ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY
OF DOMESTIC ANIMAL

INSTRUCTOR: - DR-ABDI YASIN YUSUF

FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
Contents
CHAPTER 1:- INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2: - CELL PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY ................................................................. 8

CHAPTER 3: TISSUE ................................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER 4-SKELETAL SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 5- DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ................................................................................... 64

CHAPTER 6:-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ............................................................................... 84

CHAPTER 7:-URINARY SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 94

CHAPTER 8:-REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ........................................................................... 105

CHAPTER 9:-CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEM ...................................................................... 119

CHAPTER 10:- BLOOD, LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM................................................... 132

CHAPTER 11:-INTEGUMENT SYSTEM .............................................................................. 150

CHAPTER 12:-NERVOUS SYSTEM` ................................................................................ 164

CHAPTER 13:- MUSCULAR SYSTEM ............................................................................... 182

CHAPTER 14:-ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ............................................................................................. 196

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CHAPTER 1:- INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. Anatomy: - is a branch of science dealing with the structure of an organism’s body.

 What do they look like? And where are they located in the body?

2. Physiology: - is the science dealing of functions of living organism.

 How do they work? And what they do in the body?

 Both anatomy and physiology uses terms like:-

 Cells

 Tissue

 Organs

 And system

 Although their studies as separate subjects

- The study of anatomy can be approached as:-

1. Microscopic anatomy: - which deals the studying of the small structures like cells

and tissue required seeing them with the help of microscope.

2. Macroscopic or gross anatomy: - which deals the studying of large structures like

organs, muscles, bones that are enough to see them.

3. Sub-microscopic levels: - are things occurring the microscopic and macroscopic

levels like the chemical molecules and the ions that serve an important role in the

body.

4. Regional anatomy: - deals the studying of a region. For example the anatomy of the

neck include :-

 Cells

 Blood vessels

 Tissue

 Nerves

 Muscles

 Bones
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- So it is not always easy to subdivide in this way due to where does the neck

region end is not clear.

5. Systemic anatomy: - deals separate topics of the body.

a. Skeletal system:- bones and joints

b. Integumentary system: - skin, hair, hooves, nails, horns.

c. Nervous system: - peripheral and central nervous system.

d. Cardio-vascular system:- heart , and blood vessels

e. Respiratory system: - lungs, and the air passage.

f. Muscular system:- voluntary and involuntary

g. Endocrine system :- glands and hormones

h. Urinary system: - kidneys, uterus, bladder.

i. Reproductive system:- male / female gonads

j. In addition these systems we examine

Cells

Tissue

Blood

Lymphatic system

Immune system

6. Surface anatomy: - is the study of form, and marking of the surface of the body.

7. Anatomical planes of reference: - the basic anatomical terms (terminology) are

based on planes that can be used as points or reference.

- The terms such as

 Up

 Down

 Above

 Below

 Beside

 Under
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- Are not useful in the field of anatomy because they depend on orientation of the

animal

- So there are 4-anatomical planes of reference

1. Sagital plane: - is a vertical plane though the longitudinal axis of the trunk

dividing the body into right and left portions ( median Sagital plane)

2. Median plane:-is plane though the mid-axis dividing the body in to the right

and left halves.

3. Transverse plane:-divides the body into cranial (head) and caudal (tail end).

4. Dorsal plane: - divides the body into dorsal (Back) and ventral (toward belly).

Figure: Planes of the body. The three major planes (frontal, transverse and Sagital) are shown

- Directional terms: - describes the body structures, and occurs in pairs of opposite

meanings.

1. Left _____________ Right

2. Dorsal __________ ventral

3. Cranial __________ caudal

4. Medial __________ lateral

5. Deep __________ superficial

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6. Proximal _________ distal

7. Palmer __________ plantar

- N .B - the front of fore limb, and the hind limb are called palmer and plantar.

Body cavities

- The 2-main cavities in the animals’ body:-

1. Dorsal body cavity: - which consists the spherical cranial cavity in the skull

contains the brain and long narrow spinal cavity that protects the spinal cord.

2. Ventral body cavity :- which consists thoracic cavity ( chest or thorax) cavity

that contains:-

a. Heart c. Esophagus e. blood vessels

b. Lungs d. trachea f. covered by a thin membrane called pleura

- The abdominal and pelvic cavities that contains:-

a. Digestive organs c. and reproductive organs

b. Urinary organs

- Lined by a thin membrane called peritoneum

- The visceral layer of the peritoneum covers the abdominal organs, and the parietal

layer lines the abdominal cavity. b/w the 2-layers there is a fluid that serves

lubricant ( in order not to slide)

- Anatomy terminology

-Terminology means is the vocabulary of scientific and technical terms used in

professions.

1. Cell: - a cell is the unit of structure of all animals and plants. So all the

functional activities of the body are carried on by cell, and their structures

closely correlate with its functions.

2. Tissue: - is a group or collection of similar cells which act together a

particular function.
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3. Organ: - is a part of the body having a special function. Many organs are

pairs, so one organ may be extirpated without loss of function necessary to

support life.

4. System: - is a group of structures or organs related to each other, and

functioning together.

5. Vessels: - is a tube or canal conveys the fluids of the body.

6. Planes: - are used as points of reference.

7. Visceral: - are internal organs enclosed with in a cavity – like the abdominal

cavity (organs).

8. Pleura: - is a serious membrane enfolded the lungs, also the peritoneum is

another serious membrane lining the abdominal cavity.

9. Parietal: - is the wall of the cavity.

10. Body cavity: - is the space b/w the body wall and the visceral organs.

11. Myo-cardio:- is the cardiac or heart muscle

12. Cartilage: - is specialized type of the connective tissue that has no nerve

and blood supply.

13. Adipose: - is a fat the body.

14. Skeletal muscle: - is a voluntary muscle.

15. Smooth muscle: - is an in voluntary muscle.

16. Esophagus: - is a muscular canal extending from the pharynx to the

stomach.

17. Trachea: - is cylindrical cartilaginous tube from the larynx to bronchial

tubes.

Questions and answers

Q 1- Describe the following anatomical terms

An- Diaphragm is muscular membrane wall separate the abdomen from thoracic cavity.

- Pleura: - serous membrane that enfolds the lung

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- Peritoneum: - is another serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity.

- Organs: - are parts of the body having special function.

- Tissue: - is a collection of similar cells that acts together a particular function.

- Systems:- are group of organs

- Cell: - is simplest of subdivision of the body that is capable of life.

Q2 – if you are facing a cats head is its left can on your left side or the right side.

An – the left ear of cat is on May right side

Q3- what is difference between parietal and visceral layer?

An- parietal layer lines the whole part of the body cavity while visceral layer covers soft

organs.

Q – Name four basic tissue of the body?

An- Epithelial, Connective, Muscular and Nervous tissue.

Q- Where do they locate the body the serious membranes of pleura and peritoneum?

An- the pleura lines the thoracic cavity and the peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity.

Q- Why are the terms below no use full for the description of the body parts?

- up - above - around

- Down - below - forward - behind

An- Because they are used on the orientation of the animals that cannot be used as

reference

Q- Write down the opposite of the following terms

An- - Cranial --------------- Caudal

-Proximal --------------- Distal

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-Deep ------------------- Superficial

-Internal ---------------- External

-Palmer ----------------- Plantar

- Right ------------------ Left

- Medial --------------- Lateral

- Ventral ----------- Dorsal

- Microscopic------- macroscopic

Q- Name the organs in the dorsal cavity and the thoracic cavity?

An- (a) – organs in the dorsal cavity are brain and the spinal cord.

(b)- And the organs in the thoracic cavity are hearts, esophagus & blood vessels

Q- List principle systems of the body?

An- Skeletal systems - muscular system - Urinary systems - Respiratory Systems

- Digestive system - Reproductive system – Nervous system – Endocrine systems

- Integumentary system - cardio-vascular system

Q- Health- the term of the health can be defined

- State of normal anatomy and physiology

- Proper functioning of all tissue, organs, and the systems of the body.

- Is the state physical and mental well being.

Q- Homeostasis – is the maintenance of the body activity such as: - body temperature,

acid and base balance, hormone levels and nutrient level Oxygen levels

Q- Disease; - literally means lack of case or pathological condition of the body

(Dyscarsia)
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CHAPTER 2: - CELL PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY

- CELL ANATOMY

o Definition

o Cell membrane

o Flagella and cilia

o Cytoplasm

- CELL PHYSIOLOGY

o Cell fluids

o Acid and base

o Electrolyte

o Membrane process

o Passive and active transport

- Definition – cell is the unit of structure of all animals , and plants , that carries all

the activities of the body ,the structure and from of a cell is closely correlated

with its functions as :-

o Nerve cells

o Glands cells

o Muscle cells

o Blood cells

o Reproductive cells

o Bone cells

- In general there are two type of cells in the animal’s body’ body :-

a) Somatic cells that contains diploid number of chromosomes and

b) Reproductive cells or germ cells that contain half the number of

chromosomes present in somatic cells ( Haploid).

- Cells not posses organized nucleus are called prokaryotic cells, and the nucleated

cells are known eukaryotic.

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Figure: cell structure

- A cell comprises of ;-

1. Cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm

3. And the nucleus

I-The cell membrane or the plasma membrane

- Definition: - the cell membrane is a flexible elastic barrier b/w the cytoplasm

and the outside environment.

- Structurally :- the cell membrane primarily consists

1. Proteins 55%

2. Carbohydrate 4%

3. Phospholipids 25%

4. Cholesterol 13%

- The actual consistency and the complexity of the cell membrane depend on the

function of the cell type.

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- The cell membrane is not visible with the light microscope, but under the

electronic microscope appears as 2-thin dark layers.

- Functions of the cell membrane :-

o Perform to maintain the shape of the cell.

o Controls the passage of the substance in and out of the cell.

o The membrane is capable the self repair, but if severely damaged and

released the intra-cellular contents results the death of the cell.

- Structurally extending on the plasma membrane

a) Cilia – are fine hair like structures found the surface of the cells that move

one after the other by creating waves of motion the propel.

1. Fluids

2. Mucus

3. Debris

4. Bacteria

5. Dust particles

6. Pus

- In the respiratory system, and the oviduct pulls the expelled egg away from the

overy into the oviduct.

b) Flagella – is a extending of the plasma membrane that is longer than the

cilia typically to individual cells which propel the cell forward through liquids.

Good example is the tail of sperm.

II- Cytoplasm

- Definition – is the inner substance of the cell excluding the nucleus.

