Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Review

The use of fiber reinforced polymeric composites in pipelines: A review

Fatima Ghassan Alabtah a, *, Elsadig Mahdi a, Faysal Fayez Eliyan b
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Qatar University, P. O. Box 2713, Qatar
b
Engineering Technology Department, Community College of Qatar, PO Box: 7344, Qatar

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In operation, pipelines are increasingly used worldwide to meet higher transportation demands for strategic
Composite fluids while optimizing costs. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite is used in many pipeline industries of
Fiber-reinforced polymer water, oil, and gas transportation since they could resist corrosion and have lighter weight to high strength ratios.
Pipeline
FRP composite pipes are getting cheaper in installation costs, favored in various applications. FRP has good
Corrosion
mechanical properties, which improve stiffness, strength, pressure capacity, durability, cost-benefit, and envi­
Steel
ronmental footprint when combined with other materials. This paper covers different FRP composites’ appli­
cations in pipelines and their development over time. It reviews the pipelines based on the transported fluid and
reviews the developed composite pipelines and the repaired conventional pipelines against corrosion or leaking
using different FRP types. The review includes the most common way to employ FRP composites in different
pipeline applications. Different designs and applications of FRP composites in pipelines towards achieving
enhanced properties are summarized and compared. Future challenges and research directions are discussed in
detail.

1. Introduction using hybrid pipes where FRP material is added to the conventional
pipelines to eliminate matrix cracking and decrease the possible corro­
The pipeline, which is in high demand worldwide, is susceptible to sion [5]. In addition to producing overwrapped FRP composite pipe­
operation problems prevented with composite materials. Metallic and lines, FRP layers are also being used to repair the existing conventional
composite pipelines are the most economical means for transporting pipes. FRP composites are worthy of their lightweight, corrosion resis­
water, oil, and gas in various applications [1]. Limitations of installed tance, and high pressure capacity [6]. Extensive research was carried
metallic and composite pipelines are well known. Corrosion degrades out on the repair of damaged pipes due to corrosion with fiber-
metallic pipelines’ strength capacity, while matrix cracking/abrasion reinforced composite wraps. This review paper summarizes the recent
causes leakage of composite pipelines [2]. Both corrosion and abrasion investigations and developments in FRP composites for exposed, un­
cause significant losses and decrease the structural integrity of pipelines. derground, and underwater pipelines in terms of repair and fabrication.
Corrosion in the metallic pipeline can be classified into two types. These
are external and internal corrosions. External corrosion is generally 2. FRP composite in conventional pipelines
slowed down using organic coating and cathodic protection, while
corrosion inhibitors are widely used to fight internal corrosion [3]. In Composites consist of base material and filler material. The term
the long run, the existing technology is not helping to eliminate internal matrix refers to the base material that incorporates the filler material.
corrosion. Medium-range pressure composite materials and others have The matrix typically works as adhesive to tie the fiber up and shift the
been used in transportation and plastic flow and gathering systems for applied loads to fibers. Furthermore, they behave as a barrier to protect
many years in the oil and gas industry [4]. Current technology has not them from physical, environmental, and chemical defects. Filler mate­
fully met operation goals, especially in cost for distribution at higher rial could exist in the matrix as fibers or particles or others, synthesized
pressures and more severe conditions (i.e., corrosive media), for which or extracted from natural sources. Fibers (from 30 to 70% in volume and
alternatives to purely metallic or composite pipes are looked for to in­ nearly on average 50% in weight [7]) carry the load and influence the
crease reliability and durability. Many researchers were interested in mechanical properties of the composite substances overall [8,9]. The

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fatima_al_abtah@hotmail.com (F.G. Alabtah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114595
Received 17 June 2021; Accepted 17 August 2021
Available online 21 August 2021
0263-8223/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
F.G. Alabtah et al. Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

Fig. 4. Failed aramid fiber reinforced pipe under internal pressure at

90 ◦ C[23].

and thermoplastics. When thermoset polymers are heated, irreversible

chemical changes take place between polymer molecular bonds.
Therefore, by heating this material they can be cured to the desired
Fig. 1. Pressure and diameter of GFRP pipelines (EN ISO 14692) [17]. shapes. Thermosets are commonly used in current applications, even
though they have small share in the PMC industry, synthesized as
nonreactive solids even under heat and pressure when applied. Ther­
moplastics however respond to heat for reshaping.

2.1. Single-fiber composite system

The fibers’ selection depends on the desired properties required in

finished composite structures and the application [12]. Density, tensile
and compressive strengths, tensile and compressive moduli, fatigue
strength and failure mechanism, and other properties are influenced by
the type, volume fraction, length, and fiber orientation [13]. In the
engineering applications of FRP composites, there are two primary fi­
Fig. 2. Failure of the repaired steel pipe with CFRP material under burst
bers: synthetic and natural fibers. The most used synthetic fibers are
test [20].
Glass, Carbon, and Aramid (Kevlar).
Glass fibers are economical and commonly used reinforcements for
their excellent mechanical and insulating properties and deterioration
resistance [14,15]. From the literature, it could be noticed that ther­
moset resins with glass fiber are dominant. There are only a few appli­
cations for the use of thermoplastic resins in pipeline applications.
Thermoset resins can easily form on pipe walls, harden quickly, and are
deterioration-resistant, making them of common choice in the field. The
most used thermoset resins include epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester,
phenolic, polyurethane, and polyamide. The most used resin type among
them with glass fiber in pipeline applications is epoxy because of the
sound mechanical, adhesion, shrinkage, cure properties, and corrosion,
heat resistance and are more resistant to most common chemicals. [16].
Numerous studies experimentally tested the use of glass-reinforced
polymers (GRP) pipes in different applications. Fig. 1 consolidates
Fig. 3. The twisting wrapping process for aramid fiber layer [22]. pressure and corresponding pipe diameter for a design for different
applications.
mechanical properties of composites, especially shear strength, trans­ Carbon fibers are electrically conductive, inducing higher suscepti­
verse strength, and compressive strength, are influenced by the matrix bility for galvanic corrosion when used in fastener applications [18].
material properties [10]. Matrices are typically selected based on the CFRP composites should generally contain at least a 40% fiber volume
design requirement temperature of the desired composite structure. For fraction for failure probability to be less than that of uncorroded steel
low-temperature applications, the polymer is a suitable choice, and for pipe [19]. In the literature, review most of the pipeline applications
high-temperature requirements, ceramic is usually used. Ceramic and includes epoxy resin with carbon fibers. CFRP in pipelines increases
metal matrices have a high cost. Because of the different benefits of strength/weight ratio and burst resistance. Kong et al. repaired a
polymers, they are applied as matrix materials in many of pipeline ap­ defected steel pipe with carbon fiber and epoxy resin (putty filling) [20].
plications. The main advantages of polymers for this purpose are the low The burst pressure tests like on the pipe shown in (Fig. 2) indicated the
cost, good endurance against chemical defects, ease of processing and load transfer from the pipe material to the wrapped CFRP depends on
lightweight [11]. Polymer matrices are mainly divided into thermosets the length of the defect in hoop direction, up to 20% less than the pipe
diameter, for confinement after breakage of the brittle putty.

