CHAPTER 1

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1. Definition
The word environment is derived from the French word “environ” meaning surroundings. Hence,
everything surrounding us is called environment. Every organism is surrounded by materials and forces
that constitute its environment. It is the environment from where every organism must derive its
requirement. The environment creates favourable conditions for the existence and development of living
organisms. The survival of any organism requires a steady supply of materials and removal of waste
products.
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things. This environment encompasses the
interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and
economic activity. Environmental studies is multi-disciplinary because it comprises various branches of
studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture and public health. It is the
science of physical phenomena in the environment. Environmental studies deals with every issue that
affects an organism. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human civilization
sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
The environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements
inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements are
(1) Physical Elements
Space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable character
of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations
(2) Biological Elements
Plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings constitute the biosphere.
(3) Cultural Elements
Economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade features, which constitute the cultural
milieu.
1.2. Scope and importance
Environment Studies enlighten us about the importance of protection and conservation of our
environment. At present, a great number of environment issues have grown in size and complexity day by
day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.

We live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities. But
even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding villages and these in turn are
dependent on natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water
for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus, our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and
inevitably affects them. We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use
resources from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals which
form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms our environment and our lives
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depend on sustaining its vital systems.
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our increasingly
consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural resources such as water, minerals,
petroleum products, wood, etc. Non renewable resources, such as minerals and oil are those which will
be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a thought for subsequent generations.
Renewable resources, such as timber and water, are those which can be used but can be regenerated by
natural processes such as re growth or rainfall. However, these too will be depleted if we continue to use
them faster than nature can replace them. Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers
once the rains are over
What we should implement is Sustainable Development. It is the organizing principle for meeting human
needs while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the resources and
ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends. The desirable end result is a society
where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the stability
of the natural systems.
The scope of environmental studies include:
1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the environment and its related problems.
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection.
3. Developing skills to find solutions to environmental problems.
4. Imbibe and inculcate in others the necessity for conservation of natural resources.

1.3 Needs for awareness

Increasing population, urbanization and poverty have exerted pressure on the natural resources and led to
degradation of the environment. To prevent the environment from further degradation, the Supreme Court
has ordered and initiated environmental protection awareness through government and non-government
agencies.
Environmental pollution cannot be prevented by laws alone. Public participation is equally important with
regards to environmental protection. Environmental Education (EE) is a process of learning by giving an

overall perspective of knowledge and awareness of the environment. It sensitizes the society about
environmental issues and challenges interested individuals to develop skills and expertise, thereby
providing appropriate solutions.
Climate change, loss of biodiversity, declining fisheries, ozone layer depletion, illegal trade of
endangered species, destruction of habitats, land degradation, depleting ground water supplies,
introduction of alien species, environmental pollution, solid waste disposal, storm water and sewage
disposal pose a serious threat to ecosystems in forest, rural, urban and marine ecosystems.
Both formal and informal education on the environment will give the interested individual the knowledge,
values, skills and tools needed to face the environmental challenges on a local and global level.

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 CHAPTER 2

NATURAL RESOURCES

2.1. Introduction to Natural Resources

Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful can be termed
as resource. In other words, it is possible to obtain valuable items from any resources. Resource,
therefore, are the means to attain given ends. The aspect of satisfaction is so important that we consider a
thing or substance a resource, as so long it meets our needs. Life on this planet depends upon a large
number of things and services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural Resources. Thus
water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wild life are all examples of natural resources.
2.1.1. Classification of natural resources
Depending upon availability of natural resources can be divided into two categories such as (1)
renewable and (2) Non renewable resources.
1. Renewable resources
Renewable resources are in a way inexhaustible resources. They have the ability to replenish themselves
by means such as recycling, reproduction and replacement.Examples of renewable resources are sunlight,
animals and plants,soil,water,etc.
2. Non-Renewable Resources
Non renewable resources are the resources that cannot be replenished once used or perished. Examples
of non renewable resources are minerals, fossil fuels, etc.
Resources can also be classified as biotic or abiotic.
a) Biotic resources
These are living resources (e.g. forest, agriculture, fish and wild life) that are able to reproduce or replace
them and to increase.
b) Abiotic resources
These are non-living resources (e.g. petrol, land, minerals etc.) that are not able to replace themselves or
do so at such a slow rate that they are not useful to consider them in terms of the human life times.
2.1. 3 Problems associated with natural resources
1. The unequal consumption of natural resources
A major part of natural resources today are consumed in the technologically advanced or ‘developed’
world, usually termed ‘the west’. The ‘developing nations’ of ‘the east’, including India and China, also
over use many resources because of their greater human population. However, the consumption of

resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most
developing countries. Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
2. Planning land use
Land is a major resource, needed for not only for food production and animal husbandry, but also for
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industry and growing human settlements. These forms of intensive land use are frequently extended at
the cost of ‘wild lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts. This demands for a
pragmatic policy that analyses the land allocation for different uses.
3. The need for sustainable lifestyles
Human standard of living and the health of the ecosystem are indicators of sustainable use of resources
in any country or region. Ironically, both are not in concurrence with each other. Increasing the level of
one, usually leads to degradation of other. Development policies should be formulated to strike a balance
between the two.

2.2. FOREST RESOURCES

Forest is important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and can contribute
substantially to the economic development of any country .Plants along with trees cover large areas,
produce variety of products and provide food for living organisms, and also important to save the
environment.
It is estimated that about 30% of world area is covered by forest whereas 26% by pastures. Among all
continents, Africa has largest forested area (33%) followed by Latin America (25%), whereas in North
America forest cover is only 11%. Asia and former USSR has 14% area under forest. European countries
have only 3% area under forest cover. India’s Forest Cover accounts for 20.6% of the total geographical
area of the country as of 2005.

Uses of forests
Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of forest can be classified
as under

 Commercial values

 Ecological significance

 Aesthetic values

 Life and economy of tribal

Commercial values

 Forests are main source of many commercial products such as wood, timber, pulpwood etc. About
1.5 billion people depend upon fuel wood as an energy source. Timber obtained from the forest
can used to make plywood, board, doors and windows, furniture, and agriculture implements and
sports goods. Timber is also a raw material for preparation of paper, rayon and film.

 Forest can provide food , fibre, edible oils and drugs.

 Forest lands are also used for agriculture and grazing.

 Forest is important source of development of dams, recreation and mining.

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 Life and economy of tribal

Forest provide food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital role in the life
and economy of tribes living in the forest.
Ecological uses
Forests are habitat to all wild animals, plants and support millions of species. They help in reducing
global warming caused by green house gases and produces oxygen upon photosynthesis.
Forest can act as pollution purifier by absorbing toxic gases. Forest not only helps in soil conservation
but also helps to regulate the hydrological cycle.
Aesthetic values
All over the world people appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the forest because forests have a
greatest aesthetic value. Forest provides opportunity for recreation and ecosystem research.

2.2.1. Over exploitation of forests

Forests contribute substantially to the national economy. With increasing population increased demand
of fuel wood, expansion of area under urban development and industries has lead to over exploitation of
forest .At present international level we are losing forest at the rate of 1.7 crore hectares annually.
Overexploitation also occurs due to overgrazing and conversion of forest to pastures for domestic use.

2.2.2. Deforestation

1. Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture ,harvesting for wood and timber ,
development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short term where as long term
effects of deforestation are irreversible
Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present rate of
deforestation continues we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six decades

2. For ecological balance 33% area should be under forest cover but our nation has only 20.6%
forest cover.

Causes of deforestation
Forest area in some developed area has expanded. However in developing countries area under forest is
showing declining trend particularly in tropical region. Main causes of deforestation are

a) Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation

This practice is prevalent in tribal areas where forest lands are cleared to grow subsistence crops. It is
estimated that principle cause of deforestation in tropics in Africa, Asia and tropical America is
estimated to be 70, 50, and 35% respectively. Shifting cultivation which is a practice of slash and burn
agriculture are posses to clear more than 5 lakh hectares of land annually. In India, shifting cultivation is
prevalent in northeast and to limited extent in M.P, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh and is contributing

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significantly to deforestation.
b) Commercial logging
It is a important deforestation agent. It may not be the primary cause but definitely it acts as secondary
cause, because new logging lots permits shifting cultivation and fuel wood gatherers access to new logged
areas.
c) Need for fuel wood
Increased population has lead to increasing demand for fuel wood which is also acting as an important
deforestation agent, particularly in dry forest.
d) Expansion for agribusiness
With the addition of cash crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruits and ornamental plants, there is stress to
expand the area for agribusiness products which results in deforestation.
e) Development projects and growing need for food
The growing demand for electricity, irrigation, construction, mining, etc. has lead to destruction of forest.
Increased population needs more food which has compelled for increasing area under agriculture crops
compelling for deforestation.
f) Raw materials for industrial use
Forest provides raw material for industry and it has exerted tremendous pressure on forest. Increasing
demand for plywood for backing has exerted pressure on cutting of other species such as fir to be used as
backing material for apple in J&K and tea in northeast states.

Major effects of deforestation

Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living beings .Major
causes of deforestation are

 Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

 Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle

 Expansion of deserts

 Climate change and depletion of water table

 Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna

 Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems

2.3. WATER RESOURCES

Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh
water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is found mainly
as ground water, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.
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Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world’s supply of ground water is steadily decreasing. The
depletion is occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America. The framework for
allocating water resources to water users (where such a frame-work exists) is known as water rights.

2.3.1. Surface water and Ground water use and over exploitation

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, evapo transpiration and
groundwater recharge. Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within
its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability
of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing
of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water
loss.

Human activities can have large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often
increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans
increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing the stream flow. The total
quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have
an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring,
and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a
large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other
users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply
such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when
the average stream flow is below the power plant’s need.

Nevertheless, over long term, the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for
average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed.

Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another water-shed through a
canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources; however, in practice
the quantities are negligible.

Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia
and Canada.

Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is
flowing within acquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between
ground water that is closely associated with surface water and deep groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes
called “fossil water”).

Ground water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The
critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in
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volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use
groundwater unsustainably for a long time with-out severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long
term, the average rate of seepage above a ground water source is the upper bound for average
consumption of water from that source.

The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from ground water
are springs and seepage to the oceans.

If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a ground water source may become
saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated
farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a ground water source may cause the direction of seepage to
ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans can also cause ground water to be “lost”
(i.e become unusable) through pollution. Human can increase the input to a ground water source by
building reservoirs or detention ponds.

Ground water depletion is primarily caused by sustained ground water pumping. Some of the negative
effects of ground water depletion are:

MINERAL RESOURCES-USE AND EXPLOITATION

2.3.2. Use and Exploitation

A mineral is pure, inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust. All of the Earth’s crust,
except the rather small proportion of the crust that contains organic material, is made up of minerals.
Some minerals consist of a single element such as gold, silver, diamond (carbon), and sulphur. Minerals
provide the material used to make most of the things of industrial – based society: roads, cars, computers,
fertilizers, etc. Demand for minerals is increasing world wide as the population increases and the
consumption demands of individual people increase. The mining of earth’s natural resources is, therefore
accelerating, and it has accompanying environmental consequences.

More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these contain inorganic compounds
formed by various combinations of the eight elements (O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg) that make up
98.5% of the Earth’s crust. Industry depends on about 80 of the known minerals.

A mineral deposit is a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material, in or on the
Earth’s crust in such form and amount that its extraction and its conversion into useful materials or items
are profitable now or may be so in the future. Mineral resources are non renewable and include metals
(e.g. iron, copper, and aluminum) and non-metals (e.g. salt, gypsum, clay, sand, phosphates).

Minerals are valuable natural resources that are finite and non-renewable. They constitute the vital raw
materials for many basic industries and are a major resource for development. therefore, Management of

mineral resources has, to be closely integrated with the overall strategy of development; and exploitation
of minerals is to be guided by long-term national goals and perspectives.
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The use of minerals varies greatly between countries. The greatest use of minerals occurs in developed
countries. Like other natural resources, mineral deposits are unevenly distributed around on the earth.
Some countries are rich in mineral deposits and other countries have no deposits. The use of the mineral
depends on its properties. For example, aluminum is light but strong and durable, so it is used for aircraft,
shipping and car industries.

Recovery of mineral resources has been with us for a long time. Early Paleolithic man found flint
arrowheads and clay for pottery before developing codes for warfare. This was done without geologists
for exploration, mining engineers for recovery or chemists for extraction techniques. Tin and copper
mines were necessary for a Bronze Age; gold, silver, and gemstones adorned the wealth of early
civilizations; and iron mining introduced a new age of man.

Human wealth basically comes from agriculture, manufacturing, and mineral resources. Our complex
modern society is built around the exploitation and use of minerals resources. Since the future of
humanity depends on minerals resources, we must understand that these resources have limits; our known
supply of minerals will be used up early in the third millennium of our calendar.

Furthermore, modern agriculture and the ability to feed an overpopulated world is depen-dent on mineral
resources; to construct the machines that till the soil, enrich it with mineral fertilizers and to transport the
products.

We are now reaching limits of reserves for many minerals. Human population growth and increased
industrialization are depleting our available resource at increasing rates. The pressure of human growth
upon the planet’s resources is a very real problem.

The consumption of natural resources proceeded at a phenomenal rate during the past hundred years and
population and production increases cannot continue without increasing pollution and depletion of
mineral resources.

2.3.3. Environmental effects of mineral extraction

The scale and level of requirement of minerals have increased manifold in our country and it is heading
towards the stage where much larger consumption of minerals will be inevitable to sustain even the
minimum growth rate of our economy.

It is pertinent to note that out of the total land area of the country (3.29 million sq.kms),the area leased out
of mining, as on 1-9-94, was 7126.13 sq.kms. Comprising about 9,213 mining leases, excluding atomic

minerals, minor minerals, petroleum and natural gas, this constitutes only about 0.25 per cent of the
geographic area of the country and that including atomic minerals and minor minerals it may be around
0.28 per cent of the total area.

Although the area occupied for mining activity is small, the damage to the environment on account of
mining is causing grave concern. Environmental degradation resulting from mining activity in general can
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be briefly enumerated as flows:

1. \ Air pollution with dust and gases due to drilling, blasting, mine haulage and transpor-tation by road,
and also from waste heaps.

2. \ Water pollution when atomic elements and other harmful elements are present in the ore/mineral
mine effluents.

3. \ Modifying water regimes such as surface flow, ground water availability and lowering down of
water table.

4. \ Soil erosion, soil modification with dust and salt.

5. \ Noise and vibration problem in the mine and adjoining habitat including wild life.

2.4. FOOD RESOURCES

Food is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the
organism’s cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food
through two methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the majority of the food energy
required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry.

Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies like the International Association for Food
Protection, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and
International Food Information Council. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity,
climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, and access to food.

The food resources are a composite of the goods (the foodstuffs) and the services in commerce and
distribution through which these are made available for consumption.

The 3 major sources of food for humans are: - the croplands, the rangelands and fisheries.

• The croplands provide the bulk amount of food for human. Though there are thousands of edible
plants in the Earth, solely 4 are essential crops ; potatoes, rice, wheat and corn account for many of
the caloric consumption of human beings. Few animals are raised for milk, meat and eggs (for
example. poultry, cattle and pigs)

• The rangelands provide a different source of milk and meat from animals.

• The fisheries provide fish which are a major source of animal protein in the Earth, particularly in
coastal areas and Asia.

Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that are
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used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a staple food
that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize), wheat, and rice in
all of their varieties account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Most of the grain that is produced
worldwide is fed to livestock.

Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures
is consumed raw or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other
animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, reduced nectar from flowers, which is a
popular sweetener in many cultures.

Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health,
ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees.
Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.

2.4.1. World Food Problems

Food is essential to survive. There are three degrees of hunger: acute, chronic, and hidden. Famine is
caused by food shortage and the inability of people to obtain food. It is usually caused by low food
production resulting from drought, other factors, or it could be a result of the inability of a country or its
population to afford to buy food.

Every year, 15 million children die of hunger. It is estimated that 925 million people in the world do not
have enough to eat. The WHO estimates that one-third of the world population is well-fed, one third is
under-fed and one-third is starving. There are many factors that have contributed in making food security
one of the most important global issues. An increasing population wants a more varied diet, but trying to
grow more food on less land with limited access to water, all the time facing increased costs for fertilizer,
and fuel for storage and transport poses great problems for which there are no easy solutions.

The available water is decreasing at an alarming rate. This warns us that there is not going to be enough
water on the agricultural land that is needed for producing enough food in order to feed the projected
population of 9 billion people by 2050. Also, the food prices have skyrocketed in the past few years
making it difficult for average earners to afford a three course meal. These effects are witnessed in
developing countries that rely heavily on imported food, such as North Africa, Latin America, and Middle
East.

Currently, the world food situation is being defined by some new driving forces. These include climate
change, globalization, urbanization, energy prices, and income growth as they are responsible in
transforming food production, consumption and markets. The security of food in the world depends from
the available food supply, the income of the targeted population, accessibility of food, food consumption
rate, as well as the amount that can be stocked for future use.

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• The Problem of Distribution of Food

In the world today, there are many people dying because of the shortage of food, however, there are also
many people who are obese. So evidently there is a problem in the way food is distributed .There are
wide gaps of economy between countries. In short, the problem of “distribution” is to devise ways to feed
people in the world with no shortage. If the world population grows in current pace, the amount of
production of food crops is said to be unable to catch up with the population in the future.

2.4.2. Problems of Modern Agriculture

Agriculture is the management of the growth of plants and animals for human use. Agriculture includes
preparation of soil for cultivation of crops, harvesting crops, breeding and raising livestock, dairying and
forestry.
The two major types of agriculture are:
• Traditional agriculture
• Modern or Industrialized agriculture
The development of agriculture was achieved in terms of:
1. Expansion and/or conversion of agricultural lands
2. Increased agricultural productivity
3. Multiple-cropping pattern
4. Conversion of single-cropping system to two tier and / or three tier
cultivation In due course of time, agricultural development became possible due to

(a) Development of modern scientific techniques

(b) Advanced technology
(c) Expansion of irrigational facilities
(d) Use of chemical fertilizers
(e) Use of pesticides and insecticides
(f) Development and use of high yielding varieties of seeds
(g) Mechanization of agriculture
(h) Varying crop sequences
It will be difficult for us to maintain our present standard of living and current consumption-pattern if we
continue to destroy land. Considering this, it becomes essential to understand the related incidences
causing environmental degradation.

Pests and diseases such as gall midge, brown plant hopper, bacterial blight and tungro virus (or paddy)
considered as minor diseases earlier to the Green Revolution suddenly appeared as major diseases.

Agricultural losses due to such pests and/or diseases increased tremendously since the high-yielding
varieties were more prone to pests and diseases. Naturally, use of pesticides increased and this brought
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about widespread occurrence of pesticide-residues practically in every agricultural produce, widespread
pesticide resistance in vectors and finally even resistance to pesticides in stored grains.

Such pesticide resistance to wards pests of agricultural importance became a major constraint in
improving agricultural productivity.

2.4.3. Fertilizer and Pesticide Problems

To assure enhanced productivity in areas where intensive cultivation has been initiated, increased
application of chemical fertilizers supplying the plant nutrients has become an essential component of
modern agriculture.

Fertilizer application in South Asia including India has multiplied with widespread intro-duction of the
Green Revolution. The number of fertilizer plants has gone up and the production has multiplied.

