MATRICES

INTRODUCTION
Dr. Pragya Mishra
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhaya Govt. Girl’s P. G. College
Lucknow

Dr. Vimlesh
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics & Statistics,
Sri Ram Swaroop Memorial University,
Lucknow –Deva Road, Barabanki
MATRICES INTRODUCTION
Matrix algebra has at least two advantages:
•Reduces complicated systems of equations to simple expressions.
•Adaptable to systematic method of mathematical treatment and well
suited to computers.

APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES
Matrices have many applications in diverse fields of science, commerce
and social science. Matrices are used in
a) Computer graphics
b) Optics
c) Cryptography
d) Economics
e) Geology
f) Robotics and Animation
g) Wireless communication and Signal Processing
 DEFINITION:
A matrix is a set or group of numbers arranged in
a square or rectangular array enclosed by two
brackets
 4 2 a b 
1  1  3 0 c d 
   
PROPERTIES:
• A specified number of rows and a specified
number of columns
• Two numbers (rows x columns) describe the
dimensions or size of the matrix or we say order
of the matrix.
EXAMPLES:
1 2 4 
4  1 5 1 1 3  3
1  1
3x3 matrix
2x4 matrix    
1x2 matrix 3 3 3 0 0 3 2 
A matrix is denoted by a bold capital letter and the
elements within the matrix are denoted by lower case
letters
e.g. matrix [A] with elements aij of order mn

 a11 a12... aij ain 

a a22... aij a2 n 
Amn   21

     
 
i goes from 1 to m am1 am 2 aij amn 
j goes from 1 to n
TYPES OF MATRICES
1. COLUMN MATRIX OR VECTOR:
The number of rows may be any integer but the number of columns is always 1
and order is 1 n
1 
 a11 
1  a21 
4  
   3  
 2  
am1 

2. ROW MATRIX OR VECTOR

Any number of columns but only one row and of order n 1

1 1 6 10 3 15 2 a11 a12 a13  a1n 

3. RECTANGULAR MATRIX
Contains more than one element and number of rows is not equal to the number
of columns i.e. m  n
1 1 
3 7  1 1 1 0 0
  2 0
7  7   0 3 3
 
 7 6 

4. SQUARE MATRIX
The number of rows is equal to the number of columns (a square matrix A
has an order of m x m)
1 3 1
1 1 5 9 0
3 0  
  8 6 1

The principal or main diagonal of a square matrix is composed of all elements

for which aij i=j
5. DIAGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix where all the elements are zero except those on the main
diagonal
1 0 0 3 0 0 0
0 0 3 0 0
 2 0 
0 0 1 0 0 5 0
 
i.e. aij = 0 for all i = j 0 0 0 9

aij = 0 for some or all i  j

6. UNIT OR IDENTITY MATRIX - I

A diagonal matrix with ones on the main diagonal.

1 0 aij 0  1
0
0 0 0
0 a  1 0 0
0 1   ij 

  0

0 1 0

0 0 0 1

i.e. aij = 0 for all i  j and aij = 1 for some or all i = j

7. NULL (ZERO) MATRIX - 0
All elements in the matrix are zero aij  0 For all i,j

0  0 0 0 
0  0 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0

8. TRIANGULAR MATRIX
A square matrix whose elements above or below the main diagonal are all zero.

1 0 0  1 0 0  1 8 9
 2 1 0  2 1 0 0 1 6 
     
5 2 3 5 2 3 0 0 3

There are two types of Triangular Matices :

8A. UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX
A square matrix whose elements below the main diagonal are all zero i.e. aij = 0
for all i > j
aij aij aij  1 8 7  1 7 4 4
  0 1 8  0 1 7 4
0 aij aij 
  
0 aij  0 0 7 8
 0 0 0 3  
0 0 0 3

8B. LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all zero i.e. aij = 0
for all i < j

aij 0 0 1 0 0 
   2 1 0
aij aij 0
 
aij aij 
 aij 5 2 3
9. SCALAR MATRIX
A diagonal matrix whose main diagonal elements are equal to the same scalar
A scalar is defined as a single number or constant i.e. aij = 0 for all i  j
aij = a for all i = j
6 0 0 0 
aij 0 0  1 0 0 0 6 0 0 
  0 1 0   
 0 aij 0 
 0 0 aij    0 0 6 0 
  0 0 1  
 0 0 0 6 
10. SUB MATRIX
A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any number of rows
or columns is called a sub matrix of the given matrix.