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Fig. 5. Failure of AFRP joining after 3-point bending test[24].

Fig. 7. The bamboo winding composite pipes in the installation site [32].

three-point bending loads (Fig. 5). The results revealed that the FRP
joining system enhances the flexural capacity compared to conventional
joining methods as welding.
Despite their strength and resilience, Kevlar fibers have several dis­
advantages, which restricts their efficiency. It can absorb moisture faster
than glass and carbon fibers, meaning it is more sensitive to its sur­
rounding environment [25]. Kevlar fibers are weaker in compression
than comparable filaments of high strength, high modulus. The fracture
was reported to occur without plastic deformation in the matrix [26].
Deteresa et al. reported, for Kevlar fibers, that tensile strength/
compressive strength ratio was 5:1, tensile strength/shear strength ratio
was 17:1, and tensile modulus/shear modulus was 70:1 [27]. Allred
et al. reported that transverse moisture had measurable effects on
aramid/epoxy composites at 25 ◦ C, 14% stiffness loss, 35% strength loss,
and 27%.
Fig. 6. Banana stem reinforced PVC composite pipe [30]. Natural FRP is generally advantageous over synthetic FRP in envi­
ronmental footprint, recycling, and cost [28,29]. Danasabe[30] and
Aramid fibers are lightweight and have superior strength and elas­ Danasabe et al. [31] applied water absorption tests on the banana stem
ticity modulus (by 2 to 3 times as glass fibers) and high corrosion and and doum-palm PVC composite pipes, respectively (Fig. 6). The com­
temperature resistance (by as 500 ◦ C) [21]. Aramid fibers are used in posite pipes with Kankara clay as a filler were utilized with low-cost
many pipeline applications, with both thermoset and thermoplastic materials of good mechanical and weight properties, with lower den­
resins. Aramid fiber’s mechanical properties with thermoplastic resins sity and higher water absorption, respectively, with higher fiber content.
received attention from many researchers, such as Kruijer et al. [22]. Shi et al. studied pipes made of bamboo and evaluated the environ­
The new class of polyethylene liner pipes overwrapped with non- mental footprints across from the extraction phase of raw material to the
impregnated, twisted Aramid cords in two layers was fabricated. The end of service [32]. A pipe was fabricated from bamboo fiber and urea-
Aramid yarns were embedded in a polyethylene (PE) matrix of high formaldehyde resin, which is a class of thermosetting resins. The pipe
density and viscoelastic response (Fig. 3). Upon pressuring, the pipes was made with high-tension winding (Fig. 7). Compared to the con­
showed a torsional response complex in a model that needed to consider ventional PVC pipe, the bamboo pipe’s life cycle assessment revealed
the matrix’s viscoelastic properties. that all significant environmental impacts, burdens, and cumulative
Guoquan et al. studied a similar aramid thermoplastic-resin to energy demand were reduced. Even though natural fibers have many
evaluate the thermostability of polythene (PE-RT) pipes reinforced with benefits, they are not a good fit for pipe manufacturing, especially in
aramid-based polyolefin resin matrix at high temperature for water filament winding techniques. The challenges are related to the short
transport (Fig. 4) [23]. When applying the water pressure blasting test length of fibers, as winding requires continuous fibers and high tensile
on the pipe, it was found that the aramid/PE-RT pipe satisfied the strength (to withstand pulling forces) [33].
operation demands of 20-yr service for a service of 20 years, at high
95 ◦ C and 4 MPa conditions. 2.2. Hybrid fiber composite system
Aramid FRP could also be used in joining pipes. Farag et al. used a
new joining method with fiber-reinforced aramid about fiber orientation Hybrid composites contain more than one reinforcement material in
angles under three-point bending [24]. The wet fabric wrapping tech­ the same matrix, where usually, one fiber type has a more considerable
nique was utilized to fabricate the FRP joining, and it was tested under failure strain than the other. They are termed as high elongation and low
elongation fibers, respectively [34]. One of the advantages is that

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Fig. 8. The three main hybrid configurations: (a) interlayer or layer-by-layer, (b) intralayer or yarn-by-yarn, and (c) intrayarn or fiber-by-fiber [38].

Fig. 9. The configuration of the reinforced pipe specimen [39].

