…..

When the loads are applied to the foundation, it moves

vertically downward depending on the stiffness of the soil. Soil parameter,
dimension of the foundation and applied load are the key factors that decided
the settlements of a foundation.

Types of Foundation settlement:

Manly the foundation settlement can be discussed under three main topics.

1: Uniform settlement

2: Tipping settlement

3: Differential settlements

Uniform settlement:

(No cracks)

 As the name implies the settlement of the foundation is uniform and there are
no variations.
 The expectation of the designer is also to have a uniform settled structure
other than the differential settlements.
 Having uniform ground condition and reasonably good soil to construct the
foundation is the requirement to avoid excessive foundation settlement
 There are limiting values for settlement. The values could be in the range of
25mm. However, depending on the condition of the ground this may increase
even up to about 125mm.
 When the foundation bearing capacity is assessed based on the settlement
criteria settlement of the foundation will be specified. Then the foundation
settlement is maintained in the range of value considered in the design.
 You may refer to the article, for elastic or immediate settlement of shallow
foundations with a worked example

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 Tipping settlement:

(often without cracks)

 Other than the uniform and the differential settlement, the structure may also
tilt to one side. The tilt is caused by the subsequent settlement of the
foundations.
 This means the foundation on one end remains intact, the second grid of the
foundation settles, the third grid settles more than the second, and so on.
 The tipping settlement generally doesn’t cause cracks in the structure.
However, upon prolonged tipping settlement, the structure may overturn.

Differential settlement:

(With cracks)

 Differential settlement is a kind of foundation settlement that causes

part of the foundation.

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 When several footings are settling than other footings, we say it is a
differential settlement.
 Differential settlement of foundations is caused by variation of the
ground conditions and due to many other reasons. You may refer to the
article differential settlement foundations for further information.
 Differential settlement is a very critical issue in the design and
construction.
 This shall be identified before proceeding with the design. An adequate
ground investigation and correct interpretation of the ground
geotechnical information gathered will reveal whether there could a
possibility for foundation settlement of this nature.

Cause of foundation settlement:

 Increase in the load

An increase in the column load will increase the pressure under the
foundation. It will increase the settlement of foundations.

 Incorrect estimation of bearing capacity of soils

Wrong interpretation of the geotechnical data obtained from the
investigation could end up with wrong bearing capacity. Further,
assumptions made without geotechnical investigation could also create
issues.

 Low bearing capacity of soil

In general, the lesser the bearing capacity, the higher the settlements of the
foundations. Further, soils with low bearing capacity could lead to variation
of it.

 Poor compaction issues

During the construction, when soil filling is done on the occasions like
foundation improvements, poor compaction of the soil could lead to the
settlement of the foundations.

 Expansive soil
When there are clayey soils that have expansive properties, could lead to
foundation settlement. The expansive soils expand when their moisture
content increases and they shrink when their moisture content is reduced.
That causes the foundation settlement.

 Consolidation of soil

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This was discussed previously and how this settlement occurs. Before the
design, it is required to identify the condition of the ground and necessary
measures shall be taken during the design and construction. The article soil
types could be referred to for more information.

 Change in Moisture Content of Soil

The enormous moisture change can

lead to the settlement of soil, erosion, or
washout. The reason for moisture
change can be improper drainage,
leakage of pipe, increase in water table,
etc.
Due to an increase in soil saturation, the
effective stress decreases. Since the
settlement is a function of effective
stress, thus the settlement occurs. Also,
the change in moisture content can trigger the expansion of clayey soil.

 Trees & Vegetation

The trees and the vegetation in the vicinity of the structure pose a threat to
the foundation. The roots tend to grow and disturb the soil beneath the
foundation. Also, the roots absorb moisture from soils near and beneath the
foundation. The roots concentration is more near the surface. Thus, the
shallow foundation is more
likely to be affected than the
deep foundation.

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If the estimated settlement of a building exceeds the allowable settlement,
then the designer can choose the following methods to cope with the
excessive settlement:
i. Alter the structure
ii. Provide deep foundation
iii. Change the foundation
iv. Improve the characteristics of the soil

During the selection of an alternative, the designer must investigate both

construction cost, and long-term operation and maintenance costs.
Additionally, the time required for the construction of an alternative should
be taken into consideration. It is better to choose an option that is more
certain in its construction and performance even if its initial cost is higher.

if the Estimated Settlement of a Building Exceeds Allowable Limits

1. Alteration of the Structure

It is possible to reorient or move the structure based on the site, location,

and function to achieve a better foundation settlement condition. The
movement of the building is feasible in rural areas where the value of land
is low.