Problems caused by using Fertilizers:

1. Micronutrient imbalance: Chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture contain Nitrogen,

Phosphorus and Potassium (N,P,K) which are macronutrients. Excess use of fertilizers in fields
causes micronutrient imbalance. Ex: Excessive use of fertilizers in Punjab and Haryana caused
deficiency of micronutrient Zinc thereby affecting productivity of soil.
2. Nitrate pollution: Excess Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in fields contaminates the groundwater.
3. Eutrophication: The application of excess fertilizers in fields leads to wash off of the nutrient
loaded water into nearby lakes causing over-nourishment. This is called “Eutrophication”.
Eutrophication causes the lakes to be attacked by “algal blooms”. Algal blooms use up nutrients
rapidly and they die and pollute water thereby affecting aquatic life in the lakes.

Problems in using Pesticides :

In order to improve crop yield, pesticides are used indiscriminately in agriculture. Pesticides are of two
types:

1. First generation pesticides that use Sulphur, Arsenic, Lead or Mercury to kill pests
2. Second generation pesticides such as Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) used to kill
pests. These pesticides are organic in nature
Although pesticides protect our crops from severe losses due to pests, they have several side-effects as
listed below:

• Death of non-target organisms: Several insecticides kill not only the target species but also several
beneficial non-target organisms

• Pesticide resistance: Some pests that survive the pesticide generate highly resistant generations that are
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immune to all kinds of pesticides. These pests are called “superpests”

• Bio-magnification: Most pesticides are non-biodegradable and accumulate in the food chain. This is
called bioaccumulation or bio-magnification. These pesticides in a biomagnified form are harmful to
human beings.

• Risk of cancer: Pesticide enhances the risk of cancer in two ways (i) It acts as a carcinogen and (ii) It
indirectly suppresses the immune system.

2.4.4. Water logging

If water stands on land for most of the year, it is called water logging. Water logging refers to the
saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when it is saturated with water much
of the time such that its air phase is restricted. In water logged conditions the soil gets filled with water
and soil-air gets depleted. In such a condition the roots of plants do not get enough air for respiration.
Water logging also leads to low crop yield. In agriculture, various crops need air. In irrigated agricultural
land, water logging is often accompanied by soil salinity.

Causes of Water logging:

1. Excessive water supply to the croplands

2. Heavy rain

3. Poor drainage

Measures To Prevent Water Logging:

1. Avoid and prevent excessive irrigation

2. Bio-drainage by trees like Eucalyptus

2.4.5. Salinity

The term salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts that are present in water. Salinity is an important
factor in determining many aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological process within it.
The salts are compounds like sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc

2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy is essential for the existence of mankind. Energy production and energy utilization indicates a
country’s progress. It is available on earth in different forms and today every country draws its energy
needs from a variety of sources. Major energy sources are fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, hydro energy,
geothermal, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, bio-mass, hydrogen etc. However, sun is the main
14
source of our energy resources. The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country’s expanding
energy deficit and increased focus on developing alternative energy sources, particularly nuclear, solar
and wind energy. India has been ranked 78 th among 114 countries on the world economic Forum’s energy
transition index.

2.5.1. Growing energy needs

All developmental activities of the world depend directly or indirectly on energy. Most of the industrial
processes like mining, transport, lighting, heating and cooling in buildings need energy. With the growing
population, the world is facing an energy deficit. Lifestyle changes from simple to complex and luxurious
lifestyle adds to this energy deficit. Almost 95% of commercial energy is available from fossil fuels like
coal and natural gas. These fossil fuels will not last for more than a few years. Hence, we must explore
alternative fuel or energy options.

Indian Scenario:

In India, commercial energy like coal, oil, gas and water constitute the main sources of energy. The share
of agriculture in commercial energy consumption has risen rapidly over the past four decades. Industries
like fertilizer, aluminium, textiles, cement, iron, steel, paper etc consume about 80% of the coal and 70%
of the electrical energy in India. The transport sector accounts for 65% of the total oil consumption (petrol
and diesel). The energy consumption of household sector has also increased due to air conditioners,
refrigerators and other electrical appliances. Apart from commercial energy, a large amount of traditional
energy sources in the form of wood, agricultural waste and animal residue are also used.

Due to rapid economic expansion, India has to increase not only the indigenous availability but also aim
at efficient utilization of energy. Our ambitious plan is to expand its renewable and nuclear power
industries. India has the second highest wind capacity in Asia and is the only Asian country apart from
China, with a total capacity of 35 GW. India’s solar power installed capacity reached 34.404 GW as of
February 2020. India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity
generation capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. Five nuclear reactors are under construction and
plans are to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors by 2025.

2.5.2. Renewable and Nonrenewable energy sources

Based on continual utility, natural resources can be classified into two types:

Renewable energy sources: These resources can be generated continuously and are in-exhaustible. They
are available in plenty and are the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. Examples include
Wood, Solar energy, Wind energy, Hydro power, Tidal energy, Geo-thermal energy, forest, etc. They
have low carbon emission;therefore, they are considered as green and environmental friendly.

Non-renewable energy sources: They are natural resources that cannot be regeneratedonce they are
15
exhausted. They cannot be used again. They are not environmental friendly and can have serious effect on
our health. Ex: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and Nuclear fuels. Non-renewable sources release toxic
gases in the air when burnt, which are the major cause for global warming.

The points of differences between renewable and non-renewable resources include:

Renewable energy resources Non-renewable energy resources

They are natural resources around us They are formed deep down the earth crust
millions of years ago
It can be generated continuously and It cannot be regenerated once they are
are in-exhaustible exhausted
It is environmental friendly as the It is not environmental friendly as the
amount of carbon emission is low amount of carbon emission is high
They are pollution free They are not pollution free
These resources are sustainable These resources are exhaustible
They are present in unlimited quantity They are present in a limited quantity
These resources cause no harm to life These resources adversely affect the health
on earth of organisms by emitting radiations, smoke,
carcinogenic elements to environment
The rate of renewal of these resources The rate of renewal of these resources are
are greater than the rate of lower than the rate of consumption
consumption

2.6. LAND RESOURCES

2.6.1. Land as a resource

The term ‘Environment’ includes all physical and social resources. It includes all the resources such as
rivers, oceans, soil, forests, animals etc. Land is a free gift of the nature. The progress and prosperity of
any country largely depends upon the geographical nature. Natural resources are derived from the
environment. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in various
ecosystems.

Land resources mean the resources available from the land. No one can deny the importance of land and
natural resource endowments as factors in the growth process. The quality of land can markedly affect the
level of agricultural productivity in the economic development.

Land can be broadly divided into Urban land, Rural land, Forest land and Sea bed. Man needs land for
building houses, for agriculture purpose , maintaining pastures for domestic animals and developing
16
industries. If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.

Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are
dumped on it. Man needs to preserve our grasslands, wetlands, wilderness area in forests, mountains etc
to protect our vitally valuable biodiversity. A rational use of land needs careful planning. Land use may
be defined as man’s activities on land which are directly related to the land.

2.6.2. Land degradation

Land degradation takes place when land use exceeds the carrying capacity of a system. It is a process in
which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human induced processes
acting upon the land. Houghton and Charman defines land degradation “It encompass soil degradation
and the deterioration of natural landscape and vegetation”. Human induced degradation includes the
adverse effects of overgrazing, erosion, urbanization, disposal of industrial wastes, road construction,
decline of plant communities and pollution of the air with its effects on land.

During the last few decades, there has been tremendous pressure on land in India due to increase in
population. As urban centers grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and forests
shrink.

According to studies, water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation. Combined,
they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land. And the excessive erosion is
now one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.

Effects
•Deteriorated Soil texture
•Loss of soil fertility
•Increase in water logging, salinity and acidity problems
•Affects social, economic and biodiversity level
2.6.3. Man induced landslides

The sudden movement of the soil and the down slope of weathered rock material due to the force of
gravity is called landslide. During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of
mountainous regions are cut down and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. When the rivers are in
flood they greatly add to landslides. These land masses weaken the already delicate mountain slopes
leading to man-induced landslides. It results in the loss of habitat and biodiversity and loss of
infrastructure and hence in economic loss. Man induced activities such as deforestation in hilly areas,
excessive mining in hilly areas, dam construction, road and other infrastructure developments are also
responsible for man induced landslides.

2.6.4. Soil erosion and desertification

17
Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. It is the removal of the top fertile
layer of the soil. In other words, it is the displacement of the upper layer of soil. Soil erosion by water and
wind is the most common and extensive form of soil erosion. The loss of soil from farmlands may be
reflected in reduced crop production, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
Intensive agriculture, deforestation and climate change are the most significant factors responsible for
soil erosion.

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly
arid, typically losing its water bodies as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by climate change
and soil erosion. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of an Earth’s life cycle, then
it can be called a natural phenomenon. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental
problem. The UNO Conference on Desertification has defined it as“ the destruction of the biological
potential of land and can lead ultimately to desert like conditions.”

The major causes of desertification are mismanagement of forests, overgrazing, mining and quarrying.
The increasing rate of desertification will be a threat to food security.

2.7. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Resource management may be defined as “the conservation of natural resources by technical and
managerial practices for the purpose of man’s utilitarian needs under prevailing socio-economic
conditions.”

Man has exploited nature excessively at the cost of the environment. Continuing current practices will
lead to a massive and unsustainable gap between global supply and demand for natural resources.

What Can We do?

Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve environmental conditions.

 Conducting education programmes relating to environmental management and awareness can go a

long way in controlling environmental degradation. Education and public participation may change
and improve the quality of environment. According to UNESCO “Environmental education is a way
of implementing the goals of environmental protection”.
 Building a sustainable society will require participation by governments, businesses and individuals.
The goals of sustainable development cannot be met without individuals support and actions.
Citizens are an integral part of the economic system as consumers of goods and services, and they are
also vital to the adoption of sustainable practices.
 By becoming conscientious consumers/ individuals (buying green products, buying what you
needetc) you can help to stimulate the transition to sustainability. Transition to a sustainable society
requires participation of human beings.