hybridization enhances energy absorption [35,36]. Moreover, in hybrid noticeably. Many researchers investigated repaired steel pipes’ behavior
FRP composites, the mechanical properties could be tailored perfectly with hybrid glass/carbon FRP composite under flexural bending loads
because of the combination of high tensile strength and high failure and a combination of axial compression and bending loads. Dong [40]
strain elements [37]. Hybrid fibers could be combined in configurations evaluated the flexural response of composite pipes reinforced with
shown in Fig. 8. The layers of two fiber types are wound alternatively in hybrid carbon and glass fibers. He also used FEA to model pipe failure
a cheap and straightforward technique in the interlayer configuration. In during three-point bending, with wrapping angle and fiber volume
the intralayer hybrid configuration, two fiber types are combined. In fraction as model parameters. The pipe resisted top bending load at ply
intrayarn hybrid configuration, two fiber types are mixed fiber by fiber. angles of 60◦ to 75◦ , of failure loads comparable to those of carbon fiber
A complex configuration involves combining any two of the above­ or glass fiber composite pipes. Hybrid pipes can have better cost and
mentioned configurations, as an interyarn hybrid configuration can be weight characteristics, therefore, with better-optimized locations of
mixed with a homogenous yarn configuration [38]. The interlayer failure initiation. In another work, Dong [41] evaluated optimum de­
hybrid FRP composite is the most used fiber hybridization technique in signs of carbon and E glass hybrid pipes with FEA, modeling the pipes
polymer composites in pipeline applications. According to the literature, under flexural loading. They reported that carbon and E glass fibers have
most hybrid FRP composites applications in pipelines include glass and good weight/cost characteristics (compared to carbon and S glass fibers)
carbon fibers and epoxy resin. Galvanic corrosion across CFRP laminates in Fig. 10, but reinforcing the pipes with mostly carbon fiber achieves
and pipe metal can be inhibited by one GFRP layer on the surface. higher failure loads.
Zongchen et al. evaluated the crack growth on an external pipe surface George et al. evaluated steel tubes’ response rehabilitated with
reinforced with a hybrid carbon/glass FRP composite [39]. FRP layer hybrid glass/carbon FRP composite when subjected to axial compres­
was applied using the hand lay-up method (Fig. 9). A fatigue test on the sion and bending in combination, pictured in Fig. 11 [42]. THE tested
pipe was carried out with four-point bending. The FRP layer decreased FRP layer involved a first layer made of triaxial E-glass woven cloth
the fatigue crack growth, and the reinforcement limited deformation (preventing galvanic corrosion) and a second layer that involved CFRP
(for the strength of repair). Some specimens were repaired in exposure
to air and others in the water, in Fig. 12, as foam blasting is applicable
for surface preparation in any condition. Strength regain ratios of the
two repairs were analyzed, showing comparability. One layer of GFRP
and two layers of CFRP sufficed in restoring capacity in pipes damaged
in 20% wall thickness from corrosion. Another type of hybrid fiber
composite system is the hybrid Textile Tape that consists of two fiber
types woven together in one fabric; this hybrid fabric type provides
extreme strength when used with epoxy resin [43]. Singh et al. analyzed
a repaired steel pipe’s strength using Glass-Carbon Textile Tape (Fig. 13)
numerically and experimentally [44]. The burst pressure was higher by
20%, verified by hydrostatic pressure tests for high-pressure crude
transportation. Table 1 summarizes the previous section by comparing
the characteristics of the most used polymeric fibers, namely, carbon,
glass, and aramid (Kevlar) fibers.

3. Fabrication processes using FRP composites

Composite components are fabricated in a variety of ways. Selection

of fabrication method is as crucial as design and application by end-user.
The most known fabrication process of FRP composite pipes and com­
posite overwrapped conventional pipes is filament winding. Filament
Fig. 10. optimal candidate points for the relation between weight and cost at wound pipes are common and are extensively used in onshore and
different failure loads from non-dominated sorting GA-II (NSGA-II) [41]. offshore oil and gas applications, including pipes (in different diameters,

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Fig. 11. Repaired specimens (a) while and (b) after combined axial compression and bending testing [42].

Fig. 12. Repairing in water with hybrid glass/carbon layers [42].

pressure vessels, storage tanks). Short fibers and resin are typically ratio [47]. In filament winding, fibers are passed through a resin bath
applied with centrifugal molding, also utilized in FRP sewer liners, and woven onto a mandrel rotating at specified rotational speeds or onto
water tanks, and drainage components [46]. Other fabrication processes the pipe (of conventional type) itself to become a layer providing
that allow continuous production of FRP structural shapes are pultrusion strength or protection, along a geometrically predetermined path of
and pull winding, which can produce pipes with constant cross-section. controlled tension, to be later cured and demolded, shown in Fig. 14
Filament winding is one of the most frequently used fabricating [48]. The winding machine typically has numerical X, Y, and Z axes for
processes using continuous fiber-reinforced resin composites. It has the linear and A, B, and C axes for rotational motions. Fig. 14 developed
advantage of high productivity, low cost, and a high strength-to-weight from being 2-axis, a lathe to a 6-axis type machine [49]. Abdalla et al.

Fig. 13. a- Glass-Carbon Textile Tape, b- repaired steel pipes [44].

Table 1
Comparison of the characteristics of different polymeric fibers.
Glass FRP Pipe Carbon FRP pipe Aramid FRP pipe

Fabric Cost ($/kg) [45] 1–2 (cheapest) 35–60 50–150 (most expensive)
Density g/cm3 ≈2.5 (heaviest) ≈1.8 ≈1.44 (lightest)
Tensile Strength (MPa) ≈2200 (lowest) ≈3500 (Highest) ≈3200
Corrosivity Good corrosion resistance corrosive Good corrosion resistance

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Fig. 14. a-Schematic of the filament winding process [50], b- Filament winding numerically controlled axes configuration [49].

Fig. 15. Equipment: (a) portable 3-axis winding machine; (b) filament wound carbon reinforced plastic tubes [52].

lower the difference value. It was concluded that the machines of type
offer optimum products at high winding angles. Some researchers also
investigated the ability of filament winding machines to produce more
complex shapes. Rojas et al. worked on unifying a filament winding
technique for complex shapes using a validated generic mathematical
model [53]. The validation was carried out experimentally with the
four-axis winding machine. The approach addressed manufacturing
limitations, used the theory of surfaces for describing curvatures, and

Fig. 16. Robotic filament winding technique [54].

designed a low-cost, lathe-type winding machine for pipes (of up to 100

mm diameter and 1000 mm length) and round specimens fabrication
[51]. The winding orientation was from 20 to 90◦ , with single glass fiber
through the pre-catalyzed resin. The curing process was carried out at
room temperature and in oven conditions. The technique reported was
efficient and precise for mandrels of different shapes, producing com­
posite parts for different applications, and strongly correlated to the
materials, winding angle, fiber, resin composition, and curing. Later in
more recent research, Quanjin et al. evaluated a 3-axis winding ma­
chine’s experimental performance in circular repeatability in winding
and angle quality, using circular winding testing and winding angle
measurement methods [52]. They reported satisfactory 0.83 to 1.13 mm
winding circular distance with nearly 3% standard deviation and angle
quality on 0.35 to 0.62◦ difference. The machine and the carbon/epoxy
tubes evaluated are in Fig. 15. The authors reported the evaluation of
winding circular distance at different angles with time, mentioning that
75◦ winding angles offered optimum reliability quality, with nearly 0.8
mm distance value. They found that the higher the winding angle, the
Fig. 17. Relationship between fiber volume fraction and winding tension [56].