1 2 3  1 2 
A  2 3 4
1 2 3 
Then sub matrices of A are 2 3  2 3 4
5 6 7    
5 6
 MATRICES

MATRIX OPERATIONS
MATRICES - OPERATIONS
EQUALITY OF MATRICES
Two matrices are said to be equal only when all corresponding elements are
equal.
Therefore their size or dimensions are equal as well.

1 0 0  1 0 0 
A  2 1 0 B  2 1 0 A=B
5 2 3 5 2 3

SOME PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY:

• If A = B, then B = A for all A and B
• If A = B, and B = C, then A = C for all A, B and C
1 0 0  b11 b12 b13 
A  2 1 0 B  b21 b22 b23 
5 2 3 b31 b32 b33 
If A = B then aij  bij
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES
The sum or difference of two matrices, A and B of the same size yields a matrix
C of the same size
cij  aij  bij
Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted.
COMMUTATIVE LAW:
A+B=B+A

ASSOCIATIVE LAW:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C

EXISTENCE OF ADDITIVE IDENTITY:

A+0=0+A=A

EXISTENCE OF ADDITIVE INVERSE:

A + (-A) = 0 (where –A is the matrix composed of –aij as
elements)
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
Matrices can be multiplied by a scalar (constant or single element)
Let k be a scalar quantity; then
3  1 kA = Ak
2 1 
A
Ex. If k=4 and 2  3
 
4 1 

3  1 3  1 12 4
2 1  2 1  8 4 
4   4   
2  3 2  3 8  12
     
4 1  4 1  16 4 
PROPERTIES:
• k (A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + g)A = kA + gA
• k(AB) = (kA)B = A(k)B
• k(gA) = (kg)A
MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
The product of two matrices is another matrix
Two matrices A and B must be conformable for multiplication if the number
of columns of A must equal the number of rows of B
Example. A x B = C
(1x3) (3x1) (1x1)

B x A = Not possible!
(2x1) (4x2)

A x B = Not possible
(6x2) (6x3)

Example A x B = C
(2x3) (3x2) (2x2)
  b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13     c11 c12 
a  b22   
c22 
b21
 21 a22 a 23 
 b32  c21 
b31 

(a11  b11)  ( a12  b21)  (a13  b31)  c11

(a11  b12 )  (a12  b22 )  ( a13  b32 )  c12
(a 21  b11)  (a 22  b21)  ( a 23  b31)  c21
(a 21  b12 )  ( a 22  b22 )  ( a 23  b32 )  c22

Successive multiplication of row i of A with column j of

B – row by column multiplication
 4 8 
1 2 3     (1 4)  (2  6)  (3  5) (1 8)  (2  2)  (3  3) 
4 2 7 6 2  (4  4)  (2  6)  (7  5) (4  8)  (2  2)  (7  3)
  5 3  
 

31 21
 
 63 57 

REMEMBER ALSO:
IA = A
1 0 31 21 31 21
0 1  63 57  
     63 57 
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Assuming that matrices A, B and C are conformable for the operations
indicated, the following are true:
1. AI = IA = A - (existence of multiplicative identity)
2. A(BC) = (AB)C = ABC - (associative law)
3. A(B+C) = AB + AC - (first distributive law)
4. (A+B)C = AC + BC - (second distributive law)

Caution!
1. AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable
2. If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0
3. If AB = AC, B not necessarily = C
MATRICES - OPERATIONS
AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable

1 2
T  
 5 0 
3 4
S 
 0 2 
1 2 3 4  3 8
TS       
5 0 0 2 15 20
3 4 1 2 23 6
ST       
0 2 5 0 10 0
 ZERO DIVISOR
If A and B are non zero matrices such that AB = 0, neither A nor
B necessarily equal to zero , then A and B are called Divisor of
zero.
1 1  2 3  0 0
0 0  2  3  0 0
    

Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix having property A2  A.

k
Nilpotent Matrix: a square matrix with propertyA  0 where
k is least positive integer, called nilpotent matrix of index k.

Involutory matrix: A square matrix where A2 I

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
To transpose: Interchange rows and columns
The dimensions of AT are the reverse of the dimensions of A

2 4 7 
3
A23 2 A   
5 3 1 23

2 5
T 
A  4 3 
 
7 1 32

aij  a T
ji For all i and j
Properties of transposed matrices:
1. (A+B)T = AT + BT
2. (AB)T = BT AT
3. (kA)T = kAT
4. (AT)T = A
Orthogonal matrix:
A square matrix A with the property 𝑨𝑻 𝑨 = 𝑰 is orthogonal
matrix.
Now 𝑨𝑻 𝑨 = 𝑰
𝑨𝑻 𝑨 = 𝟏
𝑨𝟐=𝟏
𝑨 = ±𝟏 Thus value of determinany of orthogonal matrix is
either 1 or -1.
 PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE
1. (A+B)T = AT + BT

7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5 8  2
2  5 6    4  2 3   2  7 9 8  7 
       
5 9 

7 2  1  4 8  2
 3  5  5  2  8  7
     
 1 6  6 3  5 9 
TRANSPOSE OF MATRIX
(AB)T = BT AT

1 
1 1 0   2
0 2 3 1  8   2 8
   2  
 
1 0
1 1 21 2  2 8
0 3
SYMMETRIC MATRICES

A Square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its transpose:

A = AT
a b Ta b
A A 
b d  b d 
Skew symmetric matrix:
A square matrix is skew symmetric if
A = - AT
 0 a b  0 a  b
A   a 0  c AT  a 0 c   A
   
  b c 0  b c 0 
 Remark:
When the original matrix is square, transposition does not affect
the elements of the main diagonal

a b 
A 
 c d 
a c 
A 
T

b d 
The identity matrix, I, a diagonal matrix D, and a scalar matrix, K,
are equal to their transpose since the diagonal is unaffected.
INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Consider a scalar k. The inverse is the reciprocal or division of 1

by the scalar.
Example:
k=7 the inverse of k or k-1 = 1/k = 1/7
Division of matrices is not defined since there may be AB = AC
while B = C
Instead matrix inversion is used.
The inverse of a square matrix, A, if it exists, is the unique matrix
A-1 where:
AA-1 = A-1 A = I
 INVERSE OF M,ATRIX
Example:
3 1
A 2 A  
2

 2 1
1  1  1
A  
 2 3 
Because:
 1  1 3 1 1 0
 2 3  2 1  0 1
   
3 1  1  1 1 0
2 1  2 3   0 1
   
 Properties of the inverse:

( AB ) 1  B 1 A1
1 1
(A )  A
T 1 1 T
(A )  (A )
1 1
1
(kA)  A
k
A square matrix that has an inverse is called a nonsingular matrix
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called a singular matrix
Square matrices have inverses except when the determinant is zero
When the determinant of a matrix is zero the matrix is singular
 DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

To compute the inverse of a matrix, the determinant is required

Each square matrix A has a unit scalar value called the determinant
of A, denoted by det A or |A|

If 1 2
A 
 6 5 
1 2
A
6 5
then
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
If A = [A] is a single element (1x1), then the determinant is
defined as the value of the element
Then |A| =det A = a11
If A is (n x n), its determinant may be defined in terms of order
(n-1) or less.
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
MINORS
If A is an n x n matrix and one row and one column are deleted,
the resulting matrix is an (n-1) x (n-1) submatrix of A.
The determinant of such a submatrix is called a minor of A and
is designated by mij , where i and j correspond to the deleted
row and column, respectively.
mij is the minor of the element aij in A.
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
eg.
 a11 a12 a13 

A  a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
Each element in A has a minor
Delete first row and column from A .
The determinant of the remaining 2 x 2 submatrix is the minor
of a11
a22 a23
m11 
a32 a33
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS

Therefore the minor of a12 is:

a21 a23
m12 
a31 a33
And the minor for a13 is:

a21 a22
m13 
a31 a32
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
COFACTORS

The cofactor Cij of an element aij is defined as:

i j
Cij  (1) mij

When the sum of a row number i and column j is even, cij = mij and
when i+j is odd, cij =-mij
c11(i  1, j  1)  (1)11 m11   m11
1 2
c12 (i  1, j  2)  (1) m12  m12
1 3
c13 (i  1, j  3)  (1) m13   m13
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
DETERMINANTS CONTINUED

The determinant of an n x n matrix A can now be defined as

A  det A  a11c11  a12c12    a1n c1n

The determinant of A is therefore the sum of the products of the

elements of the first row of A and their corresponding cofactors.
(It is possible to define |A| in terms of any other row or column
but for simplicity, the first row only is used)
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
Therefore the 2 x 2 matrix :
 a11 a12 
A 
a21 a22 
Has cofactors :
c11  m11  a22  a22
And:
c12  m12   a21  a21

And the determinant of A is:

A  a11c11  a12c12  a11a22  a12a21

 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
Example 1:
3 1
A 
1 2 
A  (3)(2)  (1)(1)  5
 M ATRICES - OPERATIONS
For a 3 x 3 matrix:
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
The cofactors of the first row are:
a22 a23
c11   a22a33  a23a32
a32 a33
a21 a23
c12    (a21a33  a23a31)
a31 a33
a21 a22
c13   a21a32  a22a31
a31 a32
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
The determinant of a matrix A is:

A  a11c11  a12c12  a11a22  a12a21

Which by substituting for the cofactors in this case is:

A  a11(a22a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31)  a13 (a21a32  a22a31)

 MATRICES - OPERATIONS

Example 2:
 1 0 1
A   0 2 3
 1 0 1

A  a11(a22a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31)  a13 (a21a32  a22a31)

A  (1)(2  0)  (0)(0  3)  (1)(0  2)  4

 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
ADJOINT MATRICES

A cofactor matrix C of a matrix A is the square matrix of the same

order as A in which each element aij is replaced by its cofactor cij .

Example:
 1 2
If A 
  3 4

 4 3
The cofactor C of A is C 
  2 1
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
The adjoint matrix of A, denoted by adj A, is the transpose of its
cofactor matrix
adjA  C T

It can be shown that:

A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

Example:
 1 2
A 
  3 4 
A  (1)(4)  (2)(3)  10
 4  2
adjA  C  T

 3 1 
MATRICES - OPERATIONS

 1 2 4  2 10 0 
A(adjA)         10 I
 3 4 3 1   0 10

4  2  1 2 10 0 
(adjA) A         10 I
3 1   3 4  0 10
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
USING THE ADJOINT MATRIX IN MATRIX INVERSION
Since
AA-1 = A-1 A = I

and
A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

then
1adjA
A 
A
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
Example
 1 2
A=   3 4
 

1 1 4  2 0.4  0.2
A   
10 3 1  0.3 0.1 


To check AA-1 = A-1 A = I

 1 2 0.4  0.2 1
1 0
AA        I
 3 4 0.3 0.1  0 1
1 0.4  0.2  1 2 1 0
A A      I
0.3 0.1   3 4 0 1
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
Example 2
3  1 1 
A  2 1 0 
1 2  1
The determinant of A is
|A| = (3)(-1-0)-(-1)(-2-0)+(1)(4-1) = -2

