Contents

Sl. No. Experiments Page No. Learning Outcome

1 Experiment-1: Introduction to soil testing 4-5 Basics of equipment and

equipment, Preparation of sand, clay and rock sample preparation for
samples. testing.

2 Experiment-2: Consolidation/Oedometer test 6-10 Estimate the settlement

parameters of soil.

3 Experiment-3: Direct shear test 11-14 Estimate shear strength

parameters of soil by direct
shear test.

4 Experiment-4: Interface Tests (Large direct 15-20 Estimate interface strength

shear test) parameters by large direct
shear test

5 Experiment-5: Unconsolidated undrained triaxial 21-24 Estimate UU parameters of

test soil.

6 Experiment-6: Consolidated undrained triaxial 25-30 Estimate CU parameters of

test soil.

7 Experiment-7: Consolidated drained triaxial test 31-37 Estimate CD parameters of

soil.

8 Experiment-8: Cyclic triaxial shear test 38-44 Estimate shear modulus and
liquefaction potential of soil

9 Experiment-9: Bender element/ Resonant 45-49 Estimate shear wave velocity

column test and shear modulus

10 Experiment-10: Uniaxial compression test of 50-52 Estimate the uniaxial

rock samples compressive strength of rock

11 Experiment-11: Split tensile and Point load test 53-61 Estimate the strength of rock
of rock samples

2
 General instructions on safety and Do's and Don'ts
 Before starting laboratory work follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you
do not understand a direction or part of a procedure, ASK YOUR CONCERN TEACHER
BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
 Before use equipment must be read carefully Labels and instructions. Set up and use the
equipment as directed by your teacher.
 Any failure / break-down of equipment must be reported to the teacher.
 Observe good housekeeping practices. Replace the materials in proper place after work
to keep the lab area tidy.
 Maintain silence and clean environment in the lab
 Protect yourself from getting electric shock.

3
 Experiment No. 1
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature

AIM
The test is conducted for preparation of sand, clay and rock samples for triaxial and
unconfined compression strength test.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM 2850-15, ASTM 4543-85
APPARATUS
Split mold,
Rubber membrane
O ring,
Rock sample extractor, cutter, grinder

PROCEDURE
Soil sample preparation: Specimens shall be cylindrical and have a minimum diameter
of 38mm. The average-height to-average-diameter ratio shall be 2. Soil required for
compacted/reconstituted specimens shall be thoroughly mixed with sufficient water to
produce the desired water content. If water is added to the soil, store the material in a
covered container for at least 16 hour prior to compaction. Compacted/reconstituted
specimens may be prepared by compacting material in at least six layers using a split
mold of circular cross section. Specimens may be compacted/reconstituted to the desired
density by either: (1) kneading or tamping each layer until the accumulative mass of the
soil placed in the mold is compacted/reconstituted to a known volume; or (2) by adjusting
the number of layers, the number of tamps per layer, and the force per tamp. The top of
each layer shall be scarified prior to the addition of material for the next layer. The
tamper used to compact the material shall have a diameter equal to or less than one half
the diameter of the mold. After a specimen is formed, with the ends perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis, remove the mold and determine the mass and dimensions of the
specimen. Perform one or more water content determinations on excess material used to
prepare the specimen.

Preparation of rock sample:

Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders within the tolerances specified herein.
The specimen shall have a length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) of 2.0 to 2.5 and a diameter of
not less than 17⁄8 in. (47 mm). The sides of the specimen shall be generally smooth and
free of abrupt irregularities, with all the elements straight to within 0.020 in. (0.50 mm)

4
over the full length of the specimen. The ends of the specimen shall be cut parallel to
each other and at right angles to the longitudinal axis. The end surfaces shall be surface
ground or lapped flat to a tolerance not to exceed 0.001 in. (25 μm).

QUESTIONS
1. How to prepare the sand specimen at given relative density.
2. How to prepare the undisturbed specimen of clay sample.
3. The H/D ratio for unconfined compression test on rock is about 2.5-3, why?

5
 Experiment No. 2
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature

AIM
The test is conducted to determine consolidation characteristics of fine-grained soil.
STANDARD REFERENCE
IS 2720 (Part 15) – 1986 Methods of test for soils: Determination of Consolidation
Properties (First revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.
SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil specimen may be remoulded or undisturbed fine-grained soil.
THEORY
Consolidation is the process of removal of pore water present in the soil gradually due to
the application of sustained static load. Because of consolidation, there will be decrease
in volume of soil mass.
SIGNIFICANCE
The consolidation data of soil is used to predict the rate and amount of settlement of
structure founded on clay primarily due to volume change. In addition, the following
information can be obtained for foundations resting on clay using consolidation data.
Total settlement of foundation under any given load.
Time required for total settlement due to primary consolidation. Settlement for any given
time and load.
Time required for any percent of total settlement or consolidation. Pressure due to which
soil already has been consolidation or compressed.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Consolidometer consisting essentially
a) A ring of diameter = 60mm and height = 20mm
b) Two porous plates or stones of silicon carbide, aluminum oxide or
porous metal.
c) Guide ring.
d) Outer ring.
e) Water jacket with base.
f) Pressure pad.
g) Rubber basket.
2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing
device and weights.
3. Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of 0.002mm.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven.
5. Stopwatch to read seconds.

6
 6. Sample extractor.
7. Miscellaneous items like balance, soil trimming tools, spatula, filter papers,
sample containers.

PROCEDURE
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or
by keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away
excess water. Fittings of the consolidometer which is to be enclosed shall be
moistened.
2. Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and
bottom of specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and
porous stone. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone.
3. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such that the load
applied is axial.
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The
dial gauge holder should be set so that the dial gauge is in the begging of its
releases run, allowing sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.
5. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to
saturate. The level of the water in the reservoir should be at about the same level
as the soil specimen.
6. Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load should be
chosen by trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50
g/cm2 for ordinary soils & 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be
allowed to stand until there is no change in dial gauge readings for two
consecutive hours or for a maximum of 24 hours.
7. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1
kg/cm2 start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at
various time intervals. The dial gauge readings are taken until 90% consolidation
is reached. Primary consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
8. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading.
Double the load intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals.
Repeat this procedure fir successive load increments. The usual loading intensity
are as follows :
a. 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to 1/4 of the value of the last
load and allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of 1/4 the
previous intensity till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading
of the dial gauge.
10. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of
the dial gauge.
11. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil
specimen in oven, note the dry weight of it.

7
 OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Table I
Data and observation sheet for consolidation test pressure, compression and time.
Project : Name of the project Borehole no. : 1
Depth of the sample : 2m Description of soil :
Empty weight of ring : 635 gm Area of ring : 4560
mm2 (45.60 cm2)
Diameter of ring : 76.2 mm (7.62 cm) Volume of ring : 115.82 cm3
Height of ring : 25.4 (2.54 cm) Specific gravity of soil
sample No:
Dial Gauge = 0.0127 mm (least count)
Elapsed Pressure Intensity (Kg/cm2)
Time
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8
0.25
1
2.5
4
6.25
9
16
25
30
1 hr
2 hrs
4 hrs
8 hrs
24 hrs
Observation Sheet for Consolidation Test : Pressure Voids Ratio

Applied Final dial Dial Specimen Height Height of

Void ratio
pressure reading change hieght solids voids
0
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1

8
CALCULATIONS
1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation
HS = WS/(G A w)
2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation
e = (H-HS)/HS
3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressures
increment is calculated by using the following equations:
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)
ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)
In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial reading and logarithmic of time, the
time corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined.
In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and square root of
time and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is determined. The values of
Cv are recorded in table II.
4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e)
Vs logt is made. The initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of
this line would give the compression index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is calculated as follows
av = 0.435 Cc/Avg. pressure for the increment
where Cc = Coefficient of compressibility
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as follows
K = Cv.av w/(1+e).

Graphs
1. Dial reading VS log of time or Dial reading VS square root of time.
2. Voids ratio VS log (average pressure for the increment).

RESULTS AND COMMENTS

FIGURES

General Remarks
1. While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata
orientated in the same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
2. During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least
pressure.
3. Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.

9
QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference in behavior of normally consolidated and overconsolidated
soil.
2. What is the effect of consolidation on soil strength.
3. What is the difference between laboratory and field consolidation?

10
 Experiment No. 3
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
The test is conducted to determine the shear strength parameters of a soil with the help
of box shear test.
STANDARD REFERENCE
IS 2720 (Part 13) – 1986 Methods of test for soils: Direct shear test
SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil specimen may be either of coarse grained or fine-grained soil.