18
 Citizens can take actions to promote a sustainable future (Driving fuel efficient vehicles, carpooling,
bicycling, walking or using public transport etcall make significant contributions.)
 Do Recycling.

2.8. EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES

Economic development and growth strategies encourage rapid accumulation of physical and human
capital, but it is at the expense of excessive depletion and degradation of natural resources and eco
systems. Depleting the world’s resources for development and growth have had detrimental impacts on
the well- being of present generations and results challenges for the future. Equity is supposed to be a
central ethical principle of sustainable development. It means that there should be a minimum level
of income and

environmental quality below which nobody falls. It is generally agreed that equity implies a need for
fairness (not necessarily equality) in the distribution of gains and losses, and the entitlement of everyone
to an acceptable quality and standard of living.

Environmental inequities already exist in all societies. There is a big divide in the world as North and
South, the more developed countries (MDC’S) and less developed countries (LDC’S), the haves and the
have nots. The MDC’s have only 22% of world’s population, but they use 88% of its natural resources,
73% of its energy and command 85% of its income. In order to achieve sustainable development, it is
desirable to achieve a more balanced and equitable distribution of global resources and income to meet
everyone’s basic needs. Reduction of the unsustainable and unequal use of resources and control of
population growth are essential for the survival of our nation. A fairer sharing of resources will narrow
down the gap between the rich and the poor and will lead to sustainable development for all.

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 UNIT 3

ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is an area whose environment is unique and recognizable. Natural ecosystems include
forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea. Man-modified
ecosystems include agricultural patterns, and patterns of urban or industrial land use. The
ecosystem's existence is based on its geographical features, such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers,
coastal areas or islands. Climatic conditions such as the amount of sunshine, temperature, and
rainfall also influence it.

The living portion of the ecosystem is called its biotic component and abiotic component is its
non-living portion. All the living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and animals.
They interact with their abiotic environment and with each other. Living organisms cannot survive
without their non-living environment as this provides food and energy for the former's survival, Thus,
the biotic population and its environment work to create a natural self-sufficient unit known as an
ecosystem. Ecosystems are the very base of life itself.

Definition of an ecosystem: A natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms

(biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio chemical) environment that interact
to form a stable self-supporting system.

All of the earth's habitats are connected to each other. For example, an ecosystem of the river is linked
to the ocean ecosystem and a small ecosystem of dead logs is part of a large forest ecosystem. A
complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in nature but situations can occur that approach self-
sufficiency.

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems. These
form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living organisms.

Stability of ecosystems

Many ecosystems are relatively stable and less influenced by some degree of human perturbation.
Some are weak and quickly destroyed by human activity. Eg: Mountain ecosystems are extremely
fragile, because degradation of forest cover contributes to significant soil erosion and changes in
river courses. Island ecosystems are also

easily affected by human activity which can contribute to the rapid extinction of many of their unique
plant and animal species. Some species may have a significant impact on the environment if
eliminated. These are called ‘keystone species’. Extinction is caused by land-use changes and other
geographical changes. Forests are deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to create more
agricultural land and semi-arid grasslands are turned into irrigated fields. The pollution from industries
and the waste from urban settings can also lead to poisoning and extinction of several species.

3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

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The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansely in 1935. Ecosystem is an essential unit
of ecology. It has both structure and function. The structure is related to species diversity. The
more complex the structure, the greater the species diversity within the ecosystem. The functions of an
ecosystem are related to energy flow and materials cycling through structural components of the
ecosystem.

Every ecosystem has two key components from the structural perspective: Abiotic and Biotic.

3.2.1. Abiotic components

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the abiotic
components. They have a significant impact on the structure, distribution, behavior and inter-
relationship of organisms. Abiotic components are primarily of two types:

(a) Climate Factors which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered rock
fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils provide
nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found
growing on topsoil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration for the
organisms found within ecosystems. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and
precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into
the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for
plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissues are composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even ex-ceeding 90%.
The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content drops below 10% of their
saturation level and most are killed if it is less than 30-50% below the saturation level. Water is the
medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-lo-cated in plants. It is also necessary for the
maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals
receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original source of this water is precipitation
from the atmosphere.

3.2.2. Biotic Components

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are
present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. From nutrition point of view, the biotic
components can be grouped into two basic components:

(i) Autotrophic components and (ii) Heterotrophic components

21
The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of sun and
manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components include non-green plants
and all animals which take food from autotrophs.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem, the biotic components can be classified into three main
groups:

(A)Producers (B) Consumers (C) Decomposers or Reducers

(A) Producers:

Green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap energy and change it into chemical
energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds, namely, water and carbon dioxide. This
process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as
Autotrophs (i.e. auto=self, trophos= feeder). The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized
partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts
for their future use.

(B) Consumers:

Animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food. Therefore, they depend on the
producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros= other, trophos= feeder).

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.

Eg: rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carvivores. Eg: cat, fox, snake etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. E.g. wolf.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other
animal: Eg: lion and tiger.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of producers
(plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to the environment the simple inorganic
and organic substances produced as by- products of their metabolisms. These simple substances are
reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of ma-terials between the biotic community and
the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e.,
22
sapros=rotten, trophos=feeder).

Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of the structure of an ecosystem

Fig. 3.2 Relationship within an ecosystem

3.3. FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

In any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts) (ii)Organisms (plants, animals and microbes)

and (iii)Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are synthesized into
organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through photo-synthesis and solar energy is
utilized in the process. Green plants become the source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which in
turn become the source of energy for the flesh eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow
and add organic matter to their body weight and their source of energy is a complex organic compound
taken as food. They are known as secondary producers.

All the living organisms, whether plants or animals, in an ecosystem have a definite life span after
which they die. The dead remains of plants and animals provide food for saprophytic microbes, such
as bacteria, fungi and many other animals. The saprobes ultimately decompose the organic structure
and break the complex molecules and liberate the inorganic components into their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition of organic
molecules, the energy which kept the organic components bound together in the form of organic

23
molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment as heat energy. Thus, in an ecosystem,
energy from the sun is fixed by plants and transferred to animal components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and animals, cycled
from one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to the soil, water and air, and then
recycled. The ecosystems operating in different habitats, such as deserts, forests, grasslands and seas
are interdependent on one another. The energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may find their way into
another so that ultimately, all parts of the earth are interrelated, each comprising a part of the total
system that keeps the biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun

(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers (3)Consumption of producers

by consumers and further elaboration of consumed materials

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are degraded and finally
converted by decomposers and converters into such forms that are suitable for reutilization by
producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production, growth and death of
living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of habitat. It is now clear that there is transfer
of both energy and nutrients from producers to consumers and finally to decomposers and
transformers levels. In this transfer, there is a progressive decrease of energy but nutrient component is
not diminished and it shows cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.

The flow of energy is unidirectional. The two ecological processes, energy flow and mineral cycling,
which involve interaction between biotic and abiotic components lie at the heart of ecosystem
dynamics. The principal steps and components of ecosystem are illustrated in figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Different components of ecosystem

3.4 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

The biotic community of any ecosystem can be divided simply into producers, consumers and
decomposers.
24
Producers or autotrophs are organisms that make their own organic material from simple inorganic
substances. For most of the biospheres, the main producers are photosynthet-ic plants and algae that
synthesise glucose from carbon dioxide and water. The glucose produced is an energy source and
combines with other molecules from the soil to build biomass. It is this biomass that provides the total
theoretical energy available to all non photosynthesizing organisms in the ecosystem.

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that obtain molecules by eating or digesting other
organisms. By eating other organisms, they gain both food as an energy supply and nutrient molecules
from within the biomass ingested. For instance, to build new protein, consumers have to eat protein
containing amino acids. Consumers are of three types:

Herbivores – animals that eat only plants-primary consumers. Eg: hare, deer, elephant and fish that
live on algae

Carnivores – animals that eat only animals-secondary consumers. Eg: tigers, leopards, jackals, foxes,
carnivorous fish.

Omnivores – animals that eat both animals and plants. Eg: humans

Decomposers are the waste managers of any ecosystem. They are small, like worms, in-sets, bacteria
and fungi. They are the final link in a foodweb and break down dead organic material into smaller
particles and finally into simpler substance that are used by plants as nutrition. Thus, decomposition is a
vital function in nature. Without this, all the nutrients would be tied up in dead matter and no new life
would be produced. Decomposers can be divided into two groups based on their mode of nutrition:

1. Detrivores are organisms that ingest non-living organic matter. These can
include earth-worms, beetles and many other invertebrates.

2. Saprotrophs are organisms that live on or in non-living organic matter, secreting diges-tive enzymes
into it and absorbing the products of digestion. These include fungi and bacteria.

Fig. 3.4 Relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers

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 CHAPTER 4

BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

4.1 Introduction:

It is really amazing , if we divide the whole mother earth into 10 billion parts, it is only one part where
life exists and the surprising variety of living organisms which could be about 50 million species are all
restricted to just about a kilometer –thick layer of soil, water and air. It is indeed wonderful to see that so
much diversity has been created by nature on this earth from so little physical matter. Biodiversity refers
to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which
they occur. Biodiversity constitutes the biological wealth.

Importance of biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation, the practice of protecting and preserving the wealth and variety of species,
habitats, ecosystems, and genetic diversity on the planet, is important for our health, wealth, food, fuel,
and services we depend on. Biodiversity conservation is vital for economic growth and poverty
reduction.This has created a great imbalance in nature. Thus, the importance of biodiversity has to be
understood and actions have to be taken to maintain all the three levels of diversities.

4.2. Biogeographic Classification of India:

India is country of vast biodiversity. It is divided into different regions based on the geography, climate
and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects and
other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as
forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains and hills, which have specific plant and animal
species.
4.3 Value of Biodiversity

As all the organisms in an ecosystem are interlinked and interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the
life of all the organisms including humans is enormous.

 Loss of biodiversity contributes to climatic change.