The elements of the cofactor matrix are

c11  (1), c12  (2), c13  (3),
c21  (1), c22  (4), c23  (7),
c31  (1), c32  (2), c33  (5),
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
The cofactor matrix is therefore
 1 2 3
C   1  4  7
 1 2 5 

so
 1 1  1
adjA  C T   2  4 2 
 3  7 5 

and
 1 1  1  0.5  0.5 0.5 
1 adjA 1     1.0 2.0  1.0 
A   2  4 2
A 2    
 3  7 5   1.5 3.5  2.5
 MATRICES - OPERATIONS
The result can be checked using

AA-1 = A-1 A = I

The determinant of a matrix must not be zero for the inverse to

exist as there will not be a solution
Nonsingular matrices have non-zero determinants
Singular matrices have zero determinants
MATRIX INVERSION

Simple 2 x 2 case
 SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE
Let
and
a b  w x
1
A  A  
c d   y z

Since it is known that

A A-1 = I

then
a b  w x  1 0
 c d   y z   0 1
    
SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE
Multiplying gives

aw  by  1
ax  bz  0
cw  dy  0
cx  dz  1

It can simply be shown that

A  ad  bc
 SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE
thus
1  aw
y
b
 cw
y
d
1  aw  cw

b d
d d
w 
da  bc A
SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE

 ax
z
b
1  cx
z
d
 ax 1  cx

b d
b b
x 
 da  bc A
SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE

1  by
w
a
 dy
w
c
1  by  dy

a c
c c
y 
 ad  cb A
SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE

 bz
x
a
1  dz
x
c
 bz 1  dz

a c
a a
z 
ad  bc A
 SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE
So that for a 2 x 2 matrix the inverse can be constructed
in a simple fashion as

d b
 A A  1  d  b
1w x   
A     c a  A  c a 
 y z  A
 A 

•Exchange elements of main diagonal

•Change sign in elements off main diagonal
•Divide resulting matrix by the determinant
 SIMPLE 2 X 2 CASE
Example
2 3
A 
 4 1
1 1  1  3  0.1 0.3 
A     
10   4 2   0.4  0.2 
Check inverse
A-1 A=I

1  1  3 2 3 1 0
       I
10  4 2  4 1 0 1
MATRICES TRANSFORMATION

Rank Of Matrix
ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION
1. Interchanging: the interchange of ith row (or
columns), denoted by 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗.
2. Scaling: the multiplication of the elements of 𝑖𝑡ℎ row
(or columns ), by a nonzero scalar k, denoted by
𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝐶𝑗.
1. Combining: the addition to (or subtraction from)the
elements of 𝑖𝑡ℎ row (or columns ) of k, times the
elements of 𝑗𝑡ℎ row (or columns), denoted by

𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑖 ± 𝑘𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑖 ± 𝑘𝐶𝑗.
Operation applied on row called row transformation
Operation applied on column is called column operation.
RANK OF MATRIX
The rank of matrix A is the order of any highest order
non-vanishing determinant of the matrix.
𝜌 𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑟
Means there is al least one determinant of order r is not
equal to zero and every determinant of order r+1 is zero
2 1 1 2 1 1
Ex: A = 4 2 2 𝐴 = 4 2 2 =0
1 2 2 1 2 2
So rank of A cannot be 3
4 2
Now ≠ 0 (nonzero determinant)
1 2

Thus 𝜌 𝐴 =2
METHODS FOR FINDING RANK OF MATRIX
1. Finding the largest order non-vanishing determinant of matrix
A.

2. Reducing Matrix A to Echelon Form.

3. Reducing Matrix A to Normal Form.

Echelon Form:

 All the zero rows or any zero rows follows the nonzero rows.
 The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in first,
second, third row should be in increasing order.