- The principle components of the cytoplasm are :-

o Cytosol

o Cytoskeleton

o Organelles
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o And inclusion like carbohydrate, proteins, fats, pigments secretions and

granules.

I. Organelles (means like organs) that posses specialized cellular functions.

1. Endoplasmic reticulum – are series of tubules attached one another , bend shape

in the cytoplasm classified

a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum –are attached by the ribosome that helps in

the protein synthesis.

b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- is active in the synthesis and storage of

the lipids, not only that but they also break down glycogen into glucose in

the liver and the elimination of drugs.

2. Mitochondria – known as the power house of the cell produces 95% of the

energy cell used in the intercellular fuels.

- Mitochondria are the organelle where the respiration of the cell takes place.

- Also many bio-chemical reactions take place in the mitochondria of the cell.

- Structurally the mitochondria are elliptical or round in shape enclosed by

two membranes smooth and cristae in the inner.

3. Ribosome’s – is small organ cells scattered through the cytoplasm or attached to

the surface of endoplasmic reticulum to help in the protein synthesis.

4. Lysosomes – structurally are round or oval bodies , that containing hydrolytic

enzymes ( is any reaction in which water is one of the reactants ) for that case –

- Lysosomes are responsible the breakdown of the nutrient molecule.

- It also engulfs the foreign bodies entered the cell , and to decrease the body

tissue as occurs the uterus after the parturition and the atrophy of the

muscles after paralyses then lysosomes are suicidal bags ( destroyed the cell

itself)

5. Centriols- are minute organelles, found in the center of the cell that are

responsible of the formation of spindle fibers (thread like substance /

filaments) that migrate to the opposite o the cell during mitosis.

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6. Golgi apparatus – are organelles found near the nucleus that acts to modify and

package the secretory products, although their functions are poorly understood.

7. Cytosol – is the fluid of the cell which is semi-transparent which compose :-

a. Electrolyte

b. Proteins

c. Simple sugars

d. That is all important in the cell metabolic activities.

8. Cytoskeleton- gives cell the frame which is flexible on accordance with the

activities of the cell.

- Function of the cytoskeleton

a. Supports the cell , and gives the shape

b. Enables to move cell

c. Provides direction for metabolic activities.

d. Anchors the organelles in the cytoplasm.

III- Nucleus

- Definition –the nucleus is the vital body in the protoplasm of a cell , which is

considered the control of :-

1- Growth 2- Metabolism 3- reproduction and the

4- Transmission of characteristics of a cell.

- Function of the nucleus

o The nucleus contains the hereditary information (DNA) that enables the cell

to divide.

o Then the nucleus maintains the hereditary information of the cell since it

become from pre-existing cells.

o The nucleus controls the cell activity through protein synthesis

o Most of the cells have one nucleus , but large cells like the myocytes are

multi nucleus
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o Mature Red blood cells (R. B. C) are a nucleated for the case cannot able to

divide , and survive for more than 3-4 months , but birds, reptiles their red

blood cells are nucleated so are able to divide and survive in the blood

circulation for long time.

- Structure of the nucleus

1. Nuclear envelope or the nuclear membrane

 Structurally the nuclear membrane is similar to that of the cell membrane,

but is thicker, and has few pores, and the outer layer of the membrane is

continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.

2. Chromosomes- are thread like substances or structures at the resting

stage with in the nucleus, but become more prominent during the cell

division. So in the period of the cell division the chromosomes become

uncoiled, and are extends by forming diffuse network called chromatin. So

chromosome contains the genes (hereditary determiners). The normal

number of the chromosomes is constant for each species. For example for

man 46 chromosomes. In somatic cell constitute diploid number. In the

formation of gametes (Egg and sperm) the number is reduced to Haploid

number-23. So one of each of the 23 pairs of these: - 22 are autosomes ,

and ( somatic cells) one – is the sex chromosome ( X or Y) germ cells.

3. Necleoplasm – are gel-like substance filled in the nucleus, as the Cytosol of

the cytoplasm.

4. Nucleoli- are a number of nucleolus that compose irregular network of

chromatin materials.

a. Gel- is semi-solid or coagulated colloids

b. Autosome- is chromosomes occur in pairs found in the somatic cells.

c. Sex-chromosome – are a pair of chromosomes responsible the sex

determination (X or Y).
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d. Chromatin – are substance present in the nucleus that contain the

genetic code.

e. Chromatid – are the 2-halves of the chromosome held together by

the centromere.

- Cell physiology

- Introduction – the tissue , organs , and the cells of the body cannot survive without

fluids : and can be classified –

a) Intracellular fluids within the cells

b) Extra cellular fluids found in the intercellular and in the intravascular.

- Both the two types of the fluids are found charged particles called ( Ions) capable

of conducting and electrical current in the called electrolyte ; that dissociate in

the water.

a. Acids , and bases

1. Acids release hydrogen ions. Hcl→H++ Cl-

2. Bases release hydroxyl ions. NaOH →Na++ OH-

3. That after they unite form water H++ OH-→ H2O

+
4. So the hydrogen ions ( H ) in the solution is measured by the PH- units

form ( 0-14)

5. Water has the neutral PH- of 14.

6. So PH below 7 is acids, and above 7 contains high of OH- ions.

7. So injured animals the concentration of the electrolytes in the body

fluids become acidic which can be corrected with bicarbonate.

- Membrane processes ;- the cell membrane can be permeable to some substance ,

and impermeable to other so is a selective , in addition to the electrolytes the

tissue fluids contain

o Fatty acids

o Hormones
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o Amino acids

o Dissolved gasses

- So the absorption , and excretion of the cell membrane can occur:-

a. Either with energy or an active process which requires ( ATP).

b. Or without energy or through passive process that does not need any

energy.

Passive process

1. Simple diffusion – this process depends the concentration gradients or the region

with least filled with molecules which determined by three factors

a. The size of the molecules – for that case small molecules like H2O can pass

easily the pores of the cell membrane.

b. Lipid solubility – the alcohols, ether, chloro form, and steroids can pass the

cell membrane due to their solubility in fats.

c. Facilitated diffusion – large molecules and the non solubility lipids can pass

the cell membrane with the help of the carrier proteins.

2. Osmosis – is the passage of solvents through a semi-permeable membrane

separating solution of different concentrations? This means from the region of

lower concentration of solute to that of higher concentration of solute to equalize

the concentration of the 2-solution. Note – the difference b/w osmosis and

diffusion is that osmosis requires selective membrane but the diffusion does not

need.

3. Osmotic pressure – is the pressure which develops when 2-solution =s of different

concentrations is separated by a semi-permeable membrane.

a. Isotonic- means the concentration of the extracellular fluids is equal to

that of the intracellular fluids ( Osmotic = normal)

b. Hypotonic – the intracellular fluids are more concentrated, and then water

flows into the cell resulting to swell and burs.

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c. Hypertonic- the extracellular fluids are more concentrated, then the

solvents goes out of the cell causing the cell to shrink.

Figure: Osmosis: The semi permeable membrane prevents

the passage of large molecules. In this situation, water
moves across the membrane to equalize the concentration

4. Filtration – is based on hydrolic pressure generated by the blood pressure from

the heart pump which pushes the H2O , and the small molecular solutes. Good is the

kidneys which enables the liquids, and the small molecules to filter.

- Active process – in the active process the cell requires energy because the

transport of the molecules may move against the concentration gradient. Why so?

1. The molecules are not lipid soluble.

2. The molecules are too large to pass the membrane

3. The molecules are in the wrong side of the concentration gradient.

- Endocytosis

a. Phagocytosis – the cell engulfs microbes , and foreign debris ( W.B.C)

b. Pinocytosis- cell engulfs liquid substance as in the G.I.T tracts. The cell

takes water into intracell vesicles ( sacs containing H2O)

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c. Receptor mediated – is pharmacology is a cell component that combines

with a drug or a hormone to alter the function of the cell.

- Exocytosis – Excretion and the secretion of the manufactured are packed into

secretory vesicles which fuse the cell membrane then are released into ducts.

- N.B- cytoisis – is the mechanism that a cell brings nutrients and ejects waste

products.

- Cytolysis – is the destruction of the living cells.

- Autolysis – is the process of self digestion.

Figure: Endocytosis: (Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis) and Exocytosis

Questions and Answers

Q – Describe the following terms

 Detoxification: - is the reduction of the toxic properties of a poisonous

substance.
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 Mitochondria: - is the power house of the cell which involves the synthesis

of the protein, and the lipid metabolism.

 Inclusion: - are food substance, pigment, granules and crystals and sub

microscopic bodies in the cytoplasm.

 Atrophy: - is decrease of an organ or tissue in size.

 Parturition: - is the act of giving birth to a young.

 Absorption: - is the passage of a substance through some surface of the

body into the body fluids or tissue. For example- products of digestion are

absorbed from the G.I.T tract passed into blood.

 Rhythmic: - is the regularity of occurring of an action.

 Debris: - are the damaged cell or tissue.

 Lysosomes: - is the intracellular digest.

 Secretion: - is the process whereby cellular of the glandular organs

produce certain materials from the blood.

 Excretion: - is the elimination of the waste products from the body.

 Polysaccharides: - are group of carbohydrates that yields more than one

molecule of simple sugar through the process hydrolysis.

 Dynamic – is vital force opposed to static (motion).

Q – Describe the nuclear membrane, and how does it differ from cell membrane.

An. The nuclear membrane has similar structure to that of the cell , but is less selective

due to its pores’ that are larger enough than the cell membrane.

Q- Does a cell without nucleus can survive as long as a cell with nucleus? Why or why not?

An- No its does not, because a nucleated cells could not able to divide into daughter cells.

Q – Names the 3-types of the endocytosis?

An – 1- Phagocytosis 2- Pinocyte 3- And receptor mediated

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Q – Where is commonly found the body fluids?

An- 1- in the intracellular 2- in the intravascular 3- and the interstitial fluids.

Q – Diffusion – is a passive process b/w concentrated least concentrated spectrum.

Q- Name the molecules simple diffuse into the cell without energy, and the three

principals involved

 Water and the small molecular solutes simply diffuse into the cell.

 The three principle involves the simple diffusion are :- the size of the molecule ,

lipid solubility And the charged particle

Q – Differentiate the simple diffusion, and the facilitated diffusion.

An- The difference is that in the facilitated diffusion large molecules, and non lipid soluble

pass the cell membrane with the help of the carrier proteins.

Q –Discuss the effect of the hypnotic solution

An- in the hypnotic solution of H2O follows into the cell, then results to swell or bursts.

