Module 1: Introduction to System Analysis and ◆ constraints

Design ◆ input
◆ output
System Analysis and Design (SAD) ➔ exists within an environment
➔ systems are created to solve problems ➔ a boundary separates a system from its
➔ the subject mainly deals with software environment
development activities.
Important System Concepts
System Analysis
➔ process of collecting factual data, Decomposition
understand the processes involved, ➔ process of breaking down a system into
identifying problems and recommending smaller components
feasible suggestions for improving the ➔ allows the systems analyst to:
system functioning ◆ break a system into small,
➔ involves studying the business processes, manageable and understandable
gathering operational data, understand the subsystems
information flow, finding out bottlenecks ◆ Focus on one area at a time without
and evolving solutions for overcoming the interference from other areas
weaknesses of the system so as to achieve ◆ concentrate on component pertinent
the organizational goals to one group of users without
confusing users with unnecessary
Major Objectives of Systems Analysis details
➔ to find answers for each business process: ◆ build different components at
◆ What is being done? independent times and have help
◆ How is it being done? different analysts
◆ Who is doing it?
◆ When is he doing it? Modularity
◆ Why is it being done? ➔ process of dividing a system into modules of
◆ How can it be improved? a relatively uniform size
➔ it attempts to give birth to a new efficient ➔ modules simplify system design
system that satisfies the current needs of the
user and has scope for future growth within Coupling
the organizational constraints ➔ subsystems that are dependent upon each
other are coupled
System Design
➔ based on the user requirements and the Cohesion
detailed analysis of the existing system ➔ extent to which a subsystem performs a
single function
System
➔ interrelated set of business procedures used Roles of the Systems Analyst
within one business unit working together ➔ the analyst must be able to work with people
for a purpose of all descriptions and be experienced in
➔ has nine characteristics working with computers
◆ components ➔ three primary roles:
◆ interrelated components ◆ consultant
◆ boundary ◆ supporting expert
◆ purpose ◆ agent of change
◆ environment
◆ interfaces Qualities of the Systems Analyst
 1. Problem Solver
2. Communicator
3. Strong Personal And Professional Ethics
4. Self-Disciplined And Self-Motivated

The Systems Development Environment

Project Initiation
➔ Projects are initiated for two broad reasons:
◆ problems that lend themselves to
systems solutions
◆ opportunities for improvement
through
● upgrading systems
● altering systems
● installing new systems

Project Selection
➔ five specific criteria for project selection
◆ backed by management
◆ timed appropriately for
commitment of resources
◆ moves the business toward
attainment of its goals
◆ practical
◆ important enough to be considered
over other projects

New Options for Organizational Design

1. Flattening Organizations
2. Separating Work From Location
3. Reorganizing/Redesigning Work-Flows
4. Increasing Flexibility
5. Redefining Organizational Boundaries
 Role in Systems Development
➔ study problems and needs of an organization
➔ Determine best approach to improving
organization through use of:
◆ people
◆ methods
◆ information technology
➔ help system users and managers define their
requirements for new or enhanced
information systems

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

➔ traditional methodology for developing,
maintaining, and replacing information
systems

The Seven Phases of the SDLC

1. Identifying problems, opportunities, and

objectives

● Activity:
○ interviewing user management
■ awareness or recognition
of problems or situations
○ summarizing the knowledge
obtained
○ estimating the scope of the project
○ documenting the results

● Output:
○ feasibility report containing
problem definition and objective
summaries from which
management can make a decision
on whether to proceed with the
proposed project

A Modern Approach to Systems Analysis and 2. Determining Human Information

Design Requirements
➔ not by the users but the
Systems Integration requirements of the manager or the
● allows hardware and software from different upper management
vendors to work together
● enables procedural language systems to ● Activity:
work with visual programming systems ○ interviewing
● visual programming environment uses ○ sampling and investing hard data
client/server model ○ questionnaires
 ○ observe the decision maker’s 5. Developing and Documenting Software
behavior and environment ➔ actual system (coding,
○ prototyping programming)
○ learn the who, what, where, when,
how, and why of the current system ● Activity:
○ system analyst works with
● Output: programmers to develop any
○ the analyst understands how users original software
accomplish their work when ○ works with users to develop
interacting with a computer; and effective documentation
begin to know how to make the ○ programmers design, code, and
new system more useful and usable remove syntactical errors from
○ the analyst should also know the computer programs
business functions and have ○ document software with help files,
complete information on the procedure manuals, and web sites
people, goals, data, and procedure with frequently asked questions
involved (FAQs)

3. Analyzing System Needs ● Output:

➔ provide options ○ computer programs
○ system documentation
● Activity:
○ create data flow, activity, or 6. Testing and Maintaining the System
sequence diagrams
○ complete the data dictionary ● Activity:
○ analyze the structured decisions ○ test the information system
made ○ system maintenance
○ prepare and present the system ○ maintenance documentation
proposal
● Output:
● Output: ○ problems, if any
○ recommendation on what, if ○ updated programs
anything, should be done ○ Documentation

