect of power rela- is an analytical rather than a descriptive or norma-
tions that make conditions of expansive learning into tive one. Analyses of the structural obstructions of
a means of adapting and subordinating people to the learning thus make the contradictory effects of
demands of “flexibilized” labor markets and “precari- schooling visible.
ous” living conditions. Against the background of both approaches,
Langemeyer (2005) investigates policies and appro-
Theoretical Background aches of vocational education that aim at ensuring
The term “expansive learning” was introduced to the
“employability.” In this context, the traditional under-
sciences of learning over two related theoretical frame-
standing of education as instructional pedagogy is
works: (1) the Finnish version of Activity Theory and
increasingly replaced by learner-centered approaches
(2) the German–Scandinavian version of Critical Psy-
(such as work-based or workplace learning, self-
chology. Definitions vary in each framework, as does
regulated or self-organized learning, and compe-
the interpretation of contradictions.
tence development). Different from schooling, these
1. Engeström (1987) focuses on expansive learning approaches allow more autonomy and individuality
as a collective mastery of societal problems achieved within the actual learning process and demand greater
by resolving systemic obstructions or organizatio- personal (learner) responsibility for progress and suc-
nal limits of “activity systems.” His idea of grasping cess. Yet since they emerged within the context of
learning in social rather than purely individual the flexibilization of working conditions, the transfor-
terms is partly based on Klaus Holzkamp’s utopian mation of the welfare state toward a “lean state,” the
concept of “generalized agency” (verallgemeinerte recurrence of precarious living conditions, and the rise
808 C Contradictions in Expansive Learning

of a new (“high-tech”) mode of production, they pose activity, which largely neglects the level of subject/
new questions with respect to the theorization of subjectivity and therefore ignores the kind of power
contradictions. Similar to Foucault’s governmentality effects which Foucault, for example, addressed as
approach, Langemeyer maintains that, under these “subjectivation” (assujettisement).
conditions, self-responsibility and self-management By contrast, Holzkamp’s “subject-science” of learn-
are not only aspects of self-determination, but para- ing discusses “internalized constraints” and the “expro-
doxically also a means of adaptation and subordina- priation of expansive learning,” for instance when one’s
tion. Due to this shift from “disciplinary power” own interests and those of others are so “intertwined”
toward “technologies of the self,” self-dependent that “power is not acting on the subjects from the
forms of learning are marked by new contradictions, outside but through them, through their subjectivities”
or more precisely, by power relations that act increas- (Holzkamp 1993, p. 523, my translation). However,
ingly “through subjectivity.” Instead of encouraging this problem is insufficiently reflected in Holzkamp’s
and enhancing collective learning, these contradictions use of the analytical categories “defensive learning” and
enforce tendencies of individualization and thereby “expansive learning.” In particular, the concept of
impair the potential of (expansive) learning. “defensive learning” is tailor-made for the problems
of schooling (e.g., the resistance of pupils against edu-
Important Scientific Research and cation), whereas “expansive learning” seems to be only
Open Questions its positive counterpart, but still conceived within the
Contradictions as both the motive and the object of same paradigm. Holzkamp exemplifies his vision of a
collective learning activities at various workplaces (e.g., self-determined education with some of his own indi-
in the Finnish health care sector) were investigated vidual experiences – of learning something “for its own
empirically by Engeström and collaborators at the sake.” Against this background, expansive learning
University of Helsinki (Engeström 2001). These studies becomes associated with a practice free from restric-
are centered on the idea of “developmental work tions, disturbances, or contradictions. Yet this interpre-
research” which harnesses workers’ active involvement tation would be misleading with regard to challenges of
in improving their cooperative work activities and their self-responsibility under flexibilized and precarious
working conditions (cf. Toikka et al. 1985; Engeström working conditions.
2005). Developed on the basis of psychological thought An empirical study on workplace learning of IT
(Vygotsky, Leont’ev, and others), this approach is specialists by Langemeyer shows a way of combining
not only highly regarded internationally, it has also insights from Engeström’s and Holzkamp’s approaches
exerted broad influence on various other disciplines, in view of a new societal problem. To explain the
such as the sociology of work and organizations, new type of contradictions, Langemeyer (2005) argues
human resources management, communication sci- that motivation to embrace the challenges of self-
ences and the media, software design, and science and responsibility depends on how a person makes sense
technology studies (cf. Roth and Lee 2007, p. 188). of them. The subjective meaning ascribed to one’s
However, despite this wide recognition, several cri- own living conditions is analyzed as a reflection of
tiques have emerged concerning Engeström’s theoreti- one’s vital needs and interests and situated knowledge
cal framework as well as his methodological basis (cf. Holzkamp 1993). Moreover, subjectivity is seen as
(e.g., Toomela 2008; Langemeyer 2006; Langemeyer immersed in social relations of everyday life, shaped by
and Roth 2006; Avis 2007). Among other objections, social processes of interpretation and negotiation, and
Engeström’s conceptualization of transformation and thus as susceptible to narrow-mindedness and ideolo-
change was ultimately seen as “conservative” (Avis gies. Consequently, the capacity or competence for self-
2007), as adjustable to capitalist needs of revolutioniz- regulated learning and self-management, Langemeyer
ing the mode of production, and thus as incompatible argues, does not “reside” as a stable character trait
with Vygotsky’s engagement for transformative social “inside” a person. She thus contradicts approaches
practice and dialectical thinking (cf. Stetsenko 2008) which assume that this competence would exist prior
Furthermore, these critics rejected Engeström’s adap- to specific learning or work activities. Instead, she
tation of functionalist and systemic views on human explains that it develops with raising awareness of the
 Contradictions in Expansive Learning C 809

matters of work or life in general, how they emerged, itself. The study of contradictions in expansive learning
why they are at stake, and in what ways they can be is therefore a constant challenge “to generate – each
changed. This awareness is seen as a result of collective time anew – critical perspectives on these societal prac-
learning, which is envisaged, following Engeström, as tices in which we participate, and on our own social-
both a theoretical and practical intervention. In other individual basis to act and to reflect on the problems C
words, the desired competence coevolves with the and conflicts to be resolved” (Langemeyer and Roth
learning or work activity. 2006, p. 40).
The new type of contradictions is then illuminated
as follows: On the one hand, the desired effects of
self-responsibility essentially depend on the growth of
Cross-References
learners’ personal sense and self-will (Eigen-Sinn), that ▶ Activity Theories of Learning
▶ Apprenticeship Learning in Production Schools
is, on a specific kind of personality development.
▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
On the other hand, this personal sense and self-will is
▶ Collective Learning
often pervaded by work relations in which resources
▶ Communities of Practice
are limited and objectives are shortsighted or even
▶ Cultural-Historical Theory of Development
contradictory. This kind of contradiction can be stud-
▶ Independent Learning
ied best by focusing on learning trajectories rather than
▶ Learning Activity
subjective reasons to learn as Holzkamp suggests.
▶ Lifelong and Worklife Learning
Given, for example, the subordination of workplace
▶ Self-determination of Learning
learning to work routines or management structures,
▶ Self-organized Learning
learning trajectories are often constrained by inade-
quate forms of participation and cooperation. ▶ Self-regulated Learning
▶ Sociocultural Research on Learning
Although at one moment in time, a number of aspects
▶ Socio-technological Change of Learning Conditions
of expansive learning may be prevailing (motivation
▶ Trajectories of Participation; Temporality and
for learning, engagement for problem-solving, and self-
Learning
responsibility may be high at the beginning of a course
▶ Workplace Learning
or a training program), in the long run they may be
gradually overshadowed by a discrepancy between the
learner’s desired and actual performance and between References
planned achievements and shortcomings. Holzkamp’s Avis, J. (2007). Engeström’s version of activity theory – a conservative
focus on subjective reasons and on learning as individ- praxis? Journal of Education and Work, 20(3), 161–177.
ual action proves to be too narrow to address this Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical
problem, while Engeström’s notion of contradiction approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: toward an activity
as systemic dysfunction and as the driving force of
theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work,
development is too broad. By contrast, Langemeyer’s 14(1), 133–156.
notion of “contradictions in expansive learning” aims Engeström, Y. (2005). Developmental work research (ICHS –
at theorizing the dynamics of expansive learning. Her Schriftenreihe). Berlin: Lehmann’s Media.
empirical approach consists of a three-dimensional Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison.
analysis of forms of cooperation, modes of participa- London: Allen Lane.
Holzkamp, K. (1983). Grundlegung der Psychologie. Frankfurt/M:
tion, and changing aspects of a person’s situatedness. Campus.
It understands power relations that prevent the learn- Holzkamp, K. (1993). Lernen. Subjektwissenschaftliche Grundlegung.
ing or working subjects from exerting influence and Frankfurt/M: Campus.
gaining the power to act as the crucial point of societal Langemeyer, I. (2005). Kompetenzentwicklung zwischen Selbst- und
contradictions. In so doing, Langemeyer does not Fremdbestimmung. Arbeitsprozessintegriertes Lernen in der
Fachinformatik. Eine Fallstudie. Münster: Waxmann.
expect contradictions to be the driving force for devel-
Langemeyer, I. (2006). Contradictions in expansive learning –
opment or an obstruction for learning per se. She towards a critical analysis of self-dependent forms of learning
reasons that any engagement for changing and enhanc- in relation to the contemporary socio-technological change.
ing activities must be seen as a contradictory practice Forum Qualitative Social Research, 7(1), Art. 12 [43 paragraphs].
810 C Contrast

Langemeyer, I., & Roth, W. M. (2006). Is cultural-historical activity to be initiated by the subject. It is considered to be
theory threatened to fall short of its own principles and possi- limited, slow, serial, effortful, and used for unskilled
bilities in empirical research? Outlines. Critical Social Studies,
tasks. It is initiated intentionally and shows benefit
8(2), 20–42.
Roth, W. M., & Lee, Y. J. (2007). ‘Vygotsky’s neglected legacy’: cul- from practice. Performance will change from controlled
tural-historical activity theory. Review of Educational Research, to automatic after extensive training under the precisely
77(2), 186–232. the same conditions. Automatic processing is considered
Stetsenko, A. (2008). From relational ontology to transformative to be the opposite process to controlled processing.
activist stance: expanding Vygotsky’s (CHAT) project. Cultural
Studies of Science Education, 3(2), 465–485.
Toikka, K., Engeström, Y., & Norros, L. (1985). Entwickelnde
Theoretical Background
Arbeitsforschung. Theoretische und methodologische Elemente. During the 1950s, the cognitive psychology focused
Forum Kritische Psychologie, 15, 5–41. on the capacity limits of human information pro-
Toomela, A. (2008). Activity theory is a dead end for methodological cessing (HIP), such as how the brain treats incoming
thinking in cultural psychology too. Culture & Psychology, 14(3), information (stimuli). The British psychologist
289–303.
Broadbent introduced a significant model of informa-
tion processing in 1958 and was one of the first to
draw a distinction between automatic and controlled
processes. Further work by Posner and Snyder (1975)
Contrast implicated the automatic process to be an unconscious
▶ Simultaneous Discrimination Learning in Animals and unintentional process, whereas the controlled pro-
cess requires conscious intention. This view was
redefined by Schneider and Shiffrin in 1977 and has
since then been supported by convincing evidence
Control Processes and thereby kept its relevance during the decades.
In the “dual-process” information processing model
Control processes in the Atkinson–Shiffrin model are of Schneider and Shiffrin, a distinction between “auto-
strategies for managing learning such as deciding how matic detection” and “controlled search” emphases
to encode the material (verbal repetition, semantic two fundamentally different human information
associations, visual images) and subsequently retrieve processing operations. According to this view, auto-
it from memory. For example, attempting to recall the matic processing is parallel, fast, and a result of
names of all 50 states in the USA could be organized repeated training on a task, whereas controlled
either by alphabetical order or by geographical regions. processing is slow, serial, limited, and effortful. A new
skill requires controlled information processing and,
increasingly, as the skill is mastered, it becomes more
automatically processed. For example, learning how to
Controlled Information read is initially effortful and requires extensive cogni-
Processing tive capacity and gradually, reading training will
change the information processing to a more auto-
ÅSA HAMMAR matic process. A novice reader needs more time and
Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, has more errors compared to a skilled reader. Another
Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, University of example is when first learning how to drive a car and
Bergen, Bergen, Norway becoming an experienced driver, where information
processing transfers from operations which requires
controlled processing to more automatic operations.
Synonyms
Effortful information processing
Important Scientific Research and
Definition Open Questions
Controlled information processing is a mental process Numerous behavioral studies have shown that exten-
that requires attention and cognitive capacity and has sive training on precisely the same task increase the speed
 Convergent Thinking and Learning C 811

of performance and improve response accuracy and

thereby change from controlled to automatic. Various Convention
experimental paradigms have been developed in order ▶ Learning and Evolution of Social Norms
to examine the distinction between automatic and ▶ Normative Reasoning and Learning
controlled processing. The dependent variables Reaction C
Time/Response Time (RT) and Accuracy (AC) are often
used as an indication of processes taking place, when
solving a task with increasing demands on cognitive
information processing. These studies have been exam- Convergent Evolution
ining information processing within different cognitive
domains, such as Memory, Attention, and Executive Occurs when evolutionary pressures acting on different
functioning. Several neuropsychological studies have lineages result in (i.e., converge on) similar patterns.
investigated automatic and controlled information
processing in various patient groups, such as ADHD,
learning disorders, patients with frontal lobe brain dam-
age, Alzheimer´ Disease, Depression, etc. In cognitive
Convergent Thinking
neuroscience, different techniques, such as ERP (event-
related potentials), fMRI (functional magnetic resonance ▶ Divergent Thinking and Learning
imaging), and PET (positron emission tomography),
have aimed to provide evidence for the brain localization
of automatic and controlled information processing. So
far, the frontal lobes have been identified as the brain
region related to controlled information processing, Convergent Thinking and
whereas automatic information processing has been Learning
proved more difficult to localize.
Convergent thinking is a term coined by J. P. Guilford
Cross-References in the 1950s in the context of his research on creativity.
▶ Automatic Information Processing In contrast to divergent thinking, which is considered
▶ Bottom-Up- and Top-Down Learning a major constituent of creativity, convergent thinking
encompasses thought processes which aim at finding
References
the one right, best, or conventional answer to a prob-
Birnbom, S. (2003). The automatic and controlled information-
processing dissociation: is it still relevant? Neuropsychological lem. The idea of convergent thinking is based on the
Review, 13, 19–31. assumption that there is only one correct answer to
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: a problem and that it must be found through reference
Pergamon. to declarative knowledge. Related learning processes
Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive
therefore are mainly concerned with considering avail-
control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and
cognition: The loyola symposium (pp. 55–85). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
able information from various sources (such as declar-
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled ND automatic ative knowledge) with the aim to find the correct or
human information processing: detection search and attention. best solution of a problem.
Psychological Reviews, 84, 1–66. It has often been criticized that school learning is
strongly oriented toward convergent thinking and
learning (Jones and Cooper 2006). Nevertheless, it is
the best method to employ when a single correct
Controlled Motivation, answer exists and can be found on the basis of stored
Instrumental Motivation declarative knowledge. Furthermore, it is an essential
precondition of logical reasoning. If appropriate
▶ Understanding Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: declarative knowledge is retrievable then convergent
Age Differences and Meaningful Correlates thinking is quick and accurate.
812 C Conversation

With regard to learning it is noteworthy that con-

vergent thinking is closely related to cumulative learn- Co-Ontogenic Structural Drift
ing of knowledge, which can be easily applied in future A term coined by Humberto Maturana and Francisco
situations involving similar types of tasks and problems Valera (1987) to address how living system and envi-
to be mastered. ronment mutually specify each other. Living system
and environment (which includes other living systems)
References
change their structures over time as they interact and
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5(9),
444–454.
accommodate each other – thus, they have a co-history
Jones, E., & Cooper, R. M. (2006). Playing to get smart. New York: of change. In co-ontogenic structural drift, we either
Teachers College Press. live/learn together or we part company or we die.

References
Maturana, H. R., & Valera, F. (1987). Distributed processes, distrib-
uted cognizers and collaborative cognition. Pragmatics and Cog-
Conversation nition, 13(3), 501–514.

▶ Communication Theory
▶ Discourse

Cooperation
▶ Altruistic Behavior and Cognitive Specialization in
Conversation Analysis Animal Communities
▶ Multi-robot Concurrent Learning
Also known as CA, is a special type of discourse analysis
specially designed for the study of everyday verbal
and nonverbal communication. The aim of CA is to
describe structure and patterns of casual conversation
and of institutional talk (e.g., in school, surgery, or Cooperation Scripts
court). Developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s ▶ Collaboration Scripts
principally by the sociologist Harvey Sacks, Emanuel
Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson, CA is grounded in foun-
dational assumptions of ethnomethodology, a branch
of sociology that focuses on the question of how people
produce the mutually shared social order in which they
Cooperative Learning
live (ethnomethodology was founded by Harold
RIM RAZZOUK, TRISTAN E. JOHNSON
Garfinkel and Erving Goffman).
Learning Systems Institute & Department of
Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, College
of Education, Florida State University, Tallahassee,
FL, USA
Convex Relaxations
▶ Relaxations for Learning
Synonyms
Collaborative learning; Group learning; Small group
learning; Team learning

Co-occurrence Definition
Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small
▶ Measures of Association groups through which students work together to
 Cooperative Learning C 813

maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson cooperative learning: (1) social interdependence, (2)
et al. 1994). It is related to collaborative learning, which cognitive-developmental or constructivism, and (3)
emphasizes that learning occurs as an effect of com- behavioral learning theories. The first theory, social
munity (Johson and Johnson 1999). It is, however, interdependence theory views cooperation as resulting
contrasted with individualistic and competitive learn- from positive interdependence among individuals’ C
ing in which students work by themselves to accom- goals. Groups are seen as dynamic wholes in which
plish learning goals that are not related to others, and a change in the state of any member changes the state
compete with each other for grades (Johnson et al. of other members. According to Johnson et al. (1998),
1998). There are three types of cooperative learning. the basic premise of social interdependence theory is
The first type is formal cooperative learning which con- that the way social interdependence is structured deter-
sists of students working together, for one class period mines how individuals interact, which in turn deter-
or several weeks, to achieve a joint learning goals and mines the individual and group outcomes. Positive
complete tasks assigned. The second type is informal interdependence (cooperation) results from promotive
cooperative learning which includes students working interaction as individuals encourage and facilitate
together to achieve shared learning goals in temporary, each other’s efforts to learn. In the absence of a func-
ad-hoc groups that last from a few minutes to one class tional interdependence (that is, individualism) there
period. The third type is cooperative base groups that is no interaction as individuals work independently
are long term, heterogeneous cooperative learning without interchange with each other. The second the-
groups where members give support, encouragement, ory that guides cooperative learning research is cogni-
and assistance needed to accomplish the shared goal tive-developmental theory that is grounded on the work
and succeed academically (Johnson et al. 1994; Johson of Piaget and Vygotsky. Piaget’s work is based on the
and Johnson 1999). For an activity to be cooper- premise that when individuals cooperate in the envi-
ative, it should have five basic elements: positive ronment, socio-cognitive conflict occurs that creates
interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face cognitive disequilibrium, which in turn stimulates cog-
promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing nitive development. Vygotsky’s work is based on the
(Johson and Johnson 1999). Positive interdependence premise that knowledge is social, constructed from
means that students feel committed to one another cooperative efforts to learn, understand, and solve
and the success of one member is dependent on the problems. The third theory, behavioral learning theory
other group mates. Individual accountability requires focuses on the impact of group reinforcers and rewards
each group member to be responsible for contributing on learning.
a fair share of the work within the group. Face-to-face
promotive interaction in where students promote each Important Scientific Research and
other’s success by sharing resources, helping, and prais- Open Questions
ing each other’s success. Interpersonal and social skills Many studies have shown that when correctly
include leadership, decision making, and communica- implemented, cooperative learning improves informa-
tion skills. Finally, group processing requires group tion acquisition and retention, higher-level thinking
members to communicate not only how well they are skills (i.e., reasoning skills), interpersonal and com-
achieving but to coordinate their efforts (Johnson and munication skills, and self-confidence (Johnson et al.
Johnson 1999). 1998). These multiple outcomes that have been studied
can be classified into three major categories: achieve-
Theoretical Background ment, positive relationships, and psychological
There are several theoretical perspectives that have health. The research clearly indicates that coopera-
guided cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is tion, compared with competitive and individualistic
based on a variety of theories in anthropology, sociol- efforts, typically results in (a) higher achievement and
ogy, economics, political science, psychology, and greater productivity, (b) more caring, supportive, and
other social sciences. In psychology, however, where committed relationships, and (c) greater psycho-
cooperation has received the most intense study, logical health, social competence, and self-esteem
three major theories have guided the research on (Johnson et al. 1998). Findings from a meta-analysis
814 C Cooperative Learning

(Johnson et al. 2000) supported the effectiveness benefited from homogeneous grouping while low
of cooperative learning on students’ achievement/ achievers did equally well in either a homogeneous or
outcomes (e.g., grades). A total of 158 empirical studies heterogeneous group.
were included in the meta-analysis. Results revealed Although there has been a growing body of litera-
that cooperation promotes higher achievement than ture and empirical studies in the area of cooperative
do competitive (Cohen’s d = 0.82) or individualistic learning; many of the studies conducted looking at
efforts (Cohen’s d = 1.03). Cooperative learning also the impact of cooperative learning methods on
promotes higher achievement as compared to compet- achievement have methodological shortcomings and,
itive or individualistic efforts (Cohen’s d = 0.59 and therefore, any differences found could be the result
0.91 respectively). The authors concluded that it is of methodological flaws rather than the cooperative
reasonable to hypothesize that the effective use of the learning method (Johnson et al. 2000). In the future,
cooperative learning method will likely promote learn- researchers should concentrate on conducting highly
ing and other achievement-related outcomes. controlled (experimental design) studies that add to
As another example, Felder et al. (1998) conducted the confidence with which their conclusions will be
a longitudinal study to examine engineering students’ received. Future research studies need to investigate
achievement and attitudes in a cooperative learning the effect of different variables in the cooperative
environment versus students’ achievement and atti- learning process such as, group composition (hetero-
tudes in traditionally taught classes (i.e., lecture). The geneous versus homogeneous), group selection and
authors found that students in cooperative learning size, structure of cooperative learning, amount of
outperformed students in traditional context. Students teacher intervention in the group learning process,
in the cooperative learning environment had higher differences in preference for cooperative learning
scores and better attitudes toward instruction than associated with gender and ethnicity, and differences
did students in the traditional context. In addition to in preference and possibly effectiveness due to differ-
its effect on learning outcomes and attitudes, coopera- ent learning styles or self-regulation strategies, in
tive learning showed positive effects on retention, crit- addition to any mediating, moderating, or inter-
ical thinking skills (i.e., analysis and synthesis), and action variables that may affect the cooperative learn-
peer interaction. Cooperative learning caused higher ing process.
students’ retention rates, development of critical think-
ing skills, and higher peer interaction as compared to
traditional lecture. Felder et al. (1998) suggested that Cross-References
the more cooperative learning features that instructors ▶ Academic Learning
implement, the greater the learning improvements they ▶ Action-Based Learning
can expect. ▶ Altruistic Learning
Even though there has been many experimental ▶ Collaborative Knowledge Building
studies that examined the effect of cooperative learn- ▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking
ing on students’ learning outcomes, some researchers ▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies
have further studied the grouping effect, team com- ▶ Collective Learning
position based on achievement scores, (i.e., homo- ▶ Communities of Practice
geneous versus heterogeneous) within cooperative ▶ Engagement in Learning
learning environment on students outcomes. For ▶ Interactive Learning Environments
example, Baer (2003) compared heterogeneous coop- ▶ Knowledge Integration
erative learning groups with homogeneous cooperative ▶ Learner-Centered Learning
learning groups who were formed based on their ▶ Learning in the Social Context
first test scores. The results indicated that, overall, ▶ Participatory Learning
homogeneously grouped students significantly out- ▶ Peer influences on Learning
performed heterogeneously grouped students on the ▶ Peer-Learning
final exam. Particularly, high- or average-achievers ▶ Social Learning
 Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming C 815

References (i.e., between-class) and small (i.e., within-class)