Q – Describe the relationship b/w hydrostatic pressure and filtration.

An- Both of them are under the pressure generated by the heartbeat.

Q- What is the other name of the hypostatic pressure?

An- Is the diminished of the blood flow.

Q- Differentiate excretion and secretion.

An- Excretion- the excocytosis of the waste products while secretion is the process of

producing certain materials.

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CHAPTER 3: TISSUE
- Definition: - is a group or collection of similar cells which act together a particular

function.

- The primary function of the body tissue are :-

o Epithelial tissue

o Connective tissue

o Muscular tissue

o And nervous tissue

I- Epithelial tissue

- Definition: - are cells which form the outer surface of the body, lines the body

cavities, tubules, passage ways extending (leading) to the exterior.

- Characteristics of the epithelial tissue

1. The epithelial tissue may be:-

a. Simple consisting of single layer

b. Compound or stratified consisting of several layer

2. Cells comprising the epithelial tissue may be

a. Flat ( squamous )

b. Cube-shaped (cuboidal)

c. Cylindrical (columnar)

d. Modified form including

i. Ciliated cells

ii. Pseudo stratified

iii. Glandular

iv. Neuro epithelium

v. Goblet cells

vi. Transitional

vii. Production of germ cells

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viii. Pigment granules

3. The epithelial cells lie closely in one or few layers with little intercellular

substance,

- Functions of the epithelium

1. General functions of the epithelium tissue

a) Protection – covers the outer surfaces of the body, and lines the cavities,

tubules and passage ways.

b) Absorption: - are the absorptive in the gastro intestinal tract and cutaneous.

c) Secretion: - forms the secreting portions like liver, pancreas, mammary

gland and their duct.

- Simple epithelium tissue:- are arranged in a single layer of cells on the basement

membrane , so according to their shape can be classified as follows:-

a) Simple squamous epithelium: - are single layer of flat cells placed tightly on

the basement membrane (pavement).

 Function- other than protection are thin and delicate cells that lines: -

surfaces involved passages of liquids and gases that are found in the lungs,

kidneys and vessels.

b) Simple cuboidal epithelium – are also made of a single layer of cells on the

basement membrane

 Function- other than protection from abrasion, they have the property of:

secretion, storage, and absorptive property in the intestine.

c) Simple columnar epithelium: - also made of a single layer of cylindrical cells

placed on the basement membrane.

 Function; - the columnar epithelium are more protective than squamous, and

cuboidal.

 Other than functions include :-

o Absorption in the intestine

o Secretion of the gastric acids

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o The ciliated cells in the uterine tubes and in the respiratory tract locate

on the cylindrical cells.

- Basement membrane cements the simple epithelial cells into the underlying connective

tissue to provide oxygen , and nutrients

2- Stratified Epithelium

- Are arranged in the form of layers consisting of various cells that are found the

regions of body subject to mechanical and chemicals like the :-

o Mouth

o Esophagus

o Vagina

o Rectum

- That are classified as follows:

a) Squamous stratified epithelium :- that can be subdivided into :-

I. Cornified: - which is found where there is more common wear, tear,

friction, or expose to the atmosphere of the body.

II. Non-Cornified:- have no keratinized layers and are found also where there

is the tear , and the wears are more like

- Mouth

- Esophagus

- Pharynx

- Vagina

- And the anal canal

b) Stratified columnar epithelium :- this type of tissue locates only in selected

parts of the body like :-

- Respiratory system

- Digestive system

- Reproductive system
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- And some excretory ducts

c) Stratified cuboidal epithelium :- this kind of tissue generally occurs as 2-

layers of cells and are found primarily among large excretory ducts like those in

the :-

- Sweat glands

- Mammary glands

- Salivary glands

- In addition they are important for the protection of the delicate tissue.

3- Modified forms of epithelial

a. Transitional epithelium ;- are specialized cells of epithelium found where there is

required to expand and contract as in the ;-

- Urinary bladder

- Ureter

- And the urethra

b. Pseudo – stratified columnar epithelium (pseudo = false) – this type of epithelium

tissue are the ciliated cells locates in the respiratory and reproductive systems

which helps the transport of the materials.

c. Goblet cells; - are secretory cells of mucus substance that are found in digestive

and respiratory tract.

d. Neuro –epithelium :- are specialized epithelial cells forming the termination of a

nerve for special sense like

- Gustatory cells (Taste)

- Olfactory (smell)

- Hair feeling cells

- Cones of the retina (sight)

- Embryonic layer of the eipblast where the cerebrospinal develops

e. Glandular epithelium – glands are classified according to:-

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a. Presence or absence of ducts (Duct and Ductless)

i. Endocrine glands:- are ductless glands that secrete regulatory chemicals

(Hormones ) in to the blood stream

ii. Exocrine glands :- that discharge their secretions through vai ducts like:-

1. The liver

2. Salivary glands

3. Sebaceous glands

4. Sweat glands

b. Exocrine glands can be classified again into;-

1. Unicellular: - that are modified epithelial cells like goblet cells that

secretes mucus for protection of microbes and foreign materials that are

found in the respiratory and conjunctiva of the eye.

2. Multcellular : - that are made of secretory unit, and ducts.

a. The secretory unit surround by

1. Connective tissue rich of blood vessels and nerves

2. Contractile cells called Myo epithelium

3. The rate of the secretion is under the hormonal , and nerves

influence

b. the secretory ducts of the exocrine glands can be

1) Long channel know as tubular glands

2) Round sacs called alveolar glands

3) R can posses both tubule-acianar or tubo-alveolar

4) Un branched duct or branched

iii. Manner of secreting the ducts

1) Apocrine- the cells of the gland do not release until the apex become full

(they store), after that the cells burst by releasing the cytoplasmic

content. Good example mammary.

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2) Merocrine: - the secretory cells remain intact during the secretory

process. Examples are salivary, pancreas and sweat glands.

3) Halocrine: - also these glands their secretory cells store until they are

required to release that are mainly or principally found sebaceous.

IV- Types of the exocrine glands secretion

1) Mucus secretions – that are thick secretions found in the respiratory and

digestive systems.

2) Serous secretion- that is watery with enzymes as those of the salivary

glands.

II-Connective tissue

- Definition :- is a tissue which connects or binds together with the other tissue , and

supports so they are found everywhere in the body due to the ground substances ,

and the type of the fiber substances ( thread like) enables it is tissue to take

different qualities that range from

o Elastic

o Flexible

o Rigid

o Semi-solid

o And liquid

1. The ground substances of the connective tissue are amorphous means have no

definite structure or homogenous that range from liquid to gel to calcified

 Functions of the ground substance

a. Ground substances are medium where the exchange of the nutrients and the

removal of the wastes in the blood stream.

b. Ground substances envelope the delicate organs

 26

c. Ground substances produce hyaluronidase enzymes that degrade the

microbes.

2. Fibers of the connective tissue :- there are three types of fibers

a. Gollagenous fibers – are thick and strong bundles of micro fibrils that

enable the body to resist pulling forces commonly found in the ;-

i. Skin

ii. Bones

iii. Ligaments

iv. And cartilages

b. Reticular fibers- they also compose collagenous substances of insoluble

proteins , but are not thick instead they are delicate and thin of network

which supports the cellular organs like those found

i. In the liver

ii. Bone marrow

iii. Spleen

iv. Lymphatic

v. And the muscles

c. Elastic fibers – are also made of complex net-work. As their name indicates

can stretch and contract as the rubber band commonly found the organs

subject to stretch like :-

i. Vocal cord (voice box)

ii. Walls of the blood vessels

3. Cells of the connective tissue:- can be classified into

a. Fixed cells – are the matrix means are the basic substances from which a

thing is made of or develops so the ground substances , and the fibers

manufactures the fibroblast which is active than the cells less active role of

the fibrocytes.
 27

Fibroblast (active) Fibrocytes (less active)

Chondroblast – Hematic blast Chondrocytes

Osteo blast – angio blast Osteocytes

Adipose cells – neuro blast Adipocytes

Erythro blast

b. Transient cells – are cells that do not have permanent residence instead

they are moving in and out ad are called wandering cells. Examples

i. Leukocyte (W.B.C) – are cells that squeeze through the walls of the blood

vessels (the process diapedesis) in order to engulf or digest the microbes

invaded the body.

ii. Mast cells- are cells staining the granules in the cytoplasm that contain both

histamine and heparin.

iii. Macrophages – are Phagocytozing cells to the site of infection or

inflammatory to engulf

1. The microbes

2. Dead cells

3. And debris

Infact the macrophages have different names which depends on the type

of the tissue like those of the

- Kupffer cells in the liver

- Microglial cells in the brain

- Hsitocytes in the loose connective tissue.

- Functions of the connective tissue

- Supports and connects the other tissue, parts of the body.

- Forms protective sheets around other organs.

 28

- Provides frame that supports in the body.

- Forms a medium that transport substances.

- It has the ability to withstand forces from direct pressure and abrasions.

Types of connective tissue

- There are 2-types of the connective tissue that are –

I. Proper connective tissue can be divided

1. Loose connective tissue – which is found in the

a) Areolar tissue – is the most common type of the loose connective tissue found

everywhere in the body acts as;-

- To support

- To cushion organs

- To envelope the blood vessels

- To enable freedom movements the organs in their position.

b) Adipose tissue (fat)- found in the or locates

- Behind the eye balls

- Between the muscles

- Joints and the bone marrow

- Around the kidneys

- On the surface of the heart

- In the omentum of the abdomen

c) Reticular tissue – is a complex network of thin reticular filaments (fibers) which

constitute the frame work of several organs like

- liver

- spleen

- lymphatic

- Bone marrow

2. Dense connective tissue – classified

 29

a. Dense regular – that compose collagenous fiber (thick , and strong) that is

relatively a vascular and poor in the healing process found:-

- The tendons that attach muscles to bone

- Ligaments that hold bone and joints

b. Dense irregular – that is found the dermis of the skin, and the fibrous

covering the organs like

- Kidneys

- Testes

- Liver

- Spleen

- Touch capsules of the joints

c. Elastic tissue- are found few regions of the body like the spaces of the

vertebrae , and the regions require to stretch like

- The walls of the vessel

- Stomach

- Air passages

- Urinary bladder

II. Specialized connective tissue including

a) The cartilages- that are more rigid, but are more flexible than bones. Cartilages

are a vascular but receive the nutrients from the pre-chondrium rich in blood

vessels. The cartilages can be divided into –

1) Hyaline cartilage – is made of collagenous fibers that are found in the articular

cartilages of the –

a. Long bones

b. Ribs to sternum

c. Rings of the trachea

d. Most of the embryonic skeleton.