The rank of matrix in Echelon form is equal to the number of non

zero rows of the matrix.
Ex:
1 2 1 2 
1 3 2 2 
A  R2  R2  R1 R3  R3  2 R1
 2 4 3 4
 
 3 7 4 6 
and R4  R4  3R1

1 2 1 2
0 1 1 0
A  R4  R4  R2
0 0 1 0
 
0 1 1 0
1 2 1 2
0 1 1 0
 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 Hence 𝜌 𝐴 = 3
Normal Form of a matrix:
𝐼𝑟 0
0 0
Where 𝐼𝑟 is an identity matrix of order r and 0 is zero-
matrix by e-transformation. Hence rank of matrix is r.
Ex. 1 1 1  1
A  1 2 3 4 R 2  R 2  R1 R 3  R 3  3R1
 
3 4 5 2 
1 1 1  1
 0 1 2 5  C2  C2  C1 C3  C3  C1 C4  C4  C1
 
0 1 2 5 
1 0 0 0
 0 1 2 5 R 3  R 3  R 2 C3  C3  2C2
 
0 1 2 5
C4  C4  5C2
 1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0
 I2
Hence  ( A)  2
Inverse of Matrix By E-row operations

1 6 4
Ex. If 𝐴 = 0 2 3 find inverse of A.
0 1 2
write A=I A
1 6 4 1 0 0
0 2 3 = 0 1 0 𝐴
0 1 2 0 0 1
On performing suitable E-row 0perations on the left and on the
prefactor of Aon the right till we get I 3on the left.
𝑅3 ↔ 𝑅2 , 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → −𝑅3 , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 2𝑅3

1 4 0 1 0 −2
0 1 0 = 0 2 −3 𝐴
0 0 −1 0 1 −2

𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 4𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → −𝑅3

1 0 0 1 −8 10
0 1 0 = 0 2 −3 𝐴
0 0 1 0 −1 2
I = BA

1 −8 10
𝐴−1 = 𝐵 = 0 2 −3
0 −1 2
MATRICES AND LINEAR EQUATIONS

Linear Equations
LINEAR EQUATIONS
Linear equations are common and important for survey problems
Matrices can be used to express these linear equations and aid in the
computation of unknown values.
System of equations has three types of solution:
Unique Solutions: consider the system of equations
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 have a single solution or unique solution and said to
be consistent by nature.
Infinite solution: Consider
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 10
Which does not gives unique solution, but there are many solutions if 𝑥 = 𝑘 and
𝑦 = 5 − 2𝑘
k is arbitrary have infinite number of values , so above equation have infinite
solutions and said to be consistent.
No Solution: consider
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 7

We get 0 = −3 which absurd therefore equations are said to

inconsistent and have no solution.

There are Two types of linear Equations

1. Non Homogenous Linear Equation: AX=B

2. Homogenous Linear Equation: AX=0

Example
 n equations in n unknowns, the aij are numerical
coefficients, the bi are constants and the xj are
unknowns which is non-homogeneous equations

a11x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1

a21x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn

 The equations may be expressed in the form

AX = B
  a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 
a21 a22  a2n   x2  b2 
A , X   ,and B 
       
bn 
 an1 an1 ann  n x n  xn  n x 1 nx1

Number of unknowns = number of equations = n

Augmented Matrix: The matrix composed of mn elements of
coefficient matrix A plus one addition column whose elements
are constant 𝑏𝑖 is called augmented matrix of the system and
denoted [A, B]
 a11 a12 ... a1n b1 
a b2 
 21 a22 ... a2n

[ A, B] 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 
am1 am 2 ... amn bm 
Solution Of non Homogenous Equation:
If There are n Equations in n Variables
a) If 𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝑟 = 𝑛(number of variables), the system will have
Unique solution.
b) If 𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 𝑟 < 𝑛, the system will have infinite solution.
c) If 𝜌 𝐴 ≠ 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 the system will have no solution.

Example: solve the system of equation

2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 2
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=4
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 7
Here
 2 1  2  2
1 1   x  
1   4 AX=B
  y  
 3  1 1     2
   z   
1 2 2  7 
Augmented Matrix 2 1  2 ... 2
1 1 1 ... 4
[ A, B ]    R1  R 2
3  1 1 ... 2
 
1 2 2 ... 7 
1 1 1 ... 4
2 1  2 ... 2
  [R 2  R 2  2R1, R 3  R 3  3R1
3  1 1 ... 2
 
1 2 2 ... 7 
R 4  R 4  R1]
[R 2  R 4 ] [R 3  R 3  4R 2 , R 4  R 4  R 2 ]
1 1
[R 4   R 4 , R 3  R 3 ]
3 2
[R 4  R 4  R 3 ]
 1 1 1 ... 4
0 1 1 ... 3
 