Baer, J. (2003). Grouping and achievement in cooperative learning. groups. Group composition refers to the formation
College Teaching, 51(4), 169–174. of the group on the basis of some characteristic of
Felder, R. M., Felder, G. N., & Dietz, E. J. (1998). A longitudinal study group membership. Common grouping characteristics
of engineering student performance and retention v. Compari-
sons with traditionally-taught students. Journal of Engineering
include ability and gender although ability grouping is C
Education, 87(4), 469–480. the more common form.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1994). Cooperative Ability grouping involves selecting students with
learning in the classroom. Alexandria: Association for supervision the intent of controlling heterogeneity within a class
and curriculum development. or small group. Two forms of between-class ability
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1998). Cooperative
grouping are common in schools. Sometimes, students
learning returns to college: What evidence is there that it works?
Change, 30(4), 26–36.
are tracked by ability across the curriculum. Alterna-
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. B. (2000). Cooperative tively, students are grouped by aptitude such that an
learning methods: A meta-analysis. http://www.tablelearning. individual can be assigned to high-ability classes for
com/uploads/File/EXHIBIT-B.pdf. some subjects, but not for others.
Johson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning Small groups may be formed with partners of com-
work. Theory into Practice, 38(2), 67–73.
mon or dissimilar ability, although researchers often
call for groups to be formed heterogeneously to ensure
that diverse opinions and resources are reflected within
the groups.
Cooperative Learning Groups Gender grouping generally refers to the formation
of entire schools by gender. Some researchers argue
▶ Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming
single-sex schooling may benefit females’ academically
by countering school environments that may be hostile
to females. However, little empirical research has
compared the effects of single-sex and coeducational
Cooperative Learning Groups schooling.
and Streaming
Theoretical Background
SIMON R. HOOPER, ROY B. CLARIANA
Instructional Systems, Dept. of Learning + Whole Class Ability Grouping
Performance Systems, College of Education, Ability grouping proponents claim that teachers can-
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, not adequately teach to the widely differing ability
PA, USA levels produced when students are grouped heteroge-
neously by ability. Teaching in mixed-ability class-
rooms forces teachers to focus attention on students
Synonyms at the class mean. Hence, mixed-ability classrooms are
Ability grouping; Composition of groups; Cooperative said to be too complex for the least able and lack
learning groups; Setting; Small groups; Tracking challenge for the most able students.
Ability grouping critics are concerned that ability
Definition grouping has damaging cognitive and social emotional
Cooperative learning is a form of active learning where effects. Homogeneous ability grouping is considered to
students work together to perform specific tasks in be unfair to the weakest students whose progress suf-
a small group. Streaming refers to the composition of fers. In classrooms where the most able students have
learning groups as a collection of individuals who have been removed, those remaining lack effective role-
regular contact and frequent interaction, mutual influ- models and are subject to lower teacher expectations.
ence, and who work together to achieve a common set Some argue that ability grouping is inherently undem-
of goals. Group composition can be examined in large ocratic by creating de facto segregation: Ability groups
816 C Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming

tend to reflect social class and ethnic norms, thereby teaching of specific skills. Ability grouping should
perpetuating traditional class and ethnic distinctions. reflect different ability levels within a subject matter
Researchers have noted different teaching prac- area rather than to a general ability measure.
tices in homogeneous classrooms. Instruction for the ● Grouping must be followed by changes in teacher
highest performing students tends to be characterized behavior. Teachers must modify the pace and level
by teaching strategies that require deep and meaningful of instruction when ability groups are formed.
content manipulation and negotiation. Instruction for
those in lower ability groups tends to focus on memo- Small Group Ability Grouping
rization and the application of rules and algorithms. Although many forms of small group learning exist,
Schools that adopt ability grouping tend to employ most fall into three categories: peer tutoring; informal
the most traditional teaching methods. In the United groups; and cooperative learning groups. Peer tutoring
Kingdom, performance discrepancies between high- occurs when a more able peer teaches or mentors a less
and low-performing students were greatest in schools able peer. In informal learning groups, students work
using whole class teaching. together on a common task for a relatively brief time-
Ability grouping, which is closely related to period (ranging from a few minutes to an entire class
achievement in secondary education, impacts students’ period), but often with little structure or guidance
self-concept. Academic self-concept, which is formed defining how group members should collaborate. In
through social comparison, is diminished for students formal learning groups, often termed cooperative
in low-ability groups and is associated with negative learning groups, students collaborate according to
attitudes toward future learning experiences. The extent some form of systematic activity or script that guides
to which ability grouping is practiced within a school participants’ behavior. For example, in Learning
further impacts academic self-concept. Self-concept is Together (Johnson and Johnson 1998), team members
highest in schools with the least ability grouping and work on a common goal that is structured around five
lowest among students attending the most highly strat- themes: positive interdependence; individual account-
ified schools (Ireson and Hallam 2009). ability; effective interaction; communication skills; and
Whole-class grouping continues in many elemen- group processing.
tary and secondary schools although little research Numerous studies have examined the effectiveness
supports the practice. Slavin examined the effects of of learning in small groups. Results suggest that within
ability grouping on achievement in elementary and k-12 schools, small group learning effectiveness
secondary schools. Using an approach known as a increases as group structure increases. Thus, coopera-
best-evidence synthesis (which uses results from tive learning tends to be more effective than other
meta-analytic research and literature reviews), he forms of small group learning in k-12 schools. Even
reported an overall effect size of 0 indicating no benefit in less rigorous studies, cooperative learning is at least
to the practice of between-class grouping (Slavin 1987). as effective as other forms of large and small group
However, some grouping benefits were reported in work and meta-analyses indicate an effect size in excess
elementary schools for subjects that are inherently of .6. At the college level, all forms of small group
hierarchical: Cross-grade grouping benefitted reading learning appear to be effective in Science, Technology,
instruction and within-class ability grouping benefitted Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) classes. At the
mathematics instruction. Slavin cautioned that when college level, small group learning is associated with
ability grouping is employed, the following guidelines improved academic achievement, persistence, and atti-
should be applied: tudes and the overall effect sizes for achievement are
approximately .5 standard deviations.
● Grouping plans must be flexible. Students tend to Although the superiority of group versus individual
remain in a group once an initial assignment has learning does not appear in question, the issue of group
been made. To be effective, ability grouping must ability composition has not been resolved. Homoge-
allow students to change groups as ability changes. neous grouping proponents claim that high-ability
● Grouping must be specific to content. Assigning students benefit from being academically stimulated
students to ability groups should be limited to the and challenged by similar ability partners. Critics
 Cooperative Learning Groups and Streaming C 817

argue that mixed-ability grouping provides accesses to Important Scientific Research and
diverse opinions and resources and better prepares Open Questions
students for life in a diverse world. Additionally, het- According to Slavin, sufficient research has been
erogeneous grouping is said to benefit high-ability stu- conducted on the effects of whole class ability grouping
dents when they explain lesson content to their less able among students through 9th grade, but research is still C
peers, and low-ability students who receive help and needed to examine ability grouping effects in grades
explanations from more able partners. Although dis- 10–12. Research is also needed to examine changes in
agreement exists concerning the effects of ability teaching practices under different grouping plans and
grouping for cooperative learning, one result appears the development of more reliable assessments to sup-
to be consistent: Low-ability students perform less well port accurate data measurement.
when grouped with similar ability than higher ability Research is needed to examine how productive
partners. learning groups can be formed among participants
working at a distance. For example, although coopera-
Gender Grouping tive learning has been validated across cultural con-
The issue of gender grouping has both pedagogical and texts, research is needed to understand how cross-
political implications. To some, single-sex schooling cultural collaboration should be managed to promote
provides females and males with educational settings effective group work.
in which they can thrive: Students can study in envi- Research is also needed to examine the design and
ronments free from the social pressures induced by the effectiveness of computer-based tools that enhance the
opposite sex. Yet to others, single-sex schooling is per- basic elements that make cooperation work. Many of
ceived as a barrier to effective socialization. the studies examining group composition in small
Lee and Bryk (1986) concluded that single-sex edu- groups occurred before the evolution of the Internet.
cation is particularly beneficial to female students in Recent development of the so-called Web 2.0 technol-
secondary schools. They found that single-sex schools ogy creates new opportunities for collaboration in
deliver advantages to their students including increased small groups. Researchers have become interested in
academic achievement, enhanced attitudes and motiva- whether online learning and virtual communities of
tion, and improved academic behavior. Similar results practice can be fostered through collaboration. Hence,
were found in the UK, where single-sex schools were research is needed to determine whether embedded
particularly beneficial to high-performing 16-year-old scripts, computer-tutors or pedagogical agents, or
girls who outperformed males attending single-sex other forms of design can foster collaboration.
schools and were more likely to explore non-gender The composition of online groups could be re-
stereotypic subject matter. Moreover, the rate of high- considered and perhaps reframed in terms of the pro-
performing girls attending single-sex schools was three cesses underlying successful group collaboration. Since
times the rate for those attending coeducational schools young children can be considered domain novices with
(Sullivan et al. 2010). relatively uniform and unspecialized domain knowledge,
Kinzie et al. (2007) found that women benefitted cooperative learning groups in schools can be considered
from the types and frequency of “purposeful activities” homogenous in terms of domain knowledge. Indeed,
and the personal progress made in diverse educational such groups probably also bring well-established social
outcomes that occur at women’s colleges. Students norms (from playground and classroom interaction) to
experience higher personal expectations from faculty the group setting. However, for online groups, the learn-
than do their counterparts at coeducational colleges. ing environment may be heterogeneous in ways that have
They interact more frequently with faculty (who tend not been previously considered. Due to the sparse com-
to be more accessible) and meet faculty outside of class munication and other inherent potentially limiting
more frequently than do women at coeducational insti- features of the setting, it is unclear whether people work-
tutions. Similarly at women’s colleges, student leader- ing in heterogeneous ability groups can communicate
ship opportunities are greater and more students enroll productively at a distance. Similarly, other group com-
in traditionally male-dominated math, science, and position findings may not transfer from face-to-face to
engineering classes. online settings. If so, considerable research is needed to
818 C Cooperative Learning Strategies

determine the optimal composition of learning groups in

online settings. Cooperative Learning
The rarity of single-sex schools makes comparison Strategies
with coeducational schools difficult; hence, research
▶ Collaborative Learning Strategies
studies in this area often involve comparison of
nonequivalent groups. For example, single-sex schools
tend to be private and selective in student admission
with the result that their students tend to be more mo-
tivated and from higher SES levels, thereby invalidating Coordinated Joint Engagement
the comparison with coeducational schools. Single-sex
schooling is often considered anacronistic, and the ▶ Joint Attention in Humans and Animals
popularity of coeducational schooling is often viewed
as a central reason for its use. Yet, the social benefits of
coeducational benefits should be weighed carefully
against its academic impact. In particular, research is
Coping
needed to explore the nature of the high-school experi-
ence within single-sex schools. ▶ Coping with Stress
▶ Resilience and Learning
Cross-References
▶ Ability Grouping (and Effects) on Learning
▶ Collaborative Learning
▶ Cooperative Learning Coping Strategies
▶ Generic Architectures for Cooperative Learning
Environments ▶ Coping with Stress
▶ Group Cognition and Collaborative Learning
▶ Group Dynamics and Learning
▶ Group Learning
▶ Shared Cognition
Coping Style
▶ Small Group Learning
▶ Coping with Stress
References
Ireson, J., & Hallam, S. (2009). Academic self-concepts in adoles-
cence: Relations with achievement and ability grouping in
schools. Learning and Instruction, 19(3), 201–213.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1998). Learning together and alone:
Coping with Stress
Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon. MARK H. ANSHEL
Kinzie, J., Thomas, A. D., Palmer, M. M., Umbach, P. D., & Kuh, G. D. Department of Health and Human Performance,
(2007). Women students at coeducational and women’s colleges: Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro,
How do their experiences compare? Journal of College Student
TN, USA
Development, 48(2), 145–165.
Lee, V. E., & Bryk, A. S. (1986). Effects of single-sex secondary schools
on student achievemnt and attitudes. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 78(5), 381–395. Synonyms
Slavin, R. E. (1987). Ability grouping and student achievement in Coping; Coping strategies; Coping style; Stress
elementary schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educa-
tional Research, 57(3), 293–336.
Sullivan, A., Joshi, H., & Leonard, D. (2010). Single-sex schooling
Definition
and academic attainment at school and through the lifecourse. Coping is usually defined as the conscious use of
American Educational Research Journal, 47(1), 6–36. cognitive, affective, or behavioral efforts to effectively
 Coping with Stress C 819

deal with externally imposed events and demands that evaluation of a particular encounter with the environ-
the individual perceives as unpleasant or potentially ment, reflecting the person’s evaluation of the situa-
harmful. To most coping theorists, the coping process tion as relevant. They categorize appraisal as irrelevant,
consists of efforts to reduce perceived stress through benign-positive, and stressful. Stress appraisals are fur-
a wide range of thoughts, emotions, and actions ther divided into harm–loss, threat, and challenge sub- C
directed at both external stressors and internal categories, a framework that has received extensive
demands and needs. attention by researchers in the extant general and
Coping has been categorized as both a dispositional sport psychology literature. Threat appraisals are
and a situational construct. As a dispositional con- those in which the perception of danger exceeds the
struct, coping may be considered a person’s style, or perception of abilities or resources to cope with the
disposition. As a situational construct, coping consists stressor. Challenge appraisals, in contrast, are those in
of the conscious use of strategies for the purpose of which the perception of danger does not exceed the
either improving one’s internal resources (e.g., confi- perception of resources or abilities to cope. Thus,
dence, resourcefulness, hardiness, mental toughness) because the absence of a stress appraisal begins with
or managing external demands. Thus, coping style, the athlete’s perception of an event that is appraised as
also called dispositional or higher order coping, stressful, making non-stressful appraisals (e.g., posi-
is defined as a person’s disposition, or orientation, tive, harmless) requires no coping (Anshel et al.
toward the preferred use of selected types, or categories, 2001). An appraisal labeled stressful can reflect negative
of coping strategies (Anshel et al. 2001). Coping style feelings, such as threat or worry, or relatively positive
has been traditionally defined as “methods of coping feelings, such as challenge or heightened arousal.
that characterize the person’s reactions to stress Tomaka et al. correctly acknowledge that harm–loss
either across different situations or over time within appraisals occur after stressful situations abate, while
a given situation.” These coping “methods” are used threat and challenge appraisals occur before or in antic-
consistently in dealing with stressors across time ipation of stressful situations. Threat appraisals, there-
and in various situations. Coping strategies, on the fore, are accompanied by feelings of worry that nothing
other hand, is the situational use of a technique to will be gained from the stressful situation. Challenge
reduce external demands or improve internal resour- appraisals, on the other hand, provide hope that there
ces in dealing with an event perceived as stressful or will be something gained by the situation, and envision
unpleasant. positive incentives or avoidance of an unpleasant event.
Persons who feel inadequate or overwhelmed to
Theoretical Background deal with the stressful situation or view their coping
The process of coping with stress has a rich theoretical skills as inadequate are likely to make threat appraisals.
framework. The coping literature is replete with coping On the other hand, individuals who perceive them-
theory and models that reflect the coping process. Most selves as prepared to handle the stressful event possess
of these models can be represented by the following proper coping skills and feel confident in the outcome
structures and processes commonly referred to as the of the situation are more likely to make challenge
coping process. This section is divided into the coping appraisals. Threat appraisals are more strongly associ-
process and the primary theoretical frameworks that ated with negative emotional reactions than challenge
explain coping. appraisals (Lazarus and Folkman 1984).
Another appraisal conceptual framework is called
The Coping Process: Appraisals and perceived control, or controllability. Perceived control
Coping Strategies refers to the extent to which a person believes that the
The coping process begins with an event or stimulus that outcome of an event can be attributed to internal
is appraised as stressful. Appraisal is the person’s deter- (personal) sources, external (situational/environmen-
mination whether a particular environmental encoun- tal) sources, or to the cause or predictability of an
ter is relevant to his or her well-being and, if so, in what event. Perceived control, therefore, is the person’s belief
way. More specifically, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) that the individual can determine one’s own internal
contend that appraisal consists of the individual’s state and behavior, influence one’s environment, or to
820 C Coping with Stress

bring about a desired outcome from the stressful event, or potential unpleasant event or peacefully confronting
either by producing desirable events or preventing the source of stress by obtaining additional informa-
undesirable events. tion are examples. Emotion-focused coping concerns the
As the case with all types of cognitive appraisal individual’s conscious decision to deal with the stressor
constructs, perceived controllability influences the by regulating his or her emotions, or maintaining
individual’s coping response. The major determinants emotional control. Taking a deep breath and relaxing
of coping responses are the individual’s appraisal of the after a stressful event or discounting the importance of
stressor (Anshel et al. 2001). In the general psychology the stress source are examples. Both coping strategies
literature, personal (e.g., dispositions) and situational are useful and effective, as needed, given the demands
factors (e.g., source and/or intensity of the stressor) and characteristics of the situation (Lazarus and
influence the ongoing appraisal of threats and resources Folkman 1984).
in responding effectively to those threats. Finally, whether the coping effort was successful –
coping effectiveness – is the last segment of the coping
Coping Styles and Strategies process. Authors in the coping literature have desig-
The next step in the coping process is that the person nated nine outcomes of effective coping: (1) to reduce
initiates a coping strategy, which is situational, that psychological distress; (2) to obtain accurate informa-
often, although not always, reflects the person’s coping tion about environmental demands; (3) maintain
style. It is important to note that coping strategies proper internal mechanisms (e.g., attentional focusing,
reflect situational ways of dealing with stress, whereas proper vigilance and arousal level, rapid and accurate
coping style is dispositional and more predictable than decision-making procedures) to process incoming
a strategy. Thus, the person’s coping style should pre- information, and to know when and how to react
dict the type, or category, of coping strategy the person properly to stressful events; (4) reduce or manage
will enact following a stressful appraisal. physiological reactions (e.g., heart rate, muscle ten-
Coping styles, or the coping strategies that reflect sion) that may result in negative emotion and impair
them, have been categorized different among various performance; (5) improve mental well-being and
researchers and theorists. One popular framework is a positive self-image; (6) maximize the likelihood of
approach and avoidance (Anshel et al. 2001; Krohne returning to prestress activities; (7) create a stable
1993). Approach coping (styles and strategies) reflects psychological and emotional status that successfully
the person’s intensified intake and processing of directs energy and intentional behavior to meet exter-
unpleasant or threatening information. If one’s safety nal demands; (8) reduce and, if possible, eliminate
or welfare is at stake, for instance, the person must harmful environmental conditions; and (9) resolve
remain vigilant toward the stressor until the situation the stressful situation by producing a desirable affec-
has been resolved. Avoidance coping, on the other hand, tive or performance outcome. Taken together, there
reflects the person’s conscious attempt at physically or is general agreement that coping is a function of
mentally turning away from the stressful source. For several cognitive processes that are influenced by a
example, because coping consumes energy and atten- series of personal and situational factors. See Zeidner
tional resources, a person may want to be distracted by and Endler (1996) for a more extensive review of this
the stressor or psychologically distance oneself from the literature.
stressful source, similar to understanding the reasons
the explain behavior patterns of an unpleasant person, Coping Theories
or reducing the importance of an unpleasant situation. The theoretical frameworks that help explain coping
A common framework for examining coping strat- include the trait/dispositional model, the contextual/
egies more than coping styles is problem-focused and situational model, and the transactional model. The
emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping con- trait/dispositional model posits that a person’s use of
cerns the individual’s attempt to reduce or manage coping strategies is stable and cross-situational; coping
stress by directly dealing with the problem that is caus- is a unidimensional personality variable. It is assumed,
ing the distress, that is, an attempt to manage or control therefore, that a person’s coping thoughts or actions
a stressful situation. Removing oneself from an actual can be predicted from the person’s score on a coping
 Coping with Stress C 821

inventory. Researchers have tended to not find exten- Rice 2000). The use of coping strategies have often
sive support for the trait theory of coping because the been used, tested, and reported interchangeably with
coping process has been viewed as multidimensional. coping styles. Relatively little research has been devoted
While trait measures are generally inadequate in to understanding the relationship between the use of
describing the complexity of the coping process, pro- coping strategies and the effectiveness of those strate- C
ponents of the trait model contend that personality gies. That is, coping effectiveness has received relatively
plays an important role in an individual’s persistent scant attention. In addition, coping has been measured
application of their personal coping style following inconsistently across studies, and a person’s self-report
stressful events, such as “the approacher” or “the of their coping strategies has consisted primarily of
avoider.” recalling events that may have occurred years before,
The contextual, or situational, model posits that or are responding to hypothetical situations. Finally,
coping is assessed in relation to specific stressful con- there is a deficiency of psychometrically validated cop-
ditions or situations. It is assumed in this model that ing inventories that were constructed for the sample
coping cognitions and behaviors are influenced by the currently being studied. These research issues have
relationship between the person and the environment clouded conclusions in our understanding of the cop-
following a particular event that is appraised as stress- ing process and the most valid means of measuring this
ful. In this model, then, coping consists of changing process. More experimental new research is needed to
thoughts and behaviors used by the person to manage determine the effect of coping skills training on selected
external demands and/or internal resources (e.g., con- cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Specific questions
fidence, anxiety, arousal, hardiness). To many propo- include the following:
nents of the contextual model, coping consists of
1. What conceptual model of cognitive appraisal,
managing the problem (i.e., problem-focused coping)
which is a mediating variable of coping, best pre-
and regulating emotions (emotion-focused coping).
dicts a person’s use of coping strategies?
The transactional model describes the individual
2. To what extent do coping strategies reflect a
and the environment in a continuous, bidirectional
person’s coping style? Similarly, does coping style
relationship. Transactional theory is designed to be
explain a person’s typical use of selected types of
used in reference to a specific stressful experience,
coping strategies?
rather than explaining the use of coping strategies –
3. How can we best measure coping effectiveness?
both problem-focused and emotion-focused – across
How should “effectiveness” be operationally
situations. In addition, this theory refers to what
defined in our attempts to measure the proper use
a person actually thinks or does (i.e., the use of strate-
of coping strategies?
gies), rather than what they usually do (i.e., reflecting
4. To what extent do moderating variables (e.g., age,
coping style) or what they think they should do. Finally,
gender, culture, stress intensity, coping style, per-
the theory reflects general coping strategies, which
sonality, situational factors) influence a person’s use
apply to a variety of stressful encounters or in various
of coping strategies and the effectiveness of those
stages of a single stressful encounter.
strategies?
5. Which of the primary coping models most strongly
Important Scientific Research and describe, explain, and predict a person’s coping
Open Questions skills?
The coping process is complicated and multi-
dimensional. Each dimension of coping includes dif-
ferent conceptual frameworks and structures. For Cross-References
example, some studies have examined coping in ▶ Stress and Learning
response to chronic stress, while other studies have ▶ Stress Management
examined acute (situational) stress. In addition,
cognitive appraisal has been conceptualized as per- References
ceived controllability or as a function of harm–loss, Aldwin, C. M. (2007). Stress, coping, and development: An integrative
threat, and challenge (Lazarus and Folkman 1984; perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford.
822 C Copying

Anshel, M. H., Kim, K.-W., Kim, B.-H., Chang, K.-J., & Eom, H.-J.
(2001). A model for coping with stressful events in sport: Theory, Corporate Elearning
application, and future directions. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 32, 43–75. ▶ Advanced Distributed Learning
Krohne, H. W. (1993). Attention and avoidance. Bern: Hogrefe &
Huber.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping.
New York: Springer Publishing Co.
Rice, V. H. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of stress, coping, and health:
Implications for nursing research, theory, and practice. Thousand
Corpulent
Oaks: Sage.
▶ Obesity Stigma, Evolution, and Development
Zeidner, M., & Endler, N. S. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of coping:
Theory, research, applications. New York: Wiley.

Corpus Callosum
Copying The corpus callosum is the largest fiber tract in the
▶ Imitation: Definitions, Evidence, and Mechanisms brain. It is the thick, white band of nerves that connects
▶ Imitative Learning in Humans and Animals the two hemispheres of the brain and allows both
halves to communicate sensory, motor, and higher
order information to coordinate activity.

