Temperature and Heat 127

where V2 = final volume

V1 = initial volume
b = coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion
T2 = final temperature
T1 = initial temperature

Example 8.8 Calculate the length and volume for a 200 cm on a side copper cube at
20°C, if the temperature is increased to 150°C.
−6
New length = 200(1 + 9.4 × 10 × [150 − 20] × 9/5)
= 200(1 + .0022) = 200.44 cm
3 −6
New volume = 200 (1 + 29 × 10 × [150 − 20] × 9/5)
3 3
= 200 (1 + .0068) = 8054400 cm

In a gas, the relation between the pressure, volume, and temperature of the
gas is given by
P1V1 P2V 2
= (8.13)
T1 T2

where P1 = initial pressure

V1 = initial volume
T1 = initial absolute temperature
P2 = final pressure
V2 = final volume
T2 = final absolute temperature

8.4 Temperature Measuring Devices

There are several methods of measuring temperature that can be categorized
as follows:

1. Expansion of a material to give visual indication, pressure, or dimensional

change
2. Electrical resistance change
3. Semiconductor characteristic change
4. Voltage generated by dissimilar metals
5. Radiated energy

Thermometer is often used as a general term given to devices for measuring

temperature. Examples of temperature measuring devices are described below.

8.4.1 Thermometers
Mercury in glass was by far the most common direct visual reading thermome-
ter (if not the only one). The device consisted of a small bore graduated glass tube
with a small bulb containing a reservoir of mercury. The coefficient of expansion
128 Chapter Eight

of mercury is several times greater than the coefficient of expansion of glass, so

that as the temperature increases the mercury rises up the tube giving a rela-
tively low cost and accurate method of measuring temperature. Mercury also
has the advantage of not wetting the glass, and hence, cleanly traverses the glass
tube without breaking into globules or coating the tube. The operating range of
the mercury thermometer is from −30 to 800°F (−35 to 450°C) (freezing point of
mercury −38°F [−38°C]). The toxicity of mercury, ease of breakage, the intro-
duction of cost effective, accurate, and easily read digital thermometers has
brought about the demise of the mercury thermometer.
Liquids in glass devices operate on the same principle as the mercury ther-
mometer. The liquids used have similar properties to mercury, i.e., high linear
coefficient of expansion, clearly visible, nonwetting, but are nontoxic. The liquid
in glass thermometers is used to replace the mercury thermometer and to extend
its operating range. These thermometers are accurate and with different liquids
(each type of liquid has a limited operating range) can have an operating range
of from −300 to 600°F (−170 to 330°C).
Bimetallic strip is a type of temperature measuring device that is relatively
inaccurate, slow to respond, not normally used in analog applications to give
remote indication, and has hystersis. The bimetallic strip is extensively used in
ON/OFF applications not requiring high accuracy, as it is rugged and cost effec-
tive. These devices operate on the principle that metals are pliable and differ-
ent metals have different coefficients of expansion (see Table 8.4). If two strips
of dissimilar metals such as brass and invar (copper-nickel alloy) are joined
together along their length, they will flex to form an arc as the temperature
changes; this is shown in Fig. 8.3a. Bimetallic strips are usually configured as
a spiral or helix for compactness and can then be used with a pointer to make
a cheap compact rugged thermometer as shown in Fig. 8.3b. Their operating
range is from −180 to 430°C and can be used in applications from oven ther-
mometers to home and industrial control thermostats.

Figure 8.3 Shows (a) the effect of temperature change on a bimetallic strip and (b) bimetal-
lic strip thermometer.
 Temperature and Heat 129

8.4.2 Pressure-spring thermometers

These thermometers are used where remote indication is required, as opposed
to glass and bimetallic devices which give readings at the point of detection. The
pressure-spring device has a metal bulb made with a low coefficient of expan-
sion material with a long metal tube, both contain material with a high coeffi-
cient of expansion; the bulb is at the monitoring point. The metal tube is
terminated with a spiral Bourdon tube pressure gage (scale in degrees) as shown
in Fig. 8.4a. The pressure system can be used to drive a chart recorder, actua-
tor, or a potentiometer wiper to obtain an electrical signal. As the temperature
in the bulb increases, the pressure in the system rises, the pressure rise being
proportional to the temperature change. The change in pressure is sensed by
the Bourdon tube and converted to a temperature scale. These devices can be
accurate to 0.5 percent and can be used for remote indication up to 100 m but
must be calibrated, as the stem and Bourdon tube are temperature sensitive.
There are three types or classes of pressure-spring devices. These are as follows:

Class 1 Liquid filled

Class 2 Vapor pressure
Class 3 Gas filled

Liquid filled thermometer works on the same principle as the liquid in glass
thermometer, but is used to drive a Bourdon tube. The device has good linear-
ity and accuracy and can be used up to 550°C.
Vapor-pressure thermometer system is partially filled with liquid and vapor
such as methyl chloride, ethyl alcohol, ether, toluene, and so on. In this system
the lowest operating temperature must be above the boiling point of the liquid