4. Designing the Recommended System 7. Implementing and Evaluating the System

➔ recommend options provided
➔ blueprint, skeleton of the system ● Activity:
○ train users
● Activity: ○ analyst plans smooth conversion
○ design procedures for data entry from old system to new system
○ design the human-computer ○ review and evaluate system
interface ● Output:
○ design system controls ○ trained personnel
○ design database and/or files ○ installed system
○ design backup procedures

● Output:
○ model of the actual system
 IS Characteristics:
➔ draws on diverse yet predictable
data resources to aggregate and
summarize data; may involve
forecasting future data from
historical trends and business
knowledge

Systems Development Methods:

➔ data orientation; concern with
understanding relationships among
data so data can be accessed and
summarized in a variety of ways;
builds a model of data that supports
The Impact of Maintenance a variety of uses
● maintenance is performed for two reasons:
○ removing software errors 3. Decision Support System (DSS)
○ enhancing existing software ➔ designed to help decision makers
● over time the cost of continued maintenance provides interactive environment
will be greater than that of creating an for decision making
entirely new system. At that point it ➔ involves data warehouses,
becomes more feasible to perform a new executive information systems
systems study (EIS)
➔ database, model base, user dialogue
Types of Information Systems and Systems
Development IS Characteristics:
➔ provides guidance in identifying
1. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) problems, finding and evaluating
➔ automate handling of data about alternative solutions, and selecting
business activities (transactions) or comparing alternatives;
potentially involves groups of
IS Characteristics: decision makers; often involves
➔ high-volume, data capture focus; semi-structured problems and the
goal is efficiency of data movement need to access data at different
and processing and interfacing levels of detail
different TPSs
Systems Development Methods:
Systems Development Methods: ➔ data and decision logic
➔ process orientation; concern with orientations; design of user
capturing, validating, and storing dialogue; group communication
data and with moving data between may also be key, and access to
each required step unpredictable data may be
necessary; nature of systems
2. Management Information Systems (MIS) requires iterative development and
➔ converts raw data from transaction almost constant updating
processing system into meaningful
form
➔ data orientation
New Technologies Problems with Waterfall Approach
➔ being integrated into traditional systems 1. System requirement “locked in” after being
◆ ecommerce uses the web to determined (can’t change)
perform business activities 2. Limited user involvement (only in
◆ enterprise resource planning (ERP) requirements phase)
has the goal of integrating many 3. Too much focus on milestone deadlines of
different information systems SDLC phases to the detriment of sound
within the corporation development practices
◆ wireless and handheld devices,
including mobile commerce Alternatives to Traditional Waterfall SDLC
(mcommerce) ➔ Prototyping
◆ open source software
 ● emphasize people rather
than roles
● self-adaptive processes

➔ eXtreme Programming
◆ short, incremental development
cycles
◆ automated tests
◆ two-person programming teams
◆ coding and testing operate together
◆ Advantages:
● communication between
developers
➔ CASE tools ● high level of productivity
➔ Joint Application Design (JAD) ● high-quality code
◆ inclusive of the team, group effort
◆ structured process involving users, ➔ Object-Oriented Analysis and Design
analysts, and managers ◆ instead of raw materials or from
◆ several-day intensive workgroup scratch, only predefined objects are
sessions used
◆ purpose: to specify or review ◆ based on objects rather than data or
system requirements processes
◆ Object: a structure encapsulating
➔ Rapid Application Development (RAD) attributes and behaviors of a
◆ methodology to decrease design real-world entity
and implementation time ◆ Object class: a logical grouping of
◆ involves: prototyping, JAD, CASE objects sharing the same attributes
tools, and code generators and behaviors
◆ Inheritance: hierarchical
arrangement of classes enable
subclasses to inherit properties of
superclasses

➔ Agile Methodologies
◆ programming approach considering
flexibility
◆ motivated by recognition of
software development as fluid,
unpredictable, and dynamic
◆ Three key principles:
● adaptive rather than Functional features
predictive - a must
- starts with inception
 - things that can’t be lived without ● Operational Management and
Non-Management Employees
Non-functional features
- things that can be used but not required

Major Types of Information Systems

1. Transaction processing systems (TPS)
● Developed to process large
amounts of data for routine
business transactions
● Transaction processing system
● Boundary-spanning systems that
permit the organization to interact
with the external environment
● Allow sorting, listing, merging, and
updating of data and information
● Handle and produce data and
information in the form of
transactions, events, detailed
reports, lists, and summaries
● Sales and marketing systems
○ Sales order information
system
○ Marketing research system
○ Pricing system
○ Order tracking and
processing 2. Office automation systems (OAS)
● Manufacturing and Production ● Systems that make use of tools like
Systems word processing, electronic mail,
○ Materials resource calendaring features, and reminder
planning system files
○ Purchase order control ● Handle document management,
system scheduling, and communications
○ Engineering system ● Support data workers
○ Quality control system ● Examples:
● Accounting and Finance Systems ○ Word processing
○ General ledger system ○ Document imaging
○ Accounts ○ Electronic calendars
payable/receivable system ○ Spreadsheets
○ Budgeting system ○ Desktop publishing
○ Funds management ○ Video conferencing
system ○ Voice mail
● Human Resource Systems ● Non-Management Employees
○ Payroll system
○ Employee records system 3. Knowledge work systems (KWS)
○ Benefit system ● Support professional workers such
○ Career path system as scientists, engineers and doctors
○ Training and development
system
 by aiding them to create new
knowledge
● Support the creation, organization,
and dissemination of business
knowledge to employees and
managers throughout the
organization
● Examples:
○ Computer aided design
○ Computer aided
manufacturing
○ E-Learning systems
○ Scientific computing
systems
○ Engineering, graphics, and
managerial workstations
● Operational Management

