INTRODUCTION

Birds are flying, warm blooded vertebrates that have more than 10,400 species that fall under
the class Aves. They have two eyes, a four-chambered heart like human beings and forelimbs
modified into feathery wings. Birds use their forelimbs for flying purpose and hind limbs for
resting or perching. Birds lay hard shelled eggs that need warm conditions to hatch.

Even with such a large number of species, there are approximately 1000 extinct species of
birds acquired from fossils. With such a large variety of species, all birds produce a single celled
egg, incubate, hatch and later join the adult birds group. Some birds even migrate during their
life cycle. Not all birds migrate. The birds who do not migrate are called sedimentary birds.
Birds like Swallows migrate often while birds like Partridges do not migrate.

General characteristics of birds

1. Birds are warm blooded animals.

2. Their forelimbs are modified in to wings.

3. They have well developed flight muscles that help during the flight.

4. Their hind limbs are adapted for walking, hopping, perching, grasping, wadding and
swimming.

5. There are epidermal scales on their legs.

6. The endoskeleton is bony with long hollow bones filled with air cavities known as
pneumatic bones.

7. Their spindle-shaped body minimizes resistance of the wind.

8. The feathers help in preventing heat loss and reduce air friction by providing passage of
to the air.

9. There is no skin gland except the oil gland.

10. The lower and upper and jaws are modified in to a break.

11. They have no teeth.

12. They have sharp eye sight.

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Life Cycle of a Bird
1) Egg – Stage 1 –
All birds begin their lives inside an egg; mostly white, yellow, hard shelled covering outside the
growing bird embryo. The number of eggs laid and the size of eggs vary from one species to
another. Some birds lay one egg while other birds lay more than one egg. A bird called Grey
Partridge is known to lay around 20 eggs. The eggs are incubated by one of the parent birds,
for the embryo to develop into a chick. A hard, bony structure forms on the baby bird’s beak,
which is called the egg tooth. In order to hatch, the baby bird uses the egg tooth to break the
egg shell.

2) The Hatching – Stage 2 –

After the bird has come out of the egg, the newly hatched bird is called a hatchling. A hatchling
is covered in soft features and is unable to fly in this stage. Due to its helpless nature, a
hatchling becomes prey to many large predators. They need extreme parental supervision to
develop and grow in this stage. When a hatchling is growing and fed by parents inside the nest,
it is called nestling.

3) The Nestling – Stage 3 –

In this stage, the bird tries to fly and shows certain flight characteristics. When a nestling
develops its flight abilities and is prepared to take its first flight, the bird is called a fledgling.

3) The Fledgling – Stage 4 –

A fledgling has fully grown feathers and strong muscle wings. Even though they have all these
features, fledglings are still under the care of their parents for sometime. In this stage the bird
flies out of the nest but not long distances. The time period of this stage in birds varies from
one stage to another.

5) The Juvenile – Stage 5 –

Juvenile birds leave the nest and are independent to fly. In this stage, the juvenile bird
undergoes its first plumage and looks closer to an adult bird. A plumage is the layer of feathers

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that covers the exoskeleton of a bird. The juvenile birds are incapable of breeding in this stage.
The plumage in this stage is soft and gets replaced after phases of molting.

6) The Sub Adult – Stage 6 –

In this stage, the young birds are still not fully developed as they do not have adult plumage. In
this stage the young birds are not sexually mature as well. Again this varies, depending on the
kind of species of birds. Some bird species sexually mature in this stage, while some do not.

7) The Adult – Stage 7 –

The adult bird has definitive plumage and is sexually mature. In this stage, the bird is able to
mate and perform breeding. Adaptation for flight

Adaptation for flight

In comparing birds with other vertebrates, what do you think distinguishes them the most? In
most birds, flight is the obvious difference. Birds have adapted their body plan for flight:

 Their skeleton is especially lightweight, with large, air-filled spaces connecting to their
respiratory system.

 Their neck bones are flexible. Birds that fly have a bony ridge along the breastbone that
the flight muscles attach to. This allows them to remain stable in the air as they fly.

 Birds also have wings that function as an airfoil. The surface of the airfoil is curved to
help the bird control and use the air currents to fly. Airfoils by are also found on the
wings of airplanes

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 Reproduction in birds
Birds reproduce through a process called sexual reproduction. This involves the formation of
specialized cells called gametes, which are produced by the male and female birds. The male
bird produces sperm cells, while the female bird produces eggs (also known as ova or oocytes).

Mating in birds often involves courtship displays, where the male bird showcases his attractive
features to attract a female mate. This can include singing, dancing, or displaying vibrant
colors. Once a suitable mate is found, the male transfers his sperm to the female's
reproductive tract through a specialized opening called the cloaca. This is known as copulation.