Copying, Acquiring Knowledge

Within a Group Correlation
▶ Imitation and Social Learning ▶ Contingency in Learning

Core Beliefs Correlational Learning

▶ Maladaptive Schemas in Patients with or Without ▶ Connectionist Theories of Learning
Personality Disorders ▶ Hebbian Learning

Core Constructs Correspondence

▶ Maladaptive Schemas in Patients with or Without ▶ Analogy/Analogies: Structure and Process
Personality Disorders ▶ Role of Similarity in Human Associative Learning

Core Self Correspondence Courses

▶ Development of Self-consciousness ▶ Distance Learning
 Courseware Learning C 823

Corroboration and Couple and Family Therapy

Contextualization ▶ Application of Family Therapy on Complex Social
▶ Historical Thinking Issues
C

Course of Study
Cortico-spinal Entrainment
▶ Curriculum and Learning
▶ Learning-Related Changes of b-Activity in Motor
Areas

Courseware Learning
Cost Complexity JAE MU LEE
Department of Computer Education, University of
▶ Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Busan National University of Education, Busan,
Trade-off South Korea

Synonyms
CAI; Educational software; E-learning; ICT education
Cost-Noise Trade-Off
Definition
▶ Adaptive Proactive Learning with Cost-Reliability Courseware is a term that combines the words “course”
Trade-off with “software.” It is software containing educational
content, instruction, and instructional strategies. Its
meaning originally was used to describe additional
educational material intended as kits for teachers or
trainers or as tutorials for students, usually packaged
Counseling for use with a computer. Courseware learning is the
▶ A Tripartite Learning Conceptualization of process of learning through Courseware. CAI and
Psychotherapy educational software are terms that are also used to
describe Courseware. CAI stands for computer assisted
instruction or computer aided instruction. CAI is
a program that contains instruction contents and assis-
tance to instruction using a computer. It is difficult to
Counseling Outcomes distinguish between CAI and courseware. Sometimes
Courseware and CAI were used as the same concepts in
▶ Learning from Counseling
reference to a sort of educational software which refers
to all types of software for education. Educational
software is classified as instructional software, learning
software, and education management software. Classi-
Counting fied instructional software supports group learning
in a classroom for teachers, and learning software
▶ Accounting and Arithmetic Competence in Animals supports individual learning for students. Education
824 C Courseware Learning

management software assists management of educa- Khan 2001). WBI supports learning to overcome time
tion. Some examples of the assistance that education and space limitations. It provides not only the interac-
management software provides are evaluation, educa- tion between contents and learner, but provides the
tional material management, and instructor manage- interaction between instructor and learner, and inter-
ment. This education management software is called action among learners. WBI provides newly updated
CMI (Computer Managed Instruction). material and various types of information through the
Courseware is educational software that can be Internet. Due to Internet development, it made the
categorized as instructional software or learning soft- move from off-line learning to on-line learning and
ware. The instructor should use Courseware in accor- finally leads to e-learning. The essential and most impor-
dance to its advantages and characteristics in learning. tant part of e-learning is the quality of the e-learning
Courseware should not be overused. The important content. E-learning content is the same as Courseware;
thing is that Courseware learning does not substitute; therefore, the success of e-learning is highly dependent
rather it should assist in traditional learning. There- on the quality of the Courseware.
fore, Courseware can be just an auxiliary or subsidiary In 2000, the Internet environment was developed
media to support learning. to support wireless networks so various mobile media
such as cellular phones, ▶ smart phones, and PDA
Theoretical Background (Personal Digital Assistants) appeared. And the mobile
Courseware learning has been continuously changing
media tried to include educational contents and
as a result of the constant development of Courseware
Courseware. In the near feature, we will learn using
format, and Courseware format has changed in accor-
Courseware through new devices supporting ▶ ubiq-
dance with the development of computer environments.
uitous computing environments.
The main concept of the computer and educational
Courseware learning supports individual learning
software was the subsequent change of the Mainframe
with consideration of the difference of individual.
to the personal computer, CD-ROM, Internet, e-learn-
Courseware provides Learner initiated learning. While
ing, Mobile learning, and Ubiquitous learning.
the instructor chooses the contents and gives a lecture
Courseware was operated on the mainframe com-
to learners on a massive scale through his own inten-
puter until 1970. The PLATO (Programmed Logic for
tions in classical learning, the learner can choose the
Automated Teaching Operations, 1960) project was the
contents and can study at his learning pace, at his level,
first developed Courseware in the University of Illinois
and according to his interest in Courseware learning.
that was based on the mainframe computer (Smith and
Courseware provides self-directed, self-paced learning,
Sherwood 1976). It then appeared on personal com-
and learning based on various media.
puters such as the Altair8000 in 1975. It made the
Courseware has characteristics such as interaction,
transfer from the mainframe computer to personal
individual learning, and motivation. Price (1991) men-
computers. By the personal computer emergency, the
tioned the following:
computer can be used increasingly at home and at
school, and Courseware was distributed widely and 1. Courseware supports individual learning and
populated (Ceruzzi 2003). allows for self-directed learning.
When the CD-ROM appeared in 1990, the personal 2. It supports interaction and active learning. The
computer could process the large volume of data and learner can get an immediate response as a result
could process multimedia data such as voice, image, of using Courseware.
and video data. Therefore, Courseware extended from 3. It supports variety. The learner can develop an
text to multimedia data. Courseware supporting mul- interest through the graphics, sound, dynamic ani-
timedia contents are called MBI (Multimedia Based mation, and various feedbacks.
Instruction) (Alessi and Trollip 2001). By the end of 4. It supports record keeping. Through the record
1990, the Internet was developing rapidly and the edu- keeping of the computer, by saving learning history
cational software and Courseware were running based and recording learning accomplishments, Course-
on the Internet. Courseware that is running on the ware can make a diagnosis and provide suitable
Internet is called WBI (Web Based Instruction, learning.
 Courseware Learning C 825

5. It supports flexibility. After evaluating the learner, ICAI requires the system to be able to diagnose stu-
we can increase or decrease learning volume. dent’s performance and provide the optimal student
6. It supports timeliness and responds instantly to the modeling process. A branch study within ICAI refers to
learner’s actions. An impatient learner and those adaptive learning system (e.g., iWeiver system) which
with a lack of curiosity in the subject can be capti- attempts to find the most suitable learning strategy C
vated by instant results of Courseware. considering each learner’s learning styles, learning
history, and learning goals. Adaptive learning system
Also, Courseware learning has the following advan-
is an implementation of ▶ Aptitude-treatment interac-
tages: Firstly, through simulation learning, it supports
tion (ATI). Most adaptive learning system studies are
learning activities that cannot be accessed in classical
developed considering learning styles (e.g., Tangow
learning due to time limitations, cost, and danger.
system). Other studies of Courseware development
Secondly, it allows the learner to repeatedly practice
are ▶ authoring tools, educational games and are
the things that he learns. In classical learning the
represented in the instructional model, interaction,
teacher has limitations in giving a lecture repeatedly,
learning motivation, evaluation and feedback design,
but Courseware learning allows the learner to repeat
interface design, and screen design in Courseware.
lectures and practices as many times as is necessary.
The studies for the effective use of Courseware learn-
Thirdly, it makes learning interesting by combining the
ing are mainly concerned with the analysis of learning
contents with games, and activities. This is especially
results or effects in Courseware learning (Kuilk and
useful for children.
Kuilk 1991). Courseware produces positive effects in
However, Courseware has some disadvantages:
logical learning such as mathematics and science sub-
Firstly, it is initiated not by the instructor but by the
jects. Multimedia learning is effective by supporting
learner. There is potential for ineffective results for
multisensory learning (Heinich et al. 1996). Learning
learners who lack learning motivation or intention.
is best facilitated through a combination of comple-
Secondly, it is not easy to build Courseware that is
mentary visual and auditory information (Mayer
assured of quality.
1997). Multimedia learning produces positive results
Courseware designers must consider general peda-
in foreign language learning. Also, Gleason (1981)
gogical issues such as the appropriateness of the com-
applied educational software to general students and
puter, methodology, student practices, lesson length,
students in a controlled group. He reported more effec-
and mastery level. Courseware design should adapt to
tiveness in the controlled environment.
the learner’s skill and knowledge.
The blended learning that was integrated in on-line
learning (e-learning) and off-line learning (face to face
education) is one of the approaches to improving
Important Scientific Research and learning accomplishments.
Open Questions Generally, if Courseware is properly used, Course-
The study of Courseware learning is classified into two
ware can improve learning effectiveness and efficiency.
parts: building effective learning Courseware, and effec-
On the other hand, there are several research studies
tively applying the Courseware in learning activities.
that suggest that Courseware is not meaningful and
Therefore, one is the development of effective Course-
effective because of the insufficient quality of the con-
ware in the computer science field, and the other is
tent (Alessi and Trollip 2001).
effectively using Courseware in learning as instructional
methods and the instructional technology field. Cross-References
The study of Courseware development is combin- ▶ Adaptive Learning System
ing Courseware and ▶ Artificial Intelligence (AI), ▶ Web Based Instruction
Wenger et al. 1987). This is called ICAI (Intelligent
Computer Assisted Instruction, Kearsley 1987) or ITS References
(Intelligent Tutoring System, Sleeman and Brown Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning method
1982). ICAI (e.g., GUIDON) was developed to improve and development. Needham Heights: A Pearson Education
upon the limitations of traditional CAI. The Study of Company.
826 C Covariation Learning

Ceruzzi, P. E. (2003). A history of modern computing (p. 226). Definition

Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Covert pronunciation is the act of imagining that one is
Gleason, G. (1981). Microcomputer in education: The state of the art.
speaking a particular syllable, word, phrase, or sen-
Educational Technology, 21(3), 7–18.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. D., & Smaldino, S. E. (1996). tence. It can serve many purposes, such as helping the
Instructional media and technologies for learning (rev. ed.). imaginer to learn a new word, think about a speech
Englewood Cliffs: Merrill. passage, plan a series of activities, or solve a problem.
Kearsley, G. (1987). Artificial intelligence and instruction applications The term covert means without outward expression,
and methods (pp. 11–46). Reading: Addison-Wesley.
i.e., in this instance silently, in contrast with the term
Khan, B. H. (2001). Web-based training. Englewood Cliffs: Educa-
tional Technology.
overt, which in this instance means spoken aloud.
Kuilk, C.-L. C., & Kuilk, J. A. (1991). Effectiveness of computer-based Rehearsal sometimes is used to refer to the use of any
instruction: An updated analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, mental activity to memorize a series of items; it, too,
7(1), 75–94. can be carried out covertly. Although this can include
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right such processes as mental imagery or abstract thought,
question? Educational Psychologist, 32(1), 1–19.
in the present context the term rehearsal refers only
Price, R. V. (1991). Computer-aided instruction: A guide for authors.
Pacific Grove: Brooks Cole. to the use of covert pronunciation for the sake of
Sleeman, D., & Brown, J. S. (1982). Intelligent tutoring systems. remembering.
London/New York: Academic.
Smith, S. G., & Sherwood, B. A. (1976). Educational use of the Theoretical Background
PLATO computer system. Science, 192, 344–352.
There are various reasons why speech may be only imag-
Wenger, E., Brown, J. S., & Greeno, J. (1987). Artificial intelligent and
tutoring systems. Los Altos: Morgan Kaufmann.
ined rather than spoken aloud. One may wish to avoid
disturbing other people or looking crazy by talking to
one’s self. Yet, the need to talk to one’s self even covertly
(silently) very much suggests that talking to one’s
self serves important ends. Much of human thought
Covariation Learning itself is probably in the form of language, though it is
probably not the case that all thought is in the form of
▶ Human Contingency Learning language. (It can also be in the form of mental imagery,
for example.)
The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1962)
believed that children learn to regulate their own
thoughts first by speaking to themselves or others
Covert Articulation
aloud and then, typically between the ages of 3 and
▶ Covert Pronunciation and Rehearsal 7 years, learning to make that speech more internal.
Young children label things, reminisce, and imagine
activities with their toys and dolls or action figures,
and speak these things aloud.
To the extent that covert speech is a part of ordinary
Covert Pronunciation and thought, it is very difficult to study. That is because
Rehearsal an experimental participant who is asked to do some-
thing like solve a problem can be “lost in thought,” not
NELSON COWAN having enough free attention to reflect carefully upon
Department of Psychological Sciences, University of what he or she is covertly saying while solving the
Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA problem. In some studies of thought, people have
been asked to speak aloud instead of silently but there
is always the concern that an individual would alter
Synonyms the spoken language to impress the experimenter,
Articulation; Covert articulation; Covert rehearsal; compared to the ordinary covert version of speech
Covert speech during thought.
 Covert Pronunciation and Rehearsal C 827

It is easier to study a specialized use of covert that rhyme, they are confused with one another so
rehearsal to memorize information. Researchers have that the usual benefit of rehearsal does not accrue.
found that series of items typically can be remembered The poorer memory for items that sound similar is
well, with a minimum of effort, if one can covertly termed the phonological similarity effect.
rehearse them (Gathercole and Baddeley 1993). Flavell et al. (1966) studied how children learn to C
Among the vast amount of information stored in the use covert rehearsal to remember sets of pictures. They
human mind, it is possible to think of only a very small made use of the fact that when the list is difficult,
amount at one time (this being the part that is called children often move their lips while rehearsing; this
the current contents of working memory) but often that activity might be considered partly covert (in that not
is all the information one needs. For example, going much sound is being made) and partly overt (in that
into a grocery store you may need to remember to the lips are moving). In order to allow children to be
buy, bread, eggs, cheese, and a spatula. Covert rehearsal less self-conscious, they wore a helmet and the visor
helps one to memorize the list or keep it in working was brought down, obscuring the child’s vision while
memory for a sufficient time. It also can help in the he or she tried to remember the pictures. The visor did
memorization of a new word, such as a person’s name. not cover the mouth, however, so it was possible for
Without covert rehearsal, new information tends to the investigators to see whether the child’s lips moved.
fade in a matter of seconds or is quite vulnerable to The finding was that rehearsal seemed to occur in only
interference from subsequent speech information. 10% of the 5-year-old children, increasing steadily to
60% of the 7-year-olds and 85% of the 10-year-olds.
Important Scientific Research and This rehearsal also went along with better memory for
Open Questions the pictures.
A convenient finding that makes it easier to study Cowan et al. (1987) made use of the phonological
covert rehearsal is that it appears to take place at similarity effect to examine the benefit of rehearsal in
about the same speed as overt rehearsal (Landauer adults. Participants were to remember and then repeat
1962). You can test this yourself with a stopwatch. series of words that sounded dissimilar (brick, spoon,
Ask a friend to count to 20 aloud as fast as possible cat, etc.) or series of words that sounded similar (mat,
while articulating each of the numbers, starting when bat, cat, etc.). To be counted correct on a trial, the
you say “go,” and to knock on the desk as soon as he or serial order of words in the series had to be reproduced
she finishes the last number. Now do the same test correctly. The index of memory was the length of lists
again but ask the participant to count silently instead that could be correctly repeated, or memory span.
of aloud. Do this a few times each way. You probably Memory span in adults displays a strong phonological
will find that the amount of time taken to speak aloud similarity effect: span for phonologically similar words
or silently is remarkably similar. is much lower than for dissimilar words. This effect is
It seems clear that people use covert speech as a thought to occur partly because of the confusion in
means to retain verbal information. For example, in memory between similar words when they are recalled,
the 1960s and early 1970s, R. Conrad published but partly when they are covertly rehearsed. For exam-
research on peoples’ immediate recall of a series of ple, the adult may try to remember the words by
letters. Researchers have referred to this work widely covertly rehearsing them in a cumulative manner,
and have followed up on it (e.g., Cowan et al. 1987; in order, as they are presented. Encountering brick,
Gathercole and Baddeley 1993). Conrad found that the participant rehearses brick; then encountering
even when lists were printed instead of spoken, recall spoon, the participant rehearses brick, spoon; and so
of these lists was impeded most when the letters on. For lists of phonologically similar words, the
sounded similar, not when they looked similar. For order is somewhat likely to be incorrectly changed
example, it is relatively easy to remember the series c, during rehearsal. When adults’ ability to carry out
f, q, p, o, r, y with the letters in order, and much more rehearsal was suppressed by requiring that participants
difficult to remember the series b, t, v, p, c, z, d with the quietly recite the alphabet while hearing the list, both
letters in order, because the letters rhyme in the latter the magnitude of the phonological similarity effect and
case. It is thought that when one tries to rehearse items the overall level of performance (especially on lists of
828 C Covert Rehearsal

dissimilar words) were greatly reduced, to the point Cross-References

that the pattern of responding in adults with their ▶ Cognitive Self-regulation
rehearsal suppressed closely resembled what is usually ▶ Sequence Learning
found in 5-year-old children. ▶ Sequential Learning
Although covert rehearsal is important for remem- ▶ Short-Term Memory and Learning
bering the serial order of items, it is also important ▶ Variation in Working Memory Capacity, Fluid Intel-
simply for remembering the items themselves. In free ligence, and Episodic Recall
recall, unlike serial recall, the participant is free to
remember the items in a list in any order he or she References
wishes. The recall is usually best for items at both the Cowan, N., Cartwright, C., Winterowd, C., & Sherk, M. (1987). An
beginning and the end of the list. In some research, adult model of preschool children’s speech memory. Memory and
individuals have been asked to do their rehearsal aloud Cognition, 15, 511–517.
Flavell, J. H., Beach, D. H., & Chinsky, J. M. (1966). Spontaneous
rather than silently and that research has indicated that
verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child
the recall of items from the beginning of the list, the Development, 37, 283–299.
primacy effect, can be understood through rehearsal Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working memory and
processes. Specifically, the words from the beginning language. Hove: Erlbaum.
of the list are rehearsed throughout the list and what Landauer, T. K. (1962). Rate of implicit speech. Perceptual & Motor
Skills, 15, 646.
matters for recall of a particular word is how recent the
Tan, L., & Ward, G. (2000). A recency-based account of the primacy
last encounter with the word is, either through actual effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,
presentation of the word or through covert rehearsal of Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1589–1625.
it. The few items presented first are the ones most likely Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
to be rehearsed throughout the list, bringing recall of
them up to par with the few items presented last.
Despite a great deal of research, we do not really
understand exactly how rehearsal operates during
memory tasks. It may be that participants recite items Covert Rehearsal
in a repeating loop to keep their phonological repre- ▶ Covert Pronunciation and Rehearsal
sentations active in memory (see Gathercole and
Baddeley 1993). Another possibility, however, is that
participants use covert rehearsal to form groups of
items in memory. If you see the telephone number
6345789 you may mentally group it as 63-45-789 as in Covert Reorganization / Spatial
a rock and roll song touting that number (or more Learning
conventionally as 634–5789). You could do that group-
ing by covertly rehearsing the number with mental GÉRALDINE RAUCHS1, PHILIPPE PEIGNEUX2
1
pauses between the groups of digits. Inserm-EPHE-University of Caen Basse-Normandie,
It is difficult to know exactly what is going on when Research unit U923, GIP Cyceron, Caen, France
2
a covert mental process is taking place. This is especially UR2NF (Neuropsychology and Functional
true when the process extends over a relatively long Neuroimaging Research Unit), Université Libre de
period of time (e.g., a few seconds or more, as rehearsal Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
seems to do) and is complex (e.g., changes rapidly with
time, as rehearsal probably must do). Brain research
can help us to learn when rehearsal is taking place but it Synonyms
will probably have to be accompanied by especially Consolidation; Spatial memory; Spatial navigation
clever behavioral studies to help us understand exactly
what is being rehearsed. All of this makes covert pro- Definition
nunciation and rehearsal an exciting topic of research Spatial learning refers to the ability to encode, store,
in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. and retrieve information about one’s environment and
 Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning C 829

its spatial orientation. For example, spatial memory is upon a spatial memory system whose description has
required when we have to navigate in a familiar envi- been greatly improved by rodent studies showing that
ronment or when we have to learn how to go from one so-called hippocampal place cells selectively fire when
point to another in a novel environment. Memory the animal occupies a specific location in its environ-
consolidation refers to the time-dependent process by ment, allowing the creation of a spatial map. Note- C
which recently acquired information is gradually inte- worthy, several studies have disclosed the reactivation
grated into long-term memory stores, a process whose of neuronal ensembles during sleep and wakefulness
duration ranges from hours to years according to immediately following exposure to spatial environ-
theoretical models, neurobiological and neuropsy- ments. Thus, studies conducted in rodents revealed
chological observations. Consolidation of spatial, that firing activity of hippocampal place cells active
hippocampus-dependent memories benefits from during spatial exploration behavior was increased dur-
sleep. However, functional neuroimaging studies have ing subsequent sleep states. Using large ensemble
revealed that this process of consolidation takes place recordings of place cells in the CA1 field of rodents’
by means of a covert reorganization of brain patterns hippocampus, it has been further showed that those
underlying memory performance, which is not neces- cells that fire in a synchronous manner when the ani-
sarily accompanied by overt changes in behavior. mal occupies particular locations in its environment
exhibited an increased tendency to fire together again
Theoretical Background during subsequent non-REM (NREM) sleep, as well
Animal and human studies have demonstrated a pri- as during the immediate post-training wakefulness
mary role for hippocampal areas in spatial learning, period. Synchronous cellular activity during NREM
supporting allocentric representation of the environ- sleep actually reproduced the discharge patterns
ment and encoding of the relationships between observed during task performance, eventually leading
environmental clues. However, spatial navigation in a to the neuronal replay hypothesis, positing that infor-
well-known environment may also be supported by mation acquired during active behavior is reexpressed
activity in the striatum through stimulus–response during sleep, a phenomenon that may represent a
associations. Indeed, whereas a hippocampus- neurophysiological substrate for memory consolida-
dependent strategy is applied in the early phase of tion processes. Although neuronal reactivations have
training, a strategic shifting toward striatum-dependent been repeatedly observed during NREM sleep in
responses may take place after repeated practice (Iaria rodents, similar phenomena have been also disclosed
et al. 2003). Noticeably, active reshaping of brain activ- during REM sleep (see Peigneux et al. 2001 for review),
ity is not necessarily accompanied by overt, detectable suggesting that all sleep stages may support the pro-
change in behavior. For instance, rodent and human cesses of memory consolidation. Additionally, it was
studies have yielded evidence for a covert reorganiza- found that the temporal sequence of neuronal dis-
tion of spatial memory traces during sleep, a state charges observed in hippocampal CA1 neurons during
known to be beneficial for memory consolidation pro- spatial exploration is repeated – recapitulated – during
cesses. In these studies indeed, the neural basis of per- NREM sleep on a similar or faster timescale. Neuronal
formance at retrieval was modified with intervening replay after spatial experience is not restricted to CA1
sleep and/or time after learning, whereas performance hippocampal neurons, since reexpression of firing pat-
levels per se were unchanged. In this section, we review terns during sleep has been observed also in posterior
those animal and human studies having evidenced parietal, visual, and prefrontal cortices (Peigneux et al.
covert reorganization of cerebral activity in spatial 2001). Finally, temporal correlations during NREM
learning, especially in relation to sleep. sleep between hippocampal ripples (high frequency
waves at 140–200 Hz) and spindle activity (phasic
Important Scientific Research and bursts in the 12–16 Hz frequency range) recorded
Open Questions in the prefrontal cortex were observed, reflecting
Route retrieval and way finding in a previously learned coactivation of hippocampal and neocortical pathways.
environment are critical prerequisites to successfully Taken together, offline replay of hippocampal activity
carry out most daily activities. These abilities rely together with coactivation of neocortical areas during
830 C Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning

sleep probably represents important components in negative at delayed retrieval in the sleep group but
memory consolidation processes, allowing a gradual positive in the sleep-deprived. As a whole, these data
transfer of recently acquired spatial memory traces suggested that brain activity is reorganized during
from short-term hippocampus-based to long-term post-training sleep in such a way that navigation,
neocortical stores. Still, it should be noticed that initially based on a hippocampus-dependent spatial
those animal studies have not evidenced behavioral strategy, becomes progressively contingent on a
changes following the post-training sleep, putatively response-based strategy mediated by the striatum
consolidating period. (Iaria et al. 2003). In other words, sleep favored the
Likewise in humans, post-training reactivation of automation of spatial navigation. These results addi-
spatial navigation-related activity has been reported tionally demonstrated that covert (not directly observ-
during slow wave sleep (SWS; i.e., the deepest compo- able) reorganization of brain activity underlying
nent of NREM) using positron emission tomography navigation after sleep is not necessarily accompanied
(PET) (Peigneux et al. 2004). Furthermore, it was by overt (observable) behavioral changes.
found that overnight gains in task performance were It should be kept in mind that spatial navigation
correlated to hippocampal activity levels during SWS, is not in itself a pure process, but rather involves
suggesting a close association between spatial memory many cognitive operations and different memory com-
consolidation and hippocampal reactivation during ponents including spatial and contextual representa-
sleep (Peigneux et al. 2004). In a follow-up study, tions. More precisely delineated, a spatial memory
Orban et al. (2006) investigated using fMRI the sleep- representation involves the creation of and/or the
and time-dependent reorganization of spatial memory access to a cognitive map of the environment where
traces within the brain using a navigation learning task the spatial relationships between the streets are speci-
in a complex virtual town with a high degree of details fied independently of the salient features of the envi-
(walls, ground textures, objects,. . .). In this experi- ronment. For instance, when attempting to reach the
ment, subjects were scanned during route-finding hospital from the supermarket, one can keep in mind
tasks immediately after learning (consisting in a free an “abstract” map-like representation indicating the
30 min exploration period) and 3 days later. Then, half appropriate direction to follow at each crossroad, inde-
of the subjects were allowed regular sleep, whereas the pendently of specific environmental cues along the
other half was totally sleep-deprived during the first way. Besides this “streets configuration” component
post-learning night. Surprisingly, results showed however, a second, complementary process can be
a striking dissociation between equivalent performance used, which refers to a contextual memory representa-
and distinct neural bases for route retrieval at delayed tion (or “landmarks memory”) in which specific asso-
testing in sleep and sleep-deprived participants, ciations between salient landmark objects and their
suggesting sleep-dependent processes for reorganiza- milieu are stored. For instance, one may remember
tion of learning-related cerebral activity, not paralleled that from school to library, there is a right turn just
by overt changes in behavior. Indeed, whereas route after the post office and then a left turn in front of the
finding elicited increased activity in a well-known church. Thus, a further study wondered whether sleep
navigation-related hippocampo-neocortical network globally promotes consolidation of all memory com-
(Maguire et al. 1998) at immediate and delayed ponents embedded in virtual navigation, or rather
retrieval testing both in sleep and sleep-deprived par- favors the development of specific representations
ticipants (Fig. 1), activity in routine behavior-related (Rauchs et al. 2008). Using the same experimental
striatal areas was associated with delayed retrieval design than in Orban et al. (2006), participants were
activity only in participants allowed to sleep after administered four memory tasks (see Fig. 2) specifically
training. Furthermore, correlations between striatum tapping either the spatial memory component
activity and navigation accuracy were positive in the (“Impoverished” and “Alternate” conditions) or the
sleep group (higher activity in the striatum associ- contextual memory component (“Recognition” condi-
ated with higher navigation accuracy) but negative in tion) or both (“Natural” condition). In the Natural,
sleep-deprived participants (Fig. 1). Likewise, connec- Impoverished, and Alternate conditions, subjects had
tivity between hippocampus and striatum regions was to retrieve the route between two locations in the
 Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning C 831