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surpassing the limitations of the numerically controlled axes [54–55].

Quanjin et al. consolidated a report on RFWT in the industry about
fabrication processes, where the RFWT has more than six axes [49].
Compared to the traditional techniques that involve lathe type and
multi-axis structures (used for fabricating composite tubes and vessels,
for example), robotic techniques involve machine structures (that can be
used for fabricating non-symmetrical and core-less components).
It is essential to understand how primary processing parameters that
Fig. 18. Pultrusion process [71]. the operator can monitor and control; (as the tow tension) can affect the
quality of the fabricated pipe. Mertiny et al. evaluated the correlation
between the physical and mechanical properties (parametrized with the
volume fraction of fiber and wall thickness) of glass-fiber reinforced
polymer tubes and the applied tow tension at different ratios biaxial
loading [56]. They reported that the greater the fiber is tensioning, the
greater the strength against failure with fiber-dominated loading.
Interestingly, with less fiber tensioning, failure showed delay with
matrix-dominated loading. Also, the volume fraction was proportional
to winding tension, as shown in Fig. 17.
Wang et al. used filament winding mechanics for three models on
Fig. 19. Pullwinding Technology [77]. void growth and fiber volume fraction about time-dependent
manufacturing parameters [50]. The three models covered the
diffusion-controlled, thermo-chemical, and resin flow for void growth
about fiber volume fraction. The authors introduced resin pressure and
processing temperature to predict the void size better. They reported
that the higher the winding tension and the lower the humidity, the
smaller the voids’ size, and the higher the fiber volume fractions, the
better the quality. Experiments on filament winding cylinders validated
the results. Fiber volume fractions in filament-wound composite pipes
range nearly from 48% to 54% [57]. In the last decades, many re­
searchers investigated the effect of winding angle on the pipe’s me­
chanical integrity [58,59]. Experimental and numerical simulation data
indicated that deformation and failure mechanisms depend on the
winding angle. In the closed-end testing mode, maximum axial and hoop
stresses occurred at a winding angle of 55◦ when comparing specimens
with pure angle-ply lay-ups [60]. However, multi-angle lay-ups, Multi-
angle wound structures were more advantageous than pure angle-ply
lay-ups in damage resistance under different load conditions [61]. It
should be noted that optimum winding angles depend on loading modes.
Hamed et al. found that for hoop pressure loading (mode I), the winding
is optimum at 55◦ , for biaxial pressure loading (mode II), the winding is
Fig. 20. Application of composite wrap on the defective pipe.
optimum at 75◦ , and for biaxial pressure with axial compressive loading
(mode III), the winding is optimum at 85◦ [62]. In recent research,
used the slippage tendency of fiber over the surface to establish a local
Colombo et al. carried out an optimization study on composite pipes’
stability criterion. The solved general path equation was developed to
winding parameters based on the long-term mechanical reliability [63].
become the basis for studying the mechanical response in association
The critical optimization parameters were pipe wall thickness, fiber
with filament winding parameters. The friction function was introduced
type, fiber volume fraction (reported optimal between 40 and 60%), and
to describe fiber stability more precisely. For future works, the author’s
winding angle (reported optimal between ± 44.5◦ to ± 52.5◦ ) – about
associated suitability of filament winding models to the technological
internal pressure and axial loading. The authors first considered the
techniques. The next revolution of filament winding was the Robotic
properties and contents of fiber and matrix to estimate mechanical
filament winding technique (RFWT), in Fig. 16. The technique allowed
response from micromechanics models. The optimized parameters and
for winding complex shapes and patterns and new winding approaches

Fig. 21. a- repaired pipes, b- SIF for single and double patches correlated with cracking length [93].

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Fig. 22. a- cutting, b-folding, c-wrapping specimen [94].

process where the final cured pipes are pulled out by mechanically or
hydraulically driven grippers [72] with fiber volume fraction between
35 and 60% for the pultrusion process [73]. The main pipeline appli­
cation for the FRP pultrusion pipe includes delivering and supplying
drinking water, waste and rainwater drainage, and agricultural irriga­
tion [74]. While to produce FRP pipes with enhancing rigidity and
mechanical resistance, a pull winding process is used. Pullwinding dif­
fers from traditional pultrusion in roving being placed in the longitu­
dinal direction and circumferential direction [75], illustrated in Fig. 19
[77]. Pull winding products are 20 ~ 30% more expensive than pul­
truded profiles because of the more complicated process [76].

4. Pipeline repair processes using FRP composite

Damaged pipes that get repaired with FRP composites are mostly
made from steel or metallic for their pressure containment capability,
reliability, and safety [78]. Steel is susceptible to corrosion occurring
from salts, minerals, and sulfur in the water. The traditional way of
Fig. 23. Pre-cured layered system [95].

minimum wall thickness were obtained from the internal pressure

testing. However, failure criteria before a recent ISO were implemented
for a combined pressure and axial loading.
Fiber reinforcements and resin matrices, commonly glass fiber and
polyester resin, can be converted into finished composite components
with pultrusion, a continuous and well automated manufacturing pro­
cess [64–68]; for high-pressure applications, graphite or hybrid fiber
(higher elastic modulus) with epoxies or thermoplastics are pultruded
[69]. In the pultrusion process, continuous fibers are pulled off and
immersed in a liquid resin bath. The impregnated fibers leave the bath to
a series of wipers to get rid of the excess resin. After this, the fiber-resin
bundles pass through a collimator before entering a heated die, which
has the shape of the pipe. As the fiber/resin material goes through the
die, it will be formed and the resin will be cured [70] as shown in Fig. 18.
The dies’ average length is around 1 m long, and there should be a
sufficient curing time before pulling out the pipe. The pulling speed is in Fig. 25. A comparison of the environmental impact of PVC pipe and bamboo
the range of 10 to 200 cm/min. Pultrusion is a continuous fabrication pipe [32].

Fig. 24. a- Summary of flexural load vs. deflection, b- GFRP overlapped plastic pipes [106].