Another option is to redistribute the load of the structure to decrease

settlement. The selection of different framing systems to make the structure
more rigid or flexible might provide better load distribution.

The load of the structure can be reduced to decrease settlement. For

example, reduce the number of stories. Moreover, change operations
within a structure to remove the heaviest part of the building to the
strongest part of soil under the foundation.

Finally, provide jacks under primary columns to adjust for differential

settlement. This option may seem impractical and undoable, but it has
been implemented in Mexico City,

where the number of high-rise structures are adjusted periodically for

differential settlement. The provision of the jacks under column is needed
to make measurements to make adjustments at the right time.

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2. Alteration of the Foundation

The deep foundation is the most commonly adopted option used to tackle
excessive settlement of a building under consideration. Various types of
deep foundations are available that can be selected based on the type of
soil and material, equipment, and required skill availability.

A floating foundation is an excellent option to choose to overcome

excessive settlements. The compensating foundation reduces the net load
on the soil and consequently reduces differential settlement. If the area is
large, then select a large raft foundation instead of the floating foundation
because it cannot be controlled over a large area.

Floating Foundation

For a given soil condition and building weight, excavation of one basement
level is nearly equal to ten stories of average building height. Nonetheless,
one should know problems arise with deep excavations.

Therefore, there are limits as to how many stories’ compensation can be

achieved based on the geotechnical conditions at the construction
site. Combined footing is another option that can reduce the differential
settlement of structures.

Variation of contact pressure beneath the foundation or changing the initial

elevation of the foundation is another feasible option for the reduction of
differential settlement. One may not be able to adopt this option unless a
complete picture of the soil variability on the construction site is available.3.

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Alteration of Soil Properties

Different soil improvement methods are available from which engineers can
select a suitable option based on the nature of the structure and type of soil
on the construction site. The expertise plays a crucial role in the selection
of soil treatment techniques.

1. Soil treatment methods include:

2. Grouting
3. Soft soil consolidation with surcharge combined with vertical drains to
accelerate compaction.
4. Dynamic compaction.
5. Replacement of soft soil with strong fill materials.
6. Lime and cement columns.
7. Electro-osmosis.
8. Freezing technique,
9. Blasting.
10. Vibro-replacement and Vibro-floating technique.
11. Geotextile; and geogrid fascines.
12. Wager short sheet pile, root piles.
13. Sand compaction.

Engineers or contractors should consider the following criteria during the

selection of soil treatment technique:

1. Operation criteria for the structure, such as permissible total and rate
of settlement, stability requirements, and maintenance needs, is one

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 of the elements that need to be accounted for during the selection of
soil treatment.
2. Soil type and its initial properties
3. Depth, area, and total volume of soil needed to be improved.
4. Availability of materials

5. Availability of equipment and necessary skills

6. Environmental factors waste disposal, water
pollution, and influences on adjacent
structures
7. Cost
8. Time available
9. Local experience and preference

Dynamic Soil Compaction

Correction Methods for Foundation Settlement

The settlement of the foundation due to external reasons can be prevented

and controlled. Also, the settled foundations can be corrected and
prevented from further settlement.

The choice of method for correction majorly depends upon the structure,
soil type, reason for settlement, and the cost of application.

1. Site Inspection & Correction of External Reasons for Settlement

The site should be thoroughly inspected and the following points should be
checked-

 Drainage.
 Possibility of Waterlogging.
 Trees and bushes very close to the structure.
 Leakage in underground sewer lines, water lines, HVAC lines, etc.
 Termite or ant burrows, rat holes, etc., near the foundation.

2. Underpinning

Underpinning is a method to prevent the

foundations from further settlement. The

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method involves the strengthening of the foundation by transferring the
load to deeper strata.

The foundation is clubbed with pins embedded in the deeper ground.

Underpinning is often done in conjugation with the shoring.

3. Grouting

Grouting is a process of injecting a liquid

into the soil to protect the soil from
erosion, improve load-carrying capacity
and reduce water seepage. The grouting
can be done in two ways- chemical
grouting and jet grouting.

Acceptable Limits For Settlement

The acceptable limits of concrete foundation settlement are mentioned

below-

Foundation Type Soil Type Maximum Limit

Isolated Clayey Soil 75 mm

Isolated Sand or Hard Clay 50 mm

Raft Clayey Soil 100 mm

Raft Sand or Hard Clay 75 mm

Pile – 2% of pile diameter

"Foundation settlement control or regulation relies on several

components and parts. some essential parts that may be used in
settlement control:

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1. Reinforced concrete beams: They are used to distribute concentrated
loads over a larger area and improve force distribution in the
foundation.