4. Management information systems (MIS) ● Structured and semi-structured

● Deals with the planning for, decisions
development, management, and use ● Report control oriented
of information technology tools to ● Past and present data
help people in the organization ● Internal orientation
perform all tasks related to
● Lengthy design process
information processing and
management
5. Decision support systems (DSS)
● Provide information in the form of
● Focus on helping managers make
reports and displays to managers
decisions that are semi-structured,
and many business professionals
unique, or rapidly changing, and
● Provide access to current not easily specified in advance
performance and historical records
● Have greater analytical power than
of the organization
other systems, incorporate
● Focus entirely on internal events,
modeling tools, aggregation and
providing the information for analysis tools, and support what-if
short-term planning and decision scenarios
making
● Examples:
● Examples:
○ Sales region analysis
○ Sales management
○ Production scheduling
○ Inventory control
○ Cost analysis
○ Annual budgeting
○ Pricing/profitability
○ Capital investment
analysis
analysis
○ Contract cost analysis
● Tactical Management and
● Tactical Management and
Operational Management
Operational Management
 ○ Check output against performance
criteria
■ too many errors
■ work completed slowly
■ work done incorrectly
■ work done incompletely
■ work not done at all
○ Observe behavior of employees
■ high absenteeism
■ high job dissatisfaction
■ high job turnover
○ Listen to feedback from vendors,
customers, and suppliers
■ complaints
■ suggestions for
improvement
■ loss of sales
■ lower sales

Selection of Projects
6. Expert systems (ES) and Artificial ● Backing from management
Intelligence (AI) ● Appropriate timing of project commitment
● Also known as Knowledge-Based ● Possibility of improving attainment of
systems organizational goals
● Application of Artificial ● Practical in terms of resources for the
Intelligence system analyst and organization
● Designed to mimic the performance ● Worthwhile project compared with other
of human experts ways the organization could invest resources
● Effectively capture and use the
knowledge of an expert for solving Selection of Projects: Improving Attainment of
a particular problem experienced in Organizational Goals
an organization ● Improving corporate profits
● Examples: ● Supporting the competitive strategy of the
○ Training systems organization
○ Equipment diagnostics ● Improving cooperation with vendors and
○ Portfolio Management partners
○ Troubleshooting Systems ● Improving internal operations support
● Tactical Management and ● Improving internal decision support so that
Operational Management decisions are more effective
7. Group decision support systems (GDSS) and ● Improving customer service
Computer-Supported Collaborative Work ● Increasing employee morale
Systems
8. Executive support systems (EES) Possibilities for Improvement
● Many possible objectives exist including
Module 2: Identifying and Selecting IS Projects ○ Speeding up a process
○ Streamlining a process
Organizational Problems ○ Combining processes
● Identify problems by ○ Reducing errors in input
○ Reducing redundant storage
 ○ Reducing redundant output 1. Can the company acquire the
○ Improving system and subsystem necessary hardware, software, and
integration network resources without
difficulty?
Determining Feasibility and Managing Analysis and 2. Does the company have the needed
Design Activities technical expertise?
3. Does the proposed platform have
Feasibility Study sufficient capacity for future needs?
● Guides the organization in determining 4. Will the hardware and software
whether to proceed with a project or not environment interface properly
● Identifies the important risks associated with with external systems operated by
the project that must be addressed if the customers and suppliers?
project is approved 5. Do clear expectations and
● Assesses the operational, technical, and performance specifications exist?
economic merits of the proposed project 6. Can current technical resources be
upgraded or added to in a manner
Questions to be pondered on: that fulfills the request under
● Is it a practical approach that will solve a consideration?
problem or take advantage of an opportunity 7. If not, is there technology in
to achieve company goals? existence that meets the
● Are the necessary technical resources and specifications?
people available for the project?
● Is the problem worth solving, and will the 2. Economic Feasibility
request result in a sound business ● Determines whether the time and
investment? money are available to develop the
● Can the proposal be accomplished within an system
acceptable time frame? ● Means that the projected benefits of
the proposed system outweigh the
Three types of Feasibility estimated costs, which includes
1. Technical Feasibility ongoing support and maintenance
● Assesses whether the current costs, as well as acquisition costs
technical resources are sufficient ● System analysts’ time
for the new system ● Cost of systems study
● If they are not available, can they ● Cost of employees’ time for study
be upgraded to provide the level of ● Estimated cost of hardware
technology necessary for the new ● Cost of packaged software or
system software development
● Refers to the technical resources ● Includes the purchase of:
needed to develop, purchase, ○ new equipment
install, or operate the system ○ hardware
● Analysis of technical risks like ○ software
familiarity with the application of ● Determines whether value of the
technology, project size, and investment exceeds the time and
compatibility cost
● Add on to present system ● Includes
● Technology available to meet ○ Analyst and analyst team
users’ needs time
○ Business employee time
Questions to be pondered on: ○ Hardware
 ○ Software ● Determines if the human resources
○ Software development are available to operate the system
once it had been installed
Questions to be pondered on: ● Users that do not want a new
1. Can we support the system’s system may prevent it from
development and operational costs? becoming operationally feasible
● Proposed system will be used
Development Costs effectively after it has been
● Development team developed
salaries ● Measure of the user’s attitude
● Consultant fees towards the system and how well
● Development training the solution will work in the
● Hardware and software organization
● Vendor installation ● If users have a difficulty with a
● Office space and system, it will not produce the
equipment expected benefits
● Data conversion costs ● Whether the system will operate
when installed
Operational Costs ● Whether the system will be used
● Software upgrades ● Determines if the human resources
● Software licensing fees are available to operate the system
● Hardware repairs once it had been installed
● Hardware upgrades ● Users that do not want a new
● Operational team salaries system may prevent it from
● Communications charges becoming operationally feasible
● User training
Questions to be pondered on:
Tangible Benefits 1. Is the problem worth solving or
● Increased sales will the solutions to the problem
● Reductions in staff work?
● Reductions in inventory 2. Does management support the
and elimination of product project?
delays 3. Do users see the need for change?
● Reductions in IT costs 4. Will the new system result in a
● Better supplier prices workforce reduction?
5. Will the new system place any new
Intangible Benefits demands on users or require any
● Increased market share operating changes?
● Increased brand 6. Will any information be less
recognition accessible or produced less
● Enhanced company image frequently?
● Higher quality products 7. Will customers experience adverse
● Improved employee job effects in any way?
satisfaction 8. Do legal or ethical issues need to
● Improved customer be considered?
service
● Better supplier relations
4. Schedule Feasibility
3. Operational Feasibility
 Questions to be pondered on: ● Most likely, pessimistic and optimistic
1. Can the system be finished on estimates for time may be used
time?
2. Can the company or the IT team Module 3: Project Management
control the factors that affect
schedule feasibility? Importance of Project Management
3. Has management established a firm ● Project management may be the most
timetable for the project? important aspect of systems development
4. What conditions must be satisfied ● Effective PM helps ensure
during the development of the ○ Meeting of customer expectations
system? ○ Satisfying of budget and time
5. Will an accelerated schedule pose constraints
any risks? ● PM skills are difficult and important to learn
6. Will project management
techniques be available to Managing the Information Systems Project
coordinate and control the project?
7. Will a project manager be Project
appointed? ● A planned undertaking of related activities
to reach an objective that has a beginning
Evaluating Feasibility and an end
● Even if the request is feasible, it might not
be necessary Project management
● A controlled process of initiating, planning,
Determining Feasibility executing, and closing down a project
● Defining objectives
● Determining resources Project manager
○ Operationally ● Systems analyst with management and
○ Technically leadership skills responsible for leading
○ economically project initiation, planning, execution, and
closedown
Activity Planning and Control ● Juggles numerous activities
● Planning includes:
○ Selecting a systems analysis team Deliverable
○ Estimating time required to ● The end product of an SDLC phase
complete each task
○ Scheduling the project Project Management Activities
● Control includes:
○ Comparing the plan for the project
with its actual evolution
○ Taking appropriate action to
expedite or reschedule activities