Mean distance score

1
30 0.8
0.6

BOLD signal change

20
0.4 r = .41
10
0.2 C
0
–0.2
0
Immediate Delayed –0.4
–0.6 r = –.80
Sleep group –0.8
–1
TSD group –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
a b Mean distance score

Effect size
2

–2

–4
c

Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning. Fig. 1 Navigation accuracy and sleep-dependent modulation of brain activity.
(a) Navigation accuracy, estimated as the distance traveled toward the target location, at the immediate (left) and delayed
(right) retrieval sessions for the sleep (blue) and sleep-deprived (red) groups. (b) Between-group regression analyses of the
average session performance on cerebral activity at delayed retrieval (sagittal and coronal sections). The blue crosshair
indicates the right caudate nucleus. The scatter plot shows that brain response in this area was correlated positively
with performance in the sleep group (blue; r = 0.41) but negatively in sleep-deprived participants (red; r =
0.80).
(c) Psychophysiological interaction analysis using the right caudate nucleus (green crosshair) as seed area. The coupling of
activity between the caudate nucleus and the left hippocampus (coronal section) was negative in the sleep group (blue)
but positive in sleep-deprived participants (red). The blue crosshair indicates the left hippocampus. Blue and red plots
show the size of effect for each group. Error bars are standard deviations

learned environment. In the Impoverished condition, representations were probed. Subjects had then to
the environment was plainly deprived of any wall/ determine whether environmental changes were made
ground feature and objects, promoting the use of spa- as compared to the exploration period (Fig. 2). Again,
tial representations to successfully perform the task. In behavioral performance did not differ between partic-
the Natural and Alternate conditions, the environment ipants allowed regular sleep during the post-learning
was the same as during the training period (one hour of night and those who were sleep-deprived, neither in a
free exploration of the environment performed outside natural setting that engages both spatial and contextual
the scanner), allowing the use of both contextual and memory processes nor when looking more specifically
spatial memory representations. In the Alternate con- at each of these memory components (Rauchs et al.
dition however, direct pathways between starting and 2008). At the neuronal level however, analyses focused
target points were blocked to promote alternative on contextual memory revealed distinct correlations
route-finding strategies that rely more on spatial rep- between performance and neuronal activity. In sleep
resentations. In the Recognition condition, subjects participants, recognition performance was correlated
had to pay attention to the environmental features of with activity in frontal regions, suggesting that
the town while following dots marking the path recollection processes were in use, whereas perfor-
between two locations, thus the spatial requirements mance was associated with parahippocampal activity
of the task were minimized while the contextual in sleep-deprived subjects, suggesting the involvement
832 C Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning

Alternate condition Natural condition

J
D

I C

Bin G

F B
Station
Lee

A
Recognition condition
Wrong image ?
Impoverished condition

1 2

None

3 4

Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning. Fig. 2 Virtual environment and navigation tasks. The map depicts an aerial
view of the color 3D virtual town in which subjects navigated at the ground level using a keypad. The ten possible starting
points are represented by letters (from A to J) with associated symbols and colors indicating the location to reach, out of
three possible targets (Bin, Lee and Station). The four snapshots display samples of the environment as seen by the
participant in the Natural, Recognition, Alternate or Impoverished conditions. For the Recognition task, subjects first
navigated in the environment following color dots on the ground (left panel). They were instructed to determine whether
and where environmental changes had been made as compared to the town explored during the training period. At the
end of each walk, a four-choice panel composed of three pictures taken from the path (one of them representing a change
made in the environment), and a white square was presented. Subjects had to respond by selecting the modified image or
the white square if they thought that no modification had been made (right panel)

of familiarity processes (Fig. 3). Likewise, efficient phenomenon is not unique to spatial learning since
spatial memory was associated with posterior cortical lack of overt changes in behavior paralleled with covert
activity after sleep whereas it was correlated with modulations of brain activity following sleep has been
parahippocampal/medial temporal activity after sleep reported also for memory consolidation of emotional
deprivation. Finally, variations in place-finding effi- material. Although further studies are needed to fully
ciency in a natural setting encompassing spatial and understand the functional significance of covert reorga-
contextual elements were associated with caudate nizations, available data suggest that cerebral reshaping
activity after post-training sleep, replicating our prior may precede overt expression of behavioral changes.
study (Orban et al. 2006), suggesting that sleep favors
automation in navigation. Cross-References
To sum up, available data indicate that even in the ▶ Human Cognition and Learning
absence of overt, measurable behavioral modifications ▶ Memory Codes (and Neural Plasticity in Learning)
following time or sleep after spatial learning, post- ▶ Memory Persistence
training sleep covertly reorganizes the neural substrates ▶ Place Learning and Spatial Navigation
of both spatial and contextual memories. Still, the ▶ Spatial Learning
 Creative Inquiry C 833

Sleep > Sleep-deprivation Sleep-deprivation > Sleep

4
3.5 C
3 3
2.5
2 2
1.5
1 1
0.5
0 0

Covert Reorganization / Spatial Learning. Fig. 3 Sleep-dependent modulation of correlation between brain activity and
performance in the Recognition condition. Contrasts are displayed at p < 0.001 (uncorrected) superimposed on the
average T1-weighted MR scan. Correlations were computed at the within-subject level (i.e., between brain activity and
individual variations in trial-to-trial performance). Left panel: higher correlations in sleep than in sleep-deprived
participants in the left frontal gyrus. Right panel: higher correlations in sleep-deprived than in sleep participants in the right
para-hippocampal gyrus

References
Iaria, G., Petrides, M., Dagher, A., Pike, B., & Bohbot, V. D. (2003). Creative Inquiry
Cognitive strategies dependent on the hippocampus and caudate
nucleus in human navigation: variability and change with prac- ALFONSO MONTUORI
tice. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5945–5952. Department of Transformative Inquiry,
Maguire, E. A., Burgess, N., Donnett, J. G., Frackowiak, R. S., Frith,
California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco,
C. D., & O’Keefe, J. (1998). Knowing where and getting there:
a human navigation network. Science, 280, 921–924.
CA, USA
Orban, P., Rauchs, G., Balteau, E., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., Maquet,
P., & Peigneux, P. (2006). Sleep after spatial learning promotes
covert reorganization of brain activity. Proceedings of the Synonyms
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Creativity; Passion; Self-inquiry; Transformative Edu-
103, 7124–7129.
cation; Transformative Learning
Peigneux, P., Laureys, S., Delbeuck, X., & Maquet, P. (2001). Sleeping
brain, learning brain: the role of sleep for memory systems.
Neuroreport, 12, A111–124.
Definition
Peigneux, P., Laureys, S., Fuchs, S., Collette, F., Perrin, F., Reggers, J.,
Phillips, C., Degueldre, C., Del Fiore, G., Aerts, J., Luxen, A., &
Creative Inquiry frames education as a larger manifes-
Maquet, P. (2004). Are spatial memories strengthened in tation of the creative impulse rather than as the funda-
the human hippocampus during slow-wave sleep? Neuron, 44, mentally instrumental acquisition, retention, and
535–545. reproduction of information, or Reproductive Learn-
Rauchs, G., Orban, P., Schmidt, C., Albouy, G., Balteau, E., ing (Montuori 1989, 1998, 2005, 2006, 2008). It stresses
Degueldre, C., Schnackers, C., Sterpenich, V., Tinguely, G.,
the role of ongoing inquiry, and the active creative
Luxen, A., Maquet, P., & Peigneux, P. (2008). Sleep modulates
the neural substrates of both spatial and contextual memory process of bringing forth meaning, knowledge, self,
consolidation. PLoS One, 3(8), e2949. and engagement with the world. Creative Inquiry
critiques Reproductive Learning, where the student is
an empty vessel to be filled by the instructor, and
Narcissistic Learning, which places the individual’s
Covert Speech largely unreflective and decontextualized opinions,
likes and dislikes, at the center of a subjectivist, relativ-
▶ Covert Pronunciation and Rehearsal istic world.
834 C Creative Inquiry

Theoretical Background processual, contextual, and creative processes. A musi-

Creative Inquiry reflects a larger shift in worldview cal metaphor can illustrate the difference between
from a Newtonian/Cartesian machine metaphor to Reproductive Learning and Creative Inquiry. Reproduc-
the metaphor of a creative universe (Bocchi and Ceruti tive Learning is similar to classical Western music after
2002; Davies 1989; Kauffman 2008; Kaufman 2004; 1800, where musicians learned to play their instruments
Montuori 1989). In the early twenty-first century, our to perform preexisting musical scores. Creative Inquiry
understanding of creativity itself is being transformed. is more akin to jazz. Technical competence is required,
Creativity is now central to human existence, life, and but the purpose is to learn to develop the skill of impro-
the Universe. Creativity is not, in the new view, limited visation, and to learn to explore musical themes alone
to gifted individuals, to a process that leads to a new and in collaboration with others. While reading musical
product, to a revolutionary idea of earth-shaking pro- notation for certain sections of the performance is nec-
portion, or exclusive to specific domains such as the essary, during improvisation there is no preestablished
arts and sciences. Creativity is now increasingly seen “right” set of notes, but rather an inquiry into the
as a distributed, networked, paradoxical, emergent musical text (the song) and context (including fellow
process that manifests in all aspects of life (Montuori musicians, audience, etc.) which can be approached or
2011). The fundamental nature of existence, of human framed in a plurality of ways to elicit and generate
beings, and of the Universe itself is creativity, rather a plurality of meanings (Montuori 2003). Much of the
than matter (materialism) or ideas (idealism). The jazz repertoire consists of well-worn standards from
inquirer is not a machine or an empty vessel requiring the Great American Songbook that have been played
to be filled from the “outside” by a teacher, where the by all the great legends of jazz, and yet they can be
spark of creativity is a rare and mysterious phenome- mined for more interpretations, and more remarkable
non. In Creative Inquiry, the inquirer is viewed as performances. This process brings forth a collaborative
engaged in a recursive process of exploration and cre- performance that sheds new light on the songs, the
ation of self and world. performers, and indeed on the listeners, and rekindles
Reproductive Learning reflects educators’ bor- the passion that motivates further inquiry and further
rowing of concepts from the Newtonian/Cartesian performance. There is no “ultimate” answer, and no
machine metaphor applied to the industrial organiza- edifice of knowledge that must be built, block-by-
tion of society, coupled with traditional authoritarian- block, but rather an exploration of a network of people,
ism. It was designed to reproduce the existing social events, ideas, beliefs, and assumptions, and the way
order and educate for conformity, hierarchy, division knowledge is always already embodied and created.
of labor, hyper-specialization, and the quest for cer- Creative Inquiry integrates the learner and his/her
tainty (Giroux 2007, 2010; Kincheloe 1993). Creative experience, affect, and subjectivity in the learning
Inquiry reflects scientific developments outlining the process, and invites the exploration and if necessary
fundamental creativity of the universe, nature, and unlearning of social and personal habituations that
humanity, and is informed by epistemological perspec- become unchallenged “givens” and thereby create
tives from the sciences of complexity and constructiv- implicit interpretive frameworks. Creative Inquiry
ism (Morin 2001, 2008a). As such it draws extensively also contextualizes and challenges learning. It situates
on systems and complexity science. inquiry in the social, cultural, political, and economic
Reproductive Learning privileges analysis, reduc- roots and matrices of knowledge, and explores the
tionism, disjunction, abstraction, and simplicity. Cre- criteria by which some things are considered knowl-
ative Inquiry strives to illuminate the complexity of edge and others not, as well as the creative, constructive
the world by fostering the development of transdisci- process involved in knowledge production. It, there-
plinary “complex thought” (Morin 2008a, b). It stresses fore, addresses the psychology and sociology of knowl-
the importance of connecting and contextualizing, and edge, as well the philosophy of social science.
the inquirer is recognized as an embodied and embed-
ded participant rather than spectator to life and The Epistemology of Not-Knowing
knowledge. Inquiry, learning, knowing, and knowl- Reproductive Learning begins with the assumption the
edge themselves are viewed as systemic, relational, learner is an empty vessel awaiting the delivery of
 Creative Inquiry C 835

correct knowledge from the instructor. This knowledge discipline, a foundation of skills, and immersion in
must be reproduced to the instructor’s satisfaction. the field, in the same way that a creative musician
Creative Inquiry starts from an attitude of “not- must practice scales and learn music theory. But these
knowing,” a willingness to accept the illusion of famil- are not antithetical to creativity. On the contrary, the
iarity that covers the vast mystery of existence, examine foundation in scholarship is essential in order for the C
one’s positions in the process of inquiry, and challenge creativity to emerge (Montuori 2006; Montuori and
fundamental and underlying assumptions that shape Purser 1995).
inquiry. The goal is not to conclude the process by Creative Inquiry (CI) stresses the importance of
having the correct answer, but to encourage a more immersion and active participation in an ecology of
expansive, spacious approach to inquiry that actually ideas, in the existing discourse, literature, and research
generates more potential inquiry rather than stopping (Montuori 2005). It also recognizes that embodied and
at the one “correct” answer, and illuminates the crea- embedded knowing is grounded in existing cultural,
tion of knowledge. As in a jazz group, “band members” social, and historical assumptions, theories, facts, and
are invited to make contributions that will make the beliefs, and that any action in the world is based on, and
overall sound of the band the most interesting and in fact cannot occur, without interpretations of the
surprising. The point of contributions is not to pro- world and specific situations. This knowledge is neces-
vide “the” answer, and thereby to stop the conversa- sary for participation in both discourse and practice.
tion. In the same way that band members can push For Creative Inquiry this knowledge, in the form of
a soloist to greater heights with a series of well-placed paradigms, theories, etc., shared by communities of
chords or percussive accents, or simply verbal encour- inquiry (fields, disciplines, research methods, and
agement, the object of these contributions is to push agendas), and the inquirer’s own implicit assumptions
the dialogue to greater heights and to keep it going and theories, is itself constantly the subject of inquiry,
(Montuori 2003). offering an opportunity to explore and understand the
Creative Inquiry recognizes the limitations of creation of knowledge, perspectives, positions, beliefs,
knowledge and the opportunities for different perspec- theories, for purposes of wise and creative action.
tives, frames, and approaches. This involves an attitude
of epistemological humility and fallibility that recog- Important Scientific Research and
nizes humanity’s always partial and limited under- Open Questions
standing of the world (Bernstein 1983, 2005). Even Culturally and philosophically, Creative Inquiry
more importantly, it also recognizes that not-knowing emerges as an effort to address the opposition between
is a fundamental starting point for creativity. The will- Objectivism and Relativism (Bernstein 1983, 2005).
ingness to be open to the possibility that all knowers With (objectivist) Reproductive Learning, the deter-
have a fallible interpretation of the world allows for the ministic assumption is that the environment, “objec-
emergence of multiple alternative perspectives rather tive reality,” creates the learner. In (subjectivist)
than the assumption of a fixed “given” world. Creative Narcissistic Learning, this assumption is reversed, and
Inquiry encourages constant exploration and self- captured in the popular New Age dictum “I create my
examination for attachment to positions, obsession own reality.” Creative Inquiry proposes a recursive rela-
with certainty and power, and a constant awareness of tionship where “I create a world which creates me.”
the threats of dogma and/or habituation. Above all, an Creative Inquiry is an ongoing creative process in
attitude of not-knowing allows for the space and open- which the inquirer is engaged in self-eco-creation
ness for novelty to emerge. (Montuori 2003; Morin 2008a). Creating not just
Creative Inquiry does not accept the common himself or herself, but creating a relational being
binary opposition between creativity and rigorous whose actions have an impact in an interconnected,
scholarship suggested by the Romantic mythology of interdependent social and natural context. This is
creativity. This mythology’s assumption of “genius a crucial difference with Reproductive Learning,
without learning,” so popular in the West, became where the learner is treated like an isolated cog, to be
Narcissistic Learning. Understood in a wider perspec- molded by the educational process, so as to fit in
tive, the creative process requires and includes a larger machine.
836 C Creative Inquiry

Much important research still needs to be done in The process of self-creation through Creative
the application of creativity, complex thought, and Inquiry is not relativistic, self-centered Narcissistic
co-constructivist epistemologies to education, building Learning, revolving around the learner’s subjective
on the works of Morin, Kegan, Kincheloe, Varela, and likes and dislikes, agreements and disagreements, but
others. Central to this research will be the role of the an integration and embodiment of the inquiry process
inquirer in inquiry and the strong parallels between in a practice of phronesis, defined in this context as wise
Formal Thinking (Reproductive Learning) and Post- action informed by a (self-) reflection on values, beliefs,
Formal Thinking (Creative Inquiry). Creative Inquiry’s and implicit theories. Given the assumption that crea-
improvisational dimension is also akin to the concept tivity is not an exceptional talent confined to a gifted
of expertise from Dreyfus and Dreyfus’s research few but rather the essential condition of all human
(Montuori 2003). beings, the question becomes how that creativity will
be utilized and for what purposes. Self-creation in CI,
Inquiry and/as Self-Inquiry therefore, means taking responsibility for creativity and
Creative Inquiry invites inquirers to explore what they addressing central questions pertaining to the “who,”
are passionate about, and to ground their work in this “why,” and “to what end” of inquiry. Inquiry is not
passion. This passion itself becomes a topic for inquiry a dispassionate, purely “objective” process any more
and self-reflection as inquiry becomes an opportunity but engagement, participation, and responsibility for
for developing self-knowledge. The inquirer is not creation. It is an action in the world, and as such has
a spectator to the world, but embodied and embed- repercussions in the world and ethical consequences, as
ded, an active participant in knowledge-creation and well as being motivated by human passions and social,
praxis. Particular attention is paid to espoused theory political, and economic dimensions.
and theory-in-use, to dialogue between the inquirer’s
views and the research literature, and through dialogue Cross-References
with the perspectives of other co-inquirers. Every ▶ Creativity and its Nature
inquiry becomes self-inquiry in an ongoing process of ▶ Narcissistic Learning
unearthing one’s own implicit theories and assump- ▶ Reproductive Learning
tions, and in turn how they may be related to one’s own
personal history, sense of identity, attachments to References
beliefs and ideologies, and so on. Bernstein, R. (1983). Beyond objectivism and relativism. Science,
A central dimension of Creative Inquiry is the hermeneutics, and practice. Philadelphia: University of
self-reflection on this creative process of knowledge- Pennsylvania Press.
making and knowledge-embodying. Knowledge and Bernstein, R. (2005). The abuse of evil: Politics and religion after 9/11.
Malden: Polity.
concepts are viewed as creative products of the
Bocchi, G., & Ceruti, M. (2002). The narrative universe. Cresskill:
human mind (Deleuze and Guattari 1994) that can be Hampton.
challenged and opened up to reveal underlying Davies, P. (1989). The cosmic blueprint. New discoveries in nature’s
assumptions and the way they define, organize, and creative ability to order the Universe. New York: Simon and
determine knowledge. Theories, frameworks, and so Schuster.
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1994). What is philosophy? New York:
forth illuminate some dimensions of the world and
Columbia University Press.
obscure or ignore others, and are inevitably limited
Giroux, H. A. (2007). The university in chains: Confronting the
and partial. CI views concepts as creative products. It military-industrial-academic complex. Boulder: Paradigm.
frames inquiry into concepts (theories, paradigms, Giroux, H. A. (2010). Education and the crisis of public values. New
beliefs, etc.) and actions (as embodiments of theories, York: Peter Lang.
paradigms, etc.) as inquiries into the creative process of Kauffman, S. A. (2008). Reinventing the sacred. A new view of science,
reason, and the sacred. New York: Basic Books.
concept-creation. CI is radical in the sense that it
Kaufman, G. D. (2004). In the beginning. . .creativity. Minneapolis:
addresses the underlying roots and matrices from Augsburg Fortress Publishers.
which knowledge emerges, as well as the organization Kincheloe, J. (1993). Toward a critical politics of teacher thinking.
of knowledge and knowledge of organization. Mapping the postmodern. Westport: Bergin & Gray.
 Creativity and Its Nature C 837

Montuori, A. (1989). Evolutionary competence: Creating the future.