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Fig. 26. The typical lay-up of a pipe shell is manufactured with the centrifugal casting process (left), resulting in different layers with various reinforcements and
filler materials (right: typical sample from a present pipe) [107].

dealing with damage induced by corrosion was removal or welding,

which involves mobilizing equipment and difficulties, especially if it is
underwater [79]. Alternatives have been investigated based on light­
weight materials and effectiveness [80,81]. Generally, three main repair
situations are involved in pipework based on the type of damage; pipe
subjected to external damage (e.g., corrosion and mechanical damage),
internal damage (corrosion and/erosion), and through-wall defects
(leaks). Repair with FRP materials is documented as an ideal alternative
repair method for damaged pipelines and piping systems [82]. Ordinary
FRP pipe does not conduct electricity and has improved electrical
properties than steel pipes [83]. The viability of this repair solution has
Fig. 27. Variations of density, water absorption, flexural strength, and hard­ been demonstrated by numerous field research. Different types of fiber
ness with weight fraction [31]. were used by Toutanji and Dempsey [84] to repair steel pipes. Carbon
fiber was better than glass and aramid in enhancing pressure capacity,
strength, and corrosion. Recently, many manufacturers provided pipes
made of steel with outer wraps of glass or carbon-based composite
layers. The idea behind the external layers of composite materials is not
only to prevent/eliminate external corrosion but also to add extra
strength to the pipe. The thickness of these layers is a bit higher than the
standard coating. Several systems have been developed to address
corrosion in pipework; these systems allow repair to occur without
shutting down gas flow, purging the pipeline, or cutting into the pipe. A
permanent, economic and effective repair technology is composite wrap
[85]. The advantages of using composite repairs are that there is no need
for high temperatures to apply them; they could be applied to the pipe
while it is in operation. They have corrosion resistance, and minimal
Fig. 28. Hydrostatic pressure testing machine [109]. facilities are required on site. The lifetime of a composite repair is 20
years, according to ISO/TS 24817 (2006) [86]. Welded pipes repaired
from defects with reinforcement were reported to maintain mechanical

Fig. 29. (a) First-ply failure pressure and (b) functional failure pressure for the investigated pipe versus fiber volume fraction Vf (%) [109].

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Prepreg is a reinforcing fabric pre-impregnated with epoxy that was

cured partially to ease handling [90]. Several researchers investigated
cracked metallic pipes’ performance in the last decade when repaired
with prepreg patches [91,92]. Benzene et al. [93] compared the per­
formance of repaired APIX65 steel pipelines without patches and
patches applied in single and double configurations. By computing the
stress intensity factors (SIF) at the crack tip, it was found that the SIF for
a typical crack length of 10–20 mm was decreased by utilizing a double-
sided patch which enhanced the fatigue life of the pipeline materials
(Fig. 21).
In recent research, Liu et al. [94] studied fatigue of cracked
aluminum alloy pipe repaired with the CFRP prepreg patch. The patches
were preheated on the pressure-heating machine for 15 min and 37 ◦ C
temperature. The preheating process softens the resin in each prepreg
and combines the patches, and they were glued to the pipe using an
epoxy adhesive layer (Fig. 22). It was established that the CFRP patch
could improve the fatigue performance of the cracked aluminum pipe,
especially when screw-thread surface treatment is applied.
The composite layers bonded on the external surface with an adhe­
sive after pre-curing, illustrated in Fig. 23. This system enhances the
mechanical performance in proportion with the volume fraction of fiber,
which is commonly oriented in the hoop direction to better the damaged
pipes [79]. Mazurkiewicz et al. analyzed pressure capacity and bucket
teeth penetration, and they calculated the toughness of a steel pipe
repaired with wrapping with a fiberglass composite sleeve [96]. They
reported that the new system had a higher capacity and strength than
the original pipe with 18 mm thick epoxy resin.
Fig. 30. Prepared CFRP-lined PCCP before assembly [110].
5. Pipeline applications using FRP composite

FRP composites are used in many pipeline applications because of

their features. The fatigue endurance and the strength-to-weight ratio of
FRP pipes are vital attributes associated with replacement costs and the
ability to design lightweight, high-performance pipe systems [97]. Many
researchers investigated the ability to extend the fatigue life [98],
strengthening the durability [99], and enhancing the stability [100] of
the conventional pipelines using FRP composites. The main pipeline
applications where the FRP composites are employed are detailed in this
section.

5.1. Water pipelines

Water pipes have been manufactured with various materials in

different sizes (diameter and thickness) utilized for different water-
related uses. FRP composite pipes have been in use for a long time in
water transport and distribution [101–103], such as their employment
in hydroelectric plants, like in Brazil, in 1128 m of fiber-reinforced
polyester pipes. FRP pipes were considered better than steel in weight,
Fig. 31. The original concrete pipe while placing the FRP liner since much of
cost, and damage resistance [104]. In the US, Kevlar-reinforced polymer
its protective liner was missing [112].
liners are extensively used for high-pressure water lines [105]. In this
section, a summary of uses, materials, fabrications, conditions, failures,
strength at high pressures without leakages [87]. FRP was part of experimental procedures is outlined about the most common types of
rehabilitation strategies of sewer, wastewater, and low-pressure lines composites. Al-Mahfooz et al. evaluated the feasibility of glass fiber
[88]. There is still ongoing research worldwide to better understand the reinforced polymer (GFRP) overwrapped onto PVC pipes to pursue
mechanics of repaired composite pipes, involving three types of FRP- better flexural load-carrying capacity, which increased to as high as
based techniques, hand lay-up, pre-cured, and prepreg layered. 1140 N against nearly 60 N of pipes without reinforcement [106]. The
For thermoset composites, hand lay-up is commonly considered in ultimate flexural load was 9 times higher, of behavior correlated to the
fabrication. The process involves impregnating the fiber reinforcement orientation angle of the fiber and pipe diameter (Fig. 24). The failure
with resin and bonding it to the external or internal pipe surfaces. The modes of the GFRP/PVC pipes included cracking, fiber debonding, and
technique applies to a variety of geometries such as those of valves and fiber breakage.
elbows (limited to low-to-medium pressure applications) and effective Shi et al. evaluated the environmental impact of water supply pipes
in restoring the strength of damaged components from defects and made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and bamboo winding composite using
corrosion attacks [79,89]. For FRP, the technique utilizes a 20 to 30% SimaPro software. Reporting the latter’s environmental impact is less as
volume fraction of fiber [73], carried out with the surface’s preparation, nearly 500 times [32]. Also, the energy demand cumulatively was less
cleaning from rust and sandblasting, and pasting the laminate onto the by nearly three times and a half, and the environmental burdens were
steel surface, as shown in Fig. 20 [39]. less by seven times. The Life Cycle Assessment (LSA) and Life Cycle

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F.G. Alabtah et al. Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

Fig. 32. a- Burst mode of internally pressurized CFRP/metallic pipes, b- Effect of fabric orientation on the pressure capacity [119].