 30

2) Fibro-cartilage – are thick bundles of the collagenous fibers found in the

spaces of the vertebrae and knee joints

3) Elastic cartilages – are similar to that of hyaline but contain elastic fibers

that provide flexibility in order to withstand repeated bending found in the

epiglottis of the larynx, and the external ears.

b) Bone – is the most hardest (rigid) type of the connective tissue the matrix of the

bone composes collagen fibers, and organic salts, but is vascularized due to the

harvesian canal that vessels and nerves.

Function of the bone

1. The bones form the skeletal frame of the animal’s body.

2. Protects the delicate organs like the brain.

3. Also serve as storage of mineral salts/fat storage.

4. Play an important role in the formation of blood cells

5. Give points for attachment of muscles serving as levers and making movement

possible

c) Blood - is fluid that circulates through

 The hearts

 Arteries

 Veins

 Capillaries

 By carrying nourishment , electrolytes , hormones vitamins , antibodies and

oxygen to the tissue , and taking away waste material mater and carbon dioxide

III- Muscular tissue

- Definition- muscles cells or muscle fibers are designated ability t shorten or to

contract when the microbes filaments slide over one another in order to move the

bone , blood, soft tissue structures and food in the digestive tract.

- The muscles also poses the properties of ;-

 31

1. Irritability –which is the ability to respond in specific way to the

environmental change.

2. Conductivity – capable to transfer the electrons, ions, and heat.

3. Elasticity – is the ability of the muscle to return into its original size and

shape after stretched.

- There are 3-types of muscles tissue in the body

1. Skeletal muscle – (voluntary) means that an animal can control normally under

the conscious on nerves attached to them after the muscle stimulated to

contract. So skeletal muscles are responsible for an animal’s ability to walk. (in

movements of the parts of the body)

2. Smooth muscles – (involuntary) - means not under control conscious that is

principally found in the internal organs. As digestive system, wall of the blood

vessels, all hollow organs.

3. Cardiac muscles: that are found only in the heart capable to contract even if

the neural input is altered (changed) means are able to initiate the pumping

forces.

Nervous tissue

- Definition – is the tissue which comprises the nervous system including the neuron

and Neuroglia designated to receive and transmit electrical and chemical signals

throughout the body.

- A typical nerve compose 2-types of cells

1. Neuron – which is the longest cell in the body that can up to 1M in length

- Structurally – a neuron can be divided into 3 parts

- (a) Dendrites or branches that receive stimuli or impulse from another neurons

then conducting into the cell body like heat , cold , touch , pressure , stretch and

any other physical changes

- (b) cell body- or soma or peri-karyon

 32

- (c) Axon- which conducts the nerves impulses away from the cell body to another

neuron or to a cell does something ( contraction , secretion e.t.c)

2. Neuroglia- or glial or supporting cells- supports, and protects the neurons, also

they play an important role the reaction of the nervous system to an injury or

infection.

- So neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system responsible for the

control and the regulation of the many body functions

Common membranes of the body

- Definition: a membrane is a thin, soft, pliable layer of tissue which lines as tube or

cavity, covers an organ or structure or separates one part from another.

1. Mucous membrane: is membrane which lines the body cavities that expose to

outside like anus, mouth, nasal passage, esophagus, respiratory, urinary and

reproductive tract. NB; with the exception of the urinary tract the rest
 33

mucosa produce protective lubricant substance called mucus from the goblet

cells

2. Serous membrane: is a membrane which covers the organs and lines the walls

close to the body cavities like thoracic, pelvic and the abdominal cavity.

- Characteristics of serous membrane: it has 2-layers with marrow space

between them.

- Function of serous membrane : there is serosal fluid in between the two

layers which reduce pathological conditions may leak into the cavities by

resulting hemo thorax , hydro thorax , ascites and hydronephrosis

- Effusion: is an excessive fluid escaped into the body cavities.

3. Cutaneous membrane: is a membrane of the skin that expose to outside

environment which compose :

- The epiderm which is made of keratinized cells responsible for the skin

ability to withstand abrasive forces

- The derm which is made of dense irregular connective tissue that

enables the skin to become strong and elastic

4. Synovial membrane- is membrane which lines the joint cavities which is made

of loose and adipose connective tissue. this membrane manufactures the

synovial fluids in the joints spaces together with a hyaline cartilage which

reduces the friction , abrasions and synovial fluids are found attend of the long

bones.

Tissue repair and healing

- Animals may experience with an inflammation (change) due to an injury, and then

flows the repair which involves organization and regeneration.

Medical terms

- Regeneration: is repair or re growth or restore ration of a part

- Stratified: arranged in the form of layers

- Absorption : is taking up liquids (to sucking)

 34

- Reception: are various sensory nerve endings

- Transitional : relating to change

- Keratinized : to become hard

- A vascular : lack of blood vessels

- Alveolar : is small hollow or cavity

- Friction : rubbing

- Matrix : is the basic substance from which a thing develops

- Debris : are the damaged cells or tissue

- Macrophages : are kind of cells or systems that have the ability of the

Phagocytosis

- Immune : is a resistance to disease due to development of anti-bodies

- Infection: is the stage in which the body invaded by pathogenic organism

- Healing : is the restoration of the body from an injury

- Ligament (band):is a sheet the muscles into the bones

- Tendons ; attaches the muscles into the bones

- Diapedesis – is the passage of the blood cells through in ruptured of the blood

vessels by amoeboid movement

- Ground substances : is a medium through which the cells exchange nutrients takes

place

- Hyaluronidase : is an enzyme which dissolves the substances which holds the body

tissue together

- Degrade : to go down step by step

- Abrasion : is scraping a way to a part of the skin due to result of an injury

- Loose: is a kind of tissue that serves for support and cushion

- Dense : is a tissue that forms the ligaments or tendon

- Haversion : are minor vascular canals found in osseous tissue

 35

- Edema: is localized or generalized condition in which the body tissue contains and

excessive amount of fluids or liquids. If the edema is generalized also can be called

dropsy or anasarca

Questions and answers

Q-Name the 4 primary tissue of the body

- Epithelial tissue

- Connective tissue

- Muscle tissue

- Nervous tissue

Q- Describe the essential function of the epithelial tissue

- Protection , absorption , provides sensory input ,filtration and secretion

Q- What are the factors which depend the classification of epithelial cells?

- (1)- Number of the layer tissue (2)-Shape of the cells (3)- And the presence of

specialization

Q- What does the basement membrane or lamina basale do between the epithelial and the

connective tissue?

- It cements the epithelial cells to the connective in order to supply nutrients and

oxygen

Q- What is the difference between pseudo stratified and simple stratified epithelial

tissue?

- Pseudo : is a layer that is not truly stratified but the simple squamous stratified

epithelial consists of several cell layers

Q- List the 3 basic shapes of the epithelial cells.

 36

- Squamous

- Cuboidal

- And columnar

Q- Identify where each of the following epithelial cells are located in the body?

Epithelial Location

Simple squamous Are found in the passages of liquids or gases

Simple cuboidal Are found where is going to occur secretion or absorption

Simple columnar Locate many excretory ducts as well as in the digestive system

Pseudo Mostly are the ciliated cells found in the respiratory tract and in the

stratified reproductive tract

Transitional Are found urinary tract

Q- What is gland? And where does it develops in the embryological stage

- Gland is a cell or group cells that discharges secretions that have developed from

ducts or tubules that have a contact with epithelium surface

Q- Differentiate exocrine form endocrine glands?

- Exocrine glands : poses ducts where they empty their secretions into the body

cavities

- Endocrine glands: have not ducts and their secretion are distributed throughout

the body

Q- Discuss the important role that plays microvilli and the ciliated cells in the body and

their locations

- The microvilli locates in the intestine for absorption

 37

- The ciliated cells locate in the respiratory tract and in the genital to propel the

mucus, debris and ruptured ovum.

Q- What are goblet cells? Where do they locate? And the type of their secretions?

- Goblet cells are kind of glands that locates in the gastro-intestinal tract ,

respiratory system and in the eyes that secrets the Mucin which transforms into

mucus

Q- Describe in short form the mode of the exocrine glands ‘secretion

- Halocrine : the entire of the secretory cells are destroy as the sebaceous gland

- Apocrine – involves part of the cells to degenerate as in the mammary gland

- Merocrine- the secretory cells remain intact as the pancreas , salivary , sweat

glands e.t.c

Q- Differentiate serous and the mucous secretions

- Serous secretions are watery that contains enzymes , while mucous secretions are

thick found in the gastro intestinal tract and the respiratory tract

Q- Where in the body is controlled the secretion of the glands?

- Under the control / or influence of hormonal and the nervous system

Q- What are the basic constituents of the connective tissue?

- Ground substance

- Fibers

- And the cells

Q- Compare the similarity and the difference between the connective tissue and epithelial

tissue?
 38

- Both the tissue are found in the organ , and the systems of the body , but the

epithelial is a vascular

Q- What are 2-catagoreis of the connective tissue?

- (a) Specialized , and (b) Proper connective tissue

Q- Summarize the basic functions of the connective tissue.

- Protects around the organs

- Provides the body a frame

- Makes a medium transport

- It withstands the pressure and abrasions

- Play an important role the process of healing

- And the control of the micro-organism

Q- Name the 3-types of the connective tissue?

- They are (a)- collagenous (b)- Elastic (c) Reticular

Q- What is the role of heparin and histamine do in the circulation of the blood?

- Histamine increases the flow of the blood , and the heparin prevents or inhibits

the blood clotting

Q- Name the 3-sub classes of the dense connective tissue

- Dense regular

- Dense irregular

- And elastic tissue

Q- What are the specialized connective tissues?

- Blood

- Bones
 39

- Cartilages

Q- What are the 2-tissue types that compose the membranes of the body?

- Epithelial and connective tissue

Q- Where is found the mucous membrane in the body? And what does it do in it.

- The mucous membrane is found the cavities that have connection to the external

environment like gastro intestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tract.

- For protection ,secretion , and absorption

Q- What is called the portion of the serious which covers the outer surfaces of the wall

cavity?

- Parietal

Q- Where is found the synovial membranes in the body, and how do they differ from

other membrane?

- They are found in the joints

- Comparing to other tissue they do not contain the epithelia tissue.

Q- What is the other name of the cutaneous membrane?