THEORY
The direct shear test is conducted on a soil in the idealized condition, i.e. the failure
plane is forced occur at a predetermined location. On this plane there are two stresses
acting a normal stress due to applied vertical load𝑃𝑛 .
Thus
𝑃𝑛
𝜎𝑛 =
𝐴
Where, A- is the nominal area of specimen (or of shear box)
𝜏 = 𝐶 + 𝜎𝑛 tan ∅
As there are two unknown quantities, two values as a minimum, of normal ( applied )
stress n and shear ( measured ) stress  will be required for solution.

SIGNIFICANCE
The shear strength of soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear
displacement of soil particles or on masses upon the action of a shear stress. The
shearing resistance of soil is constituted basically of the following components:
1. The structural resistance to displacement of the soil because of the interlocking
of the particles.
2. The frictional resistance to translocation between the individual soil particles at
their correct points.
3. Cohesion or adhesion between the surfaces of the soil particles.

11
APPARATUS:-
1. Direct shear box apparatus
2. Loading frame (motor attached).
3. Dial gauge.
4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper.
6. Straight edge.
7. Balance to weigh upto 200 mg.
8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.

PROCEDURE
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is
desired tamp the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate
the density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10.Remove the shear pin.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection
between two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15.Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the
experiment

12
 DATA CALCULATION SHEET FOR DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Normal stress …kg/cm2 Dial gauge least count=....... Proving ring constant =.........
Hori.
Provin Shear stress =
Dial Vertica
Vertica Shear Vertical g div.col.(8)x
Provin gauge l gauge
Horizont l Dial deformatio deformation readin proving ring
g ring Readin readin
al Gauge gauge n Col.(4) x = div.in col.6 g constant Area of
Readin g Initial g Initial
Reading Readin Least count xL.C of dial Initial the
g readin Readin
(1) g of dial gauge readin specimen(kg/cm
(3) g div. g 2
(2) (5) (7) g )
gauge (6)
(8) (9)
(4)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700

CALCULATIONS:
1. Shear stress () on the horizontal failure plane are calculated as  = S/A; Where S is
shear force. A is the cross sectional area of the sample, which decreases slightly with
the horizontal deformations.
2. Corrected area (Acorr) needs to be calculated for calculating the shear stress at failure.
Acorr = A0 (1-), where  is horizontal displacement due to shear force applied on
specimen. A0 is the initial area of the soil specimen.
3. i. Shear Stress = (Proving ring reading x Proving ring constant)/A
ii. Horizontal displacement = Horizontal dial gauge reading x Least count of horizontal
dial gauge
iii. Vertical displacement = Vertical dial gauge reading x Least count of vertical dial
gauge
4. Shear stress at failure needs to be calculated for all three tests performed at three
different normal stresses to plot the failure envelope.

13
RESULTS AND COMMENTS

FIGURES

GENERAL REMARKS:
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a
predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves
of the shear box. This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading, the
state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure condition i.e.
Mohr’s circle can be drawn at the failure condition only. Also, failure is progressive.
2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used in
shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less time.
This test is also useful to study friction between two materials - one material in lower
half of box and another material in the upper half of box.
3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness
of grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between
28o(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46o(well graded
sand with angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on gradation,
particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal planes, principal
stress ratio, stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of apparatus, test
procedure, method of preparing specimen etc. In general, loose sands expand and
dense sands contract in volume on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either
expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio is called critical void
ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the movement of vertical dial
gauge during shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and
interlocking action. The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and
dense sand approximately attain the same value so, if angle of friction value is
calculated at ultimate stage, slight disturbance in density during sampling and
preparation of test specimens will not have much effect.

QUESTIONS
1. Draw the Mohr Circle at failure for the above sample.
2. Direct shear test is not generally recommended for clay, Why?
3. Write where the results of direct shear test will be applicable in field?

14
 Experiment No. 4
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
The test is conducted to determine the shear strength parameters of a soil-geosynthetic
interface with the help of large direct shear test.

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 5321M-17: Standard Test Method for Determining the Shear Strength of Soil-
Geosynthetic and Geosynthetic-Geosynthetic Interfaces by Direct Shear

SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil specimen may be either of coarse grained or fine-grained soil.

THEORY
The concept of interface testing is very much similar to that of direct shear test. A
schematic diagram of interface testing is shows below. Lower box of direct shear
apparatus may consist of soil, wood or roughened steel plate (depend on type of
geosynthetic) and geosynthetic, that clamped over it. Upper box is filled with soil at
desired moisture content and density. Upper box is remained fix under normal load and
lower box pushed or pulled horizontally relative to upper box. The relationship of Normal
stress and Shear stress at failure gives the failure envelope of the soil-geosynthetic and
provide the interface shear strength parameters (interface adhesion and interface internal
friction angle).

15
SIGNIFICANCE
Interface friction is a total resistance to shear between geosynthetic and soil. The total
resistance is a combination of sliding, rolling and interlocking of material components.
Interface shear strength parameters are used in the design of soil-reinforced structure.
Interface shear strength is important for stability analysis of the structure.
The interface shear strength properties determined by large direct shear test depends on
large number of factor i.e. rate of shear, type of rigid box, density and moisture content of
soil, magnitude of displacement, drainage condition, normal stress, particle size
distribution of soil, stiffness and rigidity of geosynthetic material, etc.
The interface shear behavior between geosynthetic and soils is influenced by both the
properties of geosynthetics and soils involved, and there are many geosynthetic products
available in market. Hence, site specific testing is suggested to do for the detail design.

APPARATUS: -
1. Large direct shear test.
2. Dial gauge for vertical deformation measurement.
3. Dial gauge for horizontal deformation measurement.
4. Gripper plate, loading pad, loading yoke.
5. Wooden block with clamp.
6. Metalic temper.
7. Weighing balance (15kg capacity)

PROCEDURE
1. Clamp the geosynthetic specimen over a substrate in the lower container of the direct
shear apparatus without wrinkles and fold. The substrate may consist of soil (for
geogrid), wooden block, and roughened steel plate.
2. Bring the upper half of box into position. Weigh the soil as per required density and
mixed with water uniformly. Place the soil inside the sampler in three layers. If dense
sample is desired, tamp the soil with appropriate equal number of blows in each layer
for the required density. Geosynthetic should not be damage during the soil
compaction.
3. After completing three layers, level the top layer then place the gripper plates, loading
pad and loading yoke upon the soil.
4. Apply the normal seating load if the test is done for the submerged condition. Allow
specimen to soaked the water and monitor vertical displacement until the sample
comes to equilibrium.
5. For both the cases of submerged and non-submerged specimens, the desired normal
load is applied and the vertical displacement is monitored until it comes to
equilibrium. Verify the equilibrium is reached before shearing.
6. Adjust the dial gauges and proving ring to zero position before shearing. Apply the
shear force using a constant rate of displacement.
7. Record the shear force and shear displacement at constant interval. Continue the test
until the failure or shear force has reached the steady state.

16
8. Repeat the procedure for two additional normal loads. Plot the test data as a graph of
applied shear force versus shear displacement, shear force versus normal load and
vertical displacement versus horizontal displacement.

DATA CALCULATION SHEET FOR INTERFACE SHEAR TEST

Normal stress =….. kg/cm2

Size of the sample = 300 mm x 300 mm x 75 mm Least count of dial gauge

(Horizontal) = _______
Area of the sample (Cross Sectional) = 0.09 sq.m Least count of dial gauge (Vertical)
= _______
Volume of the sample = 6750 cm3 Proving Ring No. = _ ______
Weight of the sample (gm) = _______ Proving ring constant = _______
Density of the sample (gm/cc) = _______ Normal stress (Kg/ sq.cm) =
_______
Water content (%) = _______ Geosynthetic type =_______

*L.C - Least Count, P.R.C - Proving Ring Constant

17
Water content calculation:

Name of container =
Weight of container, w1=
Weight of container and wet soil, w2 =
Weight of container and dry soil, w3 =
Water content, (%) = (w2-w3)/(w3-w1)*100

CALCULATIONS:
• Calculate the shear stress applied to the specimen for each recorded shear force as
follows:
= Fs/Ac
Where:
= shear stress (kPa)
Fs= shear force (kN)
Ac= corrected area (m2)
Calculate the corrected normal stress applied to the specimen for each recorded shear
force as follows:
=FN/Ac
= normal stress (kPa)
FN= normal load(kPa)
Ac= corrected area (m2)
For tests in which the area of specimen contact decreases with increased displacement,
corrected areas need to be calculated. The corrected area is calculated for each
displacement reading using the following equation.

Ac= A0-Ai

Where:
Ac= corrected area (m2)
A0= initial specimen contact area (m2)
Ai= contact area(m2) between specimen at each increment of shear displacement
corresponding to the shear force measured at that same increment.