Fig. 33. Failed anticorrosion plastic alloy composite pipe [121].

investigation was carried out locally on bamboo, cotton textile, walnut

husk, MUF resin, Styrene E, and bamboo fiber. Fig. 25 shows the total
environmental impact of PVC (hundred percent) and bamboo (per­
centage of PVC value).
Affolter et al. investigated a failed water steel pipe with a glass fiber
reinforced polymer in service for 12 years [107]. The drawing in Fig. 26
shows two armored GFRP layers (2 and 6) combined with the stiffening
core layer (4). The GFRP layers were made of randomly oriented
chopped glass fibers and polyester resin, and the core layer was filled
with silica sand. In contrast, the outer protective layer provided
impermeability against corrosive species.
The authors carried out 1) 3-point bending tests for determining
Fig. 34. Rehabilitation of steel pipe [128].
bending moduli and strength, 2) shear tests to determine interlaminar
shear strength (ILSS), 3) tensile tests of entire cross-sections to deter­
mine tensile properties, 4) calcination methods for textile-glass and
Inventory (LSI) input data as functional and system boundaries were
mineral-filler content, and 4) performance testing by ring compression.
collected by standard ISO 14040. Data on raw energy and raw materials
20% loss of stiffness and up to 40% loss in strength was reported after 12
were extracted from the Ecoinvent database in the used software. An

Fig. 35. Installation of the carbon half-shells [129].

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F.G. Alabtah et al. Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

by six broken wires (below damage limit), and that for working pressure
by 20 broken wires. FRP was considered better than concrete to select in
many sewer and drainage piping applications, as concrete is susceptible
to failure due to an H2S attack on the pipe’s upper surface. FRP is
resistant to H2S attack as a liner in large diameter sewage pipes made of
concrete [111]. One example of a sewer concrete pipe repair by FRP
liner was Los Angeles’s case when an old sewer pipe showed failure. A
new FRP liner repaired it (Fig. 31). The reinforcement was a mixture of
unidirectional glass fiber and other chopped elements. The inner layer
was made of vinyl ester, and the core laminate and outer layer were
made of unsaturated polyester [112]. Fiber is not added in general to
sewer applications, unlike pressure pipes to make them stronger.
Remarkably few researchers handled the use of FRP for gravity sewer
pipes. The available FRP pipes for sewer applications have Moderate
pressure available sizes up to 72 in., and it has the critical advantages of
lightweight and no corrosion. Still, the critical disadvantage is the high
cost compared to PVC and HDPE pipes [113].

5.2. Oil and gas pipelines

Most oil and gas transportations pipeline are metal pipes. The use of
polymeric composites in repairing the steel pipes in the oil and gas in­
Fig. 36. Stress-strain curves of glass fiber/polyester resin composites for
dustry is common practice, economic, and practical measure for
different aging times in acidic medium [135].
corroded pipes [89]. Many researchers evaluated the effectiveness of
such kind of repair for partially and severely corroded pipes. FRP ma­
years of operation. There was partially incomplete backfilling between
terial is common for offshore and onshore applications for high strength
the composite and the steel surface, causing excessive local stresses.
and corrosion resistance [87].
Dan-asabe et al. evaluated palm particulate (using compression mold­
Onshore pipelines received most of the literature’s attention con­
ing) reinforced polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as a lightweight material for
cerning restoring strength after localized metal loss, considering FRP
water pipes [31]. Density decreased, and elastic modulus increased with
composites for their high-pressure capacity and durability. FRP has been
the weight fraction of the particulate reinforcement. Optimum strength
investigated in characterization and failure pressure studies, mainly
of 50 MPa was at 8% of doum palm particulate, achieving 2 GPa elastic
with the use of glass fibers and epoxy resin [114–116]. Composite ma­
modulus, nearly 85 MPa flexural strength, and 1.45 g/cm3 density.
terials proved reliable for repairing damaged pipes, increasing burst
Pricewise, the composite was nearly 87% better compared to carbon
pressure, and reducing strain. Kakaei et al. [117] studied The effect of
steel and 36% compared to PVC. Fig. 27 shows the variations of density,
GFRP on reinforcing the buried and internally pressurized steel pipes
water absorption, flexural strength, and hardness with the weight frac­
against terrorist attacks. The explosive was TNT with 10 kg and a burial
tion of the reinforcement against PVC (matrix) and Kankara clay (filler).
depth of 1 m from the ground level. The results show that reinforcing
Rafiee et al. investigated the progressive damage through the pipe
buried and internally pressurized pipes, in-depth to as much as 2.5 m,
wall thickness of Glass fiber Reinforced Polyester (GRP) pipes from
with GFRP, increased failure resistance and reduced maximum equiva­
water’s internal pressure [108]. The authors utilized a stochastic
lent strain to nearly 35%. GFRP composites were reported to strengthen
(random) approach to consider fiber volume fraction and winding angle
the welded steel pipes, as done by Alabtah et al., in reducing the effect of
as random uncertain parameters of defined convergence Monte-Carlo
the heat-affected zones on the pressure and deterioration capabilities of
technique. Fiber volume fraction was found to be more significant
welded pipes with GFRP overwrap system using 5-axes filament-wind­
than the winding angle on the failure pressure. In other work, Rafiee
ing[118]. Carbon fiber and epoxy resins have been used to complete
et al. correlated the failure of GRP pipes to the internal pressure of water
structural repairs and strengthen and rehabilitate onshore steel pipe­
pipes in a predictive model based on micromechanics equations and
lines. Mahdi et al. studied the internal pressure behavior of repaired
failure criteria linked to experimental testing [109]. The parameters
damaged metal pipes for onshore application by wrapping fabric
were fiber volume fraction and winding angle, against which failure
carbon-epoxy systems at ± 47◦ and 0◦ /90◦ orientations. The FRP layer
pressures decreased and increased, respectively. For the experiments,
was wrapped with a mechanism that allows the system to open and
the pipes were placed in the testing machine, shown in Fig. 28. After one
rotate during the damaged area’s winding [119]. Pipes with ± 47◦
week of curing, filled with pressurized water, and droplets were
orientation had higher internal pressure capacity than the hoop 90◦
observed on the surface at the average functional failure of 2.5 MPa with
wound pipe, observed to fail from axial strain in association to trans­
no evidence of failure in pipe structure.
verse stiffness, dominated by the matrix more than the fiber (Fig. 32).
The variations (produced from FEA, using maximum stress and
Another type of FRP pipe that is rarely used in the oil and gas in­
Hashin failure criteria, and material properties formulations as modified
dustry is flexible composite pipes. Flexible composite pipes have heat
rule of mixture/Chamis and Halpin–Tsai) of first-ply failure pressure and
resistance less than metallic pipes, used at temperatures less than 90 ◦ C
functional failure pressure with fiber volume fractions are in Fig. 29.
[120]. Some thermoplastic resins could be used in the oil and gas in­
First, ply failure was set as matrix cracking and the failure pressures
dustry as polyethylene matrix material, where it has a good record in the
predicted by the maximum stress criterion are higher than those of
oil and gas industry [22]. Not all pipes used in the oil industry are
Hashin failure criteria.
metallic pipes; some researchers mentioned using plastic pipes in the oil
Hu et al. evaluated the performance of prestressed concrete cylinder
and gas industry. Zhang et al. [121] studied a corrosion-resistant plastic
pipes (PCCP) with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), applied at
alloy composite pipe used in oil application. (Fig. 33). The inner liner
the inner surface, in Fig. 30 (helpful in strengthening and repair pur­
was polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and the outer layer consisted of glass fiber
poses) [110]. The study was carried out with experimental testing and
reinforced thermosetting resin, accommodating the circumferential
finite element analysis, together with failure risk analysis. With each
pressure. The Vicat softening temperature (VST), and FTIR, TG, and DSC
additional CFRP layer, the threshold value for design pressure increased
analyses were used to study the failure mechanism. The additives that