Estimating Time
● Project is broken down into phases
● Further project is broken down into tasks or
activities
● Finally project is broken down into steps or
even smaller units
● Time is estimated for each task or activity
The Process of Identifying and Selecting IS Selection of Projects: Improving Attainment of
Development Projects Organizational Goals
● Top-down source are projects identified by ● Improving corporate profits
top management or by a diverse steering ● Supporting the competitive strategy of the
committee organization
● Bottom-up source are project initiatives ● Improving cooperation with vendors and
stemming from managers, business units, or partners
the development group ● Improving internal operations support
● The process varies substantially across ● Improving internal decision support so that
organizations decisions are more effective
● Improving customer service
Project Management Fundamentals ● Increasing employee morale
● Project initiation
● Determining project feasibility Defining Objectives
● Activity planning and control ● Many possible objectives exist including:
● Project scheduling ○ Speeding up a process
● Managing systems analysis team members ○ Streamlining a process
○ Combining processes
Project Initiation ○ Reducing errors in input
● Problems in the organization ○ Reducing redundant storage
○ Problems that lend themselves to ○ Improving system and subsystem
systems solutions integration
● Opportunities for improvement
○ Caused through upgrading, Determining Feasibility
altering, or installing new systems ● Defining objectives
● Determining resources
○ Operationally
○ Technically
○ Economically

Selection of Projects
● Backing from management
● Appropriate timing of project commitment
● Possibility of improving attainment of
organizational goals
● Practical in terms of resources for the Technical Feasibility
system analyst and organization ● Can current technical resources be upgraded
● Worthwhile project compared with other or added to in a manner that fulfills the
ways the organization could invest resources request under consideration?
 ● If not, is there technology in existence that
meets the specifications?