- Is the skin or derm or the integumentry membrane

Q- List the common functions of the muscle tissue

- To move the bones, blood, soft structures, and to move the food in gastro intestinal

tract.

Q- Name the 3-types of the muscle tissue.

- Smooth muscle

- Skeletal muscle
 40

- And cardiac muscle

Q- What is the responsibility of the skeletal muscle and what kind of control do they

depend?

- The duty of the skeletal muscle is the ability of walking.

- That depends under the control of conscious

Q- What will happen if the neutral input of the cardiac muscle is altered?

- Even if altered the cardiac muscle is able to initiate its contraction due to

specialized cells in the myocardium (the muscles of the heart).

Q- What are the essential functions of the neural tissue?

- To receive, and conduct the electrical and chemical signals of the body.

Q- Where is found the nervous tissue?

- Brain , spinal cord and peripheral nerves

Q- Name the three parts of the neuron.

- Cell body , dendrite and an axon

Q- Name the 2-types of a nerve cell compose.

- Neurons and supporting neurological cells

Q- Name the important functions

- They support the neurons as the binding of the components

- To phagoctize the debris

- They supply nutrients

 41

CHAPTER 4-SKELETAL SYSTEM

- Introduction – a bone is the second hardest natural substance in the body after the

enamel of the teeth.

- A bone is specialized connective tissue consisting of calcified intercellular

substance.

- Although a bone appears dead like substance despite it is vital living tissue, which

has the capacity to repair (restore) itself after injury.

- Bone structure

- The outer surface of the bone is less porous than the inner and is called compact

(dense) which makes the shaft (Diaphysis of the long bones)

- The outside layer of the compact bone covers the periosteum which serves to

supply the blood to the bone.

- The more porous portion of the bone is called cancellous (slight and spongy) that

contains many spaces occupied by bone marrow used to the body to reduce in the

strength and the membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone is called

Endosteum.

Figure – longitudinal section of the equine feumar (growth

plates open). Right mature (growth plates fussed)
 42

- Bone function

1. The skeleton is the frame work of bones that supports the animal’s body either

1. By hanging the bone

2. Attaching directly into them (linking).

2. Bones protects many vital organs as the skull bone protects the brain.

3. Bones acts as levers for the skeletal muscles

4. Bones acts as a storage of minerals

5. Bones serves as a site of the blood formation

- Bone terminology

1) The term os orosteo refers to a bone as the

a. Os-penis

b. The Osteocytes

2) Osteoblast – are the cells that produce the bones

3) Osteocytes – are the mature bone cells found on the ossified matrix

4) Osteoclast- is the cells that remodel the damaged bones.

5) Ossification- is the process of the Osteoblasts making the hard matrix.

6) Matrix – is the major a substance in which develops the bones.

7) Breast bone – is the bone of the sternum.

8) Cartilage bones – are endochondral bones that developed from cartilage.

9) Membrane bones – is the bones that are developed from connective tissue membrane.

10) Compact bone – is dense hard bone with microscope space.

11) Cranial bone – is the bone of the cranium or brain.

12) Seasamoid bone- is a type of short bones occurring in the limbs embedded in tendons

or joint capsules.

13) Spongy bones- are cancellous bones.

14) Thigh bone – is the femur

15) Lacuna – are small cavities with in matrix

16) Caniculi- is channels used to communicate with the blood vessels.

 43

17) Harvesian canal- is the canal containing the blood vessels, lymphatic’s and nerves.

- Bone formation

- Ossification (bone formation) – occurs in two (2) mechanism or process

1. Cartilage bone formation – is endochondral bone which develops from cartilage

in this method the bone formation begins in the Diaphysis into the epiphysis that

allows the long bones to increase in length as the animal grows the Osteoblast

replaces the chondroblast in the Diaphysis of the bone.

2. Intra membranous bone formation- this process of the ossification occurs only

in the skull bone (flat bones) from the fibrous tissue membrane which covers

the brain of the developing fetus.

- Bone shapes

- According to their shape bones are classified

1. Flat bone- that are flat like two thin plates of compact bones as

1. Skull bone

2. Scapula

3. Pelvic bone

4. The shoulder bone

2. Short bones – are small cube shaped bones found in the carpus (wrist), and in

the tarsus.

3. Irregular bones – are the bones of the spine and the sesamoid bones in the knee

cap or patella that changes the direction over the surface of joints.

4. Long bones- commonly found in the limbs so in each long bone structurally has

proximal and distal epiphysis consisting cancellous epiphysis covered by a thin

layer of a compact bone in the Diaphysis.

- Bone marrow

- Bone marrow- is soft organic material that fills the cavities of the bones mainly in

the cancellous bones and the spaces which in Diaphysis of the long bones.

- There are 2-types of bone marrow

 44

1. The red bone marrow- makes the majority of the bone marrow of the young

animals, but in adult represents only in specific position.

2. Yellow bone marrow – consist primarily the adipose tissue which is the common

marrow type found in adults that does not produce blood cells (hematopoiesis)

but reverts red if the body need production large number of the blood cells.

- Common bone features

- Shows where a bone forms joints with each other and where muscles attach to

move them.

1. Surface articulation – is a joint where the compact bones come in contact with

each other to reduce the friction.

2. Condyl articular – is round articular (cylindrical in shape) that locates the distal

ends of the humerus and the femur and the occipital bone of the skull joints

(head to the neck)

3. Spherical articular- (head) which locates the proximal end of the long bones like

shoulder and the hip joints.

4. Flat articular – means is smooth articulation on a bone found

a. Carpal and tarsal bones

b. Vertebrae

c. And in long bones like radius and ulna

- The joint movement is rocking motion

- Bones process – is an outgrowth of a bone or projection.

- Spine- pointed process

- Trochanter- very large process

- Tubercle – small rounded process

- Sinus or groove – is tube like passage opening canal

Questions and answers

Q1 – Besides supporting the other tissue what else bones do in the body.
 45

- Other functions of the bones include: - protection, leverage, storage and

hematopoiesis.

Q2- Name the 3-kinds of the bone cells, and the roles they play in the bones.

- Th3-types of the bone cells are

1. Osteoblasts – produces bone cells.

2. Osteoclast- the remodel the damaged bones.

3. Osteocytes – that are the mature bone cells found in the ossified matrix.

Q3- What is the matrix in the bone is made of? And what it makes so hard.

- Matrix of the bone is intercellular material of a connective tissue or matrix is

gelatin substance but the Osteoblasts of the bone cells make it hard.

Q4- Distinguished the 2-types of the bone structures and what do they do in the body.

- The two types of the bone structures are

1. Cancellous bone or spongy bone

2. Compact bones or dense.

- These structures perform or do in the body

o To reduce the weight and the blood formation

o To store the minerals

o To covers the periosteum which attaches the bones into muscles

Q5- List multiple function of the calcium in the bone

- The multiple functions of calcium are as follow

o Blood clotting

o Muscle contraction

o Skeletal formation

o Secretion of the milk

 46

Q6- What is bone marrow? The kind of the bone marrow and their functions

- Bone marrow is soft organic material which fills the cavities of the bones

- Kinds of the bone marrow are white and red

- The red bone marrow forms the blood cells, and the white blood marrow s adipose

tissue which reverts into red if there is low level of blood loss.

Fill the blanks spaces below with in appropriate medical terms

Q1- The process of the blood formation is known as _____________________.

- (a) Hematopoiesis

Q2- Osteoblasts transforms the gelatin matrix into _________ through the process of

_____________

- (a) Bone (b)- ossification

Q3- The two types of the bone structures are __________ & _______________

- (a) Compact bone (b)- cancellous bone

Q4- _______________ are also called cartilage cells

- (a) Chondrocytes

Q5- The second hardest substance in the body than the bone is __________

- (a) The enamel of the teeth

Q6- Tibia is one of the long bones which locates between them _________ & _________

- (a) – Knee (b)- Ankle

Q7- The outer surface of the bone covers the _____________ & ______________

- (a) Periosteum (b)- Endosteum

 47

Q8- The harvesian systems of the bone contains ________________ & ___________

- (a) Blood vessels (b)- nerves (c) lymphatic’s

Q9- The 2-mechanisms that the bone develops into hard substances are ______ & _____

- (a) Cartilages bone formation (b) Intera membranous bone formation

Q10- Normally the bone formation of the bones of the long bone begins or starts in the -

_________ & ___________

- (a) Diaphysis (b) Epiphysis

Q11- After the feature of the bones the three important things required for the bone

healing is _______________, ______________ & _______________

- (a) Alignment (b) immobilization (c) and time

Q12- Bone features are important to show where _____________ and where

- (a) The bone form joints (b) The muscles attached into the bones

Q13- The articular surface links where _________ come into contract to form ____

which reduces __________

- (a) Compact bone (b) Joints (c) Frictions

Q14- The 4-basic bone shapes are __________, _________, ________ & __________

- (a) Long bones (b) Short Bones (c) Flat Bones (d) Irregular bones

Clinical application – fracture repair (healing)

- Definition –bones are among the best healing tissue in the body, but three things are

important to occur.

a) Alignment – is the placing the fractured bones into their correct anatomical

positions. An in the dentistry are required to bring teeth into correct position.
 48

b) Immobilization – is the fixation of fractured part with external fixation

devices as splints or casts or internal devices like

a. Pins

b. Wires

c. Screws

d. Plates

c) Time – the length of the time depends the type and the location of the fracture

which depends kind of the species , Physical condition ,nutrition ,size of the

animal ,age and hormonal

Figure; types of fracture (A) Greenstick (b) Complete (c) comminuted

- The speed of the healing or the repair in young animals takes a couple of weeks but in

adult might takes for several months

- The Osteoblasts responsible for the healing of the bone tissue are called callus that

gradually bridges the fractured positions.

 49

- The bones of the skeleton

- Definition – the bone f the skeleton can be divided into-

I. Axial skeleton- are the bones of the head, and axis of the body that are the

a. Skull bone

b. Hyoid bone

c. spinal column

d. ribs

e. sternum

II. Appendicular skeleton –are bones of the limbs (appendages of the trunk)

that can classified

a. Thoracic limbs

b. Pelvic limbs

III. Visceral skeleton- (in the soft organs) that are strangest or un usual bones

means not common in all animals like

a. Os-cardis –found in the heart of cattle and sheep that supports the

valves of the heart.

b. Os –penis – found in the penis of the dogs partially surrounds the

penile portion of the urethra

c. Os-rostri- which is unusual bone found in nose of the swine to

strength the snout where they dig into the ground.

