1. They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4 Cal/g) for all organisms.

2. Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids).

3. Carbohydrates (as glycoproteins and glycolipids) participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular
functions such as cell growth, adhesion and fertilization.

4. They are structural components of many organisms. These include the fiber (cellulose) of plants,
exoskeleton of some insects and the cell wall of microorganisms.

5. Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy demands
of the body

Monosaccharides Monosaccharides (Greek : mono-one) are the simplest group of carbohydrates and are
often referred to as simple sugars.

They have the general formula Cn(H2O)n, and they cannot be further hydrolysed. The monosaccharides are
divided into different categories, based on the functional group and the number of carbon atoms Aldoses :
When the functional group in monosaccharides is an aldehyde C O H , they are known as aldoses e.g.
glyceraldehyde, glucose.

Ketoses : When the functional group is a keto C O group, they are referred to as ketoses e.g.
dihydroxyacetone, fructose. Based on the number of carbon atoms, the monosaccharides are regarded as
trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C). These terms along with functional
groups are used while naming monosaccharides.

Racemic mixture : If d- and l-isomers are present in equal concentration, it is known as racemic mixture or dl
mixture. Racemic mixture does not exhibit any optical activity, since the dextro- and levorotatory activities
cancel each other. In the medical practice, the term dextrose is used for glucose in solution. This is because of
the dextrorotatory nature of glucose.

Epimers If two monosaccharides differ from each other in their configuration around a single specific carbon
(other than anomeric) atom, they are referred to as epimers to each other (Fig.2.4). For instance, glucose and
galactose are epimers with regard to carbon 4 (C4-epimers). That is, they differ in the arrangement of OH group
at C4. Glucose and mannose are epimers with regard to carbon 2 (C2-epimers).

Enantiomers Enantiomers are a special type of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other. The two
members are designated as - and L- D sugars.
Anomers The D and E cyclic forms of D-glucose are known as anomers. They differ from each other in the
configuration only around C1 known as anomeric carbon (hemiacetal carbon). In case of D anomer, the OH
group held by anomeric carbon is on the opposite side of the group CH2OH of sugar ring. The reverse is true for
E-anomer. The anomers differ in certain physical and chemical properties

Mutarotation : The D and E anomers of glucose have different optical rotations. The specific optical rotation of
a freshly prepared glucose (D anomer) solution in water is +112.2° which gradually changes and attains an
equilibrium with a constant value of +52.7°. In the presence of alkali, the decrease in optical rotation is rapid.
The optical rotation of E-glucose is +18.7°. Mutarotation is defined as the change in the specific optical rotation
representing the interconversion of D and E

Tautomerization or enolization The process of shifting a hydrogen atom from one carbon atom to another to
produce enediols is known as tautomerization. Sugars possessing anomeric carbon atom undergo
tautomerization in alkaline solutions. When glucose is kept in alkaline solution for several hours, it undergoes
isomerization to form. D-fructose and D-mannose. This reaction— known as the Lobry de Bruyn-von Ekenstein
transformation—results in the formation of a common intermediate—namely enediol—for all the three sugars

Oxidation: Depending on the oxidizing agent used, the terminal aldehyde (or keto) or the terminal alcohol or
both the groups may be oxidized. For instance, consider glucose : 1. Oxidation of aldehyde group (CHO o
COOH) results in the formation of gluconic acid. 2. Oxidation of terminal alcohol group (CH2OH o COOH) leads
to the production of glucuronic acid.

Reduction:When treated with reducing agents such as sodium amalgam, the aldehyde or keto group of
monosaccharide is reduced to corresponding alcohol.