 Forest converts carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen. Loss of forest covers due to release of
carbon dioxide and other gases due to industrialization, contributes to ‘Green House Effect’. This
leads to Global warming which results in raise in sea-level submerging the low-lying areas in the
world and causing atmospheric changes.
 Biological diversity is also essential for preserving ecological processes.
 Tribal communities who directly gather resources from the forest or fisher folk who catch fish in
marine or freshwater ecosystems are directly or indirectly linked to the biological variety present in
the biosphere.
26
  For agricultural communities, biodiversity is used to grow their crops to suit the environment.
 Urban communities generally use the greatest amount of goods and services, which are all indirectly
drawn from natural ecosystems.
 Preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and long-term survival of
mankind.

Biodiversity everyday around the globe is being lost and some species are being pushed towards
extinction. Evolution also brought forth new life forms, replacing species that were lost. Today we are
losing about 1500 species every two months.

Some of the major values of biodiversity are as follows:

1. Consumptive value 2. Productive Value 3.Social Value 4.Ethical Value 5.Aesthetic Value and
6.Option value.

4.3.1 Consumptive use

The value of Nature’s Products that are consumed directly such as firewoods , fodder and meat. In other
words the products which are consumed directly without passing through the market .Consumptive use
value seldom appear in National income accounts.

• A straight forward example is the direct utilization of timber, food, fuel wood and fodder by local
communities.

• The biodiversity contained in the ecosystem provides forest dwellers with all their daily needs, food,
building material, fodder, medicines and a variety of other products. They are well-known about the
qualities and different uses of wood from different species of trees, and collect a large number of local
fruits, roots and plant material that they use as food, construction material or medicines.

• Fisher folks are completely dependent on fish and know where and how to catch fish and other edible
aquatic animals and plants.

4.3.2 Productive use

These are the direct use values where the product is commercially sold in national and international
market. Many industries are dependent upon these values. Example: Textile, leather, silk, paper and pulp
industry etc. There is an international ban on trade of products from endangered species like tusks of
elephants, wool from sheep, fur of many animals etc.

4.3.3 Social values

Social value of Biodiversity in India is particularly important for its religious,spiritual and other cultural
uses. Many plants and animals have ritual significance. The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural and
spiritual purposes.Some examples among auspicious flowers offered in temples are Hibiscus (Shoe
flower) offered to the goddess Kali, Datura (Ummam) flowers to God Siva. A network of sacred groves
27
is still in evidence in some parts of India.

4.3.4 Ethical values

Ethical values are economic arguments that can be advanced to justify the protection of biological
diversity. Ethical arguments assert that humans have a duty to protect species based on their intrinsic
value, unrelated to human needs.

People do not have the right to destroy species and should take action to prevent their extinction.

4.3.5 Aesthetic value

Regardless of our own material self-interest, we should treat nature respectfully. Enlightened self-
interest, arguing that preserving biodiversity and developing our knowledge of it will make us better and
happier people. Symbols from wild species such as the lion of Hinduism, the elephant of Buddhism and
the vehicles of several deities are animals that have been venerated for thousands of year. The sacred
Basil or the ‘Tulsi’ has grown in the courtyards of household for centuries.

4.3.6 Option values

Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called the option value. It is impossible to predict which
of our species or traditional varieties of crops and domestic animals will be greatest use in the future.

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 CHAPTER 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION

The air we breathe, the water we drink and the place we live in may be polluted with unwanted toxic
substances. The tremendous increase in industrial activity during the last few decades and the release of
toxic industrial wastes into the environment, have been of considerable concern in the recent years from
the point of view of environmental pollution.

It is well known that the outcome of the human activity in the last 200 years on nature (after the industrial
revolution) is very damaging and disrupts natural phenomena and ecological balance. Many incidents and
issues like the death of thousands of people in Minamata in Japan after eating fish from the local Bay
(mercury poisoning), Itai-Itai’ disease (due to cadmium pollution), Bhopal gas tragedy(due to poisonous
gas, MIC), London smog in 1952, the emergence of new ocean currents like El-Nino, Global warming,
Depletion in Ozone umbrella, the nuclear accidents of Three mile island, Chernobyl and recently in
Fukushima, Japan have forced mankind to have a second look on the impact of industries on nature.
Thus, environmental pollution on one hand and deforestation and population explosion on the other, are
threatening the very existence of life on earth. Hence to stimulate awareness of the environment and to
enhance political attention and public action United Nations General Assembly in 1972 established June
5th as World Environment Day.

Pollutants and Contaminants

The term pollution was derived from the Latin word ‘pollotioneum’ which means to make dirty. A
substance present in the environment in greater proportion than its natural abundance and resulting in
harmful or detrimental effect is called a pollutant and this phenomenon is called pollution. For example,
carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone and nitrogen oxide are present in air, but if their percentage
increases because of human activities, they are likely to cause pollution. In addition to this, there are
certain substances which are not present in the environment, but the release of which as a result of
chemical reactions can lead to pollution. They are called as contaminant. Examples: oil spills in sea,
methyl isocyanate (MIC) –the gas responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy.

The major forms of environmental pollutions, their cause, effects and control measures are discussed
below:

1.2. AIR POLLUTION

The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope held to earth by gravity. It extends from earth’s surface to about
1000 km. The composition of the air varies from place to place. The composition is Nitrogen 78%,

29
Oxygen 21%, Argon less than 1%, and others include carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone, helium,
methane etc in trace amount.

Composition of air

The main layers of atmosphere from the surface of earth upwards are troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere. As far as atmospheric pollution is concerned, only troposphere and
stratosphere are important. Troposphere extends to a height of about 10 km from the sea level. It contains
air, water vapour, clouds etc. The pollution in this region is caused by poisonous gases, fumes and smog.
Examples include photochemical smog, acid rain*, global warming and green house effect*.

Stratosphere, which is the seat of ozone is above troposphere. It extends from the height of 10 to 50 km
above the sea level. It is the ozone layer at stratosphere that acts as the protective blanket of the earth
from the injurious effects of the ultraviolet rays from the sun. Ozone layer depletion* is the pollution that
affects the stratosphere.

[ *refer section 5.5.2, 5.5.3 and 5.5.4 for more details]

The World Health Organization defines air pollution as “the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.”Or it is the occurrence or addition of
foreign particles, gases and other pollutants into the air which have an adverse effect on human
beings, animals, vegetation, buildings, etc.

Pollutants are classified into primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants: they are emitted into
the atmosphere directly from the source and retains the same chemical form. Examples are carbon
monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter(SPM).Secondary
pollutants: they are formed by the inter mingling and reactions of primary pollutants. Examples are
photochemical smog, acid rain, PAN etc.

30
The sources of air pollution are classified into two groups: Natural and Man- made sources. Natural
process of air pollution includes dust storms, forest fires, ash from volcanoes, decay of organic matter,
pollen grains floating in air etc. Manmade sources include population explosion, deforestation,
urbanization and industrialization.

1.2.1. Causes of Air Pollution

Important causes of air pollution include:

 Pollutants emitting from vehicles, carbon monoxide formed by improper or incomplete

combustion which are emitted from vehicles is a major pollutant.
 Pollutants from industries, like sulphur dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen oxide, chlorine,
asbestos dust, hydrocarbons and chemicals deplete the quality of air.
 Use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.
 Particulate matter from mining activities.
 Household cleaning products, carpets, paints emit toxic chemicals into the air and cause indoor
air pollution.
 Suspended particulate matter (SPM) produced due to burning of coal.
 Nuclear power plants pollute air by releasing radioactive radiation.
 Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests increases the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.
 Acid deposition due to acid rain may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life.
 Use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers pollute air by
depleting the ozone layer.
 Smoking pollutes air by emitting carbon monoxide and nicotine.

1.2.2. Effects of Air Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

 It affects respiratory system causing breathing difficulties and diseases such as bronchitis,
asthma, lung cancer, tuberculosis and pneumonia.

 Inhaling carbon monoxide results in respiratory problems, muscular weakness, mental

impairment, and dizziness in human beings. At high concentration, it will harmfully affect the
plants causing leaf drop, reduction in leaf size, and premature aging.
 Carbon dioxide causes mild narcotic effects and affects respiratory systems. Increased
concentration in the atmosphere causes green house effect and global warming.

 Air pollution causes acid rain which damages crop plants, trees, buildings, monuments, statues
and metal structures. It also makes the soil acidic.

31
  Ozone layer depletion due to which ultraviolet radiations can reach the earth and cause skin
cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
 Excess nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere results in respiratory problems and bronchitis. It also
causes harmful effects on nylon, rayon and causes cracks in rubber.
 Excess sulphur oxides are extremely harmful to plants and animals. It causes eye irritation,
respiratory problems, lung cancer etc. In plants, it kills leaf tissues, reduces plant productivity,
and bleaches leaf pigments.

 Pesticides like DDT which are toxic, enter into our food chain and gets accumulated in the body
causing kidney disorders, problems of brain and circulatory system.

 Excess pollen and microbes in the atmosphere directly damage the vegetation, food articles and
cause diseases in plants, animals and human beings.

1.2.3. Control Measures of Air Pollution

The atmosphere has several built-in self-cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling,
flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of contaminants
at their source level is a desirable and more effective method.

 Use of public transportation facilities and using unleaded petrol or using fuels with low sulphur
and ash content.
 Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.
 Planting trees along busy streets remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise.

 Renewable and non- polluting sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy etc. should be
used.

 Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to emission control standards.

 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the downwind
of the city. It should also be fitted with equipment for removal and recycling of wastes.
 Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by industries.

 Tall chimneys should be installed in factories.

 Better designed equipment and smokeless fuels should be used in houses and industries.

 Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. So conserve energy by switching off
fans and lights when not in use.

 Understand the concept Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

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  Use energy efficient devices like LEDs, CFL lights etc.

 Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide. Example: Phaseolus vulgaris, Daucus carota

 Growing plants capable of metabolizing nitrogen oxides and other gaseous pollutants. Example:
Vitis, Pimis, Pyrus etc.