3000

Bourdon 2500
Vapor Pressure kPa

Tube
2000

1500

1000

Bulb 500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature °C
(a) (b)
Figure 8.4 Illustrates (a) pressure filled thermometer and (b) vapor pressure curve for
methyl chloride.
130 Chapter Eight

and the maximum temperature is limited by the critical temperature of the

liquid. The response time of the system is slow, being of the order of 20 s. The
temperature pressure characteristic of the thermometer is nonlinear as shown
in the vapor pressure curve for methyl chloride in Fig. 8.4b.
Gas thermometer is filled with a gas such as nitrogen at a pressure range of
1000 to 3350 kPa at room temperature. The device obeys the basic gas laws for
a constant volume system [Eq.(8.15), V1 = V2] giving a linear relationship
between absolute temperature and pressure.

8.4.3 Resistance temperature devices

Resistance temperature devices (RTD) are either a metal film deposited on a
former or are wire-wound resistors. The devices are then sealed in a glass-
ceramic composite material. The electrical resistance of pure metals is positive,
increasing linearly with temperature. Table 8.5 gives the temperature coefficient
of resistance of some common metals used in resistance thermometers. These
devices are accurate and can be used to measure temperatures from −300 to
1400°F (−170 to 780°C).
In a resistance thermometer the variation of resistance with temperature is
given by
RT2 = RT1 (1 + Coeff. [T 2 − T1]) (8.14)
where RT2 is the resistance at temperature T 2 and RT1 is the resistance at tem-
perature T1.

Example 8.9 What is the resistance of a platinum resistor at 250°C, if its resistance
at 20°C is 1050 Ω?
Resistance at 250°C = 1050 (1 + 0.00385 [250 − 20])
= 1050 (1 + 0.8855)
= 1979.775 Ω

Resistance devices are normally measured using a Wheatstone bridge type

of system, but are supplied from a constant current source. Care should also be
taken to prevent electrical current from heating the device and causing erro-
neous readings. One method of overcoming this problem is to use a pulse tech-
nique. When using this method the current is turned ON for say 10 ms every
10 s, and the sensor resistance is measured during this 10 ms time period. This
reduces the internal heating effects by 1000 to 1 or the internal heating error
by this factor.

TABLE 8.5 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of Some Common Metals

Material Coeff. per degree Celsius Material Coeff. per degree Celsius

Iron 0.006 Tungsten 0.0045

Nickel 0.005 Platinum 0.00385
 Temperature and Heat 131

8.4.4 Thermistors
Thermistors are a class of metal oxide (semiconductor material) which typically
have a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance, but can also be pos-
itive. Thermistors have high sensitivity which can be up to 10 percent change per
degree Celsius, making them the most sensitive temperature elements available,
but with very nonlinear characteristics. The typical response times is 0.5 to 5 s
with an operating range from −50 to typically 300°C. Devices are available with
the temperature range extended to 500°C. Thermistors are low cost and manu-
factured in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and values. When in use care has to be
taken to minimize the effects of internal heating. Thermistor materials have a
temperature coefficient of resistance (a) given by

∆R  1 
α=   (8.15)
RS  ∆T 
where ∆R is the change in resistance due to a temperature change ∆T and RS
the material resistance at the reference temperature.
The nonlinear characteristics are as shown in Fig. 8.5 and make the device dif-
ficult to use as an accurate measuring device without compensation, but its sen-
sitivity and low cost makes it useful in many applications. The device is normally
used in a bridge circuit and padded with a resistor to reduce its nonlinearity.

8.4.5 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are formed when two dissimilar metals are joined together to
form a junction. An electrical circuit is completed by joining the other ends of the
dissimilar metals together to form a second junction. A current will flow in the
circuit if the two junctions are at different temperatures as shown in Fig. 8.6a.

10000

1000
Resistance Ω

100

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature °C
Figure 8.5 Thermistor resistance temperature curve.
132 Chapter Eight

Figure 8.6 (a) A thermocouple circuit, (b) thermocouples connected to form a thermopile,
and (c) focusing EM rays onto a thermopile.

The current flowing is the result of the difference in electromotive force developed
at the two junctions due to their temperature difference. In practice, the voltage
difference between the two junctions is measured; the difference in the voltage is
proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions. Note that
the thermocouple can only be used to measure temperature differences. However,
if one junction is held at a reference temperature the voltage between the ther-
mocouples gives a measurement of the temperature of the second junction.
Three effects are associated with thermocouples. They are as follows:

1. Seebeck effect. It states that the voltage produced in a thermocouple is pro-

portional to the temperature between the two junctions.
2. Peltier effect. It states that if a current flows through a thermocouple one junc-
tion is heated (puts out energy) and the other junction is cooled (absorbs energy).
3. Thompson effect. It states that when a current flows in a conductor along
which there is a temperature difference, heat is produced or absorbed, depend-
ing upon the direction of the current and the variation of temperature.