Amsterdam: Gieben. Creativity
Montuori, A. (1998). Creative inquiry: From instrumental knowing
to love of knowledge. In J. Petranker (Ed.), Light of knowledge. ▶ Composition Learning in Music Education
Oakland: Dharma Publishing. ▶ Creative Inquiry
Montuori, A. (2003). The complexity of improvisation and the ▶ Imaginative Learning C
improvisation of complexity. Social science, art, and creativity.
Human Relations, 56(2), 237–255.
Montuori, A. (2005). Literature review as creative inquiry. Reframing
scholarship as a creative process. Journal of Transformative Edu-
cation, 3(4), 374–393.
Montuori, A. (2006). The quest for a new education: from opposi-
Creativity and Its Nature
tional identities to creative inquiry. ReVision, 28(3), 4–20.
Montuori, A. (2008). The joy of inquiry. Journal of Transformative ALFONSO MONTUORI
Education, 6(1), 8–27. Department of Transformative Inquiry, California
Montuori, A. (2011). Systems approach. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA, USA
(Eds.), The encyclopedia of creativity. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Montuori, A., & Purser, R. (1995). Deconstructing the lone genius
myth: towards a contextual view of creativity. Journal of Human-
istic Psychology, 35(3), 69–112.
Synonyms
Morin, E. (2001). Seven complex lessons in education for the future. Ingenuity; Innovation; Inspiration; Inventiveness;
Paris: UNESCO. Originality
Morin, E. (2008a). On complexity. Cresskill: Hampton.
Morin, E. (2008b). The reform of thought, transdisciplinarity, and Definition
the reform of the university. In B. Nicolescu (Ed.), Transdisci- Creativity has traditionally been seen as an ability to
plinarity. Theory and practice (pp. 23–32). Cresskill: Hampton.
respond adaptively to the needs for new approaches
and new products. It is often defined as the ability to
bring something new into existence purposefully. The
concept of creativity has expanded and changed in the
Creative Leap last decade. In the sciences, creativity is increasingly
being viewed as intrinsic to the very nature of the
▶ Mental Leap Universe. A new emphasis on “everyday” and “social”
creativity is shifting the focus from individual genius in
rarified fields (fine arts, advanced science) to collabo-
rative creativity in everyday life, with implications for
learning and education that are only beginning to be
Creative Problem Solving explored.
▶ Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling
Theoretical Background
Historically, creativity has not been fostered in educa-
tional contexts (Plucker et al. 2004; Robinson 2001).
Until the twenty-first century, this was largely because
Creative Thinking creativity itself was poorly understood, and because
creativity is generally associated with disruptions and
▶ Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking challenges to the existing order. Creativity was not con-
sidered a phenomenon that could be scientifically
explained or fostered, and there was also no sense that
creativity was an essential capacity and competence for
Creative Thinking in Music human beings. The importance of creativity has become
prominent for a number of reasons, including its adap-
▶ Composition Learning in Music Education tive nature for individuals and societies in a rapidly
838 C Creativity and Its Nature

changing world. Driven by a combination of post- the arts or science to consider herself creative or to be
materialist conditions in many technologically advanced engaged in an enterprise that was labeled as creative by
countries and the explosion of the discourse of self-help others. This meant that creativity could only “exist”
and personal growth, there is also an increasing desire for in a limited number of human activities. In the West
self-expression and self-creation as individuals break out and many other parts of the world, women were tra-
of traditionally established careers and life-paths. It is ditionally not given extensive access to these activities.
also often the case that with rapid technological and For example, in the arts, no musical performances in
economic change, many new professions are emerging public, no study with nude models, and in the sci-
as old ones become obsolete and fall by the wayside. ences, limited access to education and explicit exclu-
Individuals and communities therefore have to reinvent sion from many areas. Women were therefore not in
themselves. Self-creation has become a major societal a position to be considered creative because they sim-
process where creativity takes center stage (Bauman ply could not participate in the activities that were
2008). societally labeled as creative (Eisler and Montuori
The concept of creativity emerged in the West in the 2007). This characterization of creativity therefore
Renaissance, along with individualism, and blossomed made it a very unusual, subjective, contingent phenom-
with the Genius myth of Romanticism. Until the 1980s, enon that was limited to very few individuals during
research on creativity in the West focused primarily on rare moments of inspiration in a closely circumscribed
the three Ps: Person, Process, and Product (Runco set of human endeavors.
2007). In the romantic mythology underlying this Creativity was a puzzling phenomenon in Moder-
atomistic view, the creative person was mostly a lone, nity. The Modern scientific worldview was based on
eccentric genius. The “Who” of creativity could there- a machine or clockwork metaphor in which the world
fore only be an individual person. Groups, organiza- was fundamentally Objective, Rational, and Orderly.
tions, cultures, and relationships were representatives Creativity on the other hand was either associated
of conformity and compliance, and were mostly viewed with subjective experience, the irrationality of mystical
as potential obstacles. insight or a breakdown in Order and hence with Dis-
The “How” of creativity consequently occurred order, whether socially or personally (mental illness,
exclusively “inside” the individual. The classic image of revolution). Creativity was viewed as essentially con-
the creative process involved a light bulb going on over tingent and subjective, rather than a lawful, orderly,
the creator’s head during the Eureka moment. The crea- and objective phenomenon. Science itself could there-
tive process was viewed as a solitary process, initially with fore not account for creativity. The creativity of scien-
mystical or divine sources, and then also increasingly tists did not begin to be systematically addressed until
associated with mental unbalance or even psychopathol- the 1950s as part of the larger emergence of systematic
ogy. The focus of the How was on the generation of creativity research. In his important work The Logic of
the idea, not the process leading up to the idea or how Scientific Discovery, philosopher of science Karl Popper
the idea would become a reality. The “What” or creative stressed the context of justification, and did not in fact
product was associated with “big bang,” earthshaking discuss discovery itself, which was, because of it sub-
insights (Montuori and Purser 1999; Runco 2004, jectivity and contingency, not considered amenable to
2007). Educational institutions and educators were scientific inquiry. By leaving the context of discovery to
not meant to cultivate the insights of genius, but merely psychologists, he was essentially dismissing it as a wor-
to reproduce a certain foundational knowledge base thy subject for science and philosophy, and hence seri-
and social system. The “Where” of creativity was ous inquiry (Popper 2002).
almost exclusively the arts and sciences, and in the Mainstream education mostly did not address cre-
latter mostly physics (Montuori 2011). ativity, because it was considered a gift of unique indi-
If having the Creative Person as the unit of analysis viduals rather than a quality or characteristic that could
by definition ruled out creativity as a possibility for be cultivated, and also because the social and political
educational settings, the Where of creativity by defini- purpose of education was to create good law-abiding
tion made it virtually impossible for somebody not in citizens and workers, not independent thinkers. When
 Creativity and Its Nature C 839

the systematic and scientific study of creativity by The new, contextual and collaborative approach
psychologists was ushered in by J.P. Guildford’s Presi- to creativity by the younger generation is matched in
dential address at the American Psychological Associa- the research by a new research interest in the social
tion meeting in 1950, this was part of a larger Cold dimensions of creativity (Montuori 2011; Montuori &
War climate. The main concern was to reestablish Purser 1999). There is a move away from an essentialist C
American scientific supremacy. No effort was made to view of creativity to one that is relational and contex-
foster creativity in all students. Greater attention was tual. The emphasis on these dimensions of creativity
paid to creativity by finding the “best and the brightest” may be significant for education. Traditionally foster-
so they could be given special attention and their gifts ing creativity meant removing exceptional students
nurtured. from their educational context. Their exceptional
Despite the now truly substantial research literature nature was the starting point, but essentially the result
on creativity (Runco 2004, 2007), its impact on educa- of contingency and individual characteristics, and not
tion has been slim. At the beginning of the twenty-first replicable. Historically, there has been little research on
century, numerous critiques of education across all the creation of environments that foster creativity
levels bemoan the lack of creativity, and the focus on across the board for all students (Amabile 1996). The
Reproductive Learning that stresses memorization, focus on the social dimensions of creativity is showing
test-taking, and conformity (Robinson 2001). In the that creativity is also a function of certain kinds of
USA, the Ph.D. dissertation is supposed to be an orig- environments.
inal contribution to one’s field, but tellingly originality Creativity has been consistently mythologized and
and creativity are barely ever discussed during the misunderstood. Educational attempts to go beyond
educational process, unless it is in the context of pla- traditional Reproductive Learning and foster creativity
giarism (Montuori 2010). Research on the difficulties have at times veered perilously into Narcissistic Learn-
American doctoral students have completing their ing, valorizing the subjective, the unusual, and self-
degree found that in large part, the educational system expression at the expense of traditional competencies.
simply does not prepare students to be independent Typical was the left brain/right brain fad of the 70s
researchers (Lovitts 2005). and 80s. It seemed to suggest that the “right brain”
(the non-dominant hemisphere) was all that was
Important Scientific Research and needed for creativity, and the “left brain” was simply
Open Questions a hindrance. Research conclusively shows that creativ-
There are strong indications that in the twenty-first ity involves both hemispheres. Yet it is the simplicity
century, the discourse and practices of creativity itself of the right brain explanation that is so appealing and
may be changing. From the Modern individualistic also so misleading. The underlying dichotomizing is
focus oriented to “eminent” or uncontroversial crea- the same kind of thinking that leads to Narcissistic
tives producing exceptional products (Einstein, Learning and the promotion of a trivial creativity
Picasso, etc.), there has been a shift toward a more that is exclusively self-expressive but not contextually
collaborative, “everyday,” ecological creativity. The appropriate. Indeed when creativity is viewed through
focus is on generative interactions in a variety of a binary logic and decontextualized, it is trivialized and
mundane contexts, rather than the individual lone mutilated.
genius. Millennial college students associate creativity The emerging research on and practices of creativ-
with everyday activities, and with social interaction. ity can be summarized as proposing that:
Whereas for Baby Boomers, creativity came from “emi-
1. Creativity is the fundamental nature of the Universe,
nent creatives” in the form of the guitar of Jimi Hendrix
the process of creation itself, rather the spark of an
or the pens of Herman Hesse or Thomas Pynchon, in
occasional (C)creator, and is therefore a basic “every-
today’s “participatory” culture (Jenkins 2009), the
day, everyone, everywhere” human capacity.
focus is not so much “eminent creatives,” but partici-
2. Creativity is a networked, ecological, and relational
patory processes in video games like Beaterator, and the
process rather than an isolated phenomenon.
Garageband music application.
840 C Creativity and Learning Resources

3. Creativity is paradoxical; in the characteristics of

the creative person, process, product, and environ- Creativity and Learning
ment are found seemingly incompatible terms: Resources
Creativity requires both order and disorder, rigor
and imagination, hard work and play, idea genera- ALESSANDRO ANTONIETTI1, BARBARA COLOMBO2
1
tion and idea selection, times of introspection and Department of Psychology, Catholic University of
solitude and times of interaction and exchange. the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
2
4. Creativity is an emergent process arising out of inter- Department of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
actions of a given system and therefore unpredictable. Laboratory, Catholic University of Sacred Heart,
Milan, Italy
The challenge facing education is to integrate the
new creativity research, and at the same time recognize
that creativity should not merely be an interesting or Synonyms
appealing “add-on” to education, situated mainly in Creativity program; Creativity training
the arts, but that it should in fact be at the heart of
education (Montuori 2010).
Definition
Cross-References Two main approaches can be followed in order to lead
▶ Creative Inquiry people to learn to be creative (Parnes and Harding
▶ Narcissistic Learning 1972). The first approach originates from suggestions
▶ Reproductive Learning provided by progressive and active pedagogies and,
more specifically, by learning through discovery. The
References main purpose is to arrange learning settings to induce
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview. individuals to express personal ideas, to freely imagine
Bauman, Z. (2008). The art of life. London: Polity. unusual situations, to look for new and not obvious
Eisler, R., & Montuori, A. (2007). Creativity, society, and the hidden solutions to problems. Usually no specific materials are
subtext of gender: A new contextualized approach. World devised for these aims; educators are generally invited
Futures: The Journal General Evolution, 63(7), 479–499.
to modify traditional ways of managing learning activ-
Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture:
Media education for the 21st century. Boston: The MIT. ities by paying attention to their attitudes and commu-
Lovitts, B. E. (2005). Being a good course-taker is not enough: nication styles, so to create a climate which facilitates
A theoretical perspective on the transition to independent learners’ expressivity and ideational fluency (Barron
research. Studies in Higher Education, 30(2), 137–154. 1968). The second approach consists in employing
Montuori, A. (2010). Research and the research degree: Transdisci-
sets of exercises useful for stimulating creative forms
plinarity and creative inquiry. In M. Maldonato & R. Pietrobon
(Eds.), Research on scientific research: A transdisciplinary study
of thinking. For instance, learners are asked to devise
(pp. 110–135). Brighton/Portland: Sussex Academic. several ways to use a given tool, to figure out possible
Montuori, A. (2011). Social psychology. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker ends of an uncompleted tale, to find alternative linguis-
(Eds.), The encyclopedia of creativity. Amsterdam: Elsevier. tic expressions for the situations described. Funny
Montuori, A., & Purser, R. E. (Eds.). (1999). Social creativity (Vol. 1). games, curious experiments, and practical trials are
Cresskill: Hampton.
employed to stimulate creativity (e.g., De Bono 1985),
Plucker, J. A., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. T. (2004). Why isn’t
creativity more important to educational psychologists? Poten- sometimes through the manipulation of concrete
tials, pitfalls, and future directions in creativity research. Educa- materials, graphical signs, and visual patterns.
tional Psychologist, 39(2), 83–96.
Popper, K. (2002). The logic of scientific discovery. New York:
Routledge.
Theoretical Background
Robinson, K. (2001). Out of our minds: Learning to be creative. Six main questionable assumptions seem to be shared
London: Capstone. by many of the past attempts to enhance people’s
Runco, M. (2004). Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, creativity:
657–687.
Runco, M. (2007). Creativity: Theories and themes: Research, develop- 1. Creativity consists of a unique mental mechanism;
ment, and practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier. thus, people can be trained in such a single
 Creativity and Learning Resources C 841

mechanism. For instance, a single creative tech- metacognition in the acquisition of new competencies
nique like brainstorming (Osborn 1957) – one of has to be highlighted.
the best known creativity techniques, focused on
the free, abundant production of bizarre ideas in
Important Scientific Research and
order to promote innovation – could be used as a
Open Questions C
In order to produce in trainees a stable aptitude to
general tool for developing creative ideas and skills.
think and behave creatively in extra-training contexts,
2. Trainees are like a tabula rasa, that is, before being
it seems that educational tools should:
instructed, they know virtually nothing about how
to be creative; they have no idea or opinion about 1. Develop an integrated structure of various mental
creative strategies and are not able to control them. mechanisms, each playing a role in a particular kind
All this has to be “imprinted” into their allegedly of situation or in a particular phase of the creative
empty minds. process
3. Even though trainees are instructed with non- 2. Use materials that mimic real-life situations or, at
ecologically valid materials (such as puzzles, rid- least, help trainees to recognize the relationship
dles, and so on), the training programs can succeed between the training tasks and such situations
in prompting the subsequent spontaneous transfer 3. Consider individuals’ spontaneous beliefs and ten-
of creative strategies to everyday situations. dencies toward creative thinking and start teaching
4. The development of creative thinking can be in- from their naı̈ve creative competencies, with the
duced by simply asking trainees to perform a specific hope of changing spontaneous beliefs, tendencies,
mental operation a given number of times. In other and strategies by means of an internal restructuring
words, getting some practice in executing an opera- process
tion should be sufficient to allow people to learn it. 4. Show a metacognitive sensibility, that is, train
5. Creativity is only a matter of cognitive processes; learners not only to execute creative strategies, but
therefore, trainees must be taught only to activate also to control their execution (for instance, to
particular kinds of cognitive operations, without select the strategy to be applied and to monitor its
any reference to the complex interaction of these application)
operations with other cognitive processes, emotion, 5. Encourage a creative attitude, e.g., encourage
motivation, and the context. learners to accept the risks and discomforts that
6. Creativity can be promoted as a general ability, creativity involves, to avoid the tendency to stick
without making reference to specific domains. to familiar responses and to induce students to look
for novelty
Given these assumptions, it is not surprising that
the traditional programs designed to stimulate creativ- Various attempts to integrate cognitive, emotional,
ity often failed to reach their goals. In fact, ordinary and personality aspects of thinking have been made.
situations where creative thinking is needed are usually A constructivist point of view – aimed at substituting
complex situations that involve multiple mental oper- the spontaneous beliefs and tendencies of an individual
ations. Furthermore, in everyday life explicit hints to with new and evolved strategies by means of an internal
employ the relevant strategy are seldom given, so that restructuring process – is shared by many contempo-
individuals need to be able to identify the specific rary creativity programs. The features of current train-
features of the situation in question and choose the ing materials are in agreement with the issues discussed
appropriate way to deal with it. Finally, individuals previously. First, they induce individuals to learn a set
must not only know how to think creatively, but also of reasoning strategies that can result in a creative way
must want, that is, be inclined or motivated, to process of thinking. Further, they make people aware of the
situations creatively. These remarks stressed the need strategies they employ, of their relevance, of their ben-
for a different approach to promote creativity. More efits and costs. In other words, the programs stimulate
precisely, various components have to be identified in a metacognitive attitude. They also try to encourage
creativity; more attention to common reasoning and autonomy in the management of thinking strategies.
to complex real-life situations is required; the role of Moreover, the critical situations where learners are
842 C Creativity in Music

trained to be creative are real situations or have obvious References

counterparts in real life. Finally, the application of a Antonietti, A. (1997). Unlocking creativity. Educational Leadership,
given thinking technique is linked to the development 54(6), 73–75.
of a corresponding attitude, such as: to be open to the Barron, F. (1968). Creativity and personal freedom. Princeton: Van
Nostrand.
experience, to recognize the emotional states, to look
De Bono, E. (1985). Six thinking hats. Toronto: Mica Management
for novelty, or to accept contradictions. Resources.
Experimental investigations carried out to test the Gardner, H. (1991). To open minds. New York: Basic Books.
validity of such training materials generally showed Osborn, A. F. (1957). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures
that a larger increase of creativity scores is found in of creative thinking. New York: Scribner.
Parnes, S. J., & Harding, H. F. (Eds.). (1972). A source book for creative
the training conditions as compared to the control
thinking. New York: Scribner.
conditions. Learning materials are more effective
when implemented by ad hoc instructed educators,
who were trained to control their feeling, attitudes,
and communication patterns. In general, a clear supe-
riority of well-structured programs over simple and
Creativity in Music
isolated tasks emerges. In particular, highly creative ▶ Composition Learning in Music Education
individuals increase their creativity levels only when
a well-structured intervention is carried out by expert
trainers (Antonietti 1997). In conclusion, people can
learn to be creative. Such learning is possible, how-
Creativity Program
ever, only if educators employ instructional materials
that are consistent with the complex nature of crea- ▶ Creativity and Learning Resources
tivity stressed by recent research and that involve
learning procedures that are not based simply on
repetitive activities. To do so, training materials
should allow learners: Creativity Test
1. To know various creative strategies and the condi-
▶ Measurement of Creativity
tions under which each of them is adequate
2. To be aware of the mental operation that they are
activating in order to monitor its application
3. To recognize the attitudes and emotions that
accompany the implementation of a creative strat-
Creativity Training
egy and to adopt such attitudes and emotions ▶ Creativity and Learning Resources
The final message that can be drawn from recent
investigations is that a particular learning environment
is needed and that creativity requires a global involve-
ment of individuals, who should be taught to manage Creativity, Problem Solving,
by themselves the mental mechanisms that promote and Feeling
creativity (Gardner 1991).
CAROL R. ALDOUS
Cross-References School of Education, Flinders University, Adelaide,
▶ Analogy/Analogies SA, Australia
▶ Climate of Learning
▶ Curiosity and Exploration
▶ Flexibility in Learning and Problem Solving Synonyms
▶ Measurement of Creativity Affect; Cognitive and noncognitive processes; Creative
▶ Problem Solving Teaching problem solving; Intuition
 Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling C 843

Definition But from where do new ideas come? How do they

The terms “▶ creativity,” “▶ problem solving,” and arise? Do feeling and intuition have a part to play?
“▶ feeling” are used in scholarly writing of psychology Finding answers to questions such as these represents
in ways similar to that employed in popular writing but within itself a unique set of novel problems, problems
with some refinement. Derived from the Latin creatus which have lain at the heart of creativity research for C
“to make or produce,” creativity is defined as “the more than 50 years.
production of effective novelty.” The word produc- Following the dropping of the atomic bomb and
tion implies that some act or action is involved. Thus the advent of the cold war period during the last cen-
within the field of cognition, the act of creation or the tury, the identification and selection of creative indi-
creative process is studied. However, other psycholog- viduals, particularly within the domain of mathematics
ical orientations such as the “creative person,” the “cre- and science were seen as a means of fast tracking West-
ative product,” and the “creative environment” are also ern nations into a place of technological advantage.
investigated. Central to each orientation however, is Thus, the secrets of novel problem solving were to be
the assumption that the novelty produced is useful unraveled through studies of the creative person capa-
and meaningful. Thus for example, the creation of a ble of generating a creative product (viz: the high end,
scientific idea may be considered useful, the creation of genius, or “big C” creativity). However, the early find-
an artistic work meaningful. ings of large-scale investigations proved confounding
Within the cognitive tradition, the term “problem- (as Terman’s studies attest) and the nature of creativity
solving” refers to the set of thinking processes or proved itself to be more complex than first thought
actions involved in the solving of a problem. Problems and so this initial flurry of research activity waned
may be routine or novel. Routine problem solving (Taylor 1988).
involves moving from a given state to a goal state The rapid expansion of information and commu-
based on a solution plan primed from similar past nication technologies during the final decades of the
experiences. In contrast, novel problem solving entails twentieth century and into the twenty-first century
the problem solver moving from a given state to a goal however, together with the growth of business and
state by inventing the solution procedure. Within the industry in a globalized market place has once again
field of creativity research, the problems to be solved seen the reemergence of creativity as an important
are assumed to be novel. field of research. Working this time from a more egal-
The term “feeling” refers to an element of the affec- itarian perspective, that perceived creativity as being
tive domain. It may be interpreted to mean a sensing not just for a favored few but for everyone (Viz: the
of a physical and or cognitive state and may be sharply small end, everyday, “little c” creativity) the foci of
or vaguely experienced depending on context. Thus creativity research grew to encompass aspects of the
one may not only have a feeling of an emotion but creative environment and the creative process and their
also a feeling of cognition (i.e., feeling about thinking) interactions. Creativity, it is noted was to offer hope
concerning a particular entity, activity, or event. in finding workable solutions to complex problems.
Feelings of cognition arise in concert with mental Consequently, interest in creativity in the education
processing that may be conscious or nonconscious sector has proliferated as Guilford had previously
and occur simultaneously or successively. It is to this foreshadowed. Writing in the inaugural issue of the
feeling of cognition within the context of a creative Journal of Creative Behavior, Guilford (1967 p.13)
problem-solving situation that the current entry refers. propounded that “creativity is the key to education in
its fullest sense and to the solution of mankind’s most
Theoretical Background serious problems.”
The theoretical relationship between creativity, prob- Of particular note has been the proliferation of
lem solving, and feeling is not a simple one and neces- process models of creative problem solving spurred on
sitates understanding changing theoretical perspectives partly by business and industry in which education has
on the nature of creativity and how to undertake its played a part. Building on the classic stage model
research. After all, innovation and enterprise depend (Wallas 1926) which included the phases of prepara-
for their success on the development of new ideas. tion, incubation, illumination, and verification have
844 C Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling

been Shaw’s (1989) model of the “Eureka process,” many orientations (Sternberg 2005) requiring a range
Finke et al.’s (1992) “Geneplore” model, Amabile’s of methodological approaches (Mumford 2003) and
(1996) “Componential” model, and Cropley’s (2001) incorporating different disciplinary perspectives.
“Holistic” model to mention but a few. Some of these Reporting on a series of investigations conducted into
process models expand upon the number of stages the nature of scientific creativity more than half a
given in the classic model, while others collapse them century ago, Taylor (1988, pp. 99) concluded that “cre-
into broader categories preferring instead to describe ativity is a very complex human performance” involv-
a wider range of substages or processes. However of ing “all aspects of a person’s response repertoire.” Such
these process models mentioned, only two of them (viz: a response repertoire, must by definition involve both
Shaw and Cropley) highlight the role of affect in the cognitive (thinking) and noncognitive (feeling) com-
creative process. Interestingly, Shaw identified a series ponents. Traditionally however, the field of cognitive
of feedback loops arising between each phase of the psychology has focused solely on the cognitive pro-
classic model and linked them to a set of affect states cesses. This begs the question “What makes creative
both positive and negative in the creative process. problem solving creative?”
Each loop was named after the creativity researcher At a microscopic level of inquiry, recent advances
responsible for theorizing its presence. While Shaw in neuroscience have shed new light on the role of
hypothesized the presence of five such loops (including noncognitive processes in human reasoning and con-
the “Rossman loop” that feeds back from all previous sciousness, revolutionizing thinking concerning the
stages in the model), he speculated the presence of role of feeling and intuition in solving novel prob-
many more. The proposed existence of multiple feed- lems. Working with brain-damaged patients, Damasio
back loops, operating simultaneously and successively, (1994) found individuals, who having presented with
both consciously and non-consciously, over n parallel normal IQ, language ability, and learning capacity,
paths, is consistent with neural network models of the being unable to solve problems, due to impairment of
brain. A diagram showing Shaw’s feedback loops the feeling function within the brain. Damasio goes on
superimposed onto the classic model of creative prob- to describe three kinds of feeling, notably feelings of
lem solving is given in Fig. 1. basic universal emotions, feelings of subtle universal
emotions, as well as background feelings. These feelings
Important Scientific Research and arising from the complex interplay of the brain core
Open Questions (viz: hindbrain, midbrain, and limbic systems) and the
However, despite the rhetoric, or perhaps because of it, cerebral cortex, provide a picture of the body’s internal
the question still remains as to why creativity defies state justa-positioned with information received about
complete explanation and why its nature continues the external one. Such feeling is essential to human
to remain elusive. Working at a macroscopic level survival and consciousness. According to Damasio,
of analysis, recent research would seem to indicate feelings are just as cognitive as other precepts and are
that a confluence of components is needed involving essential for being able to move through a decision

Solving a
Novel Problem Rossman Loop
Rossman Loop
Rossman Loop
Areti Loop Vinacke Loop Lalas Loop Communication
Loop
Intimation
“A ha”
Playing experiencing Verifying
Preparing Incubating Illuminating Elaborating Outcome

Creativity, Problem Solving, and Feeling. Fig. 1 Diagram of the classic model of creative problem solving superimposed
with Shaw’s feedback loops
 Crime C 845

making space. Thus, while the traditional view may concert to express a whole raft of mental processes be
have been that feelings interfere with an individual’s they cognitive or not.
ability to solve problems, this old adage failed to point
out that in the absence of feeling an individual is Cross-References
unlikely to solve the problem at all. ▶ Complex Problem Solving C
Evidence of individuals attending to a feeling of ▶ Consciousness and Emotion
cognition in solving novel problems is to be found ▶ Problem Solving
in the historical accounts of notable scientists and ▶ Nature of Creativity
mathematicians. Henri Poincaré, for example, des-
cribes an inner aesthetic feeling guiding his response References
to a new intellectual order, Albert Einstein describes Aldous, C. R. (2009). The genesis of new ideas: Models, feeling and
a feeling of direction sensed visually, going toward solutions. In B. Matthews & T. Gibbons (Eds.), The Process of
something concrete, while Nobel Prize winner Barbara research in education: A festschrift in honour of John P. Keeves
(pp. 338–366). Adelaide, SA: Shannon Research Press.
McClintock, describes a feeling of affinity guiding
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context: Update to the social
observation into the making of new “insights.” In psychology of creativity. Boulder, CO: Westview.
each of these examples, attention to feeling is integral Cropley, A. J. (2001). Creativity in education and learning a guide for
to the creative problem-solving process and the devel- teachers and educators. London: Kogan Page.
opment of new ideas. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion reason and the
human brain. London: Papermac.
In the light of evidence such as this, it is perhaps
Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B., & Smith, S. M. (1992). Creative cognition:
interesting to note the findings of a recent large- Theory, research and application. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
scale study of creative problem solving indicating Guilford, J. P. (1967). Creativity: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. The
that students who attended to a feeling approach to Journal of Creative Behavior, 1(1), 3–14.
reasoning were more likely to be successful in solv- Horstman, J. (2010). The scientific American brave new brain.
ing a novel mathematics problem than those who San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mumford, M. D. (2003). Where have we been, where are we going?
did not. In this study, it was inferred that feelings
taking stock in creativity research. Creativity Research Journal, 15
of cognition served to assist the successful novel (2 & 3), 107–120.
problem solver through the problem-solving space Shaw, M. P. (1989). The Eureka process: A structure for the creative
(Aldous 2009). experience in Science and Engineering. Creativity Research Jour-
Any discussion about the origin of ideas and the nal, 2, 286–298.
Sternberg, R. J. (2005). Creativity or creativities. International Journal
solving of novel problems, however, would not be com-
of Human Computer Studies, 63, 170–382.
plete without making mention of the debate concerning Taylor, C. W. (1988). Various approaches to and definitions of crea-
which process arises first, feeling or thinking. One group tivity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity: Contem-
of proponents contend that noncognitive (feeling) and porary psychological perspectives (pp. 99–121). New York, NY:
cognitive (thinking) processing operate as independent Cambridge University Press.
systems and that decisions can be made instantaneously Wallas, C. (1926). The art of thought. New York: Harcourt brace.

based on a judgment of feeling. Another group of pro-

ponents argue that cognitive processing or appraisal
always precedes a noncognitive response and by infer-
ence therefore all responses are initially cognitive. Credibility Judgments
On the face of things it would seem that both pro-
ponents cannot be correct. However in the light of ▶ Children’s Critical Assessment of the Reliability of
rapid new developments in the fields of cognition and Others
neuroscience where the human brain, in response to
both the environment and the activities of the mind, is
found to change second by second Horstman (2010), it
may well be that both proponents are correct. What is Crime
needed is a broader more interdisciplinary understand-
ing of how the mind, brain, and body function in ▶ Delinquency and Learning Disabilities
846 C Criminal Autistic Psychopathy

References
Criminal Autistic Psychopathy Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Cambridge:
Polity Press.
▶ Diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome Fairclough, N. (2000). Discourse, social theory and social research:
the discourse of welfare reform. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4,
163–195.