• No area correction required for tests in which the stationary container is larger than the
traveling container as specimen contact area remain constant throughout the test.

18
GRAPHS
1. Shear stress Vs Horizontal displacement relationship for tests performed at Normal
Stress of 0.5, 1.0 & 1.5 kg/cm2
2. Shear stress Vs Normal stress (Failure envelope).
3. Volumetric strain Vs horizontal strain.

RESULTS

Interface friction angle = ……o

Interface adhesion= …..kPa

GENERAL REMARKS:

• Lower substrate used in interface testing depend on geosynthetic type. For example,
wooden block is used as substrate for geotextile because sagging of geotextile is not
allowed during the testing. It leads to non-uniform stress distribution on geotextile. For
geogrid interlocking of soil particle into the opening of geogrid play important role
during shearing. Hence, soil is used as substrate in geogrid.
• Clamping is very important while interface testing and depends on geosynthetic type.
Fold and wrinkles in geosynthetic should be removed during clamping.
• For soaked interface testing shear rate is depend on soil properties, geosynthetic and
drainage condition. Following equation is used for determine the maximum shear rate for
drained test.

R= df/(50*t50*f)

R = Rate of shear displacement (mm/min)

df = estimated shear displacement at peak shear stress.
t50= time required for specimen to reach 50% consolidation under the current normal
stress increment.
f = factor to account for drainage conditions on the shear plane

• Some standing time is allowed after the soil placing on geosynthetic and that depends
on soil types i.e. for SW,SP- no requirement, SM- 3 min, SC ML CL-18 min etc.
• Volumetric change in soil depends on soil type, relative density of soil, grain size
distribution of soil and type of geosynthetic i.e. woven geotextile with GC soil give
contraction response, whereas geogrid with GC soil give dilation response.

19
QUESTIONS
1. Give the examples of different soil-structure interfaces which you have come
across .
2. Write the interface friction angle between i)steel-soil, ii)soil-concrete and iii)
soil-glass
3. Write the use of interface parameters.

20
 Experiment No. 5
Name: Roll No.

Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature

AIM
This test is conducted to determine the shear parameters of soil in the triaxial compression
apparatus by unconsolidated undrained test.
STANDARD REFERENCE
IS 2720 (Part 11) – 1971 Methods of test for soils: Part 11 Determination of the shear
strength parameters of a specimen in unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without
the measurement of pore water pressure.

SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil specimen may be remoulded or undisturbed clay.

THEORY
Shearing stresses of soil are determined in the laboratory based on different drainage
conditions using triaxial apparatus. One of the methods is unconsolidated undrained
triaxial test. It is a quick test, and can be performed easily in the laboratory for both
disturbed and undisturbed soils of clay and sand.

SIGNIFICANCE
The shear strength of soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear
displacement of soil particles. The failure conditions for a soil may be expressed in terms
of limiting shear stress called shear strength. For all stability analysis in soil mechanics
basic knowledge of shearing stresses is required. For clay the cohesion intercept, “c”, in
case of sand the angle of shearing resistance, “φ” and in some soil the combination of
both c and φ is required for assessing the shear strength. Triaxial shear test is the suitable
method where we can evaluate the shearing properties of soil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Loading frame
2. Triaxial cell to resist internal fluid pressure of 1000 kPa with all accessories
3. Constant pressure system to apply confining pressure
4. Load cell or proving ring
5. LVDT (to measure strain) or deformation dial gauge
6. Data acquisition system
7. Rubber membrane
8. Membrane former
9. O rings
10. Porous stones
11. Filter paper
12. Split mould

21
 13. Trimming knife
14. Sample extruder
15. Wire saw
16. Thin walled tube
17. Soil lathe
18. Balance
19. Stop watch

PROCEDURE
1. The remoulded soil specimen may be prepared by compacting it to the required
density and moisture content in a big size mould.
2. Now push a thin walled tube gently inside the big specimen and extrude the
specimen. The extruded specimen is pushed into the split mould which is slightly
lubricated before. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully and weigh it.
3. Place the specimen on the pedestal of the triaxial cell and cover it with rubber
membrane. Place the loading cap on the top of the specimen and seal the
membrane by stretching O rings at bottom on the pedestal and at top on the
loading cap.
4. Assemble the cell tightly using the wing nuts and place it on the loading frame.
5. Fill up the cell with the cell fluid (water) by opening the valve and generate the
pressure to the desired value.
6. Adjust the loading frame by moving up or down to establish contact between ram
of the cell and the load cell/proving ring. Care should be taken that the ram must
be kept little away from the load cell/proving ring, before the cell pressure is
applied.
7. Release the corresponding valve to apply the required confining pressure. At this
time, the ram will move up. Note the proving ring reading at hanging free
position.
8. Adjust the loading devise finely and gently to ensure the contact between the ram
and the load cell/proving ring.
9. Apply the compressive load at constant rate of axial strain on the specimen till the
specimen fails in shear.
10. Note the load and deformation data of the specimen during the test.
11. The test must be continued until the failure of the specimen or 20% of the strain is
reached.
12. Unload the specimen, and drain off the cell fluid.
13. Remove the rubber membrane from the specimen and note down the failure
pattern. Weigh the specimen and determine the water content of it.
14. Repeat the test on three or more identical specimens for different cell pressure.
15. Use different data sheet for different cell pressure and tabulate the results.
16. Draw the graph of axial strain as abscissa versus deviatoric stress as ordinate and
determine the peak value of deviatoric stress. If there is no definite peak, stress
corresponding to 20 % of axial strain is the peak stress. The tangent and secant

22
 modulus can be computed using the slope of the stress-strain curve. Draw the
Mohr’s envelope for different cell pressure and determine the undrained cohesion
(cu).

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

a. Initial length of the specimen, L0 = (cm)
b. Initial diameter of the specimen, D0 = (cm)
c. Initial area of the specimen, A0 = (cm2)
d. Initial volume of the specimen, V0 = (cm3)
e. Mass of specimen, M = (g)
f. Dry mass of specimen after oven drying, M1 = (g)
M  M 1 
g. Water content, w   100 = (%)
M1
M
h. Bulk density,   = (g/cm3)
V0
i. Specific gravity, G =

j. Dry density  d  (g/cm3)
1  w)
=

 w G 
k. Void ratio, e  1 =
d
 wG 
l. Degree of saturation S     100 = (%)
 e 
m. Rate of strain = (mm/min)
n. Least count of deformation dial gauge =
o. Calibration factor for the proving ring = (kg/dn)
p. Confining (cell) pressure  3 = (kg/cm2)

Tabulation 1
Deformat Change Axial Corrected Proving Load, P Vertical Deviator
ion dial in strain area ring dial stress, stress
reading length, L A0 reading
1 
P  1   3 
 A
L L0 1    A

23
Tabulation 2

S.No. Cell pressure Deviator stress Vertical stress at  1 

  at failure
3  1   3  failure,  1 3 
1.
2.
3.
4.

MODEL CALCULATIONS

RESULTS AND COMMENTS

FIGURES

QUESTIONS
1. What is undrained shear strength of soil .
2. The pore pressure in UU test is not measured, why?
3. Write the field application of UU test results.

24
 Experiment No. 6
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is performed to determine the shear strength parameters of given soil sample in
the triaxial compression apparatus by conducting consolidated undrained test with
measurement of pore water pressure.

STANDARD REFERENCE
IS 2720 (Part 12) – 1981 Methods of test for soils: Part 12 Determination of shear
strength parameter of soil from consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with
measurement of pore water pressure.

SOIL SPECIMEN
The soil specimen may be either of fine grained or coarse-grained soil.

THEORY
CU test is carried out on all types of soils. Drainage is allowed only during the isotropic
consolidation, thus allowing the specimen to consolidate. At the end of consolidation,
there will be no excess pore water pressure, and the specimen is ready for shearing. When
the additional vertical stress (Δσ) is applied, drainage is not allowed, and thus the
specimen is loaded under undrained conditions at appropriate strain rate (0.05% per min
to 1% per min; clayey soil to sandy soils respectively). During the undrained loading,
development of excess pore water pressure is measured continuously throughout the
loading. The total and effective stresses are different at failure, and separate modified
failure envelopes are drawn in terms of total and effective stresses. The CU test gives c'
and Φ' for effective stresses and c and Φ for total stresses. The total stress parameters c
and Φ are of smaller values as compared to effective stress parameters (c' and Φ').

SIGNIFICANCE

The shear strength of a saturated soil in triaxial compression depends on the stresses
applied, time of consolidation, strain rate, and the stress history experienced by the soil.
In this test method, the shear characteristics are measured under undrained conditions and
is applicable to field conditions where soils that have been fully consolidated under one
set of stresses are subjected to a change in stress without time for further consolidation to
take place (undrained condition), and the field stress conditions are similar to those in the
test method.