D-Glucose to D-Sorbitol D-Galactose to D-Dulcitol

Dehydration When treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, monosaccharides undergo dehydration with an
elimination of 3 water molecules. Thus hexoses give hydroxymethyl furfural while pentoses give furfural on
dehydration (Fig.2.9). These furfurals can condense with phenolic compounds (D-naphthol) to form coloured
products. This is the chemical basis of the popular Molisch test. In case of oligo- and polysaccharides, they are
first hydrolysed to monosaccharides by acid, and this is followed by dehydration. Bial’s test : Pentoses react
with strong HCl to form furfural derivatives which in turn react with orcinol to form green coloured complex.
Bial’s test is useful for detection of xylose in urine in essential pentosuria. Mucic acid test : Galactose when
treated with nitric acid forms insoluble mucic acid crystals

Osazone formation: Phenylhydrazine in acetic acid, when boiled with reducing sugars, forms osazones in a
reaction
GLYCOSIDES Glycosides are formed when the hemiacetal or hemiketal hydroxyl group (of anomeric carbon) of
a carbohydrate reacts with a hydroxyl group of another carbohydrate or a noncarbohydrate (e.g. methyl
alcohol, phenol, glycerol). The bond so formed is known as glycosidic bond and the non-carbohydrate moiety
(when present) is referred to as aglycone

1. Glucovanillin (vanillin-D-glucoside) is a natural substance that imparts vanilla flavour.

2. Cardiac glycosides (steroidal glycosides) : Digoxin and digitoxin contain the aglycone steroid and they
stimulate muscle contraction.

3. Streptomycin, an antibiotic used in the treatment of tuberculosis is a glycoside

. 4. Ouabain inhibits Na+ – K+ ATPase and blocks the active transport of Na+.

5. Phlorhizin produces renal damage in experimental animals

DERIVATIVES OF MONOSACCHARIDES There are several derivatives of monosaccharides, some of which are
physiologically important (Fig.2.11) 1. Sugar acids : Oxidation of aldehyde or primary alcohol group in
monosaccharide results in sugar acids. Gluconic acid is produced from glucose by oxidation of aldehyde (C1
group) whereas glucuronic acid is formed when primary alcohol group (C6) is oxidized. 2. Sugar alcohols
(polyols) : They are produced by reduction of aldoses or ketoses. For instance, sorbitol is formed from glucose
and mannitol from mannose. 3. Alditols : The monosaccharides, on reduction, yield polyhydroxy alcohols,
known as alditols. Ribitol is a constituent of flavin coenzymes; glycerol and myo-inositol are components of
lipids. Xylitol is a sweetener used in sugarless gums and candies. 4. Amino sugars : When one or more hydroxyl
groups of the monosaccharides are replaced by amino groups, the products formed are amino sugars e.g. D-
glucosamine, D-galactosamine. They are present as constituents of heteropolysaccharides. N-Acetylneuraminic
acid (NANA) is a derivative of N-acetylmannose and pyruvic acid. It is an important constituent of glycoproteins
and glycolipids. The term sialic acid is used to include NANA and its other derivatives. Certain antibiotics
contain amino sugars which may be involved in the antibiotic activity e.g. erythromycin. 5. Deoxysugars : These
are the sugars that contain one oxygen less than that present in the parent molecule. The groups CHOH and
CH2OH become CH2 and CH3 due to the absence of oxygen. D-2-Deoxyribose is the most important deoxysugar
since it is a structural constituent of DNA (in contrast to D-ribose in RNA). Feulgen staining can specifically
detect deoxyribose, and thus DNA in tissues. Fucose is a deoxy L-galactose found in blood group antigens, and
certain glycoproteins. 6. L-Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) : This is a water-soluble vitamin, the structure of which
closely resembles that of a monosaccharide.

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE: INABILITY TO FULLY DIGEST LACTOSE SUGAR IS TERMED AS LACTOSE INTOLERANCE. IT
IS DUE TO THE ABSENCE OF AN ENZYME LACTASE. THE ABSENCE OF THIS ENZYME CAUSES THE MOVEMENT OF
LACTOSE INTO LARGE INTESTINE WHERE IT CAUSES FERMENTATION DUE TO WHICH SYMPTOMS SUCH AS
BLOATING, DIARRHEA , GASNESS AND STOMACH PAIN CAN OCCUR.

THREE TYPES

1- PRIMARY LACTOSE INTOLERANCE : OCCURS DUE TO AGING AND IS MORE COMMON IN OLD PEOPLE
2- SECONDARY LACTOSE INTOLERANCE: OCCURS DUE TO DECREASED PRODUCTION OF LACTOSE DUE TO
DAMAGE OF BRUSH BORDER
3- CONGENITAL LACTOSE INTOLERANCE: BY BIRTH DUE TO AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISEASE