Module 01: Fourier series

Contents:

 Introduction

 Periodic Functions

 Trigonometric Series and Euler’s formulae

 Fourier series of Period 𝟐𝝅

 Fourier series of even and odd functions

 Fourier series of arbitrary period

 Half-range Fourier series.

 Practical Harmonic analysis.

Why Fourier series, Fourier transforms and Z transforms for engineers?

 Fourier series are suitable for the expansion of periodic functions. Since Voltage,
Current, flux density, Vibrations etc are often periodic therefore the study of Fourier
series is very important for engineers.
 The Fourier series has many applications in electrical engineering, vibration analysis,
acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, quantum mechanics,
econometrics, etc.
 The Fourier transforms are mainly used to solve ordinary differential equations, partial
differential equations and integral equations.
 Fourier analysis has its applications in solving boundary and initial value problems in
mechanics, heat flow, etc.
 The Z-transform is used in the manipulation of discrete data sequences.
 It has attained lot of significance in the formulation and analysis of discrete-time
systems.
 Used extensively digital signal processing, control theory, population science,
economics etc.
 These discrete models are solved with difference equations and the role played by the
Z-transform in the solution of difference equations is similar to that played by the
Laplace transforms in the solution of differential equations.
Introduction:
In differential calculus, we are familiar with the expansion of a differentiable function f (x)
in the form a power series. Taylor’s series of f (x) about x  a is an infinite series in ascending
powers of ( x  a ) and Maclaurin’s series is an infinite series in ascending powers of x . In many
engineering problems it becomes necessary to expand a given function f (x) in a cosine and sine
terms which belongs to a class of functions called periodic functions.
Periodic functions:
A real valued functions f (x) is said to be periodic of period T if f ( x  T )  f ( x), T  0.
Examples: k (constant), sin x, cos x are periodic functions of period 2 as we know from
trigonometry that sin( x  2 )  sin x, cos( x  2 )  cos x .
Also if f ( x)  k then f ( x  2 )  k .
Further we also have a property stating that ‘A linear combination of periodic functions having
period T is also periodic of period T’.
Trigonometric series and Euler’s formulae:
The functions k , cos nx, sin nx (n  1,2,3...) are all periodic functions of period 2 . Taking the

constant k  a0 / 2, the linear combination of all the periodic functions is of the form:

a0  
  an cos nx   bn sin nx (1)
2 n1 n1
Where 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 (𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ) are all constants is called a Trigonometric series. Hence any
function f (x) expressible as trigonometric series of the above form must also be periodic with
period 2
We shall assume that f (x) is defined in an interval of length 2 , say (c, c  2 ) and can be
considered as periodic function with period 2 . Then we have,

1 c2
a0   f ( x)dx, (2)
 c
1 c2
an   f ( x) cos nx dx, (3)
 c
1 c2
bn   f ( x) sin nx dx (4)
 c
The expression for finding 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 are called Euler’s formulae.
Fourier series of period 2 :
Suppose we form the trigonometric series from 𝑓(𝑥) defined in (𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝜋) with the help of
Euler’s formula we cannot conclude that the series will converge to 𝑓(𝑥). We can only say that
when 𝑓(𝑥) is of the form (1) the coefficients of the terms in the series are given by the formula
(2), (3), (4).
We now proceed to state the conditions known as Dirichlet’s Conditions under which the
expansion of f (x) as a trigonometric series will converges to f (x) at every point of continuity.
1. f (x) is a single valued and finite in the interval (c, c  2 )
2. f (x) is periodic with period 2 .
3. f (x) has only finite number of discontinuities in (c, c  2 )
 4. f (x) has at the most a finite number of maxima and minima in (c, c  2 ) .
Thus we can say that, if 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in (𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝜋) and satisfies Dirichlet’s conditions, then
the trigonometric series (1) is called Fourier series of f (x) in (c, c  2 ) . The constants a0 , an , bn
as given by (2), (3), (4) respectively are called Fourier coefficients.
Note:
1. The following integrals will be useful in problems:
e ax
 e cos bx dx  ( a cos bx  b sin bx)
ax

a2  b2
e ax
  ( a sin bx  b cos bx)
ax
e sin bx dx
a2  b2
2. The following values will have frequent reference in problems when n is an integer.
sin n  0, cos n  (1) n , cos 2n  1, cos(2n  1)  1 .
3. Bernoulli’s generalized rule of integration by parts:
While finding the Fourier coefficients, in most of the problems we have to perform
integration of a product with the first function as a polynomial in x. In such cases
Bernoulli’s rule as a given below will be highly helpful.

 uv dx u  vdx  u '  vdxdx  u' '   vdxdxdx  ....

 e3x   e3x 
     (1)  ,
3x
Examples: xe dx x
 3   9 

 sin nx    cos nx    sin nx 

 (x  x ) cos nxdx  ( x  x 2 )   (1  2 x)   2
2
2 3 .
 n   n   n 
Fourier series of even and odd functions in the interval ( ,  ) :
A function f (x) is said to be even if f ( x)  f ( x) and odd if f ( x)   f ( x) .

Example: x 2 , x 4 , x 6 ,... cos x are even functions

Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) = 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
and x, x 3 , x 5 ,... sin x are odd functions.
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) = −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
 ( x) in    x  0
A function f ( x)   is said to be even if  ( x )   ( x) and odd if
  ( x) in 0  x  
 ( x)   ( x) .
  x in    x  0
Example: i) f ( x)   is an even function.
 x in 0  x  
Here 𝜙(𝑥) = −𝑥, 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑥 then 𝜙(−𝑥) = −(−𝑥) = 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥).
 
 x  2 in    x  0
ii ) f ( x)   is an Odd function.

 x in 0  x  
 2

Here 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑥 − , 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + then 𝜙(−𝑥) = −𝑥 − =− 𝑥+ = −𝜓(𝑥).

Fourier series of even and odd functions in the interval (0, 2 ) :

A function f (x) is said to be even if f (2  x )  f ( x) and odd if f (2  x)   f ( x) .
Example: f ( x)  x(2  x) in (0,2 )

𝑓(2𝜋 − 𝑥) = (2𝜋 − 𝑥) 2𝜋 − (2𝜋 − 𝑥) = (2𝜋 − 𝑥)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function.
 x
and f ( x)  in (0,2 ) is an odd function.
2
( )
Here 𝑓(𝑥) = then 𝑓(2𝜋 − 𝑥) = = =− = −𝑓(𝑥),

  ( x) in 0  x  
A function f ( x)   is said to be even if  (2  x)   ( x) and odd if
 ( x) in   x  2
 (2  x)   ( x) .
 x ; 0 x
Example: i) f ( x)   is an even function.
2  x ;   x  2

 x2 in 0  x  
ii ) f ( x )   is an Odd function.
 (2  x ) in   x  2
2

Standard Integral Properties:

Property 1: The product of two even functions and that of two odd functions is always even
whereas the product of an even and an odd function is always odd.
  a
f ( x) or  f ( x)   
2a a
 2 f ( x) dx if f ( x) is even
Property 2:  0
0 a 0 if f ( x) is odd

Note: Let f (x) is a periodic function of period 2 defined in an interval ( ,  ) or (0, 2 ) .

 If f (x) is an even function then the Fourier coefficients bn  0 and a0 & an can be
 
2 2
calculated by using the formula a0 
 
0
f ( x ) dx, a n 
  f ( x) cos nx dx .
0

 If f (x) is an odd function then the Fourier coefficients a0 & an  0 and bn can be

2
calculated by using the formula bn 
  f ( x) sin nx dx .
0

Worked Examples:
1. Obtain the Fourier series for the function x 2 in    x   and hence deduce that

1 1 1 1 2
i)     ... 
12 2 2 32 4 2 12
1 1 1 1 2
ii)     ... 
12 2 2 32 4 2 6
1 1 1 2
iii )    ... 
12 32 5 2 8
Solution: The Fourier series of f (x) having period 2 is given by

a0  
f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1

Where,
1 c2 1 c2 1 c2
a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos nx dx, bn   f ( x) sin nx dx
 c  c  c
1  1  1 
a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos nx dx, bn   f ( x) sin nx dx
     
Here f ( x)  x 2 and f ( x)  ( x) 2  x 2  f ( x).

Hence f (x) is even. So we have only a0 & an , bn  0 .

   
2 22  x3  2 2
a0   f ( x ) dx   x dx     2
.
 0
 0   3 0 3
 
2 2

an  f ( x ) cos nx dx   x 2
cos nx dx
0
 0


2  2  sin nx    cos nx    sin nx 
  x    ( 2 x )   2 
  n   n
2
  n
3
 0

4 4(1) n
 ( cos n  0)  .
n2 n2
By substituting theses values of a0 , an , bn in the Fourier series is given by

2
4(1) n 
f ( x)  x  2
cos nx
3 n1 n 2
(1)
Deductions:
putting 𝑥 = 0 in (1), we get
( )
𝑓(0) = +∑ cos 0
( )
0= +∑ , since 𝑓(0) = 0; cos 0 = 1

− =4 − + − + −⋯

= − + − −⋯ (2)

Again putting 𝑥 = 𝜋 in (1) we get

( )
𝑓(𝜋) = +∑ cos 𝑛𝜋
( )
𝜋 = +∑ (−1) , since 𝑓(𝜋) = 𝜋 and cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1)

𝜋 − =∑

=∑

= + + + −⋯ (3)

Now adding (2) & (3) we get,

 + =2 +2 +2 +⋯

=2 + + +⋯

= + + +⋯
𝟏
2. Obtain Fourier series for 𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙| in the range −𝝅 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝝅. Hence deduce that +
𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝝅𝟐
+ +⋯= .
𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐 𝟖

Solution: The Fourier series of f (x) having period 2 is given by

a0  
f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1

1 c2 1 c2 1 c2

Where, a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos nx dx, bn   f ( x) sin nx dx
 c  c  c
1  1  1 
a0   f ( x)dx, an   f ( x) cos nx dx, bn   f ( x) sin nx dx
     
−𝑥 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
Now 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = and 𝑓(−𝑥) = |−𝑥| = |𝑥| = 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is even. Consequently 𝑏 = 0.

And 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥; 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = = (𝜋 − 0) = 𝜋.

= .

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑎 = 𝑥 − (1) = [(0 − 0) + {cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0}]

= (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = ((−1) − 1) = − (1 − (−1) )

𝑎 =− {1 − (−1) }

Substituting the values of 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 in Fourier series we have

𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ − {1 − (−1) } cos 𝑛𝑥

To deduce the series let us put 𝑥 = 0 in the Fourier series.

 𝑓(0) = − ∑ {1 − (−1) }. 1

0= − ∑ {1 − (−1) }.

− =− ∑ {1 − (−1) }

=∑ {1 − (−1) }
1 − (+1) = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
But {1 − (−1) } =
1 − (−1) = 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Hence we get =∑ , , … (2)

= + + +⋯
𝟐𝒙
𝟏+ 𝒊𝒏 − 𝝅 < 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝝅
3. Find the Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 .
𝟏− 𝒊𝒏 𝟎≤𝒙<𝜋
𝝅

𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Hence deduce that = + + +⋯
𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐

Solution: The Fourier series of f (x) defined in (−𝜋, 𝜋) having period 2 is given by

a0  
f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1

  
1 1 1
Where, a0 
 

f ( x )dx, an 
 

f ( x ) cos nx dx, bn 
  f ( x) sin nx dx


1+ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 ≤ 0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = be the given function.
1− 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋

Here 𝜙(𝑥) = 1 + and 𝜓(𝑥) = 1 − in 𝑓(𝑥), we have

𝜙(−𝑥) = 1 − = 𝜓(𝑥). Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) is even.

Hence we have 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 . But 𝑏 = 0.

Now 𝑎 = ∫ 1− 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥− = 𝑥− = [(𝜋 − 0) − (𝜋 − 0)] = 0.

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1− cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑎 = 1− − − = [(0 − 0) − {cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0}]

 4
𝑎 =− {(−1) − 1}
𝜋 𝑛
𝑎 = {1 − (−1) }.

Thus the required Fourier series is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ {1 − (−1) } cos 𝑛𝑥

1 − (+1) = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
But 1 − (−1) =
1 − (−1) = 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ , , … cos 𝑛𝑥

Now putting 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓(0) = 1. The Fourier series becomes

𝑓(0) = ∑ , , …

1= + + +⋯
𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐

4. Obtain Fourier series for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐱𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙) in the range(−𝝅, 𝝅).

Solution: The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) having period 2𝜋 is given by
𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑏 sin 𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥

We shall check 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 for even or odd nature.

𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑥 cos(−𝑥) = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) and hence 𝑓(𝑥) is odd. Consequently 𝑎 = 0, 𝑎 = 0.

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Using sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = {sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)} we have,

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥 {sin(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥) + sin(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥)} 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥 sin(𝑛 + 1) 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 sin(𝑛 − 1)𝑥𝑑𝑥

Applying Bernoulli’s rule to each of the integrals,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
𝑏 = 𝑥 − −1 − ( )
+ 𝑥 − −1 − ( )
;

= [𝜋 cos(𝑛 + 1)𝜋 − 0] − [𝜋 cos(𝑛 − 1)𝜋 − 0]

Here sin(𝑛 + 1)𝜋 = 0 = sin(𝑛 − 1)𝜋, since 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …

 ( ) ( )
𝑏 =− +
( ) ( )
=− +
( )
𝑏 = (−1) + =
( )
𝑏 = ;
( )
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑏 sin 𝑥 + ∑ sin 𝑛𝑥

Now We need to find 𝑏 from 𝑏 by giving 𝑛 = 1.

Let us consider 𝑏 as given by 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Putting 𝑛 = 1 we get,

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 − (1) =− [𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥] ; ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 = 0 = sin 0

𝑏 =− (𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 − 0) = − ; ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 = 1

𝑏 =−

Now we shall write the Fourier series as follows:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 sin 𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥

𝟏 𝟐𝒏( 𝟏)𝒏
𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + ∑𝒏 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒙 .
𝟐

𝒂𝒙
5. Obtain the Fourier series to represent 𝒆 from 𝒙 = −𝝅 to 𝒙 = 𝝅. Hence derive the
𝝅
series for .
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒉𝝅

Solution: Period of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 − (−𝜋) = 2𝜋 and the Fourier series of period 2𝜋 is given by
𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥 (1)

Where 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = =− [𝑒 −𝑒 ]= [𝑒 −𝑒 ]

= = .
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We have the standard formula, ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥)

𝑎 = (−𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥)

( )

=− [𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥] , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜋 = 0 = sin(−𝑛𝜋)

( )

=− {𝑒 cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑒 cos(−𝑛𝜋)}
( )
( )
=− ( )
cos 𝑛𝜋 {𝑒 −𝑒 }=
( )
{𝑒 −𝑒 }
( )
𝑎 = ( )
.

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We have the standard formula, ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥)

𝑏 = (−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥)

( )

=− [𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥] ,
( )

The function to be evaluated between limits – 𝜋 to 𝜋 is same as in 𝑎

( )
𝑏 = ( )
.

Substituting these values of 𝑎 , 𝑎 &𝑏 in (1) the Fourier series is given by

( ) ( )
𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ ( )
cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ ( )
sin 𝑛𝑥
( ) ( )
Thus 𝑒 = 1+∑ ( )
cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ ( )
sin 𝑛𝑥

To deduce the series we shall put 𝑎 = 1, 𝑥 = 0 in the Fourier series

( )
𝑒 = 1+∑ ( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0
( ) ( )
1= 1 +2∑ ( )
𝑜𝑟 = 1 + 2∑ ( )

= 1+2 − + − + −⋯

= 1−1+2 − + − ⋯.

=2 − + −⋯ .
 𝝅 𝒙
6. Obtain the Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 2𝝅. Hence deduce that
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝝅
𝟏 − + − + ⋯.= .
𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 𝟒

Solution: The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) having period 2𝜋 is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥

Where 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋.

( ) ( )
𝑓(2𝜋 − 𝑥) = = =− = −𝑓(𝑥)

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd in (0, 2𝜋) and hence 𝑎 = 0, 𝑎 = 0.

Now, 𝑏 = ∫ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .

Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑏 = (𝜋 − 𝑥) − (−1)

=− [(𝜋 − 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥]

𝑏 =− (0 − 𝜋) =

Thus by substituting these values of 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 in the Fourier series, we have

𝑓(𝑥) = =∑ sin 𝑛𝑥.

To deduce the required series we put 𝑥 = in the Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥).

[Note: at 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝝅, 𝒙 = 𝝅 R.H.S of the Fourier series becomes zero and deduce we try
𝝅
𝒙= ∈ (𝟎, 𝟐𝝅)]
𝟐

∴𝑓 =∑ sin .

( / ) ( )
= + + + + +⋯

= 1 − + − ….
𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝝅 𝝅
7. If 𝒇(𝒙) = show that the Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) in [𝟎, 𝟐𝝅] is −
𝟐𝝅 − 𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝝅 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐𝝅 𝟐

𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝒙 𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

+ + + ⋯ and deduce that = + + +⋯
𝝅 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐 𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐

Solution: The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) having period 2𝜋 is given by

 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥

Where 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
here 𝑓(𝑥) = =
2𝜋 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 𝜓(𝑥) = 2𝜋 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
𝜙(2𝜋 − 𝑥) = 2𝜋 − 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is even in (0, 2𝜋) and hence 𝑏 = 0.

Now, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 =

= −0 = (𝜋 ) = 𝜋.
𝒂𝟎 𝝅
= .
𝟐 𝟐

𝒂𝒏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝒙 𝝅
= 𝒙 − (𝟏)
𝝅 𝒏 𝒏𝟐 𝟎

Where we have applied Bernoulli’s rule to each of the integrals,

𝑎 = {[𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥] }, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0

= {[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋 − 1]} = {(−1) − 1}, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑛𝜋

𝑎 =− {1 − (−1) } .

The Fourier series representation of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑ − {1 − (−1) } cos 𝑛𝑥

1 − (−1) = 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
But {1 − (−1) } =
1 − (1) = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∑ , , ,… 2 cos 𝑛𝑥

Thus 𝑓(𝑥) = − + + + ⋯.

To deduce the series let us put 𝑥 = 0.

Then 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
Hence the Fourier series becomes
0= − + + + ⋯ 𝑜𝑟 − = − + + +⋯
𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus, = + + +⋯
𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐

Fourier series of arbitrary period

A function 𝑓(𝑥) need not always be defined in an interval of length 2𝜋 only. When the length
of the interval is other than 2𝜋, we shall denote it by 2𝑙.
If 𝑓(𝑥) defined in (𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝑙) satisfies Dirichlet’s conditions then

𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑎 cos + 𝑏 sin
2 𝑙 𝑙

is called Fourier series of arbitrary period 2𝑙.

Where 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥.

Working procedure:
1. If the period of the given function is other than 2𝜋 we first equate the period to 2𝑙 and
obtain the value 𝑙.
2. We then write the appropriate Fourier series and compute 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 associated with it.
3. However if 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in an interval of the form (−𝑙, 𝑙) 𝑜𝑟 (0,2𝑙) we can compute
𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 using the concept of even and odd functions taking the following table into
consideration.
Nature & condition
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
of 𝑓(𝑥)
Even function:
2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑓(2𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Odd function:
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 0 0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
𝑓(2𝑙 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
 Worked Examples:
1. Obtain the Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙| in (−𝒍, 𝒍). Hence show that
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝝅𝟐
+ + +⋯=
𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐 𝟖

Solution: The period of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 − (−𝑙) = 2𝑙 = 2𝑙 and the Fourier series of period 2𝑙 is

given by 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +∑ 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 .

We shall check 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| for even or odd Nature.

𝑓(−𝑥) = |−𝑥| = |𝑥| = 𝑓(𝑥)
Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is even and consequently 𝑏 = 0

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥

Now 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = = (𝑙 − 0) = 𝑙

𝑎 =𝑙

= .

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑎 = 𝑥 − (1) − = (0 − 0) + {cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0}

𝑎 = (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = {(−1) − 1} = − {1 − (−1) }

Thus the required Fourier series is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = + ∑ − {1 − (−1) } 𝑐𝑜𝑠

To deduce the series we shall put 𝑥 = 0 which gives 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and the Fourier series becomes,

0= − ∑ {1 − (−1) }

1 − (+1) = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

− =− ∑ {1 − (−1) }; But {1 − (−1) } =
1 − (−1) = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

=∑

∴ =∑ , , … .2
𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯.
𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐
 𝟒𝒙 𝟑
𝟏+ 𝒊𝒏 − < 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝟑 𝟐
2. Obtain Fourier series for the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒙 𝟑 . Hence deduce that
𝟏− 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 <
𝟑 𝟐

𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐

Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in the interval − , . The period of 𝑓(𝑥) = − − = 3.

2𝑙 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 = 3/2 .
We shall check 𝑓(𝑥) for even or odd nature.

If 𝜙(𝑥) = 1 + , 𝜙(−𝑥) = 1 − = 𝜓(𝑥).

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function. Consequently 𝑏 = 0.

The Fourier series of 𝑓(𝑥) having period 3 is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +∑ 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 .

/ /

𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +∑ 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 .

Since 𝑓(𝑥) is even we have,

/
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
/
/
/
𝑎 = ∫ 1− 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥− = − . −0 =0.
/
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
/
/
𝑎 = ∫ 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑎 = 1− − − −

/
𝑎 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠

𝑎 = (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = − {(−1) − 1}

𝑎 = {1 − (−1) } 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …

Thus the required Fourier series is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ , , .. 𝑐𝑜𝑠

Putting 𝑥 = 0 we get 𝑓(𝑥) = 1. The Fourier series becomes

𝟖 𝟏 𝝅𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏= ∑𝒏 𝟏,𝟑,𝟓.. 𝒏𝟐 𝒐𝒓 = + + +⋯
𝝅𝟐 𝟖 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟐
 𝒙
3. Obtain the Fourier series for𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆 in the interval 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 2.
Solution: The period of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 0 = 2. ∴ 2𝑙 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 = 1.

The relevant Fourier series is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos + ∑ 𝑏 sin

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥.

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑒 ] = −(𝑒 − 1) = 1 − =

= .

𝑎 =∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We have ∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑏𝑥 = (acos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥)

𝑎 = (− cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥) = [𝑒 (− cos 2𝑛𝜋 + 0) − 1(− cos 0)]

𝑎 = [−𝑒 cos 2𝑛𝜋 + cos 0] ∵ sin 2𝑛𝜋 = 0 = sin 0

=− [𝑒 cos 2𝑛𝜋 − 1]

𝑎 =− −1 = .
( )

𝑏 =∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We have ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑥 = (asin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥)

𝑏 = (− sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − 𝑛𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥)

𝑏 =− [𝑒 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥]
( )
𝑏 =− −1 = .
( )

Thus by substituting the values of 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 in (1), the Fourier series is given by

( )
𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + ∑ sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥.
( ) ( )
 Half Range Fourier series:
In an interval of length 2𝑙 we have seen that in general a periodic function of 𝑥 will have
Fourier expansion containing cosine terms and sine terms. Many times it becomes necessary to
have the expansion containing only cosine terms or only sine terms. To achieve this, the function
must be defined in the interval of the form (0, 𝑙) which is to be regarded as half the interval.
Cosine half range Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) in (0, 𝑙) is defined as

𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos where 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥.

Sine half range Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) in (0, 𝑙) is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏 sin where

𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥.

Note: Similar consideration hold good for (0, 𝜋) as it is a particular case when 𝑙 = 𝜋.
The following table summarizes the Half range Fourier series and will be useful for working
problems.
𝑓(𝑥) Required series Fourier Coefficients
series
(0, 𝑙) Cosine series +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 =

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥

(0, 𝑙) Sine series ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥.

(0, 𝜋) Cosine series +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 =

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(0, 𝜋) Sine series ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Worked Problems:
1. Obtain the sine half range Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 in 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.
Solution: The sine half range Fourier series of the function 𝑓(𝑥) in (0, 𝜋) is

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥 where 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

We have, 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

𝑏 = 𝑥 – − 2𝑥 – +2
 = − (𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋 − 0) + (0 − 0) + (cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0)
( )
𝑏 = − [1 − (−1) ]

Thus the required sine half range Fourier series is given by

( )
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ − [1 − (−1) ] sin 𝑛𝑥.

2. Obtain the cosine half range Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 in 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 𝟏.
Solution: Comparing the given interval (0,1) with (0, 𝑙) we have 𝑙 = 1. The corresponding

cosine half range Fourier series is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos where

𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥.

Now 𝑎 = 2 ∫ (2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2[𝑥 − 𝑥] = 0.

𝑎 = 2 ∫ (2𝑥 − 1) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 2 (2𝑥 − 1) −2 = {cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos 0}

= ((−1) − 1)

𝑎 =− {1 − (−1) }

Thus the required cosine half range Fourier series is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ − {1 − (−1) } cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥.

3. Show that the sine half range series for the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 in 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 𝑙 is
𝟖𝒍𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝒏 𝟏
∑𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝅𝒙.
𝝅𝟑 (𝟐𝒏 𝟏)𝟑 𝒍

Solution: The sine half range series of 𝑓(𝑥) in (0, 𝑙) is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏 sin

where 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥.

Now 𝑏 = ∫ (𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 ) sin 𝑑𝑥

= (𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 ) − (𝑙 − 2𝑥) + (−2)

=− cos

Here (𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0 = sin 0)

 𝑏 =− (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋 − cos 0) = − {(−1) − 1} = {1 − (−1) }

The sine half range Fourier series is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ {1 − (−1) } sin

1 − (+1) = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

But {1 − (−1) } =
1 − (−1) = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ , , ,.. sin = ∑ , , ,.. sin

But 1,3,5 … are odd numbers represented in general as (2𝑛 + 1) where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … Thus we

have, 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑
( )
sin 𝜋𝑥.
𝟏
− 𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝟎 < 𝑥 < 1/2
𝟒
4. Obtain the sine half range series of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑 .
𝒙− 𝒊𝒏 𝟏/𝟐 < 𝑥 < 1
𝟒

Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in (0,1). Comparing with half the range (0, 𝑙) we have 𝑙 = 1. The
corresponding sine half range series is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑏 sin where 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥

i.e., 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑏 =2 ∫ − 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥− sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 Applying Bernoulli’s rule,

/
𝑏 =2 −𝑥 − (−1) + 𝑥− −1
/

/
=2 − − 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − [sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥] − 𝑥− cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + [sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥]
/

1 1 𝑛𝜋 1 1 𝑛𝜋 1 1 1 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋
=2 − − cos − − sin − cos 𝑛𝜋 + cos + 0 − sin
𝑛𝜋 4 2 4 𝑛 𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 4 4 2 𝑛 𝜋 2
=2 cos + 1 − cos 𝑛𝜋 − cos − sin

=2 (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋) − sin

𝑏 = {1 − (−1) } − sin

Thus the sine half range series is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ {1 − (−1) } − sin sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 .

Practical Harmonic analysis:

 So far, we have discussed the methods of obtaining the Fourier series of a known function
𝑓(𝑥) in a given interval. However, there will also be a situations where in there will be no known
expression for 𝑓(𝑥) but only the values at some equidistant points will be known.
Harmonic analysis is the process of finding the constant term and the first few cosine and sine
terms numerically.
The Fourier series of period 2𝜋 of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will be of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝑥, (1)

Where, 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now eqn(1) can be written as

𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = + {𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑎 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑎 cos 3𝑥 +. . } + {𝑏 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 2𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 3𝑥 + ⋯ }
2
𝑓(𝑥) = + (𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥) + (𝑎 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 2𝑥) + (𝑎 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 3𝑥)+..

Here = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,

(𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥) = 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐,

(𝑎 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 2𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛..
Suppose we have a set of N values of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) having period 2𝜋 at equidistant points of
𝑥 in the interval 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐 + 2𝜋, [if the values of y at 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑐 +
2𝜋 are given we must omit one of them. In fact (𝑦) = (𝑦) by the periodic
property𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝜋)], then the Fourier coefficients 𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏 , 𝒃𝒏 can be calculated by
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
using the below formulas: 𝒂𝟎 = ∑ 𝒚, 𝒂𝒏 = ∑ 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙, 𝒃𝒏 = ∑ 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒙.
𝑵 𝑵 𝑵

Suppose we have a set of N values of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) having period 2𝑙 at equidistant points of

𝑥 in the interval 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 2𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑐 + 2𝑙, then the Fourier coefficients 𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏 , 𝒃𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
can be calculated by using the below formulas: 𝒂𝟎 = ∑ 𝒚, 𝒂𝒏 = ∑ 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝜽, 𝒃𝒏 =
𝑵 𝑵
𝟐 𝝅𝒙
∑ 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝜽 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜽 = .
𝑵 𝒍

Note: All these formulas are holds good for half range Fourier series also.

Working Procedure for problems:

  We have to first write down the period of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) from the given range of the values
of 𝑥.
 If the period is 2𝜋, depending on the harmonics required we prepare the relevant table
along with the summation ∑ of 𝑦; 𝑦 cos 𝑥 , ycos 2𝑥 , … 𝑦 sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 sin 2𝑥 , … and
compute the harmonics using the formulae derived by taking 𝑛 = 1,2, ….
 If the period is not 2𝜋 we equate it with 2𝑙 to obtain the value of 𝑙.
 The summations of 𝑦; 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑦 cos 2𝜃 , 𝑦 cos 3𝜃 … . ; 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑦 sin 2𝜃, . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 =

will be required to compute the desired harmonics.

Worked Examples:
1. Obtain the Fourier series of 𝒚 upto the second harmonics for the following values.
𝒙𝟎 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
𝒚 4.0 3.8 2.4 2.0 -1.5 0 2.8 3.4
Solution: The interval of 𝑥 is 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 and period of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is 2𝜋 we have to compute
𝑎 ,𝑎 ,𝑏 ,𝑎 ,𝑏 .

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦, 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝑥 , 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝑥.

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝑥 , 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 2𝑥 . 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 = 8; = .

𝒙𝟎 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙

45 4.0 0.7071 2.8284 0.7071 2.8284 0 0 1 4.0
90 3.8 0 0 1 3.8 -1 -3.8 0 0
135 2.4 -0.7071 -1.6970 0.7071 1.6970 0 0 -1 -2.4
180 2.0 -1 -2.0 0 0 1 2.0 0 0
225 -1.5 -0.7071 1.0606 -0.7071 1.0606 0 0 1 -1.5
270 0 0 0 -1 0 -1 0 0 0
315 2.8 0.7071 1.9798 -0.7071 -1.9798 0 0 -1 -2.8
360 3.4 1 3.4 0 0 1 3.4 0 0
Total 16.9 𝟓. 𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟖 𝟕. 𝟒𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝟏. 𝟔 −𝟐. 𝟕
From the table,
∑ 𝑦 = 16.9, ∑ 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 5.57189, ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝑥 = 7.40621.
 ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝑥 = 1.6, ∑ 𝑦 sin 2𝑥 = −2.7

𝑎 = (16.9) = 4.225 ⇒ = 2.1125,

𝑎 = (5.57189) = 1.393, 𝑏 = (7.40621) = 1.8516

𝑎 = (1.6) = 0.4, 𝑏 = (−2.7) = −0.675

The Fourier series of 𝑦 up to the second harmonic is given by

𝑎
𝑦= + (𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥) + (𝑎 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 2𝑥)
2
𝑦 = 2.1125 + (1.393 cos 𝑥 + 1.8516 sin 𝑥) + (0.4 cos 2𝑥 − 0.675 sin 2𝑥)

2. Compute the first two harmonics of the Fourier series of 𝒇(𝒙) given the following table.
𝒙 0 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝟒𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝒚 1.0 1.4 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.0
Solution: we have values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 and hence we omit the last
value for 𝑥 = 2𝜋 which is same for 𝑥 = 0. i.e., 𝑓(2𝜋) = 1.0 = 𝑓(0).
𝒙𝟎 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
60 1.4 0.5 0.7 0.866 1.2124 -0.5 -0.7 0.866 1.2124
120 1.9 -0.5 -0.95 0.866 1.6454 -0.5 -0.95 -0.866 -1.6454
180 1.7 -1 -1.7 0 0 1 1.7 0 0
240 1.5 -0.5 -0.75 -0.866 -1.299 -0.5 -0.75 0.866 1.299
300 1.2 0.5 0.6 -0.866 -1.0392 -0.5 -0.6 -0.866 -1.0392
Total -1.1 0.5196 -0.3 -0.1732

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = (−1.1) = −0.367, 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝑥 = (0.5196) = 0.1732.

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝑥 = (−0.3) = −0.1, 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 2𝑥 = (−0.1732) = −0.0577.

The first two harmonics are (𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥) + (𝑎 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 2𝑥). Thus they are
(−0.367 cos 𝑥 + 0.1732 sin 𝑥) + (−0.1 cos 2𝑥 − 0.0577 sin 2𝑥).
3. Obtain the constant term and the coefficients of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 and 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝜽 in the Fourier expansion
of 𝒚 given the following data.
 𝒙𝟎 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
𝒚 0 9.2 14.4 17.8 17.3 11.7 0
Solution: Here the interval of 𝜃 is (0, 360 ). That is 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 and the value of 𝑦 at 𝑥 =
0 & 𝑥 = 2𝜋 must be the same by the periodic property 𝑓(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥). When the values are
given both 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2𝜋. We must omit one of them. We need to compute the coefficient of
sin 𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 2𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏 int he Fourier expansion of 𝑦 using the formulae.

𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝑥 , 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 2𝑥 where 𝑁 = 6 by omitting the last value.

The relevant table is as follows:

𝒙𝟎 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
0 0 0 0 0 0
60 9.2 0.866 0.866 7.9672 7.9672
120 14.4 0.866 -0.866 12.4704 -12.4704
180 17.8 0 0 0 0
240 17.3 -0.866 0.866 -14.9818 14.9818
300 11.7 -0.866 -0.866 -10.1322 -10.1322
Total ∑ 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = −𝟒. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟒 ∑ 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟒

Thus we have 𝑏 = (−4.6764) = −1.5588 𝑏 = (0.3464) = 0.1155.