25
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Triaxial cell to resist internal fluid pressure of 1000 kPa with all accessories
2. A system to fill water in the cell
3. Constant pressure system to apply confining pressure
4. A system to measure drainage of water from the sample during consolidation
phase of the test
5. A system to apply back pressure to the sample for saturation
6. A system to measure cell pressure and back pressure
7. A system to measure pore water pressure
8. Membrane former
9. Rubber membrane
10. Rubber O rings
11. Porous stones
12. Filter paper
13. Vacuum pump
14. Load cell or proving ring
15. LVDT (to measure strain) or deformation dial gauge
16. Data acquisition system and a computer
17. Loading frame (Electrically operated)
18. Balance
19. Stop watch
20. Volume change burette 25c.c.
21. Scale and vernier calipers
22. Hot air oven

PROCEDURE
1. Connect a burette with the outlet of the cell base and allow water to flow
continuously for flushing out the air present in the path. This burette can be used
for volume change measurements during consolidation stage.
2. Assemble the specimen on the pedestal with saturated filter paper disc and porous
stones at top and bottom of it. Also stick the saturated vertical filter paper strips at
regular spacing around the entire periphery of the specimen such that these touch
the top and bottom porous stones.
3. Stretch the rubber membrane using membrane former enclosing the specimen and
seal it at the bottom with the pedestal and at the top in the loading cap using O
rings.
4. Assemble the cell and the base tightly, and fill it with water.
5. Note the initial readings of the burette.
6. Apply the confining pressure to the cell and back pressure to the sample one after
other in order to saturate it. Confining pressure should be slightly more than (
0.1 kg/cm2) back pressure. After 2-3 hours increase both confining and back
pressure to expedite saturation.

26
7. Close the drainage valve and attach the pore pressure sensor to measure the pore
pressure.
8. Start the data acquisition system and observe the pore pressure.
9. Check the ‘B’ factor; if it is less than 1 again increase both confining and back
pressure one after other such that ‘B’ factor should be close to unity.
10. Note that the difference between confining pressure and back pressure should be
less ( 0.1 kg/cm2) during saturation of the sample.
11. Take the initial reading of the burette.
12. Consolidate the sample by increasing the confining pressure to the desired
effective confining pressure.
13. Note the reading of the burette at regular intervals as the consolidation of the
specimen starts and progresses. Continue the observation till consolidation of the
sample is over.
14. Select the strain rate and put the gear in position accordingly.
15. Raise the loading platform of the compression machine to bring the ram in contact
with the load cell/proving ring. Apply the seating load.
16. Set the dial gauge on the proving ring to read zero. Connect strain measuring
sensor (LVDT) or deformation dial gauge and adjust it to read zero.
17. Start the machine to apply the normal load. Take readings of the proving ring and
burette at deformation interval of 15 divisions (0.15 mm) till the sample fails or
20 % strain is achieved.
18. Make a sketch of failed specimen and measure final dimensions.
19. Keep the specimen in the oven for 24 hours for post test water content
determination.
20. Repeat the test for higher cell pressure for identical specimens.
21. Draw graphs between
a) Axial strain () verses deviator stress (1 -  3)
 '
b) Axial strain () verses effective stress ratio  1 
3'
c) Mohr’s circle
 ' '  ' '
d) p -q plot , p  1 3 and q  1 3
2 2

27
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION
Initial dimensions of the sample
a. Diameter, D0 (mm) = (cm)
b. Length, Lo = (cm)
c. Area, Ao = (cm2)
d. Volume, Vo = (cm3)
e. Volume change during consolidation, vo = (cm3)

Post consolidation measurements

f. Volume, VC = Vo - vo = (cm3)
g. Length, Lc = Lo – (Lo/3) x (vo/ Vo) = (cm)
h. Area, Ac = Vc / Lc = (cm2)

Dry density calculation

i. Initial dry density, d = Ms/Vo = (g/cm3)

j. Dry density after consolidation, (d)c= Ms/Vc= (g/cm3)

General

k. P.R. constant, kg /division = kg /division

l. L.C. of D.D.G, mm/division = mm/division
m. Deformation rate = mm/min
n. Confining pressure, = (kg/cm2)
o. Back pressure = (kg/cm2)
p. Water content (Initial) = (%)
q. Water content (post consolidation) = (%)
r. Void ratio (Initial) =
s. Void ratio (post consolidation) =
t. Specific gravity =

28
Tabulation for shearing of the sample

Gau Defo Axial Provin Deviat u Area Deviator 1’ 3’ 1’+3’ Stress p = q= A
ge rmat strain, g ring or of stress ratio  '1  '3  '1  '3 factor
(u) ion % readin load, P sample (1-3) (1’/3’ 2 2
dial g (N) )
gaug
e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

29
MODEL CALCULATIONS

RESULTS AND COMMENTS

FIGURES

QUESTIONS
1. What is difference between total and effective stress parameters .
2. What is difference between UU and total stress parameters of CU test?
3. Write the field application of CU test results.

30
 Experiment No. 7
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is performed to determine the angle of shearing resistance of a given soil sample in the
triaxial compression apparatus by conducting consolidated drained test.
STANDARD REFERENCE
IS 2720 part XI – 1972: Methods of test for soils-Triaxial compression test.

SOIL SPECIMEN
This test is applicable to both fine grained and coarse-grained soils

THEORY
The strength parameters, namely the cohesion (c) and angle of shearing resistance (  ) are
important in estimating the shear strength of soil. These parameters are determined both by
laboratory and field tests. In the laboratory, shearing stresses of soil are determined using triaxial
shear testing apparatus. Based on the drainage conditions three different tests can be performed.
They are, unconsolidated undrained, consolidated undrained (with pore water pressure
measurement) and consolidated drained test.
Consolidated drained triaxial test can be performed using cohesive and cohesionless soil. This
test and can be performed easily in the laboratory for cohesionless soil. For cohesive soil
duration of the test may be 4-5 days as the drainage of pore water from cohesive soil takes a long
time.
Other shear tests conducted in the laboratory are unconfined compression test, direct shear test,
and vane shear test. In the field, plate load test, large direct shear test, large vane shear test and
block shear test may be performed. Selection of a suitable method will depend upon the type of
soil and field conditions. Triaxial tests are best suited where confining pressure is to be applied
and the plane of shear failure is not predetermined.
For determining c and  , Mohr’s circles are drawn, then strength envelope is obtained. Slope of
this envelop will represent the angle of shearing resistance and intersection with ordinate (y-axis)
will give the cohesion.

SIGNIFICANCE

The shear strength of soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear displacement of
soil particles. The failure conditions for a soil may be expressed in terms of limiting shear stress
called shear strength. For all stability analysis in soil mechanics basic knowledge of shearing
stresses is required. For clay the cohesion intercept, “c”, in case of sand the angle of shearing
resistance, “φ” and in some soil the combination of both c and φ is required for assessing the

31
shear strength. Triaxial shear test is the suitable method where we can evaluate the shearing
properties of soil.
In deep foundation, confining pressure offered by soil play the significant role in changing the
behavior of it. Similarly in high rise earth dams, the confining pressures are of very high
magnitude. Triaxial test is the only test to simulate these confining pressures. For short term
stability of foundation, dams and slopes, shear strength parameter for unconsolidated undrained
or consolidated undrained condition are used, while for long term stability shear parameters
corresponding to consolidated drained condition will give more reliable results. All such special
conditions can be simulated in triaxial tests.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Triaxial cell to resist internal fluid pressure of 1000 kPa with all accessories
2. A system to fill water in the cell
3. Constant pressure system to apply confining pressure
4. A system to measure drainage of water from the sample during consolidation and during
shearing of the sample
5. A system to measure cell pressure and back pressure
6. A system to apply back pressure to the sample for saturation
7. Split moulds 38.1 mm diameter and 76.2 mm height
8. Rubber membrane
9. Rubber O rings
10. Porous stones
11. Filter paper
12. Vacuum pump
13. Load cell or proving ring
14. LVDT (to measure strain) or deformation dial gauge
15. Data acquisition system
16. Loading frame (Electrically operated)
17. Balance
18. Stop watch
19. Volume change burette 25c.c.
20. Scale and vernier calipers
21. Spoon
22. Hot air oven
23. Computer