Economic Feasibility
● Economic feasibility determines whether the
value of the investment exceeds the time and
cost
● Includes
○ Analyst and analyst team time
○ Business employee time
○ Hardware
○ Software
○ Software development

Operational Feasibility
● Operational feasibility determines if the
human resources are available to operate the
system once it has been installed
● Users that do not want a new system may
prevent it from becoming operationally
feasible

Activity Planning and Control

● Planning includes
○ Selecting a system analysis team Project Scheduling
○ Estimating time required to ● Gantt charts
complete each task ○ Simple
○ Scheduling the project ○ Lends itself to end-user
● Control includes communication
○ Comparing the plan for the project ○ Drawn to scale
with its actual evolution ● PERT Diagrams (Program Evaluation and
○ Tasking appropriate action to Review Technique)
expedite or reschedule activities ○ Useful when activities can be done
in parallel
Estimating Time ○ PERT diagrams show precedence,
● Project is broken down into phases activities that must be completed
● Further project is broken down into tasks or before the next activities may be
activities started
● Finally project is broken down into steps or ○ Used to calculate the critical path,
even smaller units the longest path through the
● Time is estimated for each task or activity activities
● Most likely, pessimistic and optimistic ○ This is the shortest time to
estimates for time may be used complete the project
PERT Diagram Advantages ○ Who will evaluate the system and
● Easy identification of the order of how will they evaluate it?
precedence ○ What is the estimated project
● Easy identification of the critical path and timeline?
thus critical activities ○ Who will train the users?
● Easy determination of slack time ○ Who will maintain the system?

Managing Analysis and Design Activities Module 4: Information Gathering Methods

● Team management
○ Assembling a team Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information
○ Team communication strategies Requirements
○ Project productivity goals ● Interviews
○ Team member motivation ● Questionnaires
● Observing
Assembling a Team ● Studying business documents
● Shared value of team work ● Joint Applicant Design (JAD)
● Good work ethic
● Honesty Interviewing
● Competency ● Important method for collecting data on
● Readiness to take on leadership based on human and system information requirements
expertise ● Reveal information about:
● Motivation ○ Interviewee opinions
● Enthusiasm for the project ○ Interviewee feelings
● Trust of teammates ○ Goals

Communication Strategies Interview Preparation

● Teams often have two leaders: ● Reading background material
○ Task leader: leads members to ● Establishing interview objectives
accomplish tasks ● Deciding whom to interview
○ Sociomotional leader: concerned ● Preparing the interviewee
with social relationships ● Deciding on question types and structures
● The systems analyst must manage:
○ Team members Question Types
○ Their activities ● Open-ended
○ Their time and resources ● Closed

Project Charter Open-ended Questions

● Describers in a written document what the ● Allow interviewees to respond how they
expected results of the systems project are wish, and to what length they wish
and the time frame for delivery ● Appropriate when the analyst is interested in
● Clarifies these questions: breadth and depth of reply
○ What does the user expect of the
project? Advantages of Open-ended Questions
○ What is the scope of the project? ● Puts the interviewee at ease
○ What analysis methods will the ● Allows the interviewer to pick up on the
analyst use to interact with users? interviewee’s vocabulary
○ Who are the key participants? ● Provides the richness of detail
○ What are the project deliverables? ● Reveals avenues of further questioning that
may have gone untapped
 ● Provides more interest for the interviewee Bipolar Questions
● Allows more spontaneity ● Bipolar questions are those that may be
● Makes phrasing easier of the interviewer answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or
● Useful if the interviewer is unprepared “disagree”
● Bipolar questions should be used sparingly
Disadvantages of Open-ended Questions
● May result in too much irrelevant detail Probes
● Possibly losing control of the interview ● Probing questions elicit more detail about
● May take too much time for the amount of previous questions
useful information gained ● The purpose of probing question is:
● Potentially seeming that the interviewer is ○ To get more meaning
unprepared ○ To clarify
● Possibly giving the impression that the ○ To draw out and expand on the
interviewer is on a “fishing expedition” interviewee’s point
● May be either open-ended or closed
Closed Interview Questions
● Limit the number of possible responses Arranging Questions
● Appriopriate for generating precise, ● Pyramid
rellilable data that is easy to analyze ○ Starting with closed questions and
● Methodology is efficient, and it requires working toward open-ended
little skill for the interviewers to administer questions
● Funnel
Benefits of Closed Interview Questions ○ Starting with open-ended questions
● Saving interview time and working toward closed
● Easily comparing interviews questions
● Getting to the point ● Diamond
● Keeping control of the interview ○ Starting with closed questions,
● Covering a large area quickly moving toward open-ended, and
● Getting to relevant data ending with closed questions

Disadvantages Closed Interview Questions Pyramid Structure

● Boring for the interviewee ● Begins with very detailed, often closed
● Failuire to obtain rich detailing questions
● Missing main ideas ● Expands by allowing open-ended questions
● Failing to build rapport between interviewer and more generalized responses
and interviewee ● Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed
up to the topic or seem reluctant to address
the topic

Funnel Structure
● Begins with generalized, open-ended
questions
● Concludes by narrowing the possible
responses using closed questions
● Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to
begin an interview
● Is useful when the interviewee feels
emotionally about the topic
Diamond Structure
● A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very
specific way
● Then more general issues are examined
● Concludes with specific questions
● Combines the strengths of both the pyramid
and funnel structures
● Takes longer than the other structures