4. Obtain the constant term and the coefficients of the first cosine and sine terms in the Fourier
expansion of 𝒚 from the table.
𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝒚 9 18 24 28 26 20
Solution: The value at 0,1,2,3,4,5 are given (𝑁 = 6) and hence the interval of 𝑥 should be 0 ≤
𝑥 < 6.
∴ the length of the interval is 6 − 0 = 6. Comparing with 2𝑙 we have2𝑙 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 = 3.
The Fourier series of period 2𝑙 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜃 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos +∑ 𝑏 sin since 𝑙 = 3, the series containing the first

harmonics is 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑎 cos + 𝑏 sin .

Writing = 𝜃, 𝑦 = + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 ; 𝑁 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = .

 𝒙 𝝅𝒙 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝜽=
𝟑
0 0 9 1 9 0 0
1 60 18 0.5 9 0.866 15.588
2 120 24 -0.5 -12 0.866 20.784
3 180 28 -1 -28 0 0
4 240 26 -0.5 -13 -0.866 -22.516
5 300 20 0.5 10 -0.866 -17.32
Total ∑ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = −𝟐𝟓 ∑ 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = −𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒

Constant term= 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 = (125) = 41.67; ⟹ = 20.835.

Coefficient of the first cosine term = 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝜃 = (−25) = −8.333.

Coefficient of the first Sine term= 𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝜃 = (−3.464) = −1.155.

5. The following values of y and x given. Find the Fourier series of y up to second harmonics.
𝒙 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝒚 9 18 24 28 26 20 9.0
Solution: here the values of 𝑦 at 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 12 are same. Hence the interval of 𝑥 is (0,12).
That is 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 12 and we shall omit the value of 𝑦 for 𝑥 = 12 in the process of calculation.
The Fourier series of period 2𝑙 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜃 + ∑ 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 =

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos +∑ 𝑏 sin

∴ The length of the interval is 12 − 0 = 12. Comparing with 2𝑙 we have2𝑙 = 12 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑙 = 6.

The Fourier series of period 2𝑙 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = +∑ 𝑎 cos +∑ 𝑏 sin since 𝑙 = 6,

The Fourier series up to second harmonics is

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑎 cos + 𝑏 sin + 𝑎 cos + 𝑏 sin .

Writing = 𝜃, 𝑦 = + (𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃) + (𝑎 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 2𝜃); 𝑁 = 6.

𝝅𝒙
𝒙 𝜽= 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝟑
0 0 9.0 1 9 0 0 1 9.0 0 0
 2 60 18.2 0.5 9.1 0.866 15.7612 -0.5 -9.1 0.866 15.7612
4 120 24.4 -0.5 -12.2 0.866 21.1304 -0.5 -12.2 -0.866 -21.1304
6 180 27.8 -1 -27.8 0 0 1 27.8 0 0
8 240 27.5 -0.5 -13.75 -0.866 -23.815 -0.5 -13.75 0.866 23.815
12 300 22.0 0.5 11.0 -0.866 -19.052 -0.5 -11.0 -0.866 -19.052
128.9 -24.65 -5.9754 -9.25 -0.6062

Constant term= 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 = (128.9) = 42.967; ⟹ = 21.4835.

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝜃 = (−24.65) = −8.217.

𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 𝜃 = (−5.9754) = −1.9918.

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝜃 = (−9.25) = −3.083

𝑏 = ∑ 𝑦 sin 2𝜃 = (−0.6062) = −0.202.

The required Fourier series up to second harmonic is given by

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 21.4835 + −8.217 cos − 1.9918 sin + −3.083 cos − 0.202 sin .

6. Obtain the constant term and the first three coefficients of the Fourier cosine series for 𝒚
using the following table.
𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝒚 4 8 15 7 6 2
Solution: Here the interval of 𝑥 is 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 and since the coeeficients of the Fourier cosine
series are to be found we have to conclude that it should be the cosine half range Fouriere series
of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in (0,6). Comparing with half the range (0, 𝑙) we get 𝑙 = 6 and the Fourier cosine
series is of the form
𝑦= +∑ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜃 where 𝜃 = =

𝑦= +∑ 𝑎 cos

The first three coefficients of the Fourier cosine series along with Fourier constant are as follows

𝑦= + 𝑎 cos + 𝑎 cos + 𝑎 cos

𝑦= + 𝑎 cos(𝜃) + 𝑎 cos(2𝜃) + 𝑎 cos(3𝜃)

We have to compute , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 by using formula

𝑎 = ∑𝑦;𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝜃 ; 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝜃 ; 𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 3𝜃

Here 𝑁 = 6.
 𝝅𝒙
𝒙 𝜽= 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽 𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽
𝟑
0 0 4 1 4 1 4 1 4
1 30 8 0.866 6.928 0.5 4 0 0
2 60 15 0.5 7.5 -0.5 -7.5 -1 -15
3 90 7 0 0 -1 -7 0 0
4 120 6 -0.5 -3 -0.5 -3 1 6
- 0.5 1 0 0
5 150 2 -1.732
0.866
42 13.696 -8.5 -5

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 = (42) = 14 and = 7.

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 𝜃 = (13.696) = 4.565;

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 2𝜃 = (−8.5) = −2.833;

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦 cos 3𝜃 = (−5) = −1.667