32
PROCEDURE
For saturated sand sample
1. Connect a burette with the outlet of the cell base and allow water to flow continuously for
flushing out the air present in the path. This burette can be used for volume change
measurements during consolidation and also during shearing.
2. Put a saturated porous stone and a filter paper disc on the pedestal.
3. Check the rubber membrane for its puncture if any by filling with water and squeezing it.
4. Stretch the rubber membrane to the pedestal and seal it using O rings.
5. Place the split mould in position on the pedestal and stretch the membrane through it
inside till the top of the mould.
6. Connect the vacuum block with the vacuum pump and split mould. Put on the vacuum
pump to suck the air present in the mould and membrane first and in the sample while
preparing it.
7. Fill the membrane with deaired water.
8. Saturate the sand by mixing it with enough water in a beaker. Boil the mixture to remove
the entrapped air. Fill up the membrane with saturated sand by compacting it. Make sure
that the sample is prepared with uniform density completely.
9. After filling the required quantity of sand, level the top and place a saturated filter paper
and a porous stone on it.
10. Put a perspex loading cap on the sample, seal it by O-rings and refold the membrane.
Putoff the vacuum pump and detach the vacuum block from the split mould. Reconnect
the vacuum line with the vacuum pump and open the valve.
11. Lower the burette and apply a slight vacuum or negative pressure to make the sample
stand on its own without any support.
12. Remove the split mould and measure the dimensions (height and diameter) of the sample
using vernier caliper.
13. Deduct the thickness of the membrane from the diameter of the sample to get the net
diameter.
14. Assemble the cell with the base tightly, and fill it with water. Close the drainage valve.
15. Fill up the burette with water and close the air vent valve at the top of the burette. Note
the initial reading of the burette.
16. Connect the saturation line to the cell base with its valve closed.
17. Switch on the compressor to generate confining and back pressure.
18. Regulate the confining and back pressure to the desired intensity.
19. Apply the confining pressure to the cell first, consolidation of the sample will start and
back pressure then.
20. Note the reading of the burette at regular intervals as the consolidation of the specimen
starts. Continue the observation till consolidation is over.
21. Select the strain rate and put the gear in position accordingly.
22. Raise the loading platform of the compression machine to bring the ram in contact with
the load cell/proving ring and apply the seating load.

33
 23. Set the dial gauge on the proving ring to read zero. This will compensate for the load due
to cell pressure and piston friction. Alternately load cell can also be attached to measure
the load on the sample.
24. Adjust the strain dial to read zero. Alternately strain measuring sensor (LVDT) can also
be attached to measure the change in length of the sample.
25. Switch on the data acquisition system and the computer.
26. Apply the compressive load at constant rate of axial strain on the specimen till the
specimen fails in shear or 20% of the strain is reached. Note the load, deformation and
volume change data of the specimen during the test.
27. Close all the valves in the cell base as well as in the board after the test is over and bring
down the loading frame.
28. Make a sketch of failed specimen and measure final dimensions.
29. Repeat the test for higher cell pressure at the same initial density of sand.
30. Keep the specimen in the oven for 24 hours for post test water content determination.
31. Draw graphs between
a. Axial strain () verses deviator stress (1 -  3)
b. Axial strain () verses volumetric strain (v)
 '
c. Axial strain () verses effective stress ratio  1 
3'
 1 ' 3 '  1 ' 3 '
d. p -q plot , p  and q 
2 2
e. Mohr’s circle

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Initial dimensions of the sample

a. Diameter, D0 (mm) = (cm)
b. Length, Lo = (cm)
c. Area, Ao = (cm2)
d. Volume, Vo = (cm3)
e. Volume change during consolidation, vo = (cm3)

Post consolidation measurements

f. Volume, VC = Vo - vo = (cm3)
g. Length, Lc = Lo – (Lo/3) x (vo/ Vo) = (cm)
h. Area, Ac = Vc / Lc = (cm2)

Consolidation data
t100

34
 D 2
cv 
100t100

Dry density calculation

i. Initial dry density, d = Ms/Vo = (g/cm3)

j. Dry density after consolidation, (d)c= Ms/Vc= (g/cm3)

General

k. P.R. constant, kg /division = kg /division

l. L.C. of D.D.G, mm/division = mm/division
m. Confining pressure = (kg/cm2)
n. Effective confining pressure = (kg/cm2)
o. Back pressure = (kg/cm2)
p. Deformation rate = mm/min
q. Specific gravity =

Tabulation for consolidation of sample

Effective confining pressure

Time Elapsed t Burette V

time (min) reading
0
0.25
0.5
1.0
2.25
4

35
 Tabulation for shearing of the sample
Defo Prov Burett Chang Chang Chang Axial Vol. strain Corrected Deviator Deviator Stress p= q=
rmat ing e e in e in e in strain (v/Vc)10 Area(Ac’) load, P stress ratio  '1  '3
ion ring readin defor provin burette (4 /Lc) 0 = (N) (1-3) (1’/3’) 2  '1  '3
dial readi g mation g ring readin 100  v  2
Ac1  
readi ng readin readin g v  Vc  (10/9)
ng g g (cc) 1  N/mm2
(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 0 0 0

36
MODEL CALCULATIONS

RESULTS AND COMMENTS

FIGURES

QUESTIONS
1. What is meaning of dilatancy and it’s relevance on stress-strain behaviour .
2. How the volume change and effective stress changes during the CD test?
3. Write the field application of CD test results.

37
 Experiment No. 8
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is conducted to determine the shear modulus (G) and damping ratio (D) of soils in
either undisturbed or reconstituted states. This test is also used to study the liquefaction analysis
of silty, sandy soils.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 3999-91– Standard test methods for the determination of the modulus and damping
properties of soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus.

SOIL SPECIMEN
This test is applicable to both fine grained and coarse-grained soils.

THEORY
Dynamic properties (G, D) of soil using cyclic triaxial system are obtained by following load
application methods: i) Constant Load, ii) Constant Displacement. Constant load method
requires the application of constant cyclic load (constant load amplitude); and constant
displacement method needs the application of constant cyclic displacement. Cyclic triaxial test
attempts to model these stress conditions by applying a pulsating deviator stress to the specimen
while maintaining a constant confining stress on the specimen and preventing drainage
(undrained conditions). The uniform sinusoidal deformation/load at a frequency range of 0.1 to 2
HZ is applied in constant displacement and constant load cyclic triaxial tests respectively.
Unsymmetrical compression-extension load peaks, non-uniformity of pulse duration, load fall-
off at large strains must not exceed tolerances.
SIGNIFICANCE
Cyclic triaxial tests are commonly used to measure the cyclic strength or liquefaction resistance
of soils. The stresses applied to an element in filed are quite different than the way they are
applied in a cyclic triaxial test. The primary difference between the field conditions and those on
an inclined plane within the specimen is and increase or decrease in the confining pressure equal
to one-half the deviator stress. To match the stress conditions experienced in the field, it is
important to decrease or increase the cell pressure by one-half the deviator stress as the deviator
stress is respectively increased or decreased.
The maximum cyclic axial stress than can be applied to a saturated specimen is controlled by the
stress conditions at the end of confining stress application and the pore water pressure generated
during testing. For an isotrpically consolidated specimen tested in cyclic compression, the
maximum cyclic axial stress than can be applied to the specimen is equal to the effective
confining pressure. Since soils are not capable of taking tension, cyclic axial stresses greater than

38
this value tend to lift the top platen from the soil specimen. The pore water pressure increases
during the test performed on isotropically consolidated specimen, the effective confining
pressure is reduced, contributing to the tendency of the specimen to necking during the extension
portion of the loading cycle. A 90 degree change in the direction of the major principal stress
occurs during the two halves of the loading cycle on isotroipcally consolidated specimens and at
certain levels of cyclic stress application on anisotropically consolidated specimens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Cyclic Triaxial loading frame
2. Load cell
3. LVDT
4. Triaxial cell
5. Soil specimen
6. DAQ & computer system
7. Cell Pressure control
8. Pore pressure control
9. Volume change device

PROCEDURE
1. The saturated porous stone disc of diameter same as the sample is placed on top of the
pedestal of triaxial testing machine and the circular filter paper of same size is placed
over the disc. Specimen is placed on top of the filter paper. The filter paper with porous
stone is placed on the top of the specimen to allow two-way drainage.
2. The latex membrane is stretched in the membrane stretcher and placed on the soil
specimen. O rings are placed at top and bottom of platens of the soil specimen to prevent
the cell water entering into the specimen.
3. The triaxial cell is placed over the base and tightened with the screws. The cell is then
filled with water and a small confining pressure of about 10 kPa is applied to hold the
specimen in place.
4. The soil specimen needs to be completely saturated before isotropic consolidation phase.
5. Saturation process consists of three steps: i) CO2 saturation, ii) Water saturation, iii) Back
pressure application.
6. CO2 is applied continuously for minimum 3-6 min from bottom of the specimen and then
allow it to go out of the specimen from the top. CO2 replaces the air in void space of the
specimen which gets easily dissolved in the water present within the specimen. The
CO2 flushing process is repeated 4-5 times to ensure better saturation.
7. Water saturation is done by supplying water from bottom of the specimen and allow it to
go out of the specimen from the top to do proper water flushing of the specimen. The
water used for flushing needs to be distilled & de-aired water.
8. The force saturation is performed by applying cell pressure and the back pressure at
constant increments with constant difference between these two pressures. The sample is