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F.G. Alabtah et al. Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

Table 2
Summary for the recent research, development, and practices of FRP composite in different pipeline application.
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type

Glass Polyester 2011 [133] chemical pipelines moderate behavior in acidic Filament winding Newly Tensile test
fiber solution fabricated
Polyester 2015 [108] Water pipeline Lightweight- good mechanical Filament winding Newly hydrostatic test
properties fabricated
Polyester 2015 [109] Water pipeline Lightweight- good mechanical Filament winding Newly hydrostatic test
properties fabricated
Polyester 2018 [107] water feed steel pipe Strengthening and corrosion Composite tube repair Static fracture tests
of a hydraulic power resistance
station
polyurethane 2017 [87] offshore stainless-steel resistance to corrosion with Hand lay-up repair hydrostatic tests
resin pipes good mechanical properties
Epoxy 2013 [121] oilfield plastic pipes anticorrosion, thermal resistant, Filament winding Newly Fourier transform
and high strength pipe fabricated infrared
spectroscopy
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type
Glass Epoxy 2016 [114] Steel pipe with sustain the maximum possible hand lay-up process repair Hydrostatic
fiber External metal loss pressure without failure pressure tests
Epoxy 2016 [113] wastewater pipe strengthening Filament winding Newly
fabricated
Epoxy 2017 [132] Aluminum pipe strengthening Wrapped by Repair repair tensile axial stress
patch
Epoxy 2018 [115] Underground steel resist the bucket tooth composite sleeve repair burst pressure
pipe penetration force loading
Epoxy 2018 [96] Steel gas pipeline Good mechanical strength and composite sleeve repair uniaxial tensile
resistance tests
Epoxy 2019 [116] Oil and gas Steel pipe restoring the loading capacity composite wrap by repair high burst pressure
wet lay-up process
Epoxy 2020 [128] underwater Steel pipe increase the strength and Wrapping by wet lay- repair high burst pressure
used for marine pressure capacity up
application
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type
Glass Epoxy 2020 [118] Oil and gas steel pipes Increase the strength of HAZ Filament winding Strengthening Three- and four-
fiber areas and corrosion resistance point bending
Epoxy 2020 [78] Cracked steel pipe Crack initiation pressure and Hand lay-up patch repair cyclic loading
serviceability increased. (numerical)
Epoxy 2020 [106] (PVC) pipelines for strengthening filament winding Newly four-point bending
water and sewage fabricated test
transportation
Epoxy 2021 [117] Buried oil and gas reducing the deformation of Filament winding Newly Internal pressure
pipelines buried pipes against explosions fabricated and explosion
Carbon Epoxy 2001 [84] Pressurized improving the ultimate internal wet lay-up repair soil load and
fiber underground Carbon pressure capacity of pipes, and internal pressure
Steel pipes enhance the strength, Durability
and corrosive properties.
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type
Carbon Epoxy 2010 [129] Extending onshore Strengthening and corrosion Pre cured layered repair Burst pressure and
fiber pipeline to offshore resistance system 4point bending
steel risers
Epoxy 2017 [131] Offshore oil and gas very high performance besides filament winding Newly axial compression
aluminum riser pipe. being lightweight fabricated
Epoxy 2018 [119] oil and gas steel pipe capability to carry high internal Smart repairing repair Internal pressure
pressure mechanisms allow and corrosion
the system to open
and rotate.
Epoxy 2020 [20] Steel pipes for increase the strength and Wrapping by wet lay- repair high burst pressure
petroleum and pressure capacity up
chemical industry
Epoxy Grout 2021 [82] Petroleum Steel pipes Restore the capacity of the steel Standoff sleeve repair internal pressure
with a localized defect pipe with defects up to about test
metal loss 70% metal loss.
Aramid Polyethylene 2005 [22] Onshore oil industry Strengthening and corrosion Prepreg Repair internal pressure
fiber Thermoplastic composite pipe resistance test
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type
Aramid Polyolefin Resin 2015 [23] Pe-rt Water pipeline lightweight, ultra-high-strength, – Newly pipe water pressure
fiber and high modulus pipe fabricated blasting
Epoxy 2019 [24] Aluminum pipes for new pipeline joining technique hand lay-up Joining and three-point
oil and gas process using FRP composites repair bending
Natural Kankara Clay 2018 [30] Composite mold Newly Water absorption
fibers fabricated
(continued on next page)