I- Axial Skeleton
 50

1. The skull bones- most of the domestic animals the skull bones consist 37-38 separate

bones mandible or the lower jaw is freely movable. Due to the skulls complexity can be

grouped into-

a. Bones of the cranium- which encloses the brain compose

I. Occipital bone – is single bone which forms the base of the skull where the

spinal column exist and the first cervical bone call atlas starts. So injuries of

the occipital bone is more series , fortunately protects by

1. Muscles

2. Tendons

3. Ligaments

II. Parietal bones- are 2-bones which forms the lateral walls of the cranium that

are well developed in dogs , cats and humans

III. Inter parietal bones- are 2-small bones that locates between the occipital and

the parietal bones visible in young animals and later fuses with the parietal

bones.

IV. Temporal bones- are also 2-bones that locates ventral of the parietal bones

containing the

1. The ear structures

2. The joints of the mandible

V. Frontal bones- form the orbits which hold the eye.

VI. Bones of the ears- are bones found in the middle of the ears that supports to

transmit the vibrations from the tempanic membrane (ear drum)

VII. Bones of the face- forms the rest parts of the skull bones starting at the

rostral (front) and toward the ear which compose

1. Incisive bones- that house the upper incisive teeth (maxillary) where the

ruminants have the dental pad

2. The maxillary bone- (upper jaws) houses the

a. Upper canine teeth

 51

b. Check teeth

c. Maxillary sinuses

d. The hard plate which separates the mouth and the nasal cavity

3. Mandible (law jaw)- which is found in it

a. Lower teeth

b. It has 2 regions

c. Shaft with houses the teeth

d. Ramus where the muscles attaches

4. Zygomatic bones- that locates on the either sides of the skull bellow the

eyes

5. Nasal bones- locates in the nasal cavity, the size depends the species and

the type of the bread.

a. So animals which long face (Dolico-cephalic). The nasal bones are long

and thin.

b. And animals with short face (brachy-cephalic). Nasal bones are short and

triangular.
 52

2. Hyoid bones- the hyoid bone structurally looks the letter (H) with 2-legs bent back of

the U-shaped. This bone locates high in the neck just below the larynx between the

caudal ends of the mandible.

 Functions of the hyoid bone

o Supports the larynx , pharynx and the tongue

o Helps the swallowing

o Some authors include the hyoid bone the cranial bones, but its location

indicates as a separate bone.

3. Spinal column or the vertebral column

- Definition – the vertebral column is made of irregular bones extending bones from

the skull to the tip of the tail, but in human the tail fused into single bone.

- Structure- a typically vertebrae consist:-

a) Body- which separates the inter vertebral disks by forming a canal of the

nerve tissue (spinal cord) that flexible.

b) Processes – that are single processes dorsally projecting and 2 laterally

projecting (transverse processes)

c) Arch (or neural arch) - is any anatomical structure that is curved or bowed.
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- Vertebral formula- is divided into regions then in each part follows by a number.

- For example if the cervical vertebrae has 7-bones the

a) C1- is the first cervical vertebrae

b) C2- is the second ____________

c) C3- is the third ____________

d) C4- is the fourth ____________

e) C5- is the fifth ____________

f) C6- is the sixth ____________

g) C7- is the seventh ____________

- Is the vertebral column divided into regions for example a cat has

a) Cervical vertebrae

b) Thoracic vertebrae

c) Lumbaral bones

d) Sacral bones

e) Coccygeal vertebrae bones

- Functions of the spinal column

a) For the attachment o f the muscles and the leverage of the spine and the

trunk.

b) All the nerves in the trunk and the limbs are issued from the spinal cord which

is in the vertebral column so is the center of the reflex actions to conduct to

and from the brain

- Vertebral regions

a) Cervical vertebrae – is the neck region that has 7-cervical vertebrae in all

common domestic animals

 The first cervical vertebrae is called atlas that holds the head

 The second cervical vertebrae (c2) is called axis which holds the atlanto-

axial joints.
 54

b) Thoracic vertebrae – their number varies among species (13, 18, 12, and 14)

and within species that is equal to the number of the ribs.

c) Lumbar vertebrae – like the thoracic vertebrae also the lumbar vertebrae

varies among the species. Lumbar vertebrae support all the weight of the

abdomen.

d) Sacral vertebrae- are unique bones fused into single structure called sacrum

found on the dorsal part of pelvic region.

e) Coccygeal vertebrae- are bones of the tail that varies.

 The first Coccygeal vertebrae (cx-1) ha the characteristics but gradually

reduces into simple. Note that in human Coccygeal vertebrae are fused into

single bone called coccyx (vestigial) or (rudimentary) or not fully developed

into tail.

Figure – radiograph of a cat, showing the

thoracic and lumbar spine, ribs and
sternum are also visible
 55

4. Ribs or costal

- Definition- is flat bones that form the lateral walls of the thorax and their number

is equal to thoracic vertebrae.

- Structurally

a) The dorsal parts of the ribs are made of bones

b) The ventral parts are cartilages that may either join to the sternum called

sterna ribs or may join the caudal part of the thorax called asternal ribs.

Note that the last 2 ribs may not join anything and are called floating ribs.

5. The sternum or the breast bone

- Definition – is narrow flat bone locates medium line of the front thorax that forms

the floor of the thorax.

- Structurally – made of a series of bones called sternebrea and its caudal end is

found xiphoid cartilage

II- Appendicular Skeleton

- Definition – are the bones of appendages (Limbs or legs) so the front legs are called

thoracic limbs and the hind legs are called pelvic limbs.

a) Thoracic limbs- these limbs in animals have one connection with the axial skeleton,

but in humans have collar bone that joints the scapula with the sternum, in animals

instead have arrangement of muscles and tendons that support the weight of the

animals.

- Scapula – is the proximal bone of the thoracic limbs

- Structurally : is flat bone somewhat triangular

- The distal end of the scapula forms a socket portion of the shoulder joints

- Humerus– is the long bone of the upper arm or branchium

- Structurally – form the elbow it articulates with the ulna and radius to the

shoulder joint where it articulates with the scapula.

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- Ulna and radius- the ulna forms the majority portion of the elbow joint with the

distal end of the humerus and the radius is weigh bearing bone of the ante brachium ,

and at the distal end articulates with the carpus (wrist in human)

- Carpal bones – consists of two rows of bones proximal and distal that are parallel

- In humans is called wrist

- In horses refers to knee

- And all species have radial and ulnar carpal bones

- Meta carpal bones – locate the distal row of the carpal bones to the proximal

phalanges of the digits.

- Note that in human meta carpal bones are the hands extending from the

wrist to the thumb which is the first metacarpal one , and the little finger is

the fifth metacarpal.

- But in animals: - the metacarpal bones determines by what kind of an animal

has.

- For example

a. In equines have a simple foot consisting of only one digit or to the rest

are vestigial metacarpal bones.

b. In cattle the metacarpal bones splits into 2toe so they have 2-

metacarpal bones.

c. In dogs and cats have paws or to hands in man for that case they have

5-digts or toe or phalanges

- Note – each digits has 2-3 bones

b) Pelvic limbs- unlike the thoracic limbs , the pelvic limbs connects into axial skeleton

through the sacro-iliac joint where unites the ileum of the pelvis with the sacrum.

- Function of the pelvic limbs

a. Supports the caudal part of the body

b. Allows a room for the uroginital and the digestive system.

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Pelvic bones

- Ilium- is the bone which forms the sacro-iliac joint with the sacrum and is the cranial

bone of the pelvis (hibs) where you do rest with your hands.

- Ischium- is the caudal bone of the pelvis that is what you are sitting down

- Pubis – is the smallest bone of the pelvis which forms the cranial portion of the pelvic

floor

- In addition there are 2-holes in the pelvis called obturator foramin that allows

- Feumar (the thigh bone) or the portion the hib joint and the knee which is the longest

and strongest bone in the skeleton

- Structure; the proximal portion there is the head of the feumar into the

acetebulum of the pelvis and the distal portion forms the knee with patella and

tibia

- Note that patella or the knee cap is the largest sesamoid bone ( is an oval

nodule of bone ) in the body that protects the tendons of the feumar to tibia

crest.

- Tibia – is the inner large bone of the leg between the knee and ankle (talus)

- Fibula – is the outer ad is small so it does not support any weight but serves muscle

attachment site.

- Tarsal bones – that are what we call the ankle and in the 4-legged animals is called

hock which is consist 2 rows f short bones known as the tarsal bone.

- Meta-tarsal bones- are exactly same as the meta-carpal bones of thoracic limbs

including the phalanges or toes.

Joints

- Definition; joints are the junction or articulation or arthro between the bones.

- Arthrologhy; stands the studying of the junction or joints.

- Classification of joints
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a) Fibrous joint – termed synarthrosis (immovable) so the bones are firmly united by

fibrous tissue.

b) Cartilaginous joint; termed amphi arthrosis (slightly immovable) locates in the

vertebral disks and b/w the 2-sides of the mandible

c) Synovial joints; termed diarthrosis that are freely movable joints found in the

elbow, hibs and shoulder.

- Characteristics of the synovial joint

a) Articular surface; where the compact bones come together (in contact) to reduce

the friction.

b) Articular cartilage covering

c) Fluids in the joint cavity enclosed by a capsule

d) Ligaments stabilize the bones and hold the joints together.

- Synovial joints movement

a) Flexion – decreases the angles between in 2 bones

b) Extension; is the opposite movement of the flexion

c) Abduction ; is the movement away from the median plane

d) Adduction; is the movement toward the center

e) Rotation ; is a twisting movement on its axis

f) Circum duction; is the movement of the extremity in which the distal end moves in a

circle.

Types or the kinds of the synovial joints

a) Glinding joint; the movement of this joint a rocking motion of one bone on another

then the possible movement are; flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. Good

example the carpus

b) Pivot joint; in this join one bone rotates on another so the only pivot joint found in

animal’s body is the joint between the C1 and C2 of the cervical vertebrae.

c) Ball and socket joints; are spherical joints that allow all the synovial joints movement.

Example is shoulder and the hib joint.

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Question and answers

- Part one; Medical terms

1) Sternal ribs; are the ribs whose cartilage joints the sternum

2) A Sternal ribs; are the ribs of the caudal part of the thorax

3) Floating ribs; are unattached ribs with the sternum

4) Synovial fluids; is a kind of fluids which lubricants the joint surfaces which is a

transparent fluids

5) Synovial membrane; is the membrane which produces the synovial fluids

6) Joint space; is the joint cavity

7) Ligament; is a band connecting the articular ends of bones to facilate or limit motions

8) Visceral skeleton; are strangest skeleton that forms in the soft organs

9) Flexion; degreases the angles between the bones

10) Extension; is the opposite of the flexion

11) Abduction; is the movement away from the medium planes

12) Adduction; is movement toward the medium plane

13) Hock ; in the four legged animals the hock stands the tarsus and in human is ankle

14) The two largest tarsal bones are;

a. Tipial tarsal bones

b. And fibular tarsal bones

15) Patella ;is the knee cap which is the largest sesamoid bone in the body that helps the

tends

16) Femur ;is the longest and the strongest bone that extends from the hib to the knee

17) Humerus ; is the upper bone from the elbow articulating with the ulna and radius and

to the shoulder joint articulates with scapula

18) Acetebulum; is the location where the 3-bones of the pelvis come together at the

socket portion of the ball and socket hib joint (concave area)

19) Facet- flat articular surface found in tarsal , carpal , vertebrae, long bones and by

forming rocking motion

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20) Digit ; same as the common terms of toe, phalanges and in our case is the finger

21) Declaws ;are vestigial digits that do not articulate with the rest bones of the foot

22) Meta carpal bones; are bones extending distally the row of the carpal bones , to the

proximal of the phalanges

23) Brachium ;is the long bone of upper arm (humerus)

24) Glenoid cavity; is the ball and sockets of the shoulder joint

25) Palpated; can be felt

26) Ante-brachium; are the 2-bones of the fore arm which forms the elbow joint (ulna

and radius )

27) Hard palte;maxillary bones form the hard plate that separates the mouth and the

nasal cavity (also is called the roof of the mouth)

28) Atlas; is the figure that holds the world also is term used the vertebrae which holds

the head

29) Fossa ; is a depressed or sunken area on the surface of a bone

30) Foramen; is hole in a bone that passes the nerves and vessels or exit. It also lighten

bone

Clinical application

1) Wobbler syndrome; ( un-coordinated)

a. Definition ; is a disease which results a narrowing of the spinal canal at the cervical

region

b. The causative agent of the disease is unknown but inherited factors , and nutritional

factors seem to be involved

c. Clinical symptoms

i. There is physical abnormalities of the cervical vertebrate or improper joints

ii. Weakness , in coordination (ataxia)

iii. After that the disease develops into complete paralysis

d. Treatment – medical treatment may be attempted to decrease the compression of

the spinal column but surgery is often necessary

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2) Hip dysplasia

a. Definition; is abnormal formation of the hip joints

b. Causes; many factors contribute the development including over nutrition , exercise ,

genetic factors and larger breeds are more affected

c. Clinical symptoms

i. There is a painful after an exercise

ii. Hip joints become much looser allowing the femoral head to rate around the

acetebulum by resulting osteoarthritis

d. Treatment; can range from weight reduction, exercise restriction , medical

treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs and to surgical procedure

Questions and answers

Q1- which would likely be a greater threat to animal a fracture of the mandible or

fracture of the occipital bone? And why?

An- It is easy to repair the 2-halfs of the mandible fuse tighter into one solid bone but

fracture of the occipital bone is serious due to its location and the vital organs it encloses

Q2- Which are the groups of the vertebrae makes up the spinal column of the following

1) Abdomen – lumbar vertebrae

2) Neck – cervical vertebrae

3) Pelvis – sacral vertebrae

4) Tail Coccygeal vertebrae

5) Thorax-thoracic vertebrae

Q3- What are the 3 process of the vertebrae and their characteristics

- The 3 process compose single dorsally projecting called spinous process , 2laterllay

projecting called transverse process

- Characterized for the attachment of the muscle and the leverage of the spine.
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Q4- Name the first and the second cervical vertebrae and their distinguishing

characteristics

- The 2 bones are the atlas that holds the head and the axis which helps the atlanto-

axial joints

- The differences of the 2 bones is that the atlas has no vertebral body

Q5-Differentiate the following terms

a) Sternal , asternal and the floating ribs

b) Ligament and a tendon

c) Abduction and adduction

- Sternal ribs; are the ribs whose cartilage joint to the sternum

- Asternal ribs; make up the caudal part of the thorax

- Floating ribs; are unattached ribs

- Tendon ; is a fibrous connective tissue which serves to attach the muscles into the

bones

- Ligament; is a sheet of strong fibrous which connects the articular ends of the bones

Q6-Describe the characteristics of the; (a)- fibrous join (b) cartilage joints and (c)

synovial joint

- In the fibrous joint bones are firmly jointed. Good example are suture of the skull

bone

- Cartiginous joints are capable to make slight rocking movement as in the vertebral

disks

- Synovial joint are the freely movable joints like the shoulder joints

Q7- What are synovial fluids and why is an important?

- Synovial fluids is transparent fluid secreted by synovial membrane of a joint which is

important to lubricate the joint surfaces

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Q8- What is the anatomical name of the;

a) Shoulder blade ; ball and socket shoulder joint

b) Long bone of the upper arm- brachium

c) The head of the humerus- ante brachium

Q9- Name the thoracic limbs from proximal to distal

- Scapula

- Humerus

- Ulna

- Radius

- Carbal bones

- Meta Carbal bones

- Proximal , middle , and distal phalanges

Q10- What do stand the 2 terms manubrium and xiphoid?

- Manubrium; is the first serial of the sternum

- Xiphoid; is the last cartilage of the sternum

Q11- Give example for each of the following synovial joints

- Ball and socket joints – shoulder and hib joint

- Gliding joints- the carpus

- Pivot joint- cervical vertebrae that rotates

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CHAPTER 5- DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- CHAPTER OUTLINES

1. Basic structures, and functions of the GIT tract

2. The mouth or the oral cavity

a. Teeth

b. Soft plate

c. Hard plate

d. Tonsila

e. Salivary glands

f. Lips

g. Pharynx

h. Larynx

3. Esophagus

4. Stomach

a. Monogastric

b. Ruminants (polygastric)

5. Small intestine

1) Small intestine mobility

2) Small intestine digestion

3) Dietary changes

4) Large intestine

5) Rectum and anus

6) Other organs related to the digestion :

1. Salivary glands

2. Liver

3. The pancreas
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Figure: The Monogastric intestinal system

- Introduction:

1) The digestive system consists of a tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, and

accessory digestive organs.

2) The digestive system takes complex foods, and breaks it down into simple nutrient

molecules through the process of digestion and then absorbs the nutrients into the

blood stream to body cells (tissue, organs, systems)

3) But the digestion , and the absorption of the food stuff varies among the animals

due to the diet of the animals as follows:

a) Herbivores: plant eating animals like cattle

b) Carnivores: meat eating animals like cats

c) Omnivores: are animals that eat both plants and meat such as pigs and humans.
 66

- In addition in animals can be divided into:

a) With single or with simple stomach called Monogastric

b) And with those have compartments called ruminants.

- Basic functions of the digestive system :

1) Prehension: is the grasping of the food with the lips, tongue, and the teeth.

2) Mastication: is the mechanical of grinding or the breaking down of the food

through the process of mastication or chewing

3) Chemical digestion of the food

4) Absorption of the nutrients and water

5) Elimination of the waste materials

- For that case if one of the above processes fails to function properly, then the animal

may fail to gain weight, and eventually may die for mal nutrition.

The structure of the GIT

1. The walls of the G.I.T Tract (tube) is made of multiple layers:

a) The mucosa layer

b) The sub-mucosa layer that contains glands

c) The serosa layer which consists tough connective tissue

- Mesentery: is a peritoneal fold encircling the greater part of the tube.

2. The dorsal of the digestive tract is the abdomen which suspends the tract with sheets

of connective tissue called mesentery that contains blood vessels, nerves, and

lymphatic vessels.

3. In the tract is found 2-types of the epithelium tissue

a. Thick, and tough stratified squamous that lines sites subject to mechanical like

mouth, esophagus, pharynx, and the anus

b. And simple epithelium columnar which lines the stomach, small, and the large

intestine.

4. In the tract or the tube of the digestive system is also found 2-types of muscle:

a. Skeletal muscle which is the under the voluntary control present control in the:
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i. Mouth

ii. Pharynx

iii. The cranial portion of esophagus

iv. External anal sphincters

b. Smooth muscle (involuntary) which is found the walls of the rest digestive tubes

that are arranged in circular, and longitudinal (narrows and to move or mix the

content through 2-types of contractions:

- Peristaltic contraction that moves the contents along the tract like waves propelling

ahead (is a circular contraction )

- Segmental contraction that causes back and forth mixing movements of the

contents in order to support the digestion, and the absorption.

I- The mouth or oral cavity

a) The structures of the mouth include:

a. The lips

b. The tongue

c. The teeth

d. Salivary glands

e. Hard and soft plate

f. Esophagus

1. The lips serve as prehensive organs. The animal uses to grasp the food and pull into

the mouth.

2. Salivary glands: most of the domestic animals have three pairs of salivary glands:

a. Parotid which locates ventral to the ear canals

b. Sub mandibular which locates at the caudal end of the mandible.

c. Sublingual which locates just under the base of the tongue

- All of these glands have ducts that carry the saliva which performs a variety of

digestion, lubricant functions, and evaporation as in dogs.

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3. Teeth: although the teeth appears hard, and dead things like bones, at the

sometime are living structures that are well supplied with nerves and blood vessels

then are susceptible to damage and pain.

- In the recent time dental care and surgery of the teeth become more common in

vet. Clinics so vet. Technicians must be familiar with the dental anatomy and

terminology.

- The teeth are classified as:

a. Incisors: for grasping teeth

b. Canines: for tearing teeth

c. Premolars: for cutting teeth

- Dental formula: note that ruminants like the bovine, sheep, goats and camels do not

have any upper incisors and canines (on the upper archade-maxillae) instead they

have dental pad which is thick and flat.

- Examples of the dental formula

Species Dental formula Total

Canine I- 𝟑⁄𝟑 C- 𝟏⁄𝟏 P- 𝟒⁄𝟒 M- 𝟐⁄𝟑 × 2 42

Equine I- 𝟑⁄𝟑 C- 𝟏⁄𝟏 P- 𝟑 − 𝟒⁄𝟒 M- 𝟑⁄𝟑 × 2 40 or 42

Bovine I- 𝟎⁄
𝟑 C- 𝟎⁄𝟏 P- 𝟑⁄𝟑 M- 𝟑⁄𝟑 × 2 32

- Note that the total number of the teeth is determined by adding all the numbers

and then multiplying the sum by-2

- Teeth are responsible physical breaking down the food into smaller pieces through

the process of mastication (chewing).