Closing the Interview

● Always ask “Is there anything else that you Questionnaire Language
would like to add?” ● Simple
● Summarize and provide feedback on your ● Specific
impressions ● Short
● Ask whom you should talk with next ● Free of bias
● Set up any future appointments ● Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
● Thank them for their time and shake hands ● Technically accurate
● Appropriate for the reading level of the
Interview Report respondent
● Write as soon as possible after the interview
● Provide and initial summary, then more Measurement Scales
detail ● Two different forms of measurement scales
● Review the report with the respondent are:
○ Nominal
Planning for the Use of Questionnaires ○ Interval
● Organization members are widely dispersed
● Many members are involved with the project Nominal Scales
● Exploratory work is needed ● Used to classify things
● Problem-solving prior to interviews is ● Weakest form of measurement
necessary ● Data may be totaled

Question Types Interval Scales

● Used when the intervals are equal
Questions are designed as either: ● There is no absolute zero
● Open-ended ● Examples of interval scales include the
○ Try to anticipate the response you Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale
will get
○ Well suited for getting opinions Problems with Scales
● Closed ● Leniency
○ Use when all the options may be ○ Caused by easy raters
listed ■ Solution is to move the
○ When the options are mutually “average” category to the
exclusive left or right or center
● Central Tendency
○ Occurs when respondents rate
everything as average
 ■ Improve by making Guidelines for Effective Interviewing
differences smaller at the ● Plan the interview
two ends ○ Prepare interviewee: appointment,
■ Adjust the strength of the priming questions
descriptors ○ Prepare agenda, checklist,
■ Create a scale with more questions
points ● Listen carefully and take notes (tape record
● Halo Effect if permitted)
○ When the impression formed in one ● Review notes within 48 hours
question carries into the next ● Be neutral
question ● Seek diverse views
○ Solution is to place one trait and
several items on each page Choosing Interview Questions
● Each question in an interview guide can
Designing the Questionnaire include both verbal and non-verbal
● Allow ample white space information
● Allow ample space to write or type in ○ Open-ended questions: questions
responses that have no prespecified answers
● Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark ○ Closed-ended questions: questions
their answers that ask those responding to choose
● Be consistent in style from among a set of specified
responses
Order of Questions
● Place most important question first Interviewing Groups
● Cluster items of similar content together ● Drawbacks to individual interviews
● Introduce less controversial questions first ○ Contradictions and inconsistencies
between interviewees
Methods of Administering the Questionnaire ○ Follow-up discussions are time
● Convening all concerned respondents consuming
together at one time ○ New interviews may reveal new
● Personally administering the questionnaire questions that require additional
● Allowing respondents to self-administer the interviews with those interviewed
questionnaire earlier
● Mailing questionnaires ● Interviewing several key people together
● Administering over the Web or via email ○ Advantages
■ More effective use of time
Electronically Submitting Questionnaires ■ Can hear agreements and
● Reduced costs disagreements at once
● Collecting and storing the results ■ opportunity for strategies
electronically ○ Disadvantages
■ More difficult to schedule
Interviewing and Listening than individual interviews
● One of the primary ways analysts gather
information about an information systems Directly Observing Users
project ● Direct Observation
● Interview Guide is a document for ○ Watching users do their jobs
developing, planning, and conducting an ○ Obtaining more firsthand and
interview objective measures of employee
 interaction with information necessary for the system to
systems function
○ Can cause people to change their ○ Gives crucial information about the
normal operating behavior nature of the organization
○ Time-consuming and limited time ● Useful Document: Report
to observe ○ Primary output of current system
○ Enables you to work backwards
Analyzing Procedures and Other Documents from the report to the data needed
● Document Analysis to generate it
○ Review of existing business ● Useful Document: Description of current
documents information system
○ Can give a historical and “formal”
view of system requirements Contemporary Methods for Determining System
● Types of information to be discovered Requirements
○ Problems with existing system ● Joint Application Design (JAD)
○ Opportunity to meet new need ○ Brings together key users,
○ Organizational direction managers, and systems analysts
○ Names of key individuals ○ Purpose: collect system
○ Values of organization requirements simultaneously from
○ Special information processing key people
circumstances ○ Conducted off-site
○ Reasons for current system design ● Group Support Systems
○ Rules for processing data ○ Facilitate sharing of ideas and
● Useful document: written work procedure voicing of opinions about system
○ For an individual or work group requirements
○ Describes how a particular jop or
task is performed Joint Application Design (JAD)
○ Includes data and information used ● Intensive group-oriented requirements
and created in the process determination technique
● Potential problems with procedure ● Team members meet in isolation for an
documents extended period of time
○ May involve duplication of effort ● Highly focused
○ May have missing procedures ● Resource intensive
○ May be out of date ● Started by IBM in 1970s
○ May contradict information ● Can replace a series of interviews with the
obtained through interviews user community
● Formal Systems ● A technique that allows the analyst to
○ The official way a system works as accomplish requirements analysis and
described in organizational design the user interface with the users in a
documentation (i.e. work group setting
procedure)
● Informal Systems Conditions that Support the Use of JAD
○ The way a system actually works ● Users are restless and want something new
(i.e. interviews, observations) ● The organizational culture supports joint
● Useful Document: Business Form problem-solving behaviors
○ Used for all types of business ● Analysts forecast an increase in the number
functions of ideas using JAD
○ Explicitly indicate what data flow ● Personnel may be absent from their jobs for
in and out of a system and data the length of time required
Who is Involved? ● How to set priorities
● Executive sponsor ● How to manage a number of simultaneous
● IS Analyst activities efficiently
● Users
Situation Appraisal Techniques
Benefits of JAD ● Recognizing concerns
● Time is saved, compared with traditional ○ List current business situation,
interviewing deviations, threats and
● Rapid development of systems opportunities