Crisis Incubation
▶ Barriers to Organizational Learning
Critical Events in Learning
▶ Critical Learning Incidents

Criterion-Referenced
Assessment
When a student’s performance is assessed according to
Critical Learning Incidents
how well the performance meets certain preset stan-
HANNU SOINI
dards or criteria. This is as opposed to norm-referenced
Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher
assessment (NRA) that assesses a student’s perfor-
Education, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
mance accordingly to how well it compares with those
of other students.

Cross-References Synonyms
Critical events in learning
▶ Learning Criteria, Learning Outcomes, and Assess-
ment Criteria
Definition
Critical learning incidents are learning situations which
learners have experienced as effective, exceptional, or
personally meaningful. Critical learning incidents may
Critical Discourse lead to educationally significant learning and personal
growth. The term critical refers to the fact that the
The confirmation by the learner of a best judgment by circumstances described in the incident play an impor-
discussing assumptions, realizations, and solutions tant role in determining the outcome of learning. Typ-
with other adults. ical of these experiences is that critical characters of an
incident are described by the learners themselves. This
means that incidents include a multitude of different
kinds of activity and that incidents can only become
critical afterward.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Also known as CDA, is a form of discourse analysis that Theoretical Background
focuses on the ways in which discourses serve as means The study of critical incidents has a long history in
of social and political domination. Developed in the psychology (Butterfield et al. 2005). Flanagan (1954)
last decades by Norman Fairclough, CDA is an inter- developed the critical incident technique (CIT) during
disciplinary approach unified by foundational assump- World War II as a means to gain understanding of the
tion about the links between language and power rather causes of airplane crashes. In 1954, Flanagan published
than by a well-defined set of analytic techniques. an article on the critical incident technique, describing
 Critical Learning Incidents C 847

the origins of the method and a flexible set of principles the emphasis is on specific situations and incidents.
which must be followed in order to capture a detailed Instead of writing about abstract concepts, respon-
description of the incident. According to Flanagan, a dents concentrate on describing particular happenings,
critical incident is any activity that is sufficiently com- which are much easier to report than are general
plete in itself to permit predictions to be made about definitions or underlying assumptions. An additional C
the person performing the act (Flanagan 1954, p. 335). advantage of the critical incident technique is that
To be critical, an incident must occur in a situation subjects are talking about themselves without being
where the purpose or intent seems fairly clear to the consciously aware of it. While students are not being
observer. The critical incident technique presumes that asked directly to articulate their ideas or conceptions
participants’ general assumptions are embedded in, of learning, the choice of examples really reveals essen-
and can be inferred from, their specific descriptions tial features about their own ideas and experiences
of particular incidents. of learning.
Recently, the study of critical learning incidents has Woods (1993) has reported several benefits that
been based on the assumption that in order to under- critical incidents possess for the understanding of
stand human learning, we should better take into the nature of student learning. In critical incidents,
account both personal experience and social context learning is integrated in the self, because it is based
as the most essential factors of the learning process. on students’ personal needs and goals. Through per-
Hofer and Pintrich (1997) have assumed that the tra- sonal experiences, students have a real possibility to
ditional research methods in learning might predeter- construct their own view about reality. Learners also
mine approaches of the learning study to focus on the have a large amount of control over their own behavior
dimensions important for the researcher and exclude in learning settings. In other words, students are the
more personally salient perspectives. For example, owners of the products of the learning process.
when studying learning from the learner’s point of The benefit of critical incidents in the analysis of
view, students’ short stories might better describe learners’ personal views on learning is twofold. Firstly,
their ideas about learning, rather than just asking they give insight into learners’ everyday practices. Sec-
them to define the concept of learning. In stories, ondly, describing specific situations, events, and people
students have to locate their learning experience in is much less demanding or threatening for students
everyday situations and to describe it from their per- than being asked to define their general assumptions
sonal point of view. When learning is described in the about or abstract definitions of learning. Brookfield
form of a story, it is constituted as a changing, contex- (1994) believes that the critical incident technique is
tual, and personally meaningful sequence of events. especially appropriate for teachers or other people who
In the study of critical incidents, narrative metaphor are interested in developing the learning of others.
may be used from the retrospective perspective. That
is, students construct their experiences about learning Important Scientific Research and
afterward into the shape of a story. Learning itself may Open Questions
be a chaotic or unconscious process, but through tell- The benefit of critical incident studies rests on the
ing their experiences, students give logical form to their assumption that concrete learning experiences offer
idea of the process of learning. an adequate way to understand learning from the
learner’s point of view. However, the investigation of
Contribution to the Field of Learning critical learning incidents has many methodological
In recent years, the educational power and usefulness of challenges. According to Butterfield et al. (2005) the
critical learning incidents has become evident for many future of critical incident studies is “rooted in the
researchers. Critical incident studies have been used as past, which entails striking the right balance between
the basis for curriculum design in many areas of health respecting technique’s method as articulated by
sciences, teacher education, and the service industry. Flanagan(1954), and embracing its inherent flexibility
According to Brookfield (1994), the advantage of the that allows researchers to adapt it for use across myriad
critical incident method in the field of learning is that disciplines and research questions” (p. 489).
848 C Critical Reflection

Cross-References
▶ Beliefs About Learning Cronbach, Lee J. (1916–2001)
▶ Critical Learning and Thinking
▶ Everyday Learning NORBERT M. SEEL
▶ Experiential/Significant Learning (C. Rogers) Department of Education, University of Freiburg,
▶ Flow Experience and Learning Freiburg, Germany
▶ Learning in Practice and by Experience
▶ Transformational Learning
Life Dates
Lee Joseph Cronbach was born in Fresno, California,
References on April 22, 1916. He received a master’s degree from
Brookfield, S. (1994). Using critical incidents to explore learners’
the University of California at Berkeley. Thurstone’s
assumptions. In J. Mezirow (Ed.), Fostering critical reflection in
adulthood (pp. 177–193). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. work on the measurement of attitudes had a strong
Butterfield, L. D., Borgen, W. A., Amundson, N. E., & Maglio, A. T. influence on him, and accordingly he studied psychol-
(2005). Fifty years of the critical incident technique: 1954–2004 ogy at the University of Chicago. In 1940, he received
and beyond. Qualitative Research, 5(4), 475–497. his PhD in educational psychology from the University
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological
of Chicago, where he met Ralph Tyler and became
Bulletin, 51, 327–358.
Hofer, B., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemolog-
his research assistant on the Eight-Year Study – one of
ical theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and the most influential studies in education of that time.
their relation to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67(1), Cronbach’s lifelong interest in education likely had its
88–140. origins in this collaboration. In 1940, Cronbach accepted
Woods, P. (1993). Critical events in teaching and learning. London: an assistant professorship in psychology at Washington
The Falmer.
State University. Toward the end of World War II,
he served as a military psychologist in San Diego and
became increasingly engaged in instructional psychol-
ogy. After the war, he returned to Chicago, then he
moved to the University of Illinois in 1948, and finally
Critical Reflection to Stanford University in 1964, where he served as Vida
The examination of the influences around oneself that Jacks Professor of Education until his retirement in
contribute to a worldview change. 1980. Cronbach died of congestive heart failure in Palo
Alto on October 1, 2001.
As an educational psychologist he made significant
contributions to psychological testing and measure-
ment as well as to instructional psychology (Shavelson
Critical Self-Reflection 2009).

The examination of the influences around oneself that

contribute to a worldview change as they apply to
Theoretical Background
As a student Cronbach was highly attracted by
oneself and one’s worldview.
Thurstone’s work on measuring attitudes, and he was
particularly impressed by “Thurstone’s inventive use of
mathematics to sharpen the central construct and ferret
out equivocal items; the virtue of rigorous engineering
Critical Thinking analysis of psychological measuring devices became
fixed in my mind” (Cronbach 1989, p. 65). Further-
Process of evaluating the accuracy, credibility, and worth more, Cronbach was also highly influenced by Ralph
of information arguments individual differences in the Tyler and his educational research. His research can
disposition to think critically have been observed. thus be classified into the main areas of testing and
 Cronbach, Lee J. (1916–2001) C 849

measurement theory, the evaluation of educational Contributions to the Field of Learning

programs, and the instructional idea of aptitude– As his seminal book on educational psychology from
treatment interactions. 1954 shows, Cronbach focused mainly on student
In 1948, Cronbach produced two of the most influ- learning in response to instruction. In contrast to the
ential papers of psychological methodology: the “Alpha” dominating behaviorist view of the 1950s, Cronbach C
paper (Cronbach 1951) and The Two Disciplines of advocated a holistic view of human learning, and con-
Scientific Psychology (Cronbach 1957), in which he sequently he also included socialization and personal-
discussed the divergence between the fields of experi- ization (discussed in terms of biological maturation
mental and correlational psychology. His contributions and development) as preconditions of learning. Fur-
to measurement issues and psychological testing were thermore, he placed great emphasis on motivational
of central importance to psychology in general and to aspects of learning. He also discussed learning transfer,
educational psychology in particular. The Essentials of the completion of comprehension and thinking, and
Psychological Testing (Cronbach 1949) can be consid- learning as participation as well as the acquisition of
ered as one of the most influential contributions to the knowledge and attitudes and emotional learning. Read-
understanding of testing of the twentieth century. ing his book on educational psychology, one has the
Basically, the same holds true with regard to impression of being transported into modern cognitive
Cronbach’s contributions to educational psychology, psychology on learning. It is simply one of the best
which consisted in finding a better explanation for books on educational psychology of all time.
learning in response to instruction. In 1954, Cronbach However, maybe Crombach’s most important con-
published a textbook on Educational Psychology in tribution to the field of learning and education was his
which he provides a holistic picture of learning in introduction of the theoretical concept of “aptitude–
response to instruction (Cronbach 1954). Remarkably, treatment interaction” (ATI) to educational psychology
it was at the zenith of neo-behaviorism when Cronbach in the 1950s. This theory proposes that learning can
began focusing on education as a central component of be optimized when instructional methods are exactly
socialization as well as on maturation and development, matched to the aptitudes and styles of the individual
personality and motivation, the acquisition of skills, learner. It aims at helping students capitalize on their
ideas, images and attitudes, meaningful learning, emo- strengths and compensate their weaknesses in learning.
tional learning, and the assessment of achievement in At the beginning of his research on this topic, Cronbach
schools. His central research question was the compre- was looking for particular “aptitudes” of students that
hension of person-situation interactions in instruc- could affect their “responses” to an instructional treat-
tional settings. Accordingly, he focused particularly ment. Later in the 1970s, Cronbach focused increasingly
on how different learners interact with the conditions on cognitive processes and their interactions with dif-
and situational demands of instructional treatments. ferently structured instruction. Based on several studies,
In the 1950s, Cronbach challenged instructional psy- Cronbach (1977) concluded that learning outcomes are
chology to find the instructional treatment to which better when the instructor’s presentation adapts to the
each individual can most easily adapt (Cronbach student’s aptitude and personality. In terms of variance
1957). Consequently, his subsequent instructional and regression analysis, the central objective of this
research – especially his collaboration with Richard early ▶ ATI research was to find empirical evidence
Snow – focused on matching instructional methods for regression slopes that differ from treatment to
(or treatments) with students’ aptitudes (Cronbach treatment. ATI research was very prominent in the
and Snow 1977). 1970s – not only in the United States but also in Europe
Closely related to his interests in testing and instruc- (see, e.g., Flammer 1975; Seel 1979).
tion was Cronbach’s development of an innovative In his ATI research, Cronbach collaborated closely
framework for evaluation design, implementation, and with Richard Snow (Cronbach and Snow 1977), who
analysis. In this context, he suggested the use of exten- continued this research in the 1980s with a stronger
sive field studies to produce useful narratives for teach- emphasis on integrating individual differences in
ing and learning. learning and cognition into the design of adaptive
850 C Cross Talk Between Stored Memories

instruction (Snow 1980). Later he expanded the under- Snow, R. (1980). Aptitude processes. In R. Snow, P. Frederico, &
lying information processing model of learning by W. Montague (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction, conative
and affective process analyses (Vol. 1, pp. 27–60). Hillsdale:
introducing cognitive-conative-affective intersections.
Erlbaum Associates.
The objective was to integrate more realistic aspects Snow, R. (1989). Aptitude-treatment interaction as a framework for
of mental life, such as mood, emotion, impulse, research on individual differences in learning. In P. Ackerman,
desire, volition, and purposive striving into instruc- R. J. Sternberg, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Learning and individual
tional models. differences. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Matching abilities, instruction, and assess-
The collaboration between Cronbach and Snow
ment: Reawakening the sleeping giant of ATI. In I. Dennis &
set the stage for learning orientation research, which P. Tapsfield (Eds.), Human abilities: Their nature and measure-
attempts to reveal the dominant power of emotions ment (pp. 167–181). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
and intentions on the guidance and management of
cognitive processes. In its basic understanding of the
structure and nature of the complex relationships
between learning orientations and interactions, this Cross Talk Between Stored
line of research can easily be traced back to Cronbach’s
original hypothesis that we should find the treatment
Memories
to which each individual can most easily adapt. If synapses are shared by different stored memories, the
Although the ATI concept disappeared gradually as retrieval of one particular memory can be contami-
a research topic after the 1980s, the idea of matching nated by the undesired recall of other memories.
abilities, instruction, and assessment is still at the core Typically, synapses are shared if memory and query
of instructional research today – ATI is the “sleeping patterns are distributed; i.e., each pattern contains
giant” of learning orientation research (Sternberg many active neurons. The strength of cross talk will
1996). increase with the number of stored patterns.

Cross-References
▶ Adaptive Instruction System(s) and Learning
▶ Adaptive Learning Through Variation and Selection
▶ Aptitude–Treatment Interaction
Cross-Cultural Approaches to
Learning and Studying
References
▶ Cross-Cultural Learning Styles
Cronbach, L. J. (1949). Essentials of psychological testing. New York:
Harper and Row.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of
tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.
Cronbach, L. J. (1954). Educational psychology. New York: Harcourt.
Cronbach, L. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. The
Cross-Cultural Factors in
American Psychologist, 12, 671–684. Learning and Motivation
Cronbach, L. J. (1977). Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. JULIAN GEORGE ELLIOTT1, WILMA C. M. RESING2
Cronbach, L. J. (1989). Lee J. Cronbach. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), History 1
School of Education, Durham University,
of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 8, pp. 64–93). Stanford:
Durham, UK
Stanford University Press. 2
Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional Department of Psychology, Department of
methods: A handbook for research on aptitude-treatment interac- Developmental and Educational Psychology, Leiden
tions. New York: Irvington. University, Leiden, Netherlands
Flammer, A. (1975). Individuelle Unterschiede im Lernen. Beltz:
Weinheim.
Seel, N. M. (1979). Wertungen im Geschichtsunterricht. München:
Minerva. Synonyms
Shavelson, R. J. (2009). Lee J. Cronbach (1916–2001): A biographical Cultural factors in learning and motivation; Culture
memoir. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. and learning and motivation
 Cross-Cultural Factors in Learning and Motivation C 851

Definition The key question of the time was what factors

This term concerns those factors that differ across explained the success of the Asian countries, and how
cultures which appear to have a significant influence might educational practices be modified in order to
upon students’ orientation to learning and their sub- compete more effectively? In an influential report
sequent educational achievement. written for the UK Government, Reynolds and Farrell C
(1996) sought to explain the relatively strong per-
formance of Pacific Rim countries. Four categories
Theoretical Background
were identified consisting of cultural, systemic, school,
While there has long been interest in learning from
and classroom factors. Unsurprisingly, policymakers
other nations’ educational practices, it was the advent
latched onto those elements that appeared to be most
of increasingly sophisticated test procedures and pro-
susceptible to influence. Thus, their principal focus was
grams that could compare educational standards across
upon pedagogy, in particular, a belief that it would be
countries, together with greater opportunity to observe
advantageous to introduce Asian and East European
and report upon overseas practices, that sparked huge
whole-class interactive teaching methods.
political and mass media interest in cross-cultural fac-
There is an obvious flaw in the suggestion that
tors underpinning educational achievement. Highly
countries can raise achievement levels by introducing
influential testing series include the Trends in Interna-
the pedagogic practices of high-scoring nations. Cru-
tional Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), exam-
cially, it would need to be shown that such practices are
ining mathematics and science achievements of
indeed the cause of such success. Whole-class teaching
children at approximately the 4th and 8th grade in
approaches are evidenced throughout the world and
many countries around the world; the Progress in
thus it would seem to be rather disingenuous to relate
International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), a com-
these only to high-scoring countries. Those advocating
parable program in the field of literacy and reading;
such an approach would need to explain why such
and the Program for International Student Assessment
practices have not proven successful in countries that
(PISA) in which standardized assessment has been
have scored poorly. More detailed reflection suggests
administered to 15-year-olds in schools in more than
that it is not specific pedagogies that most explain high
60 countries over a period of 10 years. Although PISA
levels of national educational achievement but, rather,
has tended to require the demonstration of more ana-
influential cultural factors that result in high levels of
lytical and inferential skills than the more traditional
student motivation and engagement.
TIMSS measures, the global pecking order has been
There has been a long tradition of cross-cultural
relatively similar from one program to another.
research comparing children’s development and social-
Interest in these test programs grew to a peak in the
ization practices in Western and Eastern nations
1990s when Western concerns were prompted by the
(e.g., Bronfenbrenner 1970; Stevenson and Stigler
differing academic performance of the leading indus-
1992). In a comparative study of educational motiva-
trial nations. In both mathematics and science, the two
tion and engagement in sites in the UK, USA, and
disciplines most widely compared, Asian countries
Russia, for example, Elliott et al. (2005) noted signifi-
consistently maintained a strong advantage. Between
cant attitudinal and behavioral differences between
1995 and 2003, for example, the five strongest nations
Russian children, on the one hand, and UK and US
were, for 8th grade mathematics: Singapore, Hong
students, on the other. These, it was argued, were prod-
Kong, Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. For 8th grade science,
ucts of long-standing historical practices and sociocul-
a similar profile emerged: Taiwan, Singapore, Japan,
tural understandings that operated across multiple
Korea, and Hong Kong. In part, Western angst over
levels of each society.
test scores reflected uncertainties about economic com-
Key factors that appeared to explain the much
petitiveness, as much as national pride, and the com-
greater commitment, work rate, and academic perfor-
paratively poor test scores of the US and Western
mance of the Russian children were:
European nations became associated with the increas-
ing economic challenge posed by the Tiger economies 1. General satisfaction, in the UK and US contexts,
of South East Asia. with lower educational work rates and levels of
852 C Cross-Cultural Factors in Learning and Motivation

academic achievement. This operated, not merely 3. A powerful and influential level of family sup-
within the classroom, or even the school, but was port. With this comes recognition that family
also reflected by parental views and those of the hardship may be a necessary price to pay to achieve
wider communities from which the students origi- the highest levels of success. Parental obligation
nated. In contrast, Russian classrooms were tradi- involves ensuring that their children learn well.
tionally seen by members of that society as a setting In turn, children feel obligation to honor their
for hard work and maximum engagement, and there parents’ sacrifice by means of their academic
were widely agreed understandings that arduous achievement.
study would also be undertaken after school hours. 4. A belief in discipline and the importance of
2. Powerful peer influences that maximized student demonstrating effort. Traditional virtues include
commitment. In contrast, in the USA and UK, diligence, endurance of hardship, humility, concen-
peer influences appeared to undermine academic tration, and perseverance. These tend to persist
engagement and achievement. While effortless suc- even when families relocate to Western societies.
cess in the classroom was generally acceptable in 5. A strong sense of group identity in which the desires
these latter contexts, it was often considered to be of the individual are subordinated to the needs of
socially undesirable to display heightened interest the class group.
in, or commitment to, one’s studies. Allied to 6. A supportive pro-learning peer culture and the
these social constraints were significant differences employment of high-achieving peers as important
between the Russian and the Western children in role models.
respect of general classroom behavior and accep- 7. Respect for the authority and knowledge of parents
tance of teacher authority. These differences were and teachers.
similarly found in other contemporary cross- 8. Recognition that education is often a demanding
cultural investigations involving these countries. and arduous process and does not need to always be
3. A strong belief in the importance of education as fun or intrinsically appealing.
a vehicle for personal improvement. To be an edu-
cated (“cultured”) person was to be someone who Important Scientific Research and
was generally respected and admired. Thus, what- Open Questions
ever one’s abilities and goals, education was seen as Despite pride in their international standing, several
being an important means of self-improvement. In nations scoring highly on international tests are now
the USA and UK, however, education is widely per- questioning whether their traditional values and
ceived in highly instrumental terms. While this, in approaches adequately equip their students to thrive
itself, did not appear to be a motivational problem in a global marketplace. However, it is recognized that
for those who believed that education could help the introduction of reforms brings associated risks
them achieve their goals, such an orientation proved because many of the personal characteristics that are
to be highly problematic for a significantly high deemed to be valuable for economic success have the
proportion of underachievers who believed that potential to threaten traditional relationships and
they could never achieve such success. power structures. An interesting dilemma is whether
it is possible, in such societies, to maintain the highly
Such a list maps closely onto those cultural factors
disciplined and focused educational orientation of
that have been widely identified in the literature to
young people while simultaneously increasing their
explain the high levels of educational performance of
capacity for autonomy, creativity, risk-taking, indepen-
South East Asian students (i.e., those from cultures
dence, spontaneity, problem-solving, assertiveness, and
primarily underpinned by the Confucian tradition)
perhaps most controversially, their willingness to ques-
(Stevenson and Stigler 1992). Key amongst these are
tion and challenge.
1. Highly positive attitudes to learning and However, this may be a moot issue as powerful
scholarship. social and economic forces are not easily controlled
2. Very high standards and expectations in relation to by government agencies. A breaking away from tradi-
educational achievement. tional attachments and identities, a strong emphasis
 Cross-Cultural Learning Styles C 853

upon individualism, and the seeming inability of Elliott, J. G., Hufton, N., Willis, W., & Illushin, L. (2005). Motivation,
existing institutions to guide young people, appear to engagement and educational performance: International perspec-
tives on contexts for learning. London: Palgrave.
be features of all late-modern or postmodern societies
Elliott, J. G., & Tudge, J. (2007). The impact of the West on post-
(Inglehart and Welzel 2005). Thus, a tradition of def- Soviet Russian education: Change and resistance to change.
erence to adult authority, a strong emphasis upon Comparative Education, 43(1), 93–112. C
self-discipline, a readiness to forego social and leisure Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, cultural change and
pursuits in favor of narrow academic success, and democracy: The human development sequence. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
a willingness to engage with unappealing academic
Reynolds, D., & Farrell, S. (1996). Worlds apart? A review of interna-
material – factors all highly associated with high- tional surveys of educational achievement involving England.
scoring countries – may all ultimately be undermined London: H.M.S.O.
by globalizing influences, irrespective of any national Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap: Why our
desire or legislative action. schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and
Such phenomena were evidenced in the post-Soviet Chinese education. New York: Summit Books.