39
 allowed to saturate for some time (10-20 min) after each increment of cell pressure and
the back pressure. This increase should be followed by a check for saturation value (B),
also known as Skempton's pore pressure parameter. It is important to note that cell
pressure always be higher than back pressure. The sample is said to be fully saturated if
the B value is greater than 0.95 can be acquired.
9. Isotropic consolidation stage is started by applying confining pressure. During the
Consolidation stage, drainage valve is kept open and the volume change is measured until
no change in volume is observed (when primary consolidation is over).
10. In Cyclic triaxial test, no drainage is allowed during shearing stage and pore pressure is
measured throughout the test using the pore pressure transducer. The test can be
performed using stress controlled mode (constant displacement) or stress controlled mode
(constant load) by applying uniform sinusoidal displacement or load amplitude
respectively.
11. The Cyclic Triaxial machine is set in motion at an appropriate frequency (range = 0.1 to 2
Hz) and at chosen amplitude (displacement/load). Data acquisition system (DAQ) is
attached with the computer & various transducers of cyclic triaxial system, which records
the data with the help of cyclic triaxial software. The experiment is stopped usually at 30
displacement/load cycles (if needed may go for higher cycles).

40
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Dynamic Triaxial Test

Observation Sheet for Strain controlled Cyclic Triaxial test (Constant Displacement):

Weight of Sample:___________________ In-situ Density: _______________________

Initial Water Content:_________________ Strain rate:______________________________
Diameter:________________________ Area(A0):________________________
Height:_________________________ Volume:__________________________
Cell Pressure:__________________________Back Pressure: ______________________
Confining Pressure (σ3):_______________ Saturation value (B):_____________________
Frequency of cyclic loading (Hz)_________________Amplitude of cyclic loading
(mm)_____________________________

41
Observation Sheet for Stress controlled Cyclic Triaxial test (Constant Load):

Weight of Sample:___________________ In-situ Density: _______________________

Initial Water Content:_________________ Strain rate:______________________________
Diameter:________________________ Area(A0):________________________
Height:_________________________ Volume:__________________________
Cell Pressure:__________________________Back Pressure: ______________________
Confining Pressure (σ3):_______________ Saturation value (B):_____________________
Frequency of cyclic loading (Hz)___________________________Amplitude of cyclic loading
(mm)_____________________________

42
CALCULATIONS
• Axial strain: εa = (ΔH/H0)x100
• Excess pore pressure (Δu) = Pore pressure (u) - Initial pore pressure (u0)
• Deviator stress (σd) during cyclic loading:
σd = Load/A0 (1 Kg/cm2= 100kPa)
• Calculations of Dynamic Parameters of soil (G, D):
Hysteresis loop (Deviator stress versus axial strain curve) is used to find the Shear Modulus (G)
and Damping ratio (D) of soil.

E = Dynamic Young Modulus (slope of the centre line of Hysteresis loop)

D = AL/ (4πAT) (needs to be calculated from Hysteresis loop)
G = E/2(1+ν) (ν is poison’s ratio )
(ν = 0.5 as Cyclic triaxial tests is commonly run at CU type triaxial conditions)
GRAPHS
• Input data:
Axial strain versus Time curve
For Strain controlled cyclic triaxial test (Constant Displacement test)
Deviator stress versus Time curve
For Stress controlled cyclic triaxial test (Constant Load test)
•Output data:
Deviator stress versus Time curve
For Strain controlled cyclic triaxial test (Constant Displacement test)
Axial strain versus Time curve
For Stress controlled cyclic triaxial test (Constant Load test)
• Analysis of the cyclic triaxial data:
Deviator stress versus Axial strain curve (Hysteresis loop)
Excess pore pressure versus Time curve

43
RESULTS
The first five cycles are usually considered for calculating shear modulus and damping ratio:
G = ……..kPa (average value of the first five cycles)
D= % (average value of the first five cycles)

GENERAL REMARKS

• Saturation value B must be acquired to be more than 0.95 before starting the CRS test.

• The loading applied to a specimen during cyclic triaxial is constant in both amplitude and
frequency and is most often applied in the form of a uniform, repeating sine wave.

• The alignment of top and bottom platens is critical to avoid non-uniform stress states within the
specimen. Since axial loading in cyclic triaxial test is in extension as well as in compression, the
loading rod should be rigidly connected to the top platen.

QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by liquefaction?
2. How the test results of cyclic triaxial test will be applicable in numerical modelling and
field.
3. How the stress path of saturated sandy soil will vary under undrained cyclic loading?
4. Differentiate between flow liquefaction and cyclic mobility.
5. Show the stress-strain curve, effective stress path and excess pore pressure for loose
saturated sand under monotonically loaded undrained conditions.

44
 Experiment No. 9
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is conducted to determine the small strain shear modulus of soils in the laboratory by
propagating a shear wave through the specimen, measure its velocity, and calculate the small
strain shear modulus using density & shear wave velocity of the material.

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 3999-91– Standard test methods for the determination of the modulus and damping
properties of soils using the cyclic triaxial apparatus.

SOIL SPECIMEN
This test is applicable to both fine grained and coarse-grained soils.

THEORY
A shear wave is an elastic body wave, meaning it is a wave that travels within an elastic medium,
whose direction of propagation is perpendicular to its direction of particle displacement. A
compression wave is another type of elastic body wave, however, its direction of propagation is
parallel to its direction of particle displacement. Although both types of body waves can
propagate through soils, the shear wave exhibits some properties that make it more applicable for
studying soils. First, in a saturated soil (a two-phase porous medium), shear waves propagate
only through the solid phase, because water cannot support shear stresses.
Bender element systems can be set up in most laboratory apparatus. They are particularly
versatile when used in the triaxial test. In addition, generating shear waves and measuring the
small strain shear modulus does not change the properties of the specimens, and is thus
considered to be a non-destructive test. Therefore, small strain shear modulus measurements can
be made throughout testing without causing any disturbance to the specimen.
The system uses a pair of piezo-electric bender elements, a source and a receiver, to send body
waves through a soil specimen. A piezoelectric material generates electrical output when
subjected to mechanical deformation or vice versa and changes its shape when an electrical field
is applied to it. Piezoelectricity can be found in nature in quartz and tourmaline crystals. In
industrial applications, it is often obtained artificially with certain ceramics such as lead
zirconate titanate, barium titanate, and lead titanate. Activation of the piezoelectric property in
ceramics, typically called polarization, is obtained by applying a high d-c voltage between a pair
of electrode faces. The way a polarized ceramic element deforms depends on the following:
ceramic shape and composition, direction of the polling axis, and location of the applied
electrical field.

45
SIGNIFICANCE
Shear wave velocity determination in sands is important for analyzing and predicting safety of
various structures located on it. The initial tangent shear modulus (Gmax) of soil, also termed as
small strain shear modulus of soil, is a fundamental parameter used in various kinds of
geotechnical analysis especially in earthquake geotechnical engineering and soil dynamics.
There is an increasing interest in using small strain shear modulus to define the state of sand so
as to use non-destructive techniques for site characterization. The value of shear modulus
depends on a number of parameters, including void ratio, confining stress, soil structure, degree
of saturation, temperature, stress history, and time.
At strains within the elastic range, typically 10-4 % or less, the stiffness is represented by shear
wave velocity, and in turn small strain shear modulus. This parameter is useful for the design and
analysis of earthquake resistant foundations, vibrating machine foundations, vibration isolation
measures, analysis of soil-structure interaction problems and design of shallow and deep
foundations. Some of the real life situations, where these studies are of great importance are:
impact of an earthquake on structures such as buildings, roads, embankments, railway track
formations, monitoring soil stabilization,
The strain level in engineering structures lies in the small strain range, and thus the small-strain
modulus (Gmax) of geotechnical fill materials is a key parameter in defining the material response
to static loading. It is now treated as a fundamental property of soil. Gmax is also important in
small-strain dynamic analyses such as those used to predict soil behaviour during earthquakes,
explosions, or machine and traffic vibrations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
The bender element system is comprised of the following components:

1. Two bender elements inserts with adopted top cap and pedestal
2. External control box
3. Bender element with specimen inside the triaxial cell
4. High speed computer data acquisition and control card
5. Windows based Bender element system control and acquisition software

PROCEDURE
1. Piezoceramics have the ability to convert electrical impulses to mechanical impulses and
vice versa. When a voltage impulse is applied across a single sheet of piezoceramic, it
will either shorten or lengthen with a corresponding increase or decrease in thickness. If
two piezoceramic sheets are mounted together with their respective polarities opposite to
each other, an electrical impulse will cause one side to lengthen and the other side to
shorten (as shown in figure presenting transmission of S wave). The net result of this will
be a bending of the two sheets, hence the name bender elements. Thus, if an electrical
impulse is sent to a bender element (transmitter) mounted in the bottom cap of a

46
 specimen, the bender element will produce a small “wiggle” and generate a shear wave
that will propagate up through the soil. When the shear waves reach the top of the
specimen they cause the bender element mounted in the top cap (receiver) to vibrate
slightly, thus creating an electrical impulse.