● Improved user ownership of the system ○ Review progress against goals
● Creative idea production is improved ○ Look ahead for surprises within the
organization and in the external
Drawbacks of Using JAD environment
● JAD requires a large block of time to be ○ Search for improvement
available for all session participants ● Separating concerns into manageable
● If preparation or the follow-up report is components
incomplete, the session may not be ● Setting priorities
successful ● Planning resolution of concerns
● The organizational skills and culture may
not be conducive to a JAD session Situational Appraisal
● Deals with assessing and clarifying
situations, sorting things out, breaking down
complex situations into manageable
components, and maintaining control of
events
● It can create understanding of how concerns
should be handled and priorities set, and it
tracks the involvement of others through to
resolution
● It is designed to identify problems to be
solved, decisions to be made, and future
events to be analyzed
Module 5: Situational Assessment/Appraisal
Sample of specific questions to ask in Situational
Analysis
Basic Rational Processes: Situational Appraisal
● Where are we not meeting standards?
● Situational Appraisal is used to separate,
● What problems from the last six months
clarify and prioritize concerns
remain unsolved?
● When confusing is mounting, the correct
● What recommendations are we currently
approach is unclear, or priorities overwhelm
working on or be coming up in the near
plans, a situational appraisal is the tool of
future?
choice
● What decisions need to be made now?
● What decisions are being made now and will
Situational Appraisal: Evaluation Tool
have to be implemented when a choice is
● Where to begin
made?
● How to recognize situations that require
● What major project, systems or plans are
actions
about to be implemented?
● How to break apart overlapping and
confusing issues
Situational Appraisal: Separating Concerns into ● It gives us a methodological means to
Manageable Components extract essential information from a
● Do we think one action will really resolve troublesome situation and set aside
this concern? irrelevant, confusing information
● Are we talking about one thing or several
things? Situational Analysis
● Are we in agreement as to the reason we are ● In order to profitably satisfy customer needs,
concerned about this? the firm first must understand its external
● What evidence do we have that says this is a and internal situation,
concern? ○ Including the customer,
● What is actually happening in this situation? ○ The market environment, and
● What do we see/hear/feel/smell/taste that ○ The firm:s own capabilities
tells us we must take action? ● It needs to forecast trends in the dynamic
● What is there about the way we handled this environment in which it operates
situation that should be improved?
● What is really troubling about this situation? The 5C Analysis
● Company
Setting Priorities amongst concerns ○ Product line
● How serious is the current impact of this ○ Image in the market
particular concern on productivity, people ○ Technology and experience
and/or resources? ○ Culture
● How much TIME URGENCY does it have? ○ Goals
● What is the best estimate of its PROBABLE ● Customer
GROWTH? ○ Market size and growth
○ Only critical concerns can be ○ Market segments
addressed ○ Benefits that consumer is seeking,
tangible and intangible
Planning resolutions of concerns ○ Motivationbehind purchase; value
● Does the situation require explanation? Is drivers, benefits vs costs
there a deviation between expectted and ○ Decision maker or decision
actual performance? –making unit
● Is the deviation of unknown cause? ○ Retail channel – where does the
● Would knowing the true cause help us take consumer actually purchase the
more effective action? product?
● Does a choice have to be made? Or do ○ Consumer information sources –
objectives need to be set in order to where does the consumer obtain
undertake some activity? information about the product?
● Has a decision been made but not yet ○ Buying process; e.g., impulse or
implemented, and is it necessary to act now careful comparison
to avoid possible future trouble? ○ Frequency of purchase, seasonal
● Does a plan need to be made to safeguard factors
some decision or future activity? ○ Quantify purchases at a time
○ Trends – how consumer needs and
Problem Analysis preferences change over time
● It enables us to accurately identify, describe, ● Competitors
analyze, and resolve a situationin which ○ Actual or potential
something has gone wrong without ○ Direct or indirect
explanation? ○ Products
○ Positioning
 ○ Market shares ● Market share
○ Strengths and weaknesses of ● Financial resources
competitors ● Exclusive contracts
● Collaborators ● Patents and trade secrets
○ Distributors
○ Suppliers External Analysis
○ Alliances ● Customer
● Climate (or Context) ● Competitors
○ Climate or macro-environmnetal ● Market trends
factors are ● Suppliers
■ Political and regulatory: ● Partners
governmental policies and ● Social Changes
regulations that affect the ● New Technology
market ● Economic environment
■ Economic: business cycle, ● Political and regulatory environment
inflation rate, interest
rates, and other SWOT
macroeconomic issues Strengths and Weaknesses
■ Social/Cultural: society’s ● Internal environment - the situation inside
trends and fashions the company or organization
■ Technological: new ● Factors tend to be in the present
knowledge that makes ● Examples: factors relating to products,
possible new ways of pricing, costs, profitability, performance,
satisfying need; the impact quality, people, skills, adaptability, brands,
of technology on the services, reputation, processes,
demand for existing infrastructure, etc.
products
● Recent Threats and Opportunities
technological ● External environment - the situation outside
development the company or organization
● Technology’s ● Factors tend to be in the future
impact on ● Examples: factors relating to markets,
product/service sectors, audience, fashion, seasonality,
offering trends, competition, economics, politics,
● Impact on cost society, culture, technology, environmental,
structure media, law, etc.
● Impact on value
chain structure Module 6: Databases
● Rate of
technological What is the purpose of a Database?
diffusion ● To organize and keep track of things
● Spreadsheets do that do
Internal Analysis ○ Keep lists of single concept
● Company Culture and Image ○ Example: Student test scores in a
● Organizational Structure course
● Key Staff ● Databases
● Access to natural resources ○ Keep lists that involve multiple
● Operational efficiency and capacity themes/concepts
● Brand awareness
 ○ Examples: Student grades, grades Examples of Databases
for all courses in a department, ● Supermarket
courses offered in all departments, ● Credit card
faculty records, and so on ● Travel agent
● Database is a collection of related data ● Library
● Database Management System (DBMS) is ● Insurance
the software that manages and accesses the ● Hospital
database ● Bank
● University
Manual Filing System
Database Approach