Both male and female birds have a structure called cloaca. During mating the male birds its
sperm to the female cloaca ,and the sperm from the male cloaca fertilizes the egg. The
fertilized egg travels down to the uterus ,forming a layer of albumen around it, which is
followed by the shell membranes in the uterus then the hard-shelled egg develops within the
female with a fluid-filled amnion, a thin membrane forming a closed sac around the embryo.

They reproduce by internal fertilization, during which the egg is fertilized inside the female.
Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell from the male combines with an egg cell from the
female, resulting in the formation of a fertilized egg, also known as a zygote. The fertilized egg
contains the genetic information from both parents and will develop into a new bird.

The female bird then lays the fertilized eggs, usually in a nest that has been built for this
purpose. The eggs are typically incubated by either the female alone or by both the male and
female taking turns sitting on the eggs. During incubation, the parent birds provide warmth
and ensure the proper development of the embryos inside the eggs.

Incubation is the process of the keeping eggs warm with body heat while the embryos
inside continue to develop after birds lay eggs. In most cases, the female parent incubates the
eggs, although males sometimes participate. When a breeding season approaches, the female
will develop a brood patch to help transfer heat effectively. This brood patch has an area of
skin with densely packed blood vessels that produces more heat and facilitates heat
transmission to the eggs periodically to ensure an even distribution of warmth. This helps the
embryo to finish its development inside the egg.

Hatching After incubation , the embryo completes its development and hatching occurs.
During hatching, the chick develops a tooth- like structure breaks tp to break the egg shell.

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Moreover, the chick also communicates with its parents a day or two before hatching , with
parents with some vocal sounds.the chick then starts to use the hard tip of its bill, a tooth –like
structure called an egg tooth, to break out of the ggg,and the young lose the egg tooth after
hatching.

After a specific incubation period, which varies depending on the species, the eggs hatch, and
the young birds, known as chicks, emerge from the shells. The chicks are initially dependent on
their parents for food, protection, and care. As they grow, they learn to fly and become
independent, eventually reaching maturity and being capable of reproducing themselves.
This process of sexual reproduction in birds ensures the continuation of species and
contributes to the rich diversity of bird populations found around the world.

Unlike other animals male birds do not have external genital organs whereas females have a
single ovary.reproduction in birds starts by the joining of an egg or ovum with a sperm cell in
the oviduct the ovum which is produced in the ovary and travels down through the oviduct for
fertilization to occur.the oviduct consists of the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus and
vagina.

Parts of the
oviduct Nature and functions

infundibulum a funnel-shaped upper portion of the oviduct

its purpose is to search out and engulf the yolk causing it to enter
the oviduct
magnum it is the longest part of the oviduct
secretionof albumen:nearly all the eggwhite is deposited in the
magnum
isthmus t is the relatively short portion of the oviduct
formation of shell membrane-inner and outer shell membranes
the glands of the isthmus produce sulfur-containing amino acids that are
important for shell membrane formation.
uterus developing an egg takes a longer period of time
formation of egg shell-shellis formed over shell membranes
vagina the final section of the oviduct is the vagina which is separated by a
sphincter presents in between the uterus and the vagina
during oviposition,relaxation of the muscles allows the egg to leave
the uterus andis almost immediately laid through the cloaca

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Birds lay eggs after the egg completes its development. Eggs are produced inside the female
and then deposited in a nest. In captive female birds, egg laying, which is actually the
equivalent of ovulation in mammals, can happen without fertilization or even the presence of a
male. The number of eggs a bird lays varies from a few to more than 10, depending on its
species. For example, penguins and albatrosses lay few eggs, but chickens and ducks can lay
more than 10 eggs. The eggs of a bird has different parts. The major parts of the egg of a bird
are the yolk, the albumen the membranes, air sac and the shell.

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 Parental care in birds
Parental care refers to the level of investment provided by the mother and the father to ensure
development and survival of their offspring.One of the methods birds use to protect their
young is by building nests. Birds make in areas that are hidden in order to avoid predators.
There is a clear distinction between the roles of both parents. The female incubates the eggs
for 11–14 days before they hatch. Then the female feeds the offspring while the male teaches
them to fly and leave the nest, usually within 18 days of birth. The male also feeds the offspring
a little less than half the time, easing the burden on the female.
Some birds do not use nests. They simply lay their eggs on bare cliffs. Birds that make nests in
an open area have camouflaged eggs. While the parental care of offspring lies on one or both
parents the length and type of parental care varies widely amongst different species of birds .
in some species, parental care ends at hatching. Accordingly, the newly hatched chick digs itself
out of the nest mound without any a parental help and can take care of itself right away.

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