Russian educational context of the 1990s (Elliott and

Tudge 2007). As Russian students became increasingly
aware of their need to function in a very different
society there were seismic shifts in their value systems Cross-Cultural Issues in Music
toward a more Western outlook in which a heavy
emphasis upon individualism and instrumentalism
Education
became apparent and ready acceptance of adult author- ▶ Multicultural Issues in Music Instruction and
ity figures declined. Education was no longer seen as Learning
principally a means for self-development but, rather, as
a route to a financially secure career. Whether this will
ultimately result in reduced levels of motivation and
engagement from a new, significantly sized, underclass
is currently unclear. Cross-Cultural Learning
Such concerns extend far beyond high-achieving Approaches
South East Asian and post-Soviet contexts, as orienta-
▶ Cross-Cultural Learning Styles
tions reflecting Western globalizing influence appear to
be increasingly evident in young people around the
world. An important issue for future research, there-
fore, is to determine how such forces will differentially
affect children’s academic motivations and behaviors in Cross-Cultural Learning Styles
these very different societies, and how, in each, the
particular strengths and contributions of existing cul- GERHARD APFELTHALER
tural understandings and practices can be secured and School of Business, California Lutheran University,
maintained. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA

Cross-References
▶ Motivation and Learning Synonyms
▶ Motivation to Learn Cross-cultural approaches to learning and studying;
▶ Motivational Variables in Learning Cross-cultural learning approaches; Cross-cultural
▶ Social Learning learning types
▶ Socio-emotional Aspects of Learning
Definition
References Cross-cultural learning styles refer to variations in the
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1970). The two worlds of childhood. New York: cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are
Russell Sage. relatively stable, self-consistent, and characteristic
854 C Cross-Cultural Learning Styles

indicators of how learners from different cultures per- (Richardson 1994), our knowledge of the relationship
ceive, interact with, and respond to the learning envi- between cross-cultural differences and learning styles is
ronment, including, but not limited to, the processing still rather limited in its scope and its results.
of information. In a more applied manner, cross-
cultural learning styles can also be referred to as the Important Scientific Research and
degree to which the concept that individuals differ in Open Questions
regard to what mode of instruction or study is most The majority of the existing research on learning styles
effective for them varies across cultures. comes from only a limited number of countries leaving
available instruments largely untested in cross-cultural
Theoretical Background settings. By and large, the research on culture’s impact
The notion that culture has an all-pervading influence on learning styles falls into one of two categories –
on all aspects of human life has led to an inquiry into its studies of the learning behavior of students in certain
relationship with learning styles over the past three national cultures, and comparative studies. Among the
decades. The discourse on cross-cultural learning styles first group, a sizable number of studies have been
is deeply rooted in the larger topics of cognitive style conducted on learners in the Anglo-Saxon cultures of
and learning style. Cognitive styles are usually referred Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States
to as self-consistencies in processing information, solv- of America. Also, with the number of students seeking
ing problems, and making decisions that develop in a degree outside of their home country on the rise,
characteristic and habitual ways around personality several studies have been carried out on populations
trends. The term learning style is both broader and of students studying in foreign host countries, most
narrower than cognitive style at the same time. On the notably on Asian students in English-speaking coun-
one hand, it is narrower as its application is specifically tries. In the second group of studies, we find a number
limited to the context of a learning environment. On of comparative studies focusing on direct comparisons
the other hand, it is broader as it goes beyond the between two or more cultures, as well as a smaller
cognitive by including affective and physiological number of studies on the multicultural classroom.
behaviors. Wide parts of the extant literature still use Unfortunately, as the existing research is far from not
the terms synonymously thereby creating confusion only a consensus about learning styles instruments, but
and incoherence. Some of the better known conceptu- also concerning the measurement of culture, the results
alizations of learning styles are Marton and Saljö’s deep of studies on culture’s influence on learning styles are
vs. surface learning dichotomy, and Kolb’s Learning hardly comparable and largely inconclusive. Some
Style Inventory (Apfelthaler et al. 2007). In the decades studies confirm the influence of culture on learning
after their introduction, a plethora of alternative con- styles and see, for instance, a culture-biased distribu-
ceptualizations and instruments whose psychometric tion of different types of learners across cultures, while
properties vary greatly (Coffield et al. 2004) have been other studies do not. Some authors even attribute
developed. Most notable, among those, are the Learn- greater explanatory power to other factors such as
ing and Studying Questionnaire (LSQ), the Revised discipline, gender, or institutional factors when it
Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ), the Approaches comes to variations in learning styles. Similarly, com-
and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST), the mon national cultural stereotypes such as, for instance,
Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (RASI), the the Asian learner as rote-learner have both been con-
Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ), the Index of firmed and challenged by existing research on the topic
Learning Styles (ILS), the Study Process Questionnaire (Watkins and Biggs 1996).
(SPQ), the Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS), or the What is surprising is that in the entire literature
Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) (Apfelthaler on culture’s implications for learning styles, there are
et al. 2007). Unfortunately, only very few of these only very few references to the vast amount of existing
instruments have been tested or used in more than publications on cross-cultural differences that have
one cultural environment. Therefore, despite decades otherwise attracted considerable attention, such as
of research on learning styles, and a general agreement the works of Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede
that learning styles may vary from one culture to another (e.g., Hofstede 1986). According to Hofstede, cultures
 Cross-cultural Training C 855

vary across four dimensions that he calls power dis- Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching and
tance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and mascu- learning. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(3),
301–320.
linity. In some of his earlier works, Hofstede made
Richardson, J. T. E. (1994). Cultural specificity of approaches to
assumptions concerning the consequences of these studying in higher education: A literature survey. Higher Educa-
dimensions for the learning behavior of students, tion, 27(4), 449–468. C
including differences in profiles of cognitive abilities Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (1996). The Chinese learner. Cultural,
between the populations from which teachers and stu- psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong: Comparative
Education Research Center.
dents are drawn and differences in expected patterns
Yamazaki, Y. (2005). Learning styles and typologies of cultural differ-
of teacher/student and student/student interactions. ences: A theoretical and empirical comparison. International
Based on his own research in 40 different countries, Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(5), 521–548.
Hofstede predicts that students from certain Asian
countries that score low on individualism and high
on power distance, will have a strong preference for
traditional student–teacher relationships that are based
on hierarchy, respect, harmony, and formal instruction Cross-Cultural Learning Types
(Hofstede 1986). It is somewhat surprising that, except
for a few notable recent contributions (e.g., Apfelthaler ▶ Cross-Cultural Learning Styles
et al. 2007; Yamazaki 2005), learning styles research
has not embraced Hofstede’s work on cultural differ-
ences to a greater extent. Based on the existing litera-
ture on cross-cultural learning styles, a number of open
questions and directions for future research can be Cross-cultural Training
identified. These include (1) the testing of existing
learning styles instruments in cultures other than TATIANA STEFANENKO1, ALEKSANDRA KUPAVSKAYA2
1
those in which they have been developed and, if Department of Social Psychology, Moscow State
necessary, their revision; (2) the development and University, Moscow, Russia
2
test of a conceptual model of how culture influences LITE College, London, UK
learning styles; and (3) studies comparing two or more
cultures using those learning styles instruments that
show strong psychometric properties across different Synonyms
cultures. Intercultural training

Cross-References Definition
▶ Cross-Cultural Factors in Learning and Motivation Training is one of the methods of interactive education,
▶ Cross-Cultural Training specifically organized short-term group work, and
▶ Culture of Learning based on the assumption that learners derive knowl-
▶ Learning Styles edge, skills, and competencies from personal – direct or
▶ Social Interaction Learning Styles simulated – experience. Metaphorically, training as a
method can be described as a process of intense social-
References ization, and in the case of cross-cultural training –
Apfelthaler, G., Hansen, K., Keuchel, S., Mueller, C., Neubauer, M., intense enculturation (the realization an individual
Ong, S. H., & Tapachai, N. (2007). Cross-cultural differences in achieves about his own culture) and intense accultura-
learning and education: Stereotypes, myths and realities. In D. tion (the realization an individual achieves about
Palfreyman & D. L. McBride (Eds.), Learning and teaching across a different culture). This relatively new field represents
cultures in higher education (pp. 15–35). Houndmills and New
an interdisciplinary focus of cultural anthropology,
York: Palgrave.
Coffield, F., Mosely, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning
cross-cultural psychology, sociology, sociolinguistics,
styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical intercultural communication, and multicultural edu-
review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre. cation (Bennett et al. 2004).
856 C Cross-cultural Training

Diverse programs of cross-cultural training are could be counterproductive as it may call into question
focused on direct interaction with other cultures and the very possibility of successful interaction and under-
are designed to teach individuals to cope with situa- standing between different cultures.
tions of cultural variety, help them effectively deal with Implementing the principle of cultural universal-
the inevitable stress that accompanies the cross-cultural ism requires a high level of professionalism from the
experience, and be efficient in a multicultural environ- cross-cultural trainer at every stage of the program’s
ment. On the macro-level there are two main aims of design – from the methodological development to
cross-cultural training: (1) to bring about change in assessing its effectiveness. The model of an intercultural
a social or cultural situation such as decreasing racism, trainer’s competences by M. Paige consists of four main
chauvinism, and other forms of prejudice and discrim- categories: knowledge, skills, personal attributes, and
ination existing in society, and (2) to resolve conflicts ethics (Paige 1996). An intercultural trainer should
and promote more harmonious intercultural relations possess the following skills: an ability to determine
(Paige 1996). participants needs, to design the training course
(set the goals, objectives, content, and selection of
Theoretical Background methods), and to implement and assess the program.
Any program of cross-cultural training is trying to The trainer also needs to have deep cross-cultural
answer the question “How?”: how an individual can knowledge, cross-cultural self-awareness, familiarity
establish interpersonal contact with other cultures, how with the developmental models of ethnic identity, an
he/she can acquire its values, norms, role structure, understanding of the concept of culture shock, adapta-
etc. This kind of training is supposed to cause a change tion and acculturation, as well as an intercultural edu-
in the learner’s attitudes by developing sensitivity to cation in general. Ideally, he/she should be a mediator
intercultural differences and cross-cultural competence. between cultures. According to various sources, the
Even though any cross-cultural training aims to following personality traits, values, and attitudes are
develop or improve the awareness, emotions, and required: tolerance to uncertainty, flexibility in cognitive
behavior of trainees, the program itself might put style and behavior, possession of a clear idea of his/her
different emphasis on the particular field where key own ethnic identity and universal values, openness to
results need to be achieved – cognitive, emotional, or a variety of views, interest in others, empathy, and the
behavioral. The cognitive approach focuses on giving tendency to lean toward cooperation during conflict.
students information about cultures and cultural dif- Finally, an effective intercultural trainer strictly obeys
ferences and helps learners to understand how stereo- ethical and “do no harm” principles.
types and prejudice affect their interaction with members
of other cultures. Therefore, its objectives are grounded Important Scientific Research and
in knowledge and social representations. The emotional Open Questions
approach focuses on transforming attitudes related to The end of the World War II marks the beginning of the
intercultural interaction by changing feelings toward cross-cultural training field, when Edward T. Hall drew
“others” (from prejudice to tolerance), and teaches attention to the lack of adequate training materials.
learners how to manage emotional reactions (such as This continued to be the case until the mid-1970s
anxiety, fear, or anger) during contact with other cul- when the first handbooks on intercultural communi-
tures. The behavioral approach is designed to develop cation were published. The beginning of research and
skills which are necessary for effective interaction with experimentation produced many of the training tech-
other cultures (Bhawuk and Brislin 2000). niques commonly used today. Familiar methods such
Regardless of the methodological approach chosen, as role plays, critical incidents, case studies, and simu-
cross-cultural training should be built on the princi- lations provided a point of entry for engaging in the
ple of cultural universalism. Any case where an research and theory building that would produce strat-
intercultural trainer suggests some customs, values, egies to prepare people to function interculturally.
and norms of any culture are “right” or “wrong” In the late 1980s, cross-cultural training became widely
could draw the student back to the ethnocentric posi- demanded, therefore programs appeared that were
tion. On the other hand, extreme cultural relativism more sophisticated and targeted to specific audiences.
 Cross-cultural Training C 857

As the importance of customizing approaches and 2000). Researchers have noted the positive effect of
activities were taken into account for an extensive commonly used programs in following five phenom-
range of cultural variations, it also gave rise to new ena: the personal growth of trainees, a positive change
models (Pusch 2004). in the perception of other groups and relationships
A typical training program combines didactic and with representatives, adaptation, and achievement in C
experiential methods with either a culture-general work and study. Positive effects of the cross-cultural
or a culture-specific approach (Cushner and Brislin training have also been claimed in some recent research
1997). Each type works with a specific set of methods: for a wide variety of measures, such as subjective
(a) Experiential culture-general training focuses on experience of the training, interpersonal relations,
a trainees’ cultural self-awareness (the model of cul- intercultural sensitivity, and intercultural adjustment
tural identity). Such an approach is implemented in (Van de Vijver and Breugelmans 2008).
cross-cultural workshops by exploring how trainees’ However, the problem of assessing cross-cultural
own socialization has influenced their perception, effectiveness is still very far from being solved. Up to
attitudes, stereotypes, and behavior. Another method today, the effectiveness of very few procedures has been
is culture-general simulation which is usually explicitly demonstrated. For most training programs,
constructed as a “meeting of two cultures” and gives validity data remains absent, which means there are no
trainees an opportunity to gain an experience of methodological foundations for many cross-cultural
belonging to an imaginary culture with its norms, procedures (Van de Vijver and Breugelmans 2008). The
values, and behaviors that are different from the main reasons for that are: (a) problems with identifying
trainees’ native ones. (b) Experiential culture-specific or designing adequate tools to assess cross-cultural
training uses culture-specific simulations and role competence; (b) problems with establishing causality
plays, which attempt to help trainees learn how to in studies of cross-cultural research in general; (c)
interact effectively with members of a specific group. problems of obtaining adequate samples due to the
Cultural assimilators are collections of critical incidents specificity of the subjects; and (d) problems relating
that relate to the experiences of people from two or to interpreting the results of a controlled experiment
more cultures who face the problem of resolving some such as training.
task. Another powerful program is intergroup dialogs, Despite identified problems, demand for cross-
which could be used in situations of disagreement and cultural training continues to grow, and its methods
conflict between different ethnic communities and pro- are being adapted and implemented for many spe-
vide an opportunity to make a mutual step to find a cific audiences in education, health care, hostage nego-
common ground. In many cases, the lack of understand- tiation, dispute resolution, law enforcement, the media,
ing between people from different cultures occurs on the politics, and even cyberspace (Pusch 2004). In dealing
level of interpretation and has no basis on a behavioral with cross-cultural training it is important to take into
level. Therefore attributive culture-specific training consideration that according to many experts in the
focuses on the way people from different cultures inter- field, “intercultural training is both an art, which is
pret the reasons for different behavior. Attributive train- appropriately passed on by experienced teachers, and
ing helps to make expectations about the possible a science, which is appropriately winnowed by empir-
behavior of an individual from different cultures more ical research” (Bennett et al. 2004, p. 8).
accurate and contributes to the development of isomor-
phic attributions. (c) Didactic culture-general training Cross-References
is mainly based on cognitive approaches such as lec- ▶ Competency-Based Learning
tures, films, videos, and culture-general assimilators. ▶ Cross-Cultural Factors in Learning and Motivation
(d) Didactic culture-specific training provides opportu- ▶ Cross-Cultural Learning Styles
nities for trainees to gain information about specific ▶ Developing Cross-cultural Competence
cultures. Training methods include culture-specific ▶ Enculturation and Acculturation
briefings, culture-specific assimilators, and readings. ▶ Learning and Training: Activity Approach
The most popular programs of cross-cultural train- ▶ Social Influence and the Emergence of Cultural
ing were verified in the 1990s (Bhawuk and Brislin Norms
858 C Cross-Disciplinary Education

References disciplines are crossed but no techniques or ideals,

Bennett, J. M., Bennett, M. J., & Landis, D. (2004). Introduction and while interdisciplinarity blends the practices and
overview. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), assumptions of each discipline involved.
Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 1–10). Thousand While cross-disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity
Oaks: Sage.
are different, multidisciplinarity is closely related with
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (2002).
Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. Cambridge: cross-disciplinarity. In multidisciplinarity also, there is
Cambridge University Press. no transfer of methodologies between the disciplines.
Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross-cultural training: In contrast to cross-disciplinarity, multidisciplinarity
A review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49(1), includes more than one discipline outside a discipline
162–191.
of interest.
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1997). Key concepts in the field of cross-
cultural training: An introduction. In K. Cushner & R. W. Brislin
(Eds.), Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for cross-
cultural training programs (Vol. 2, pp. 1–17). Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Paige, R. M. (1996). Intercultural trainer competencies. In D. Landis Cross-Disciplinary Research on
& R. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed., Learning
pp. 148–165). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in historical perspective. ▶ Multidisciplinary Research on Learning
In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of
intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 13–36). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Breugelmans, S. M. (2008). Research
foundations of cultural competency training. In R. H. Dana &
J. Allen (Eds.), Cultural competency training in a global society
(pp. 117–133). New York: Springer.
Cross-Linguistic Influence and
Transfer of Learning
MARK A. JAMES
Department of English, Arizona State University,
Cross-Disciplinary Education Tempe, AZ, USA
▶ Integrated, Multidisciplinary, and Technology-
Enhanced Science Education
Synonyms
Cross-linguistic transfer; L1-L2 facilitation/inhibition;
Language transfer; Linguistic interference

Cross-Disciplinary Learning Definition

Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is typically defined as
Cross-disciplinary learning refers to learning activities the influence that knowledge of one language has on an
that are related with a subject outside the scope individual’s learning or use of another language. This
of a discipline without any integration from other influence can involve various aspects of language. For
disciplines. The study of genetics, for example, crosses example, for a native speaker of Spanish who is learning
several disciplines, including biology, chemistry (e.g., English, CLI may lead to Spanish-sounding pronunci-
the molecular structure of DNA), and environmental ation when speaking English (e.g., pronouncing “zoo”
science (e.g., conservation genetics). Additionally, like “soo”), Spanish word or sentence order when writ-
facets of genetics also overlap with mathematics, social ing in English (e.g., writing “The car red is mine,”
studies, and health studies. Cross-disciplinarity means instead of “The red car is mine”), or comprehension
that topics are studied by applying methodologies of of Spanish words that look or sound similar to English
unrelated disciplines. words (e.g., “turista” = “tourist”). CLI is related to
Cross-disciplinarity differs from interdisciplinarity: transfer of learning: Transfer of learning involves the
In the case of cross-disciplinarity, the boundaries of application of knowledge in novel situations, and CLI
 Cross-Linguistic Influence and Transfer of Learning C 859

can be seen as one specific type of transfer of learning The connection between CLI and transfer of
restricted to language-related knowledge being applied learning is also apparent in overlap in factors that
in situations involving the use of another language. influence CLI and factors that influence transfer of
learning. One of the main factors linked to CLI is
Theoretical Background perceived cross-linguistic similarity: CLI is more C
CLI has been a central topic in research and theory likely when an individual perceives similarity between
on second language acquisition (SLA). In a seminal two languages, and less likely when an individual
publication, Odlin (1989) traced the origin of scholarly perceives difference between two languages. Along
work on CLI back to nineteenth century debate about the same lines, individuals’ perceptions of similarity
the effects of language contact and mixing on language and difference (i.e., between tasks and contexts) are
classification and change, for example in the study seen as a major influence on transfer of learning. Other
of pidgins and creoles. In the twentieth century, influ- factors that have been linked to both CLI and transfer of
ential early publications on CLI include Weinreich’s learning are (a) knowledge base (e.g., language profi-
(1953) examination of CLI in the phonetic, grammat- ciency), (b) amount and type of practice, (c) attitudes
ical, and lexical systems of bilinguals, and Lado’s (1957) and motivation, and (d) sociocultural context.
manual on contrastive analysis, which included claims In addition, although transfer of learning is a
that a systematic comparison of two languages could broader construct than CLI, transfer of learning
be used to predict where second language learning research has, like CLI research, examined language-
difficulties would occur. In the 1960s and 1970s, SLA related knowledge, for example vocabulary, grammar,
research expanded in scope and emphasis was placed and pronunciation, as well as reading and writing skills
on factors other than CLI that influence second lan- and strategies. For instance, in an investigation of the
guage learning, such as factors that influence first development of reading skills among elementary
language learning. However, CLI continues to receive school students, Martin-Chang et al. (2007) examined
a great deal of research attention (e.g., in influential techniques for learning new words; this study explored
journals such as Studies in Second Language Acquisition, whether students’ knowledge of new words learned
Language Learning, and Applied Linguistics), and the through different techniques (e.g., individually on
body of scholarly work on this phenomenon shows in flashcards; in the context of a story) transferred to
an increasingly diverse collection of contexts the con- novel reading tasks. Similarly, Williams et al. (2005)
sistency with which CLI plays a role in SLA. studied transfer of learning from a reading comprehen-
In the extensive body of literature on CLI, connec- sion instruction program; this study examined whether
tions between CLI and transfer of learning are appar- training students to use strategies to analyze the struc-
ent. Odlin (1989) pointed out that CLI is seen by ture of a text had any influence on their subsequent
many SLA scholars as a construct that was appropriated performance reading other texts. These and other
from psychology research and theory on transfer of transfer of learning studies that investigated individ-
learning in the mid-twentieth century. Furthermore, uals’ first language knowledge are different from CLI
SLA scholars have suggested that CLI involves more research that by definition examines the interface of
general cognitive processes: Ringbom (1986), for two languages; however, such transfer of learning
example, suggested that it is beneficial to view the research does examine transfer of language-related
source of CLI (e.g., a first language) as only part of knowledge, which is a characteristic it shares with
the knowledge base an individual has that can be trans- CLI research.
ferred, while Faerch and Kasper (1986) suggested that Finally, although CLI research might be seen as
CLI can be seen as a case of a learner extending existing focusing on relatively deep learning (i.e., an individ-
knowledge to new contexts. Also, in a more recent ual’s first language, which has typically been learned
overview of scholarly work on CLI, Jarvis and Pavlenko over an extensive period of time) compared to transfer
(2008) argued that CLI involves not only traditional of learning research (i.e., which might involve studying
categories of language (e.g., phonology, syntax) but transfer after only short periods of training), CLI
also higher-level cognitive concepts (e.g., the way research also can involve more shallow learning. CLI
objects are categorized). has been viewed specifically as the influence of an
860 C Cross-Linguistic Influence and Transfer of Learning