File-Based Systems
● A collection of application programs that
perform services for the end users such as
the production of reports
● Each programs defines and manages its own
data
● Each user defines and implements What is a database?
(including storage and control) the files ● Shared collection of logically coherent data
needed for a specific application with some inherent meaning
● Designed, built, and populated with data for
Limitations of File-Based Systems specific purpose such as meeting the
● Separation and isolation of data information needs of an organization
● Duplication of data ● It represents some aspect of the real-world
● Program-data dependence ● Examples: student, employee, library, air
● Incompatibility of files (e.g. C vs. COBOL) flights, hospital databases, etc.
● Fixed Queries / Proliferation of Application
Programs What is a DBMS?
● Database Management System
Factors that limit FIle-Based System ● A software system that enables users to
● The definition of data is embedded in the ○ Define, create, and maintain the
application programs, rather than being database
stored separately and independently ○ Provide controlled access to this
● There is no control over the access and database
manipulation of data beyond that imposed ■ Security
by the application programs ■ Integrity
 ■ Concurrency control ● Ensuring satisfactory performance for the
■ Recovery control applications and users
■ User-accessible catalogue ● Data Designers identify the data to store and
(description of data) choose the proper structures
● System Analysts and Application
Programmers deal with development of
application for end usres
● End Users actually access the database
contents.

End Users
● Casual end users occassionally access the
database, using a query language
● Naive or parametric end users use standard
queries, due to consistent needs from the
database, using canned transactions
Components of the DBMS Environment
● Sophisticated end users are engineers,
scientists, business analysts, and those who
have complex requirements
● Stand-alone users maintain personal
databases, using ready-made program
packages (e.g. tax package)

Modern Desktop DBMS (Windows based or GUI

based)
● Visual dBASE
Workers Behind the Scene
● Paradox for Windows
● DBMS Designers and Implementers
● CA Visual Objects
○ Data administrator
● Visual Foxpro
○ Database administrator
● Microsoft Access
○ Database designer
■ Logical database designer
Modern Client/Server DBMS
■ Physical database designer
● Oracle
○ Application programmers
● Sybase SQL Server
● Tool developers (e.g. performance
● Informix
monitoring, graphical interfaces, etc.)
● Microsoft SQL Server
● Operators and Maintenance Personnel
● Centure SQL Base
● End Useres
● CA OpenIngres
● Data Administrators manages the data
● IBM DB/2
resource including
○ Database planning
Strengths of Database System
○ Development and maintenance of
● Control of data redundancy
standards, policies, and procedures
● Data consistency
○ Logical database design
● More information from the same amount of
● Database Administrator is responsible for
data
the physical design and implementation
● Sharing of data
● Security and integrity control
● Improved data integrity
● Maintenance of the operational system and
● Improves security
● Enforcement of standards
 ● Economy of scale ○ Allowaing the database to evolveas
● Balanced conflicting requirements the needs of the users grow
● Improved data accessibility and
responsiveness Reality, Data, and Metadata
● Increased productivity
● Improved maintenance through data
independence
● Increased concurrency
● Improved backup and recovery services

Relational Data Structure

● Data are stored in many tables
○ Tables
■ Rows
■ Columns
■ Primary Keys
○ Data Types
■ Test
■ Date & Times
■ Numbers
■ Objects

Weaknesses of Database Systems

● Complexity
● Sixe
● Cost of DBMS
● Additional hardware costs
● Cost of conversion
● Performance
● Higher impact of a failure

Designing Databases

Database Design
● Primary Keys
● One value per cell
● Column depends on whole key and nothing
by the key

Databases
● Effectiveness objectives of the database
○ Ensuring that data can be shared
among users for a variety of
applications
○ Maintaining data that are both
accurate and consistent
○ Ensuring data required for current
and future applications will be
readily available