2. The S-wave produced by the source bender element is polarized. That means the receiver
is placed at 90 degrees to the source (out of line), then theoretically no signal will be
received. For maximum signal to be acquired, the receiver should be oriented exactly in
the same direction as the source (in-line). In the soil application, the bender elements are
encapsulated and mounted into inserts, which are fixed into the pedestal and top cap of a
triaxial cell.
3. Typically, bender elements protrude 3 mm into each end of the specimen. When excited
the bender element bends from side to side pushing the soil in a direction perpendicular
to the length of the element and thus having a large coupling factor with the soil. This

47
 produces a shear wave, which propagates parallel to the length of the element into the soil
specimen. On the other end of the soil specimen, another bender element is forced to
bend and produces an electrical signal that can be measured. The input and output electric
signals are recorded on the computer for subsequent analysis. Computer-screen is used to
observe both the impulses, the one sent to the transmitter and the other one generated by
the receiver. Bender Element software is used for configuring the elements, generating
source wave, and acquiring signal from the receiver.
4. The small strain shear modulus using bender element method can be determined from the
theory of elasticity using following equation.

Gmax = ρVs2
Where, Gmax = small strain shear modulus, ρ = material density, and Vs = shear wave
velocity.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

The travel length of the wave is considered to be the length of the specimen minus the length of
the bender elements (mid-to-mid distance). The shear wave velocity is then calculated by
dividing the corrected length (Le) by the travel time of the wave from the transmitter to the
receiver (t), or
Vs = Le / t

In case the bender element test is performed with triaxial testing, the length of the specimen
changes during shearing and hence the travel length of the wave will also change with axial
deformation of the specimen. The corrected length of travel at any stage of measurement can be
obtained using the following equations.
ΔLt = ε * L
L0 = L - ΔLt
Le = L0 -Δe

Here, L = total length of the triaxial sand specimen, Δe = effective height of tip of the transducer,
L0 = the length between the tips of the transducers, Le = Effective length of wave propagation
with increasing strain rate, and ε = Axial strain.

There are four methods which have been suggested in the literature for computing the travel time
of the wave through the soil specimen: (i) first arrival time, (ii) travel time between the
characteristic points, (iii) cross-correlation of input and output signals, (iv) cross-power spectra
of transmitter and receiver signals. First arrival time was defined as the travel time to the first
arrival of the receiver signal. Some researchers have taken first arrival as first deflection point of
the receiver signal. Due to the difficulties in precisely determining first arrival time, some of
them calculated travel time based on characteristic points given by peaks or troughs of the

48
transmitter and receiver signals. It was also reported that use of characteristic points to determine
travel time was only acceptable at high frequencies. In the cross-correlation between transmitter
and receiver signals, the travel time was taken as the time shift that produces the peak cross-
correlation between the input and output signals. A group travel time of the wave for a range of
frequencies between the transmitter and receiver elements can be determined by linear
interpolation of the absolute cross power spectrum phase diagram. A few researchers concluded
that travel time could not be reliably determined from the first arrival time of the receiver signal
due to near field effects, the most accurate travel time was given by the cross-correlation or the
cross-power of the transmitter and the use of characteristic points to determine travel time was a
simple alternative method.

RESULTS

GENERAL REMARKS

1. Bender elements must be handled with care. Improper handling may cause the protective
waterproof cover of the element to be damaged.
2. For stiff specimens it may be necessary to create a cavity for the element in the specimen ends
so as not to damage the elements during mounting or testing. The cavity may be filled with a
suitable filler to allow good coupling between the element and specimen.
3. It is very important to ensure that the source and the receiver are aligned parallel to each other.

QUESTIONS
1. Write the applicability of bender element test results.
2. Write the limitations of bender element test.
3. What is the role of bender element test for developing the modulus reduction curve of
soil?
4. How will be variation Gmax value computed from the bender element testing with that of
cyclic triaxial test?

49
 Experiment No. 10
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is conducted to determine the uniaxial compressive strength of a given rock specimen.

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 2938-95– Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Intact Rock
Core Specimens

ROCK SPECIMEN
1. Specimen is straight, circular cylinder having a length to diameter ratio of 2.5-3.0 and
diameter preferably not less than NX Core size (i.e. approx. 54 mm). The diameter of specimen
is related to the size of the largest grain in rock by the ratio of at least 10:1.
2. The ends of the specimen are cut parallel to each other and at right angle to the longitudinal
axis.
3. The ends of the specimen are flat to 0.02 mm.
4. The ends of the specimen are perpendicular to the axis of the specimen within 0.001 radian
or 0.05 mm in 50 mm.
5. The sides of the specimen are smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within
0.3 mm over the full length of the specimen.
6. Samples are stored for no longer than 30 days in such a way as to preserve the natural water
content as far as possible until the time of specimen preparation. The specimen is stored prior
to testing for 5 to 6 days in an environment of 20°C ±20°C and 50% ± 5% humidity.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Loading Device (Universal Testing Machine)
Vernier Caliper and rock specimen

THEORY
The procedure used in the determination of compressive strength involves the use of a
cylindrical specimen of rock loaded axially between platens in a testing machine. The stress
value at failure is defined as the compressive strength of the specimen and is given by the
relationship-
(UCS) σc = P / A
Where, σc = compressive strength of the specimen
P = applied load at failure (Kg.)
A = cross-sectional area (sq.cm.)

50
SIGNIFICANCE
Unconfined compressive strength of rock is used in many design formulas and is sometimes used
as an index property to select the appropriate excavation technique. The strength of rock cores
measured in the laboratory usually do not accurately reflect large-scale in situ properties because
the latter are strongly influenced by joints, faults, inhomogeneities, weakness planes, and other
factors. Therefore, laboratory values for intact specimens must be employed with proper
judgement in engineering applications.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the length of the specimen at two places at right angle to each other and diameter of
the specimen to the nearest 0.1 mm by averaging two diameters measured at right angles to
each other at about the upper height, mid height, and the lower height of the specimen. Use
average diameter for calculating the cross-sectional area.
2. Load the specimen under Servo Controlled Stiff Testing Machine (MTS) in such a way that
the stress rate is within the limits of 0.5-1.0 MPa/sec.
3. Obtain the stress strain curve or load vs displacement curve from the MTS.
4. Select a straight line of the curve in the elastic limit and calculate stress and strain from load
versus displacement curve. Divide stress by strain to get young’s modulus of the specimen.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Observation Table :

CALCULATIONS
Calculate the compressive strength in the test specimen
from the maximum compressive load on the specimen and the
initial computed cross-sectional area as follows:
σc = P / A
Where, P is load at failure (Kg.)
A is cross-sectional area (sq.cm.)

51
RESULTS
1. No. of specimen tested
2. Uniaxial Compressive Strength
3. Mode of failure
4. Lithological description of the rock specimen
5. Water content & degree of saturation at the time of test

QUESTIONS
1. What is the relevance of the UCS test on numerical modelling .
2. How UCS test results are applicable in rock classification?

52
 Experiment No. 11(a)
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is conducted to determine the point load strength index of a given rock specimen.
STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 5731-16– Standard Test Method for the determination of the point load strength index
of rock and application to rock strength classifications

ROCK SPECIMEN
 When testing core or block samples at least ten specimens are selected for each sample.
 When testing irregular-shaped specimens obtained by other means at least 20 specimens
are selected for each sample.
 Sample sizes (number of specimens per sample) may need to be larger if the rock is
anisotropic or heterogeneous.
 Samples in the form of core are preferred for a more precise classification.
 For anisotropic rocks, better results are obtained for core samples when the core axis is
perpendicular to the plane of weakness.
 The specimen’s external test diameter shall not be less than 30 mm and not more than 85
mm with the preferred test diameter of about 50 mm.
 The size and shape requirements for diametral, axial, block, or irregular lump testing
shall conform with the recommendations shown on Fig. 3. The sides of the specimens
shall be free from abrupt irregularities that can generate stress concentrations. No
specimen preparation is needed; however, a rock saw or chisels may be advised for block
or irregular specimens.