2. Reinforced concrete columns: They are used to transfer vertical loads

from the structure to the foundation, reducing the transmission of
vibrations and oscillations to the foundation.

3. Reinforced concrete footings: They serve as crucial elements for

transferring loads from columns to the ground and providing
necessary stability for the structure.

4. Ground bridges: They are used to improve load distribution over a

larger area of the ground, reducing settlement and improving
pressure distribution.

5. Piles: They are used in deep foundations to transfer loads at greater

depths in the ground and enhance structural stability.

6. Raft foundations: They are used to reduce settlement in clayey and

sandy soils and enhance the bearing capacity of the foundation.

7. Vertical pipes: They are used in deep pile caps to improve lateral
stability of the foundation.

8. Seismic liners: They are used in seismic regions to enhance the

foundation's ability to withstand ground vibrations and reduce the
effects of earthquakes on the structure.

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These are just some common parts that can be used in foundation
settlement control or regulation. The details and specific elements may vary
depending on the design and requirements of the project."

To achieve uniform settlement in all areas of a structure, different tools and

techniques are utilized. Here are some key elements used to achieve
uniform settlement in constructions:

1. Pre-leveling: This involves pre-treatment of the soil before

construction, such as soil modification and improvement, to achieve
better balance.

2. Gradual excavation: The ground is excavated gradually, and the

settlement level is monitored in each area to ensure balanced
settlement and necessary measures are taken.

3. Use of pile foundations: Specially designed pile foundations are used

to adjust settlement in specific areas. The height of the piles is
adjusted to compensate for uneven settlement in adjacent regions.

4. Leveling rafts: Leveling rafts are used to achieve a uniform surface

level in the structure. These rafts adjust settlement by modifying the
height of supports in specific areas.

5. Precision leveling techniques: Tools for measuring elevations and

precision leveling are used to monitor settlement and ensure
uniformity in different areas of the structure.

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 6. Compensation techniques: In some cases, compensation techniques
such as flexible strips or compressed fillers are employed in
foundations to adjust uneven settlement.

7. Additional supports and modifications: Additional supports or

modification installations can be used in specific areas to achieve
balance in settlement.

Clamps or brackets, also known as shims, are elements used to resist

settlement in foundations. Clamps play a crucial role in achieving balanced
settlement and distributing loads evenly on the foundation. Here are some
benefits of using clamps in resisting settlement:

1. Achieving balance: The use of clamps helps in evenly distributing

loads on the foundation and resisting uneven settlement in the
structure. This contributes to the stability of the structure and
prevents distortions caused by uneven settlement.

2. Increasing load-bearing capacity: Using clamps helps increase the

load-bearing capacity of foundations and improves the distribution of
pressure on the ground. This reduces the chances of cracking or
distortions in the foundations due to excessive loading.

3. Ease of adjustment: Clamps allow for easy adjustment and

adaptation in case of additional or unexpected settlement in the
structure. The tension of the clamps can be adjusted to compensate
for additional settlement and restore balance.

The similar elements to clamps in resisting settlement include:

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 1. 1.Metal bars are used to distribute loads and resist uneven settlement
in steel structures, where the bars are used as compensating
elements for uneven settlement.

2. Additional columns can be used to distribute loads and resist uneven

settlement in structures. Existing columns may be extended or new
columns added to compensate for uneven settlement.

3. Reinforced slabs are used to distribute loads and resist settlement in

foundations and floors. The reinforced slabs improve pressure
distribution on the ground and enhance equal settlement.

4. Lateral retaining walls are used to prevent lateral sliding of

foundations and resist uneven settlement. These side barriers are
placed along the sides of the foundation to ensure even load
distribution and reduce deformations.

5. Tie-down columns are used in deep foundations to resist settlement

and achieve load balance. These tie-down columns guide vertical
forces and reduce uneven loading.

References:

1. "Foundation Engineering Handbook" by Hsai-Yang Fang, John Wiley

& Sons, 2006.

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2. "Foundation Analysis and Design" by Joseph E. Bowles, McGraw-Hill
Education, 2015.
3. "Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices" by Donald P.
Coduto, Man-chu Ronald Yeung, William A. Kitch, Prentice Hall,
2010.
4. "Foundation Design: Principles and Practices" by Donald P. Coduto,
William A. Kitch, Man-chu Ronald Yeung, Prentice Hall, 2013.
5. "Principles of Foundation Engineering" by Braja M. Das, Cengage
Learning, 2017.

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