1.3. WATER POLLUTION

Water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. It is essential for the
survival of any form of life. Water pollution is a major global problem, both in developed and developing
countries, as more and more wastes are being disposed in oceans, rivers and lakes. This increase in
pollution is harming our food supplies, drinking water and environment. Water pollution is defined as the
“the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful
effects on humans and aquatic life”.

Point and non-point sources:

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Point source pollution refers to contaminants that
enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this
category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant to rivers, lakes etc. Non-point source
pollution (NPS) refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS
pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area.
Run-off and under-drainage from agricultural land into rivers are typical examples.

1.3.1. Causes of Water Pollution

Important causes of water pollution include:

 Sewage and waste water: Raw sewage contaminates water with pathogens. Microorganisms
causing degradation of sewage take up most of the oxygen present in water. Untreated sewage
water is a major problem in developing countries with insufficient sanitation.
 Industrial waste: Many industrial plants use fresh water to dispose their waste, polluting rivers,
lakes, and oceans. Toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides are released
into water bodies. They also cause thermal pollution of water.
 Organic contaminants: They include detergents, disinfection byproducts like chloroform,
food processing wastes, insecticides, herbicides, petroleum products, industrial solvents,
cosmetic products etc.
 Inorganic contaminants: They include industrial discharge, ammonia from food
processing waste, fertilizers containing nutrients like nitrates and phosphates, heavy

33
 metals from motor vehicles, acid mine drainage, runoff from construction sites. The
major inorganic pollutants in water are arsenic, cadmium, lead, chromium, cyanides,
nitrates, phosphates etc.
 Radioactive waste: Produced during industrial, medical, and scientific processes, and through
mining and refining of nuclear fuels like Uranium and Thorium. Nuclear processing plants give
off wastes that can pollute the marine environment.
 Oil Pollution: Large oil spill events account for only 12% of total oil pollution. The remaining is
through routine shipping, land run-off, and intentional oil dumping.
 Eutrophication: It occurs when ocean waters and other aquatic habitats are enriched with excess
nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrogenous compounds caused by agricultural runoff. Excess
nutrients cause algal blooms in the ocean, lakes and other freshwater bodies.
 Run-off from many different sources (non-point source pollution):Rainfall and snowmelt can
wash natural and man-made pollutants into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and coastal waters.
 Agricultural Run-off: Agricultural pollutants include excessive nutrients, ammonia and nitrates,
pathogens, antibiotics and hormones, heavy metals and salts. Manure, animal bedding, wasted
feed, soil, dust, hair and feathers can be mixed together and can end up in waterways.

1.3.2. Effects of Water Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

 Organic pollutants like sewage, industrial waste, wastes from slaughtering units, paper mills and
tanneries, run off from agricultural activity etc causes the depletion of oxygen. Low oxygen
levels
cannot support most marine organisms and hence the natural ecological balance in rivers and
lakes is disturbed.
 Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within the wildlife in
ecosystems. Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and persistent. They will remain in the
water bodies for a fairly long time and results in environmental hazards. Pesticides, show
biomagnification* by reaching the food chain. Organophosphorous pesticides cause
Eutrophication*resulting in algal bloom and lowering of DO, thereby threatening aquatic life.

 Excess fluoride in water causes defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis, while arsenic can
cause significant damage to the liver and nervous system.

 Oil spills in the water cause animals to die when they ingest or encounter it.

 Excess sediments in water cause cloudiness reducing photosynthetic ability, which disrupts the
aquatic food chain.

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  Drinking contaminated water causes health problems like cancer, reproductive problems, typhoid
fever, stomach sickness and skin rashes in humans.

 Excess radioactive materials in water cause genetic mutations, birth defects and cancer.

 Excess of nitrates in drinking water produces Blue baby syndrome, a disease that affects the
oxygen carrying capacity of infant's blood, usually resulting from the consumption of high levels
of nitrate.

1.3.3. Control Measures

 Setting up effluent treatment plants to treat waste water.

 Planting more trees will reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide.

 Oxidation pond can be useful in removing low level radioactive wastes.

 Sewage pollutants are to be subjected to chemical treatment to convert them into non-toxic
substances.

 Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws
should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological
advancements.

 No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any natural
water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage
must be used for irrigation.

 Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes
into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.

 Thermal pollution can be reduced by employing techniques like cooling ponds, wet/dry cooling
towers etc.

 Water hyacinth (plant) can purify polluted water. It can also filter out heavy metals like cadmium,
mercury, lead, nickel as well as other toxic substance from industrial waste.

 The government has undertaken several projects to clean the rivers, the first of which was the
Ganga Action Plan.

 Increase public education and awareness around the world concerning the causes and impacts of
water pollution.

1.4. SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a very important constituent of the lithosphere. It is a complex physio-biological system containing

35
water, mineral salts, nutrients and dissolved oxygen. It is a resource for which there is no substitute.
Fertilizers are not a substitute for a fertile soil. Several factors contribute for the formation of soil like
weathering of rocks due to temperature changes, abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, etc. Climate and
time are also important in the development of soil. Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of various
thicknesses called soil horizon. Depending upon the type of soil there are different horizons like O, A, B
and C.

The top layer or surface layer is called O horizon. It consists mostly of dead leaves, twigs, animal waste,
fungi and other organic wastes. Normally it is brown or black in colour. Below the O layer is A horizon,
also called surface soil. This layer has maximum fertility because it contains microbes and
microorganisms. Below A horizon is B, also called subsoil which contains less organic materials and
fewer organisms than surface soil. The parent rock is called C horizon which is below B. It contains
inorganic materials and large unbroken rocks.

Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil, in high
enough concentrations to pose risk to human health and ecosystem. Soil pollution is the adverse
alternation in the properties of the soil due to dumping of solid
and semi-solid waste from agriculture, industry and urban
areas. It also results because of washing down of pollutants by
rain and faulty sanitation in the soil. However, soil pollution is
different from air and water pollution in following respects

o Soil pollutants do not get dispersed unlike air

and water pollutants.
o The pollution is localized unlike air and
water pollution.
o The pollutants remain at a particular place
for relatively longer period.

1.4.1. Causes of Soil Pollution

Important causes of soil pollution include:

 Agrochemicals: Agricultural activities involving the diffusion of herbicides, pesticides,

insecticides and fertilizers.

 Industrial wastes: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the soil pollution in
the last century due to increased mining and manufacturing units. It also includes the
release of harmful gases and chemicals.

 Petroleum wastes: Contamination of soil by petroleum products is a current problem in several

36
 countries in the world. Oil leakage during transportation and storage of petroleum liquids in
underground tanks are the main cause.

 Electronic wastes or E-waste: it is a complex, non-biodegradable waste which is generally

dumped in soil. They have large quantities of lead, cadmium, arsenic etc. Electronic waste
include cell phones, computers, gadgets, printers, radio, camera, video games, scanners, DVDs,
Land phones etc.

 Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices.

 Indiscriminate dumping of untreated domestic waste on land .

 Improper septic system, leakages from sanitary sewage, underground tanks and underground pipe
lines.

 Accidental oil spills which can happen during storage and transport of chemicals.

 Construction and mining activities.

 The storage of waste in landfills, as the waste products may leak into groundwater or generate
polluted vapors.

 Radioactive waste from laboratories, nuclear reactors and nuclear explosions.

 Soil erosion results in the loss of topsoil and makes the soil less fertile and reduces it water
holding capacity.

1.4.2. Effects of Soil Pollution

Some of the serious problems caused by soil pollution are:

 Reduction in soil fertility.

 Soil pollution has major consequences on human health. Consumption of crops and plants grown
on polluted soil cause health hazards. This could explain small and terminal illness.

 Imbalance in the flora and fauna of the soil.

 Excess use of chemical fertilizers may result in reducing the ability of plants to fix nitrogen.

 Increase in salinity of the soil makes it unfit for cultivation.

 Pollutants in soil cause alteration in soil structure, causing death of many soil organisms which
can affect the food chain.
 Decline in the microorganisms found in the soil creating additional problems of soil erosion.

 Emissions of toxic gases and foul odour from the landfills pollute the environment and causes
serious health effects.

37
  Contamination of underground and surface drinking water.

1.4.3. Control Measures

 Reducing the use of chemicals and fertilizer and encouraging the use of biopesticides in the place
of toxic chemical pesticides.

 Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and
reused.

 Prevention of erosion and silting.

 Create dumping ground away from residential area.

 Launching extensive afforestation and community forestry programmes

 Proper treatment of liquid wastes from industries and mines.

 People should be trained regarding proper sanitary practices.

 Effective treatment of domestic sewage by suitable biological, chemical and adopting modern
method of sludge disposal.

 Public awareness programmes should be implemented to educate people on health hazards due to
soil pollution.

 Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides which are fatal to plants and animals.

 Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

 Bioremediation: It uses microorganisms (yeast, fungi or bacteria) to breakdown, or degrades

hazardous substances into less toxic or nontoxic substances (such as CO2 and H2O).

 Waste water from industries should not be used for irrigation without eliminating toxic chemicals
from the effluent. This will also reduce the concentration of unwanted substances in the soil.

 Enforcing environmental audit for industries and promoting ecolabelled products.

 Municipal waste should be properly collected, segregated, treated and disposed scientifically in
land fills.

1.5. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

Pollution is a man-made disease that can be cured only by man and remedies adopted by them.
Incomplete and inefficient technology coupled with increased population is the main cause of man-made
pollution. In fact, the role of individuals in prevention of pollution is of critical importance because it is
38
the individual that makes a community or country.

Environment awareness programme should be organized and individuals should be encouraged to modify
the life style and living habit, if that are not healthy for environment. Over population and pollution are
potent ecological forces impinging upon man by affecting the quality of the environment.