NOTE 1— Legend: L =

53
distance between contact points and nearest free face, and De = equivalent core diameter
FIG. Load Configurations and Specimen Shape Requirement for (a) the Diametral Test,
(b) the Axial Test, (c) the Block Test, and (d) the Irregular Lump Test

THEORY
Point load index is a simple technique for measuring the strength of rock specimen in
the field by using portable equipment. The specimens may be rock core or irregular lumps. The
strength index is calculated from the following equation
Is = P/D2
where,
Is = point load strength index
P = load at fracture
D = Distance between two conical platens
Approximate conversion of Point Load Strength Index to Uniaxial Compressive Strength can be
made by
U.C.S. = (24) Is
It varies from 12 to 24 depending upon the nature/type of specimen.
The International Society of Rock Mechanics has given three methods for determining the point
load strength index
1. Diametral Test
2. Axial test
3. Irregular lump test.

SIGNIFICANCE
The uniaxial compression test is used to determine compressive strength of rock specimens.
However, it is a time-consuming and expensive test that requires significant specimen
preparation and the results may not be available for a long time after the samples are collected.
When extensive testing and/or timely information is needed for preliminary and reconnaissance
information, alternative tests such as the point load test can be used to reduce the time and cost
of compressive strength tests, when used in the field. Such data can be used to make timely and
more informed decisions during the exploration phases and more efficient and cost-effective
selection of samples for more precise and expensive laboratory tests. The point load strength test
is used as an index test for strength classification of rock materials. The test results should not be
used for design or analytical purposes.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Point load machine,
Distance measuring system to indicate the distance
between two conical platens
specimen
Vernier Calipers.

54
PROCEDURE
1. Diametral Test: Take Core specimens with length to diameter ratio greater than 1.4 for
diametral testing. Insert the specimen in the testing machine and bring the platens into the
contact along the core diameter, ensuring that the distance L between the contact point and the
nearest free end is at least 0.7d, where d is core diameter. Increase the load till the specimen
breaks. Now, record the distance between conical platens (D) and failure load P. Repeat the
procedure on at least ten specimens for each sample.
2. Axial Test: Take core specimens with length to diameter ratio of 1.1 ± 0.05 for axial test.
Insert the specimen in the testing machine and bring the platens into the contact along the axis if
the specimen (i.e. length of the specimen). Now, load the specimen to failure and record the
distance between conical platens (D) and failure load P. Repeat the procedure on at least ten
specimens for each sample.
3. Irregular Lump Test & Block Test: Take rock lumps with typical diameter approximately 50
mm and with a ratio of longest to shortest diameter between 1.0 to 1.4. Trim it using any
convenient technique. Load each specimen up to the failure and the value of D and P are
recorded. At least, test 20 lumps for each sample.

Block Test:

Is =

Where W = smallest width to loading direction

Irregular lump test:

Is =

Where W =

(i) Is(50) = P50/50 where, P50 can be obtained from a log-log plot between P and
De2
(ii) Is(50) = (De/50)0.45 × Is, where De =

55
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Observation Table:
1.Axial Test

2. Diametral Test:

RESULT
(i) Average Point Load Strength Index for
(A) Axial test:
(B)Diametral test:
(C) Irregular Lump Test:
(ii) Uniaxial Compressive Strength:
(iii) Lithological Description of Specimen:
(iv) Source of sample:
(v) No. Of specimen tested:
(vi) Specimen diameter and thickness:

56
QUESTIONS
1. What is the relationship between point load test and unconfined compression strength test.

57
 Experiment No. 11(b)
Name: Roll No.
Date: Marks/Grade Faculty’s Signature
AIM
This test is conducted to determine the splitting tensile strength of a given rock specimen.

STANDARD REFERENCE
ASTM D 3967-16– Standard Test Method for the splitting tensile strength of intact rock core
specimens

ROCK SPECIMEN
Dimensions—The test specimen shall be a circular disk with a thickness-to-diameter ratio (t/D)
between 0.2 and 0.75. The diameter of the specimen shall be at least 10 times greater than the
largest mineral grain constituent. A diameter of 54 mm (NX core) will generally satisfy this
criterion.
Number of Specimens—At least ten specimens shall be tested to obtain a meaningful average
value. If the reproducibility of the test results is good (coefficient of variation less than 5 %), a
smaller number of specimens is acceptable.
The circumferential surface of the specimen shall be smooth and straight to 0.50 mm (0.02 in.).
Cut the ends of the specimen parallel to each other and at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
The ends of the specimen shall not deviate from perpendicular to the core axis by more than 0.5°.
This requirement can be generally met by cutting the specimen with a precision diamond saw.
Determine the diameter of the specimen to the nearest 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) by recording at least
three measurements, one of which shall be along the loading diameter, and calculating the
average. Determine the thickness of the specimen to the nearest 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) by recording
at least three measurements, one of which shall be at the center of the disk, and calculating the
average.

THEORY
The specimen tested for compressive strength often fails due to the development of tensile
stresses. Tensile failure is an important phenomenon in the mechanical winning of minerals,
drilling and blasting of rocks, failure of roof and floor etc., particularly because rocks are very
much weaker in tension than in compression.
There are two methods to determine the tensile strength-
1. Direct Method. 2. Indirect Method.
The greatest difficulty in the direct test for determination of tensile strength of rocks is the
gripping of specimen. To get uniform tensile stress distribution and for easy gripping, specially
prepared specimens are required and they are difficult to make. As a result, indirect methods
have been developed for determining the tensile strength of rocks.
Brazilian Test: The Brazilian Test, as the name suggests, originated from South America. The
test makes use of a circular solid disc which is compressed to failure across a diameter. However,

58
the test is valid only when the failure of disc initiates with a vertical crack originating from the
centre of the disc and proceeding upward and downward along the loading diameter.

SIGNIFICANCE
By definition the tensile strength is obtained by the direct tensile test. However, the direct tensile
test is difficult and expensive for routine application. The splitting tensile test appears to offer a
desirable alternative, because it is much simpler and inexpensive. Furthermore, engineers
involved in rock mechanics design usually deal with complicated stress fields, including various
combinations of compressive and tensile stress fields. Under such conditions, the tensile strength
should be obtained with the presence of compressive stresses to be representative of the field
conditions.
The splitting tensile strength test is one of the simplest tests in which such stress fields occur.
Also, by testing across different diametrical directions, possible variations in tensile strength for
anisotropic rocks can be determined. Since it is widely used in practice, a uniform test method is
needed for data to be comparable. A uniform test is also needed to make sure that the disk
specimens break diametrically due to tensile stresses perpendicular to the loading diameter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Brazilian cage - Two steel loading jaws designed so as to contact a disc shaped rock specimen
at diametrically opposed surfaces over an area of contact of approximately 100 at failure. The
critical dimension of apparatus is the radius of curvature of jaws and length of guide pins
coupling the two curved jaws and the width of the jaws. The radius of jaws is 1.5 x specimen
radius, guide pin permit rotation of one jaw relative to the other by 4 x 10-3 radians out of plane
of the apparatus (25 mm penetration of guide pin). Width of the jaw is 1.1 x specimen thickness.
The upper jaw contains a spherical seating formed by a 25 mm diameter half ball bearing.
2. A suitable machine for applying and measuring compressive load to the specimen.
3. Vernier Caliper.
4. Rock Specimen.

PROCEDURE
1. Take the cylindrical specimen whose surfaces are free from any tool marks and irregularities.
The end faces are flat to within 0.25 mm and parallel to within 0.250.
2. The specimen diameter is not less than NX (apparatus 54 mm) core size. Thickness of
specimen is equal to specimen radius.
3. Apply the load on the specimen continuously at a constant rate such that failure in the weakest
rock occurs within 15-30 sec. A loading rate of 200 N/s is recommended.

59
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Observation Table:

CALCULATIONS

The Brazilian tensile strength which is defined as the load resisting ability of rock under
diametral loading, can be calculated by the expression –

where, σt = tensile strength, (MPa)

P = load at failure, (N)
D = diameter of specimen, (mm)
t = thickness of specimen, (mm)
r = radius of specimen, (mm)

RESULTS
1. Lithological description of the specimen:
2. Source of sample:
3. Number of specimen:
4. Specimen diameter and thickness:
5. Water content and degree of saturation at the time of test:
6. Test duration:
7. Date of testing and type of testing machine:
8. Tensile strength of the rock specimen:

60
QUESTIONS
1. Write the applicability of split tensile test for field problems.

61