individual’s first language on second language learning context was more accurate if the words had been
and use; however, current definitions of CLI tend to be learned in context (i.e., in a story). From a CLI
broader and also include the influence of a second perspective also, it is worth asking if the influence of
language on the learning and use of a third language first language word knowledge on second language
(or a fourth language, etc.), as well as the influence of learning and use would also be constrained by the
a second language on first language use. Since individ- congruence between learning tasks and transfer tasks.
uals learn second languages in a variety of ways, there is Similarly, Williams et al. (2005) found that training
tremendous variety in the depth of learning associated students to use several strategies to analyze the struc-
with a second language. This variation means that the ture of a compare/contrast expository text had a posi-
source of CLI may not always be as deeply learned as tive influence on their subsequent performance with
a first language system. For example, Kecskes and texts with a similar structure, but not with texts with
Papp (2000) examined CLI among secondary school a different structure. From a CLI perspective also, it
students whose first language was Hungarian and who is worth asking if the use of first language reading
were studying English, French, or Russian as a second strategies to read second language texts would be
language; the findings showed that some types of constrained by similarity in genre between texts used
second language instruction had an influence on the in learning tasks and transfer tasks. Similar questions
students’ use of their first language (e.g., use of subor- can be generated from the numerous other transfer
dinate clauses when writing in Hungarian). of learning studies that have examined language-
related knowledge.
Important Scientific Research and Finally, it is important to ask if and how findings
Open Questions from other transfer of learning research (i.e., research
From a CLI perspective, the connection between CLI that involved knowledge less directly related to lan-
and transfer of learning raises important questions. guage) may also be relevant to CLI. For example,
First, can theories related to transfer of learning help transfer of learning research has focused on the influ-
shed light on unanswered questions about CLI? For ence of factors such as attitudes and motivation, and
instance, one of the central unanswered questions sociocultural context (Haskell 2001). SLA researchers
about CLI is how individuals’ perceptions of similarity have pointed to such factors as relevant to CLI as well.
between languages are triggered. From a transfer of A study by Kecskes and Papp (2000) examined CLI
learning perspective, theories have been offered for among secondary school students who spoke Hungar-
how the human brain identifies similarities in incom- ian as a first language and were studying English,
ing information, for example by being hardwired with French, or Russian as a second language, and CLI
a kind of harmonic structure that facilitates recognition was reportedly influenced by learning contexts/tasks
of similar relationships in different situations (e.g., (i.e., CLI from second language learning to first lan-
relationships between notes in a song that one is famil- guage use varied with the kind of second language
iar with but that is being played in a key higher or lower instruction students received) and student motivation.
than before) (Haskell 2001). Such accounts may also be Both learning tasks/contexts and motivation were also
relevant to CLI. highlighted as a potentially important nonlinguistic
In addition, which findings from transfer of learn- influence in Weinreich’s (1953) influential study of
ing research that has involved language-related knowl- CLI. Finally, the influence of sociocultural context is
edge might apply to CLI? For example, Martin-Chang reflected in the way individuals may adjust their lan-
et al. (2007) found that elementary school students’ guage use patterns – in a way that involves more or less
transfer of first language word knowledge in first lan- CLI – depending on the perceived identity of the per-
guage use situations depended on the congruence son with whom they are speaking (Jarvis and Pavlenko
between the learning technique and the kind of transfer 2008). However, CLI research on these particular fac-
task: Performance on a transfer task involving reading tors is limited. Relevant questions therefore include the
isolated words was more accurate if the words had been following: How do motivation and sociocultural con-
learned in isolation (i.e., on flash cards), and perfor- text influence CLI? Might CLI be more likely in some
mance on a transfer task involving reading words in cases if an individual feels motivated to make use of
 Cross-Modal Learning C 861

existing first language knowledge and skills in second

language use situations? Might CLI be more likely in Cross-Modal Learning
some cases if an individual feels that the sociocultural
context encourages the use of existing first language DANIJEL SKOCAJ1, ALES LEONARDIS1, GEERT-JAN M. KRUIJFF2
1
knowledge and skills? University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia C
2
Language Technology Lab, German Research Center
Cross-References for Artificial Intelligence, Saarbrücken, Germany
▶ Language Acquisition and Development
▶ Second Language Learning
▶ Transfer of Learning Synonyms
Multimodal learning
References Definition
Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1986). Cognitive dimensions of language
Cross-modal learning refers to any kind of learning that
transfer. In E. Kellerman & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslin-
guistic influence in second language acquisition (pp. 49–65).
involves information obtained from more than one
Elmsford: Pergamon. modality. In the literature the term modality typically
Haskell, R. E. (2001). Transfer of learning: Cognition, instruction, and refers to a sensory modality, also known as stimulus
reasoning. San Diego: Academic. modality. A stimulus modality provides information
Jarvis, S., & Pavlenko, A. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language obtained from a particular sensorial input, for example,
and cognition. New York: Routledge.
visual, auditory, olfactory, or kinesthetic information.
Kecskes, I., & Papp, T. (2000). Foreign language and mother tongue.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. Examples from artificial cognitive systems (“robots”)
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of include also information about detected range (by
Michigan Press. sonar or laser range finders), movement (by odometry
Martin-Chang, S. L., Levy, B. A., & O’Neil, S. (2007). Word acquisi- sensors), or motor state (by proprioceptive sensors).
tion, retention, and transfer: Findings from contextual and
We adopt here a notion of modality that includes
isolated word training. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,
96, 37–56.
both sensorial data, and further interpretations of
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in lan- that data within the modality. For example, from a
guage learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pair of (depth-calibrated) images, a cloud of points in
Ringbom, H. (1986). Crosslinguistic influence and the foreign lan- 3-dimensional space can be computed. We obtain both
guage learning process. In E. Kellerman & M. Sharwood Smith types of data (the image data, and the 3D points) from
(Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition
the same visual sensor. At the same time, they differ in
(pp. 150–162). Elmsford: Pergamon.
Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. what information they provide. We consider informa-
The Hague: Mouton. tion sources derived from sensorial data as derived
Williams, J. P., Hall, K. M., Lauer, K. D., Brooke Stafford, K., modalities that by themselves can be involved again in
DeSisto, L. A., & deCani, J. S. (2005). Expository text compre- cross-modal learning.
hension in the primary grade classroom. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 97, 538–550. Theoretical Background
We distinguish different types of cross-modal learning.
The distinction is based on how the learnt model (inter-
pretation) depends on the data from several modalities,
Cross-Linguistic Transfer and to what degree the model integrates information
from these modalities.
▶ Cross-Linguistic Influence and Transfer of Learning In weakly coupled cross-modal learning, models are
built within individual modalities. There is only an
inflow of information from other modalities into
a modality that is learning. This modality uses the
Crossmodal Facilitation information as a label or reinforcement signal to super-
vise its internal learning process. Inference based on the
▶ Intersensory Facilitation learned models can be done on the basis of a single
862 C Cross-Modal Learning

modality, or the output of several modalities can be feature vectors still reside in the individual modalities,
combined to achieve better performance or robustness. but we construct several intermediate classifiers, which
One example of this is speech recognition. In situated are no longer independent, and combine them. This
dialogue, recognizing sequences of words in an audio requires a close-coupling of semi-synchronous learning
signal can be greatly improved by information about processes, based on interconnected representations, and
the situated context (what is there to be seen, what is leading up to the formation of cross-modal concepts.
there to be done, what have we talked before), and We can also identify a third type of cross-modal
through observation of the speaker. Context and obser- learning that is performed on a higher level of abstrac-
vations aid disambiguation during processing of the tion. Here, a model is acquired that connects modal
auditory signal, possibly also correcting misheard conceptual structures from different modalities by
words, or filling in (grammatically) missing words. learning associations between them. For example, let
For example, lip reading can greatly aid recognition. us suppose that we want to recognize a cup of coffee.
In a continuous learning process, successfully recog- A cup can be recognized visually. Yet, to recognize what
nized lip poses can supervise learning of audio-based is inside the cup we need another sense – smell. We
speech recognition ability. The other way round, cor- need to combine information from both modalities
rectly recognized audio input can provide labels to aid to determine that there is a cup of coffee on the table
the learning of lip reading. This process of coupled and not a cup of a black tea. The learning of required
supervision during learning is also known as co- concepts could be performed largely independently, in
learning. In the end we obtain two classifiers, one in each modality individually. At some point though we
each modality, that can be used individually, or they need to learn to combine the concepts of the cup and
can be combined to further increase the success of the coffee into a concept of a “cup of coffee.” The final
speech recognition. This type of cross-modal learning representation therefore consists of representations
is thus based on a weakly coupled interaction of data from several modalities.
from different modalities, which is done on a rather high Cross-modal learning is related to principles of
level of abstraction. In the case above we assumed that fusion of data from different sensors (Clark and Yuille
both modalities mutually drive the learning in the other 1990), also known as multisensory processing in natu-
one. This process can in principle be unidirectional. If ral cognitive systems (Stein and Meredith 1993). Dif-
the information in one modality is much more reliable, ferent processes interact in a cognitive system to form
it can drive the learning in another modality. a coherent interpretation of experience, based on the
In closely coupled cross-modal learning, learning combination of information obtained through several
processes are more intertwined. A model is learnt by modalities. The process of learning how to combine
combining information from different modalities into this information is a kind of cross-modal learning.
a common level of representation, and then using this As already mentioned, we can consider the term
level as a starting point to build a common cross-modal modality in its wider sense. This includes derived
classifier or predictor. As a result, inference with the modalities. In this case, the type of information that
acquired model requires information coming from characterizes a modality is not attached directly to
several modalities, and cannot be achieved within a sensor, but to a process which interprets the sensorial
a single modality only. This approach is often used in data. For example, suppose that we have a place recog-
sensorimotor learning. Here, low-level features from nition approach that is based on both visual images,
a visual modality and motor (or proprioceptive, or and 3D point clouds representing geometrical struc-
haptic) modalities are merged. Based on the obtained ture. The images may be obtained using a camera. The
cross-modal features, higher-level sensorimotor con- 3D point clouds are obtained using a laser range finder,
cepts are learned. For example, from low-level visual or, alternatively, both the images and the 3D data can
features describing objects and low-level features param- be obtained using a stereo rig. In both cases we can
etrizing actions that could be performed, a model is conceive of the learning of representations of places as
learned that predicts what happens with a particular a kind of cross-modal learning, although in the second
object if a particular action is applied (through classifi- case we have one sensor only. In computer vision, it is
cation or regression). Another example is when the very often favorable to extract several visual cues (such
 Cross-Modal Learning C 863

as color, texture, borders, shape, motion), and combine A fundamental aspect of embodied cognition is that
them in order to obtain better classifiers. We can look at understanding is ultimately based in how a cognitive
the learning of such combined classifiers as at a kind of system experiences the world. Since the cross-modal
cross-modal learning as well. learning is based on processing and relating informa-
The relevance of cross-modal learning is alike for tion from several (sensory) modalities it may play an C
natural and artificial cognitive systems (Christensen important role in bringing about grounded forms of
et al. 2010). Both continuously learn to extend their cognitionde (de Sa and Ballard 1998).
knowledge of acting in dynamic environments. The We also have to address the terminological issues,
ability to connect possibly asynchronously devel- since the terms related to cross-modal learning are not
oped models across different modalities provides consistently used in the literature. Sometimes, the term
an important basis for a grounded form of self- cross-modal learning is used only to refer to strongly
understanding. The possibility to interconnect and coupled types of cross-modal learning. Also, the term
thus form an interpretation that is coherent across modality is sometimes used in its narrower sense, con-
multiple modalities indicates what is known relative sidering sensory modalities only. Here, we adopted the
to some experience. Failure to do so may indicate broader meaning of both terms. There is also another
a knowledge gap, and can function as a trigger for term in the literature that is often used to describe
self-aware learning. a similar phenomenon, the term multimodal learning.
One meaning of this term refers to (human) learning
Important Scientific Research and based on different multimedia material involving dif-
Open Questions ferent human senses that facilitate learning. The second
There are arguments for learning to be based on meaning of this term is very close to the meaning of
association, and for learning to be mediated by a cross-modal learning as defined above. Sometimes this
(developing) categorical system. Very often, the inter- term relates to forms of weakly coupled cross-modal
connectivity between modalities is mediated by cate- learning, while very often cross-modal and multimodal
gorical structure. Effectively this establishes a triadic learning are used interchangeably with the same mean-
relation between modalities. The conceptual structures ing (synonyms).
in the modalities can be connected because they can
be understood as related by virtue of their reference
Cross-References
to a shared categorical ground. The arguments for this
▶ Active Learning
type of learning, based on the formation of a mediating
▶ Adaptation and Learning
categorical structure, arise from, for example, child-
▶ Cognitive Models of Learning
hood cognitive development. In word learning it is
▶ Cognitive Robotics
shown that a purely associative, unmediated account
▶ Embodied Cognition
(“child-as-data-analyst,” Sloutsky (2003)) cannot
▶ Learning and Understanding
appropriately account for categorical generalizations
a child is able to make (“child-as-theorist,” Waxman
and Gelman (2009)). The use of mediating categories References
both helps generalization of sensory input beyond Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and
actual experience, and allows for representations to be Brain Sciences, 22, 577–609.
Christensen, H. I., Kruijff, G. J. M., & Wyatt, J. L. (2010). Cognitive
ultimately grounded in, and influenced by, the embodi- systems (COSMOS 8). Berlin: Springer.
ment of the system (Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Barsalou Clark, J. J., & Yuille, A. L. (1990). Data fusion for sensory information
1999; Glenberg 1997). On the other hand, in many processing systems. Norwell: Kluwer Academic.
cases the modalities interact on a much lower level, de Sa, V. R., & Ballard, D. (1998). Category learning through
like in the case of sensorymotor learning. It is still an multi-modality sensing. Neural Computation, 10(5), 1097–1117.
Glenberg, A. M. (1997). What memory is for. Behavioral and Brain
open question what roles do these different forms of
Sciences, 20(1), 1–55.
learning play in specific types of cross-modal learning, Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The
whether in natural or artificial cognitive systems embodied mind and its challenge to western thought. New York:
(Philipona et al. 2003). Basic Books.
864 C Cross-Sectional Research

Philipona, D., O’Regan, K., & Nadal, J. P. (2003). Is there something Theoretical Background
out there? Inferring space from sensorimotor dependencies. During language acquisition, children learn a lexicon
Neural Computation, 15(9), 2029–2049.
containing many thousands of associations between
Stein, B. E., & Meredith, M. A. (1993). The merging of the senses.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. words and their meanings, at the rate of around ten
Sloutsky, V. M. (2003). The role of similarity in the development of new words a day. Children accomplish this task rapidly
categorization. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 246–251. and remarkably successfully, overcoming potentially
Waxman, S. R., & Gelman, S. A. (2009). Early word-learning entails unlimited uncertainty about the meaning of every
reference, not merely associations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,
new word they encounter, and identifying some
13(6), 258–263.
aspects of word meaning after only a very few expo-
sures through so-called fast mapping. Quine (1960)
famously illustrated the problem of referential uncer-
tainty through the story of an imaginary anthropolo-
gist working with a speaker of an unfamiliar language:
Cross-Sectional Research when a rabbit runs past, the speaker shouts “gavagai,”
and the anthropologist tentatively notes that this new
▶ Longitudinal Learning Research on Changes in
word means “rabbit.” Quine’s insight was to point out,
Learning of University Students
however, that the anthropologist can never be sure that
“gavagai” means “rabbit,” no matter how many future
clarificatory tests are carried out; it could, after all, have
an infinite number of possible meanings of varying
plausibility, including “animal,” “white,” “undetached
Cross-Situational Learning rabbit parts,” “dinner,” or “it will rain.”
Yet despite the philosophical problem of unlimited
ANDREW D. M. SMITH1, KENNY SMITH2 referential uncertainty, children clearly do learn large
1
Literature and Languages, School of Arts and lexicons, and the focus of much research into word
Humanities, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK learning has been on providing explanations for this.
2
Linguistics and English Language, School of The dominant approach has been to identify mecha-
Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, nisms which allow the learner to exclude from consid-
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK eration many meanings which are theoretically possible
but in reality spurious, thus reducing the level of refer-
ential uncertainty in the input to a more manageable
Synonyms level, and simplifying the task of determining the
Associative learning word’s true meaning. A number of heuristics have
been put forward: interpreting behavioral cues in
Definition order to identify the speaker’s focus of attention;
Cross-situational learning is a technique for learning assuming that novel words are more likely to refer to
the meanings of words across multiple exposures, whole objects rather than their parts or properties;
despite uncertainty as to the word’s meaning on each building on existing knowledge about the meanings
individual exposure. The cross-situational learner of other words and assuming that new words will
encounters a word in a number of different situations, have different meanings; making use of the syntactic
each of which provides a set of multiple candidate context in which the new word is presented to infer
meanings; the learner determines the word’s meaning aspects of its meaning (see Bloom 2000, for review).
by selecting from those meanings which reliably recur While quantifying the impact of such heuristics is
across situations. Cross-situational learning is less cog- problematic, it is clear that some referential uncertainty
nitively demanding than many other models of word is likely to remain even after the application of many or
learning, because it does not require a learner to unam- all of them; the utility of cross-situational learning
biguously identify a word’s meaning on a single stems from the fact that it allows words to be learnt
exposure. despite the existence of residual uncertainty.
 Cross-Situational Learning C 865

Cross-situational learning works by amalgamating by the environment, it will be sifted out of the set of
information about the meaning of a word from across possible meanings; in homonymous or polysemous
the various different situations in which that word situations where the word has more than one intended
occurs. Each separate context in which the word is meaning (e.g., the English word “bank”), none of the
used yields a (possibly infinite) set of possible candi- intended meanings will appear in all exposures, and C
date meanings, which is potentially reduced through thus the set of possible meanings will be empty (i.e.,
the application of word-learning heuristics such as situations in which “bank” is used as a verb denoting
those described above to a finite set of candidate mean- turning will probably not feature financial institutions
ings (including the true meaning); the same word in their set of likely meanings; likewise, situations in
uttered in a different context may of course yield which it is used as a noun will not reliably feature the
a different set of candidate meanings. Candidate mean- act of turning).
ing sets from different contexts can be combined, These vulnerabilities stem from the pure cross-
enabling the learner to identify the most likely correct situational learner maintaining the maximal amount
meaning, for instance, by identifying the meaning of cross-situational information, namely, an accurate
which lies at the intersection of the sets, as shown in set of candidate meanings which always occur with
Fig. 1. Although each exposure to a new word may the word. At the other end of the spectrum, a learner
provide a large number of possible meanings, and could make minimal use of cross-situational informa-
thus a large degree of referential uncertainty, successive tion by simply remembering a single one of the mean-
exposures in different contexts will gradually reduce ings suggested in a previous exposure, and maintaining
the uncertainty, eventually eliminating it completely this as their preferred meaning so long as it is also
by winnowing the set of possible meanings down to suggested by the current context. Between these two
the true meaning alone. extremes lie an infinite number of potential cross-
This eliminative approach to cross-situational situational learning strategies, much more resilient to
learning illustrated in Fig. 1, however, is vulnerable noise, yet less powerful than pure cross-situational
to failure in a number of real-world circumstances learning (Blythe et al. 2010). In particular, a frequentist
(see Gleitman et al. 2005, for discussion): In noisy strategy, where learners track the frequency with which
situations where the intended meaning is not suggested candidate meanings co-occur with the target word,
appears to match well the data from experimental
tests of cross-situational learning (Yu and Smith 2007;
Target word: “horse” Smith et al. 2011).

Target meaning: Important Scientific Research and

Incidental meanings: Open Questions
Existing research into cross-situational learning can
Exposure Context Candidate meanings be grouped into two main approaches: formal com-
1 putational and mathematical models examining the
operationalization of cross-situational learning and its
2 plausibility as a tool for language learning, and exper-
3 imental work exploring the conditions under which
humans use the different cross-situational learning
Cross-Situational Learning. Fig. 1 Cross-situational strategies.
learning. Each time the word horse is used, the context Siskind (1996) developed an early and influential
provides a different set of candidate meanings. Uncertainty computational implementation of cross-situational
about the meaning of the word is gradually reduced and learning based on the eliminative process illustrated
finally eliminated through its appearance in multiple in Fig. 1, describing an algorithm which was capable
exposures, as candidate meanings which are not of identifying word meanings after exposure to
suggested by each context are eliminated from a synthesized corpus of utterances paired with both
consideration intended and spurious meanings. Siskind further
866 C Crosswise Research

demonstrated that his cross-situational learning pro- timescale. Quantifying this critical point, however, is
cedures could be specified so that the algorithm could still problematic, not only because of the difficulties in
recover from errors originating from environmental accurately quantifying the referential uncertainty of
noise and homonymy. More recent formal models naturalistic data, but also because the experimental
(e.g., Yu et al. 2005) have successfully demonstrated evidence for when and how people shift learning strat-
that cross-situational learning can be used to infer the egies is currently rather minimal. Furthermore, existing
meanings of words from increasingly complex and research into different variants of cross-situational
realistic, though still small, corpora of natural language learning has primarily been carried out on adults, pos-
use. Mathematical models, meanwhile, have shown ing the question of whether children shift strategies in
that cross-situational learning is viable not just with response to task demands in the same way as adults, or
small corpora, but also scales up to the learning of whether they even use the same cross-situational learn-
large, human-size vocabularies within reasonable time- ing strategies at all.
scales (Blythe et al. 2010). Despite significant levels of
referential uncertainty at each exposure, the relative Cross-References
learning speed disadvantage of cross-situational learn- ▶ Associative Learning
ing compared to an idealized fast-mapping learner is ▶ Embodied Cognition
surprisingly small. There is, therefore, no necessary link ▶ Heuristics and Problem Solving
between the ability to learn individual words rapidly ▶ Matching
and the ability to acquire large vocabularies. ▶ Meaningful Verbal Learning
A body of research has demonstrated that both
References
adults and infants can effectively exploit cross-
Akhtar, N., & Montague, L. (1999). Early lexical acquisition: The role
situational learning information when learning small of cross-situational learning. First Language, 19(57), 347–358.
numbers of words (e.g., Akhtar and Montague 1999; Yu Bloom, P. (2000). How children learn the meanings of words.
and Smith 2007), using both naturalistic and more Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
controlled (and therefore quantifiable) stimuli. The Blythe, R. A., Smith, K., & Smith, A. D. M. (2010). Learning times for
effectiveness of cross-situational learning in humans large lexicons through cross-situational learning. Cognitive Sci-
ence, 34(4), 620–642.
is affected by the degree of referential uncertainty: Gleitman, L. R., Cassidy, K., Nappa, R., Papafragou, A., & Trueswell,
performance (in terms of number of words learnt) J. C. (2005). Hard words. Language Learning and Development,
decreases as referential uncertainty increases. Further- 1(1), 23–64.
more, increasing referential uncertainty appears to Quine, W. V. O. (1960). Word and object. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
change the mechanism by which cross-situational Siskind, J. M. (1996). A computational study of cross-situational
techniques for learning word-to-meaning mappings. Cognition,
learning takes place, with increased referential uncer-
61, 39–91.
tainty prompting a shift from a pure eliminative strat- Smith, K., Smith, A. D. M., & Blythe, R. A. (2011). Cross-situational
egy to a less demanding, more nuanced, frequentist learning: An experimental study of word-learning mechanisms.
equivalent (Smith et al. 2011). Cognitive Science, 35(3), 480–498.
This recent emphasis on examining when alter- Yu, C., & Smith, L. B. (2007). Rapid word learning under uncertainty
native cross-situational strategies are employed by via cross-situational statistics. Psychological Science, 18(5),
414–420.
learners leads to a number of currently open questions. Yu, C., Ballard, D. H., & Aslin, R. N. (2005). The role of embodied
Increasing referential uncertainty naturally increases intention in early lexical acquisition. Cognitive Science, 29(6),
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tainty than stronger forms.
Crosswise Research
At some point, therefore, increasing referential
uncertainty will make a human-size lexicon impossible ▶ Longitudinal Learning Research on Changes in
to learn by cross-situational learning in a reasonable Learning of University Students
 Cue Summation and Learning C 867

designate a process of delivering and acquiring infor-

Crystallized Intelligence mation by being taught via multiple methods deliver-
Knowledge that includes general world knowledge, ing same message.
vocabulary, and reasoning. It is also used to refer to
the ability to perform learned skills. This type of intel- Theoretical Background
C
ligence is often referred to as “crystallized” because this Cue summation is a type of information processing/
type of intelligence remains relatively permanent once human cognition/communication process that deals
it is acquired. with learning and retention. In cue summation, cue
contains multiple method of delivery containing same
message in producing learning (Severin 1967b), i.e.,
visual presentation-printed word combination, pic-
ture-spoken word combination, video-printed word
CS Processing audio combination, video-spoken word combination,
and printed word–spoken word combination. Cue
▶ Attention and Pavlovian Conditioning summation theory predictions are as follows:
● Cue summation (multiple cues) should be superior
to a single cue condition (Brashears et al. 2005).
– For Example: I want to show picture of my car.