The main causes of pollution in developing countries

i. Increasing population
ii. Illiteracy and poverty
iii. Rapid industrialization
iv. Failure in pollution management

Ways in which an individual/NGO can help in prevention of pollution

 Development of nonpolluting sources of energy.

 Effective use of water resources.
 Usage of cloth bags instead of plastics.
 Usage of rechargeable batteries.
 Avoid burning plastics.
 Switch off electrical appliance when not in use.
 Make use of public transport system.
 Periodic pollution check should be done for vehicles by approved authorities.
 Reuse items whenever possible.
 Use renewable source like solar heaters, solar cookers etc.
 Cells, batteries, pesticide containers should be disposed properly.
 Quit smoking.

 Reduce the use of air conditioners, refrigerators etc.

 Reduce deforestation.
 Use handkerchief instead of paper tissues.
 Purchase recyclable, recycled and environmentally safe products.
 Organize environmental awareness programme.
 Implement environment protection law.
 Use unleaded gasoline in your cars.
 Never use open fires to dispose of wastes.
 Do not litter in public places.
 Organic waste should be dumped in places far from residential areas.
 Use of chemical pesticides, weedicides, insecticides etc. should be minimized. Promote the use of
39
 bio-pesticides, bio-fertilizers etc.
 Non -biodegradable waste should be collected and disposed for recycling processes.
 Start individual or community vermin-composting plant in your neighborhood and motivate
people to join.
 Advocate organic farming.
 Develop respect for all forms of life.

1.6. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The Indian subcontinent is traditionally vulnerable to natural disaster on account of its unique geo-
climatic conditions. Floods, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena. About
60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares are prone to
floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
Among all the disasters that occur in the country, floods are the most frequently occurring natural disaster
due to the irregularities of the Indian Monsoon. The term disaster management includes all aspects of
preventive and protective measures, preparedness and organization of relief operations for mitigating
the impact of disaster on human beings and socioeconomic aspects of the disaster-prone areas. At the

global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as scientific progress is
made, loss of lives and property due to disaster is increasing. Disaster management occupies an important
place in our country’s policy framework as it is the poor and under-privileged who are the worst affected
on account of calamities and disaster.

1.6.1. Flood

India is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. Floods occur in almost all rivers basins in
India. Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin,the
northwestern river basin, peninsular river basin and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Orissa, Kerala, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Twenty-three of the 35 states and union territories in the
country are subject to floods and it affects an average area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.
According to the National Commission on Floods, the area susceptible to floods was estimated in 1980 to
be around 40 million hectares and it is possible to provide reasonable degree of protection to nearly 80 per
cent.

Flood is a state of high-water level reaching land in a short span of time, causing land surface to be
submerged under water. Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly
without any warning due to spill over, heavy rains etc. There are different types of floods namely: flash
flood, river line flood, urban flood, etc.

Causes
There are several causes of floods and they differ from region to region. The causes may vary from a rural
40
area to an urban area. Some of the major causes are:

 Heavy rainfall and deforestation.

 Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
 Blockage in the drains leads to flooding of the area.
 Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
 Construction of dams and reservoirs.
 In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with storm surge
leads to flooding.

Adverse Effects

 The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like houses,
bridges, roads etc. get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning.

 Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, municipal
water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria and many other
infectious diseases.
 Flooding also leads to huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. Floods
may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top
soil or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.

Control measures:

 Mapping of flood prone areas using Satellite and remote sensing-based imageries are found to be
the best tool.
 As soon as the information of a flood event is obtained, the earliest available satellite is
programmed to collect the required data for the explanation of flooded areas. Both optical and
microwave satellites data can be used.
 Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when water enters the flood plains and
the coastal areas.
 Construction of engineered structures in the flood plain will strengthen the structures to withstand
flood forces like flood walls, flood levees, coastal protection works, etc.
 Reforestation will help in flood control by decreasing the amount of run-off.
 Diversion of flood water and improvement in drainage facilities.
 The National Flood Control Programme was launched in 1954. Since then, sizeable progress has
been made in the flood protection measures.
 Flood insurance, public health awareness, and disaster relief.

1.6.2. Cyclones

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The major disaster that affects the coastal region of India is cyclone. India has a coastline of about 7516
Km and it is exposed to nearly 8% of the world’s tropical cyclones. About 71% of this area falls in ten
states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
and West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones.

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction in
the Northern Hemisphere and in clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They generally move

300-5000 Km per day over the ocean. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world. The main dangers from cyclones are very strong winds, torrential rains and high storm tides. The
development of a cyclone covers three stages namely formation and initial development state, fully
matured and weakening/decay. Although one cannot control cyclones, the effect can be mitigated through
effective mitigation policies and strategies.

Adverse effect:

 Major damage to infrastructure and housing

 Causalities due to flooding and flying elements in air
 Contamination of water supplies may lead to diarrhea, malaria etc
 Contamination of ground and pipe water
 Loss of crops and food supplies
 Disruption of communication towers, electricity, telephone cables etc
 Roads and rails may be damaged

Control measures:

 Hazard mapping/ early warning system - Using appropriate models and satellite data, ISRO is
supporting the efforts of India Meteorological Department to predict the tropical cyclone track,
intensity and landfall. After the formation of cyclone, its future tracks are regularly monitored and
predicted by ISRO. These experimental track predictions are regularly posted on departmental
web portal (http://www.mosdac.gov.in/scorpio/) as part of information dissemination.
 Using the wind pattern generated by the Oceansat-2 Scatterometer, data models have been
developed for predicting the formation of a cyclone even before the depression turns into a
cyclone.
 Coastal belt plantation and land use control.
 Engineered structures which can withstand high wind forces.
 Protect river embankment.
 Construction of permanent houses.
 Communication lines should be installed underground.
42
 Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
 Land use control and settlement planning.
 Public awareness programme /training /education.

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1.6.3. Earthquakes

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazards. They may occur at any time of the year with
sudden impact and little warning and involves violent shaking of the ground. An earthquake struck
Gujarat on 26 January 2001 on a massive scale. Remote Sensing and GIS provide a database from which
the evidences left behind by disaster can be combined with other geological and topographical database to
arrive at hazard map. The areas affected by earthquakes are generally large, but they are restricted to well-
known regions (Plate contacts).

Earthquakes results from the release of accumulated stress of the moving lithospheric or crustal plates.
The earth's crust is divided into seven major plates, that are about 50 miles thick, which move slowly and
continuously over the earth's interior and several minor plates. Earthquakes are tectonic in origin; that is
the moving plates are responsible for the occurrence of violent shakes.

Cause:

India's increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions mushrooming all over, including
multistoried luxury apartments, huge factory buildings, gigantic malls, supermarkets as well as
warehouses and stonework buildings keep - India at high risk. During the last 15 years, the country has
experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in over 20,000 deaths.

Adverse Effects

 Damage to structures, human life.

 The occurrence of an earthquake in a populated area may cause numerous casualties and injuries
as well as extensive damage to property.
 Sea activity-water level in the sea could rise suddenly.
 Landslides will be caused due to impacts, changed topography, blocked roadways etc.

Control measures:

 Satellite data gives a synoptic overview of the area affected by the disaster. These data can be
made use to create a very large scale base information of the terrain for carrying out the disaster
assessment and for relief measures.
 Community preparedness.
 Construction of buildings should be based on the guidelines of the Bureau of Indian standards to
with stand ground shaking.
 Public education through sensitization and training programme for community, architects,
engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries, teachers and students.

44
1.6.4. Landslide

Landslides are downward and outward movement of slope materials such as rock debris and earth, under
the influence of gravity. Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the
land area of our country—an area which exceeds 0.49 million Km 2. They are recurring phenomena in
Himalayan region.

Cause:

 Earthquake
 Volcanic eruption
 Weakness in the composition of the structure of rock or soil
 Erosion
 Intense rainfall
 Human excavation

Adverse effects:

 For a long time, landslides have had disastrous consequences causing enormous economic losses
and affecting the social fabric. In 2005 alone, more than 500 human lives were lost due to this
hazard in our country.
 Loss of buildings, roads, communication lines etc.
 On August 2019 in Kerala, incessant rainfall triggered major landslides at Ipadi, Puttupala,
Wayanad, Neelambur and Mallapuram, which trapped several people under debris. 64 land slides
happened in the state in the recent disastrous spell. Unlike in 2018, where around 400 people
were killed, mostly due to floods, in 2019, majority of the 103 deaths have happened due to
landslides.

Control measures

 Remote sensing data have been proved to be useful for landslide inventory mapping both at local
and regional level.
 Engineered structures with strong foundations.
 Strong vegetation cover.
 Department of Space has prepared Landslide Hazard Zonation maps (LHZ) along tourist and
pilgrim routes.
 Hazard mapping will locate areas prone to slope failures. These maps will also serve as a tool for
mitigation planning.

45
 The surface drainage control works are implemented to control the movement of landslides
accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring flows.

1.6.5. Role of public/community participation in disaster management

The government of different countries, international, national and local (also voluntary) agencies have
adopted comprehensive disaster management plans and programs, emphasizing on public
participation with an intention of reducing the pains and sufferings of victims, shorten the number of
loss of human lives and livestock. As it is the public which is going to face the disaster, it is very
important that community should be part of the complete disaster management process in all three
phases- rescue, relief, and post-disaster recovery. Communities are the first responders in case of a
disaster. Therefore, community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) should be the core of any risk
reduction approach.

Public is a largely untapped resource in the emergency management field. Engaging the public
dialogically in early policy stages and emergency management phases is essential to successful
inclusion for both administrators and communities. Public inclusion creates expanded knowledge,
shared learning, personal responsibility, and increased social capital. Faced with the growing threat
from disasters, emergency management can create communities that are both more resilient and
sustainable by increasing public participation.