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F.G. Alabtah et al. Composite Structures 276 (2021) 114595

Table 2 (continued )
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type

(PVC) plastic pipelines low cost with an overall

for water and sewage lightweight and good
transportation mechanical properties
Kankara Clay 2018 [31] (PVC) plastic pipelines low cost, lightweight, and good Composite mold Newly Water absorption
for water and sewage mechanical properties fabricated test and hardness
transportation
Urea- 2019 [32] water supply pipes Better environmental impacts high tension winding Newly Life cycle inventory
Formaldehyde fabricated
(Thermoset)
Fiber Resin type year Ref. Pipeline application Advantage of using FRP Fabrication process Type Testing
type
Hybrid Epoxy 2020 [44] crude transportation burst pressure increased by 20% hand lay-up repair high burst pressure
Fibers carbon alloy steel pipe and reduced strain on the
defective region
Epoxy 2020 [39] cracked fluid Decreased the crack growth rate Hand lay-up repair fatigue tests (four-
transportation steel and prolonged the residual point bending)
pipe in the offshore fatigue life.
industry
Subsea epoxy 2021 [42] Onshore and offshore improvement in the ultimate Hand lay-up repair combination of
steel pipe strength axial compression
and bending loads
Epoxy 2021 [41] offshore composite Strengthening and corrosion FEA Newly flexural loading
pipe resistance fabricated (bending)
Epoxy 2021 [40] offshore composite Strengthening and corrosion FEA Newly 3point bending
pipe resistance fabricated

might not have been well distributed during extrusion and that might direction fiber. The grooving method was of specimens of higher
have been added beyond suitable amounts contributed to the failure maximum strength [131]. The growth of fatigue crack in aluminum pipe
process. Also, the outer GRP layer had weakened mechanical stability repaired with glass FRP epoxy was evaluated by Zarrinzadeh et al.
due to the degree of the resin curing used, causing lower glass transition [132]. They reported that the fatigue life increased significantly, and the
temperature. stress intensity factor decreased.
Since the 1970s, the feasibility and use of composite materials for
offshore oil facilities in as deep as 1000 m applications have been
5.3. Chemical pipelines
assessed [122], especially regarding the performance at risers [123].
Studies have been developed to cover the physical/chemical in­
Some FRP composites have great importance in the chemical in­
teractions between the pipe steel and composite materials and the re­
dustry as the use of glass–polyester pipes, where Stamenovic’ et al.
inforcements for the damaged and corrupted risers [124–127]. To tackle
evaluated the chemical effects of pH of alkaline and acidic solutions on
corrosion in the offshore pipeline, an alternative solution to replacement
the longitudinal and circumferential tensile strengths of glass–polyester
is to rehabilitate the pipe by adding FRP composite wraps to its exterior
pipes at different exposure times at room temperature [133]. The pipes
surface for the high strength/weight and modulus/weight ratios in the
were made by filament winding at different reinforcement angles, and
repair system [122]. Watanabe Junior et al. used the fiber-reinforced
servohydraulic testing machines for flat and ring test specimens carried
composite to repair and reinforce damaged pipes from localized corro­
out the testing. The tensile strength and elastic modulus increased in the
sion in experimental performance evaluations [87]. They reported that
low-pH solutions, but they decreased in the high-pH solutions. Change
FRP prevented leaking with pipe wall thickness damage as severe as
in tensile strength was more than a change in modulus of elasticity,
80% and with wall defects as deep as 50% of the diameter, with no
proportionally with duration of immersion in liquid. Cracking pro­
bending. The use of glass fiber reinforced epoxy resins for repairing
gressed with an increase of load to result in fiber-matrix debonding,
offshore pipes in Fig. 34 was studied by Ahankariet et al. with hydro­
initiated from breaking fibers and ending in macro-cracks and delami­
static and moisture absorption testing [128]. The hoop stress is repaired
nation. Mahmoud et al. evaluated the change in glass fiber-polyester
pipes after immersion in seawater for 40 days at 85 ◦ C increased from
composite pipes’ physical and mechanical properties after immersion
nearly 289 to 358 MPa, but the strength decreased 43%, and the elastic
in HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, and H3PO4 100 ◦ C [134]. The results revealed that
modulus decreased 15%.
the glass-polyester pipes’ material properties decrease with an increase
Alexander et al. studied the feasibility of repairing offshore steel
of temperature and Sulfuric acid has the highest effect on the strength
risers with carbon–fiber reinforced composites to sustain the combined
compared to other acids. Another research work conducted by Sindhu
loads of tension, bending, internal pressure, and external hydrostatic
et al. [135] shows the influence of chemical aging on glass fiber/poly­
pressure [129]. The authors used E-glass in inner and outer reinforce­
ester composite. As shown in Fig. 36, the fiber-matrix interaction
ment to protect against corrosion and protect against impacts and wear.
enhanced by the aging treatment with acidic solutions, and the stress
Epoxy was applied to bond carbon half shells on the pipe’s external
value was highest after 3-month aging. Methacrylate epoxy fiber rein­
surface, as shown in Fig. 35, and burst pressure and four-point bending
forced plastic (FRP) pipes are suitable for chemical applications and can
tests were carried out, indicating at reliability and safety of the com­
be used for repairing. They are 35% less costly than standard epoxy
posite repair system.
pipes and can meet fire and explosion resistance requirements [136].
Aluminum pipes are also repaired using FRP material in offshore
Table 2 summarizes the recent research, development, and practices
applications [130]. Some surface treatments should be introduced to
of FRP composite in different pipeline applications worldwide, and they
increase the interface bonding between the aluminum pipe and the FRP.
are classified according to the reinforcement and resin type used. All
Boon et al. fabricated an aluminum/carbon pipe by wrapping three
authors agreed on the advantages of using FRP composites in different
CFRP layers at ± 55◦ to the axial direction and tested it under axial
pipeline applications. Fiber-reinforced composites have been the ideal
compression where grooves were cut on the aluminum liner in the same
material choice for the rehabilitation, development, and strengthening

14
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