0 0 1 ... 1 
 
0 0 0 ... 0
Which is Echelon form of Matrix [A,B]
𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 therefore equations are consistent.
Now 𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 3 = 𝑛(number of variables), the system will have
Unique solution.
1 1 1  4
0 1 1   x   3 
  y   
0 0 1    1 
   z   
0 0 0  0 
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =4
𝑦+𝑧=3
𝑧=1
which gives 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 1.
Example: Solve the equations such that equations have (i) no Solution (ii) a
Unique solution (iii) a Infinite solution
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=6
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑏
1 1 1 𝑥 6
Here 1 2 3 𝑦 = 10
1 2 𝑎 𝑧 𝑏
Then augmented matrix
1 1 1 ... 6 
[ A, B]  1 2 3 ... 10
 
1 2 a ... b 
R2  R2  R1, R3  R3  R2
1 1 1 ... 6 
 0 1 2 ... 4 
 
0 0 a  3 ... b  10
Case I: when 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 ≠ 10 we get
𝜌 𝐴 = 2 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 3
Thus system is inconsistent and have no solution.

Case II: when 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 10 we get

𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 2 < 3 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
Thus system is consistent and infinite solution.

Case III: when 𝑎 ≠ 3 we get

𝜌 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝐴, 𝐵 = 3(𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠)
Thus system is consistent and have unique solution.
SOLUTION IF HOMOGENOUS LINEAR
EQUATION
when the system has n Equations in n variables
The equation AX=0 will always have unique solution if rank of A is always
equal to number of variables, but it is zero solution also Known as Trivial
solution. In this case A is non singular matrix i.e. 𝐴 ≠ 0.

When rank of matrix A is r less than number of variables then there will be
infinite solutions
In this case 𝐴 = 0 and we have non zero solution called non trivial solution.

Example: Solve
𝑥−𝑦+𝑧 =0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
1 −1 1 𝑥 0
matrix equation becomes 1 2 −1 𝑦 = 0 AX=0
2 1 −3 𝑧 0
The Coefficient matrix
1 −1 1
𝐴= 1 2 −1
2 1 −3

[𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2 𝑅1 ] and then

[𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 ]

1 −1 1
𝐴 = 0 3 −2
0 0 3
This is Echelon form and rank of A =3 (No. of variables). Therfore zero
solution is the only solution.
Now matrix equation
𝑥−𝑦+𝑧 =0
3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0
3𝑧 = 0
Which gives x=0,y=0 and z=0.
SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATION BY MATRIX
INVERSION METHOD

If the determinant is nonzero, the equation can be solved to produce

n numerical values for x that satisfy all the simultaneous equations
To solve, premultiply both sides of the equation by A-1 which exists
because |A| = 0

A-1 AX = A-1 B
Now since
A-1 A = I

We get
X = A-1 B

So if the inverse of the coefficient matrix is found, the unknowns,

X would be determined
 LINEAR EQUATIONS
Example
3x1  x2  x3  2
2 x1  x2  1
x1  2 x2  x3  3

The equations can be expressed as

3  1 1   x1  2
 2 1 0   x   1 
  2   
1 2  1  x3  3
 LINEAR EQUATIONS
When A-1 is computed the equation becomes

 0.5  0.5 0.5  2  2 

X  A1 B   1.0 2.0  1.0  1   3
 1.5 3.5  2.5 3  7 

Therefore
x1  2,
x2  3,
x3  7
 LINEAR EQUATIONS
The values for the unknowns should be checked by substitution
back into the initial equations

x1  2, 3x1  x2  x3  2
x2  3, 2 x1  x2  1
x3  7 x1  2 x2  x3  3

3  (2)  (3)  (7)  2

2  (2)  (3)  1
(2)  2  (3)  (7)  3