In practice, the Seebeck voltage is the sum of the electromotive forces gener-
ated by the Peltier and Thompson effects. There are a number of laws to be
observed in thermocouple circuits. Firstly, the law of intermediate tempera-
tures states that the thermoelectric effect depends only on the temperatures
of the junctions and is not affected by the temperatures along the leads. Secondly,
the law of intermediate metals states that metals other than those making up
the thermocouples can be used in the circuit as long as their junctions are at the
same temperature, i.e., other types of metals can be used for interconnections
 Temperature and Heat 133

TABLE 8.6 Operating Ranges for Thermocouples and Seebeck Coefficients

Type Approx. range (°C) Seebeck coefficient (µV/°C)

Copper–Constantan (T) −140 to 400 40 (−59 to 93) ±1°C

Chromel–Constantan (E) −180 to 1000 62 (0 to 360) ±2°C
Iron–Constantan (J) 30 to 900 51 (0 to 277) ±2°C
Chromel–Alumel (K) 30 to 1400 40 (0 to 277) ±2°C
Nicrosil–Nisil (N) 30 to 1400 38 (0 to 277) ±2°C
Platinum (rhodium 10%)–Platinum (S) 30 to 1700 7 (0 to 538) ±3°C
Platinum (rhodium 13%)–Platinum (R) 30 to 1700 7 (0 to 538) ±3°C

and tag strips can be used without adversely affecting the output voltage from
the thermocouple. The various types of thermocouples are designated by letters.
Tables of the differential output voltages for different types of thermocouples
are available from manufacturer’s thermocouple data sheets. Table 8.6 lists
some thermocouple materials and their Seebeck coefficient. The operating range
of the thermocouple is reduced to the figures in brackets if the given accuracy
is required. For operation over the full temperature range the accuracy would
be reduced to about ±10 percent without linearization.
Thermopile is a number of thermocouples connected in series, to increase the
sensitivity and accuracy by increasing the output voltage when measuring low
temperature differences. Each of the reference junctions in the thermopile is
returned to a common reference temperature as shown in Fig. 8.6b.
Radiation can be used to sense temperature. The devices used are pyrome-
ters using thermocouples or color comparison devices.
Pyrometers are devices that measure temperature by sensing the heat radiated
from a hot body through a fixed lens that focuses the heat energy on to a thermopile;
this is a noncontact device. Furnace temperatures, for instance, are normally meas-
ured through a small hole in the furnace wall. The distance from the source to the
pyrometer can be fixed and the radiation should fill the field of view of the sensor.
Figure 8.6c shows the focusing lens and thermocouple set up in a thermopile.
Figure 8.7 shows plots of the electromotive force (emf) versus temperature of
some of the types of thermocouples available.

8.4.6 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a number of parameters that vary linearly with temperature.
Normally the reference voltage of a zener diode or the junction voltage variations
are used for temperature sensing. Semiconductor temperature sensors have a lim-
ited operating range from –50 to 150°C but are very linear with accuracies of ±1°C
or better. Other advantages are that electronics can be integrated onto the same
die as the sensor giving high sensitivity, easy interfacing to control systems, and
making different digital output configurations possible. The thermal time con-
stant varies from 1 to 5 s, internal dissipation can also cause up to 0.5°C offset.
Semiconductor devices are also rugged with good longevity and are inexpensive.
For the above reasons the semiconductor sensor is used extensively in many appli-
cations including the replacement of the mercury in glass thermometer.
134 Chapter Eight

70 E Type

60

J Type K Type
EMF Output (mV)
50

40

30
R Type
20
T Type
S Type
10

0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature °C
Figure 8.7 Thermocouple emf versus temperature for various types.

8.5 Application Considerations

8.5.1 Selection
In process control a wide selection of temperature sensors are available.
However, the required range, linearity, and accuracy can limit the selection. In
the final selection of a sensor, other factors may have to be taken into consid-
eration, such as remote indication, error correction, calibration, vibration sen-
sitivity, size, response time, longevity, maintenance requirements, and cost.
The choice of sensor devices in instrumentation should not be degraded from a
cost standpoint. Process control is only as good as the monitoring elements.

8.5.2 Range and accuracy

Table 8.7 gives the temperature ranges and accuracies of temperature sensors.
The accuracies shown are with minimal calibration or error correction. The
ranges in some cases can be extended with the use of new materials. Table 8.8
gives a summary of temperature sensor characteristics.

8.5.3 Thermal time constant

A temperature detector does not react immediately to a change in temperature.
The reaction time of the sensor or thermal time constant is a measure of the time
it takes for the sensor to stabilize internally to the external temperature change,
and is determined by the thermal mass and thermal conduction resistance of
the device. Thermometer bulb size, probe size, or protection well can affect the