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 CHAPTER 6
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

6.1. URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Economic growth and urbanisation cause serious damage to the environment. In Asia and Africa most
of the population lives in cities. The rate of urbanisation and population growth in these continents
exceed incredibly when in comparison to other continents. As the cities develop our use of energy
also increases. Virtually, all industrial nations get the energy they need from non-renewable energy
sources. On an average, they receive about 85% of their energy from fossil fuels, 5% from nuclear
power and 10% from solar and wind energy. In the less developed countries, biomass (wood and cow
dung) play an important role in supplying demand, satisfying about 40%of energy requirements. Non-
renewable fossil fuels supply about 60% of the total energy. But this is not sufficient to meet the
growing demands.
World Primary energy demand is expected to increase in future. The International Energy Agency’s
(IEA), projects energy demand growth rate of 1.4% per year up to 2030.The fastest growth is
expected in non- OECD countries with a projected rate of 2.2% per year particularly in China and
India and other emerging economies in Asia and the Middle East. Many non-OECD countries are also
expected to see large increase in imports of oil or gas or both. In 2006, the European Union (EU)
pledged to cut its annual consumption of primary energy to 20% by 2020.
The global community and the governments are faced with four major challenges with respect to the
energy sector: 1) Concerns about energy security, 2)Combating climate change, 3)Reducing pollution
and public health hazards 4) Addressing energy poverty.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

The burning of fossil fuels emits carbon to the air. Accelerating carbon emissions indicate a mounting
threat of climate change. The causes of the energy crisis vary but
Water-Energy -Pollution Link
they all share a common feature: the gross misallocation of
Production,Consumption,Emission,Control
capital. During the last two decades, much capital was poured
Coal Crude
Energy
into property, fossil fuels and structured financial assets. However, (Electricity) Oil(Gasoline)
Productio n

relatively little in comparison was invested in renewable energy, Water Consumption

Water Consumption
Urban Ene rg y
energy efficiency, public transportation, sustainable agriculture, Consumptio n
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
eco-system and biodiversity protection and land and water Buildings
Water Supply
Drainage/Sewage Transportation
conservation. There is a link between energy-water and pollution.
Biological Contaminants Climate emissions
Production and consumption of energy results in various pollution
and it is a threat to environment. (Chart 3.1) Energy in water production/treatment Energy in controlling climate emissions

Chart 3.1

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Reasons for increase in energy consumption in the cities:
1. The increase in the household use: Earlier firewood and other Goals
things were used forcooking. But today it has given natural gas,
Improve the energy efficiency
kerosene etc. In older days, the kitchen of houses was arranged to of all machines,
use firewood. But today, it is not possible in the flats and apartments homeappliances, buildings,
factories, motorvehicles,
in the cities. This is one of the reasons for shifting firewood ovens to airplanes and so on.
electric and natural gas. This results in a higher energy loss.
Find clean, renewable
2. Using of electricity / Air-conditioning: The development of cities replacements for oil because
leads to different types of climatic changes. The buildings in most of its supplies are limited. Also
find replacements for fuel
the cities are using glass roofing’s because of climatic changes and because it is such an
global warming. It creates greenhouse effect by absorbing Sun’s heat environmentally costly fuel.
during warm climate. But it causes to increase the heat two-fold Find a replacement for natural
during summer season. So, most of the buildings use centralised air gas (which is primarily used
for heating and industrial
conditioning. Moreover, due to the increase of heat due to global processes).
warming leads to the use of more fans.AC has more consumption of
energy than fans. Also, the loss of electricity is more in the urban sector than the rural because of
obvious power consumption by the former.
3. Transportation: Today people in the cities use their private vehicles and avoid public transport
system. The increase in number of vehicles depict this. These vehicles mainly use fossil fuels. The
carbon monoxide that forms due the emitting of these fuels leads to lot of respiratory diseases.
Creating sustainable energy for future will require a careful analysis of options for factors such as
efficiency, environmental impacts, renewability and affordability.
What individuals can do?
As citizens, it is our duty to preserve energy. Therefore, reduce the energy consumption to maximum.
For that:
 Use LED bulbs
 Control the use of electricity
 Use public transportations
 Our aim should be “efficient use of energy”. For example: insulating a home allows a
building to use less heating and cooling energy and to achieve and maintain a comfortable
temperature. It also lowers energy cost by preventing future resource depletion. Some
countries employ energy or carbon taxes to energy users to reduce their consumption.
Citizens can take any number of additional actions to promote a sustainable future.
 Drive fuel-efficient vehicles, carpooling, riding in public buses, bicycling or walking – all
make significant contributions.
Energy conservation can be made possible by limiting the use of energy in residential sections, urban
transport sector and commercial industrial sector. National energy policy also plays a dominant role in
this.

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6.2. WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, AND WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
Why is our source of water vanishing these days? Is it because of deforestation and urbanisation?
Why are the rivers drying up at phenomenal rates? Why are India’s rivers in such a pathetic state?
How should India manage its water?
It’s not too far for that day to come where mankind awaits the day of reckoning – world war for
water! Yes, we cannot rule out a possibility of such a war if exploitation continues at this rate.
6.2.1. Water Conservation
Water is essential to human existence and ecosystems and a vital element for human development.
Thus, water availability is a global issue. Although, water is the most widely occurring substance on
Earth, it is a well-known fact that only about 2.5% is fresh water and the rest is salt water. Of the
2.5% of freshwater, its biggest portion is locked up in glaciers and permanent snow cover. Thus, in
reality, only about 1 % of the world’s freshwater is readily available and accessible for direct human
use.
Water availability is becoming an increasingly crucial issue for Asia. In recent years, evidence
indicates that water is becoming increasingly affected by erratic weather patterns, as has already
happened to countries such as Indonesia and China, which have experienced droughts and inevitable
food shortages.
Climatic changes, misuse of water by industries, population growth etc are the reasons for shortage
of water.Factors such as climate change have increased the pressure on natural water resources,
especially in agricultural and manufacturing irrigation. The people who used rivers and wells once for
agriculture and domestic purposes, now depending on private water taps. The loss of water during
distribution is also a great problem. The British had constructed dams for the development of cities
but Indian Govt. constructed dams for agriculture purpose. Though this agricultural development
especially green revolution has taken us to food sufficiency but it has led to loss of natural manure,
soil and salinization. In the past, the farmers in North India collected and preserved water in tanks
known as “Jheels” and “Talabs”. It has lost its importance due to the introduction of new irrigation
techniques. The quantity of water consumed and exploited by the industries also creates problems and
it need to be controlled. These industries are in the forefront of water pollution also. The agitation at
Plachimada against Coca-Cola in Kerala is an example for this.
Studies show that by 2025 more than half the people around the world will not have enough water.
Preservation of water is very essential for the existence of mankind. Water conservation includes all

the policies, strategies and activities made to sustainably manage the use of fresh water and to meet
its future human demand.

Goals & Strategies

The goals of water conservation efforts include:
1. Ensuring availability of water for future generations.

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2. Energy conservation: because by introducing new water pumping techniques, delivery and waste
water treatment facilities which consumes a significant amount of energy.So, energy conservation is
also a part of water conservation policy.
3. Habitat conservation by minimising human water use which helps to preserve fresh water habitats
for local wildlife and water quality.
Strategies:
Continuing current practices of water use will lead to a massive and unsustainable gap between global
supply and demand for water. This is exacerbated by failure to collect and treat used water to enable
subsequent uses. With no improvement in the efficiency of water use, water demand is projected to
overshoot supply by 40 per cent in 20 years’ time. Improvement in water productivity, as well as
increases in supply (such as through the construction of dams and desalination plants and increased
recycling) are expected to address 40 percent of this gap, but the remaining 60 percent needs to come
from investment in infrastructure, water policy reforms and in the development of new technology.
Water conservation programmes are in need to be initiated at the local level, by either municipal or
local governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns, charging higher price as
water use increases, restrictions on outdoor water use such as car washing etc. And one of the
fundamental conservation goals is Universal metering. At the same time, the quantity of pure water
used by industries should be controlled and accurate monitoring also to be done.
6.2.2. Rain water harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the system of
collecting water from its source itself. It is the
accumulation and deposition of rainwater for
reuse rather than allowing it to run off.It can
be collected from rivers or roofs and in many
places, the water collected is redirected to a
deep pit reservoir with percolation. The
harvested water can be used as drinking water,
for irrigation, long term storage and for other
purposes such as ground water recharge.
Generally, check dams are constructed across
the streams to enhance the percolation of
surface water into subsoil strata.

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Why is it important?
 When people do not have access to water, either large amounts of their disposable income
have to be spent on purchasing water from vendors which in turn erodes their capacity to
engage in other activities.
 When sanitation services are inadequate, the risk of water-borne diseases increase. Cambodia,
Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines have lost many lives because of poor sanitation. Access
to reliable, clean water and adequate sanitation services for all is a foundation of a green
economy.
 The drought that affected Maharashtra in 2013 tells us that our water management strategies
are skewed. Water must be managed in a way to enable its equitable and distributed access.
Rain has to be harvested.
Rainwater is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for house-holds.
• It provides an independent water supply.
• It provides water when there is a drought and can help to mitigate flooding of low-lying areas.
• It helps in the availability of potable water as it is substantially free of salinity.
Today, most of the nations are effectively using rainwater harvesting. It is a cheap and reliable
source of clean water.
6.2.3. Watershed Management
Watershed Management seeks to manage water
supply, the quality of water, drainage, water
rights and the overall planning and utilisation of
watersheds. It is the study of the relevant
characteristics of a watershed aimed at sustainable
distribution of its resources and creating and
implementing plans and programmes that affect
the plant animal and human communities within
the watershed boundary. It is an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach.
It must consider the social, economic and
institutional factors operating within and outside
the watershed.
 It relates to soil and water conservation in the watershed which includes proper land use,
protection of land against all forms of degradation, flood protection, water conservation and
harvesting, proper management of surface and ground water. The requirement of watershed
management has increased in this time of water shortage.

 It helps to recharge groundwater. Afforestation of degraded areas is an important aspect of

watershed management.
 Watershed management can preserve water for the existence of a human race
and environmental protection.
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