4. Esophagus: is a muscular tube that extends from the pharynx (throat) to the

stomach in an area called cardiac, where is found a muscle closing of the opening

called cardiac sphincter which reduces the reflex (movement of the stomach

contents) means to inhibit the ingest not to return back into the esophagus. Note
 69

that in some species this anatomical structure is very strong that reflex or

vomiting is nearly impossible

- The function of the esophagus is to conduct the swallowed material into the

stomach. There is no significant digestion, and absorption takes place just is a

transport tube only

5. Functions of the oral cavity (in general)

a) Is to prehind means take hold of the food

b) To initiate mastication, chemical digestion and to prepare the food for

swallowing.

c) There are digestive enzymes in the oral cavity which are proteins causing to

catalyze the chemical reactions that decomposes the complex food into simple

compounds ; with the saliva that helps the :

a) Mastication

b) Moistening

c) Softening

d) Swallowing

e) And to change the shape of the food.

1. Amylase: is an enzyme found in the saliva which breaks down the sugar components

of the starch.

2. Lipase is an enzyme that digests the lipids(fats) also found in the saliva .

3. Sodium bicarbonate and phosphate buffers are also found in the saliva to neutralize

acids

4. The control of the salivary gland is under the autonomic nervous system

5. Parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system results increased salivation

6. Sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system associates with fear or

inhibition of the saliva production.

- N.B: amylase enzyme is absent in carnivores.

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Clinical application

1) Prophy and floating teeth: teeth cleaning or removal of the brown hard plaque

represents dental prophylaxis or dental prophy. The teeth floated rottenly develop

sharp edges, occlusal malformations on the surface of the teeth which requires rasped

by the vet. Technicians.

2) Corrosive materials: if accidentally ate animal corrosive materials and forced to vomit

might cause further injury so must designate the acidic environment found in the

stomach.

3) Mega-esophagus: due to diseases the muscle of the esophagus may lose their strength

by resulting esophageal relaxes then the food accumulates within the esophagus. So do

an animal survive with mega esophagus? Yes they can by feeding a diet that is liquid in

nature but many animals may die due to the risk of the frequent regurgitated food.

Questions and answers

Q1-how diets differ among the animals and which group would cats, horses, caws, and

humans belong?

An- Animals do differ on the diet which depends whether:

- Cat: are meat eaters(carnivores)

- Horses and cows are plant eaters(herbivores)

- Humans can eat both plants and meat( omnivores)

Q2-what do refer the lower archade and the upper archade? And what are the skull bones

do associate?

An-Lower archade refers the lower part of the mouth (mandible) & the upper archade

refers the upper part of the mouth (the maxillae)

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Q3-what are the 4-types of the teeth? And where are they located from the rostral to

the caudal?

- Incisors: are rostral teeth that locate on the upper and lower archade.

- The canine teeth locate at the corners of the incisors

- The premolars locate the rostral cheek teeth

- Molars are caudal cheek teeth

Q-What are the amylase and lipase? From where do they come the mouth? And what?

An-Amylase and lipase are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions, both of them are

found in the saliva amylase breaks down the sugar components, and the lipase digests the

lipids.

Q- What are the effects do the parasympathetic and the sympathetic have on the mouth?

- parasympathetic results an increased salivation

- While sympathetic nervous system inhibits or decreases the production of saliva

Q-what is a peristalsis contraction and how does it differ from the segmental contraction?

- Peristaltic is a kind of contraction that moves the contents along the tract, but the

segmental contraction are a circular not longitudinal.

II- THE STOMACH

- Among the domestic animals the stomach is either single (Monogastric) or are multi-

chambered (polygastric).

a) The Monogastric stomach can be divided:

1) Cardiac part which surrounds the opening b/w the esophagus and the stomach.

There is sphincter which reduces the reflex of the stomach contents also the

sphincter closes when the stomach is full and distends.

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2) The funds and the body parts of the stomach are distensible; also they are rich

with glands called gastric glands. In addition this region is found 3-types of cells:

i. Parietal cells: which produces the HCL-acid

ii. Mucous cells: which produce the protective mucus

iii. Chief cells: which produces enzymes

3) Pyloric part: is the distal part of the stomach which grinds up the swallowed food,

and regulates the HCL-acid through gastrin hormone. In the pylorus there is

muscular ring (sphincter) which regulates the chyme, and prevents backward flow

of the duodenal contents into the stomach.

The structure of the Monogastric

Figure- External anatomy of the Figure; The parts of stomach

equine simple stomach. Dorsal view

- Gastric mobility: the proximal part of the stomach fundus and the body their muscles

allows to make relax as the stomach distends with the food, then they act reservoir or

store. The distal part of the stomach (pylorus) is responsible for the most of grinding

activity of the stomach.

Clinical application
 73

- Side effects of commonly used drugs (adverse drug reactions)

In general prostaglandins present in many tissue of the body like kidneys, lungs, and

in the stomach play an important role the balance of the stomach, and the ability to

repair itself, for that anything that decreases these beneficial will cause great

hazard.

- Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like the aspirin, profen, commonly used in vet.

Medicine and human may result:

- Gastritis : inflammation of the stomach

- Gastric erosions: the epithelial layer is eroded away

- Gastric ulcers: make holes through the protective layer (perforation) Infact is a

fatal condition.

Ruminants (polygastric)

- Definition: as the name implies cattle, sheep, goats, and camel ruminate their food

means they bring back up chew again before swallowing. Actually they have one true

stomach called abomasums and 3-forstomachs called reticulum, rumen, and omasum

that have different compartments, size and function before reaching the abomasums.

Figure; The four – compartment stomach of the cow

1) Reticulum: Are the smallest, and the cranial component of the fore stomach, that is

separated from the rumen by the rumino-reticulo fold. The reticulum has honey

comb arrangement of folds 4-6 sided structures. The reticulum entrance of the

esophagus if the animal swallow wires, metal fragments and stones, plastics may
 74

lodge after that when the reticulo-rumino contractions occurs the objects may

penetrate the cranial wall of the reticulum to the diaphragm to the heart by

resulting precarditis which is known hard ware disease.

2) Rumen: the reticulo-rumino contraction allows the partially digested food to be

regurgitated, re chewed, and re swallowed (rumination).

3) Omasum: after the rumino-reticulo completed the ingesta enter into the omasum

which breaks down the food particles before it passed into the abomasums.

4) Abomasums: is the true stomach of the ruminants that has the same function of

the Monogastric stomach.

Questions and answers

Q-Name the various parts of the Monogastric stomach? And their functions?

A-they are cardiac, pylorus, body and the fundus

- The cardiac orientates the esophagus as it enters the stomach, and provides natural

closure.

- Fundus: is the area of the stomach that is distensible, and has the gastric glands

- Pylorus: also is a distensible part that grinds the swallowed food, regulates the

movement of chime from the stomach to duodenum, and prevents back flow.

Q- Describe what kind of each of the following cells produce in the stomach?

- Parietal cells: produce the HCL-acid

- Chief cells: produce an enzymes

- Mucous cells: produce the protective mucus

- G-cells: produce/secrete the hormone gastrin

Q- Differentiate the following terms:

- Mucous: is membrane lining the passages, cavities

- Mucus: is a visceral fluid secreted by the mucus

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- Mucin: is the constituent of the mucous membrane, and the glands.

Q- Explain the adverse reactions of the NSAIDS in the stomach?

An- Medicines like aspirin of the NSAIDs decreases the prostaglandin secretions in the

stomach important for the maintenance, and the ability to repair the stomach by resulting

upset of the stomach.

Q-what are the 4-compartments of the ruminant stomach, and which one is the true

stomach?

A-The 4-compartment of ruminant stomach are:

- Reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasums.

- The abomasums is the only true stomach

Q-what is a hard ware? And which one of the fore stomachs usually associate with this

disease?

A-hard ware disease is a disease resulted from sharp objects swallowed and lodged the

reticulum after that penetrates the diaphragm into the pericardium by resulting

precarditis

Q-Rumination: means to bring back the swallowed food into the esophagus, the purpose to

masticate the food for another time.

Eructation: means to expel gases from the rumen created by the fermentation ( to inhibit

bloat or tempanic)

II-Intestine

a) Small intestine

b) Large intestine

- The structure of small intestine is similar to the other segments of the digestive

system include:
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1) The inner mucosal layer

2) The sub mucosal layer

3) The muscular layer

4) And the outer serosal layer

- Also small intestine has 3-segments

1) Duodenum segment that leaves the stomach

2) Jejunum segment which makes the majority

3) Ileum is the third segment that enters the colon (large intestine) separated by the

ileo-cecal sphincter( is a muscular ring which closes the orifice)

- Functions: the small intestine is where the majority of nutrients are absorbed into the

blood stream due to the mucosa of the small intestine belongs millions of tiny

cylindrical, finger like projection called intestinal-villi or micro-villi provides absorption.

Figure; Anatomical intestinal villi

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- Control of the small intestine: occurs under the

1) Parasympathetic nervous system from the sacral vertebra area provides stimulation

of the Small intestine motility, blood flow and secretion.

2) Where the sympathetic nervous system tends to decrease the circulation of the

intestine motility and the secretion.

- Intestinal motility: the small intestine have:

1) Peristaltic waves associated with co-ordinate contraction of longitudinal and

circular muscle which pushes the ingesta forward.

2) Segmental contraction which mix the intestinal contents, and brings the digested

material into contact with the surface allowing enough time to absorb.

3) For that case many of the pathological factors can cause over active of the

peristaltic contraction due to lack of segmental contraction by resulting diarrhea(

frequent passage of watery bowel movement)

- In less active or decreased in the peristaltic movement by resulting :

- The ingesta to move slowly (intestinal obstruction)

- Originally means colic by resulting pain, constipation, and abdominal distension.

Figure; peristalsis and segmentation (A) during the peristalsis, the circular smooth muscles behind layer the bolus contracts
- Digestion of the small intestine
while that in front of the bolus relaxes. Conversely, the longitudinal smooth muscle layer behind the bolus relaxes while tha t in
front of bolus contracts. This propulsion of the bolus down the digestive tract (B) during segmentation, non adjacent of the
digestive tract contract and relax resulting in mixing of the contents
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1) Electrolytes vitamins and water are absorbed in contact of the small intestine

walls, where as carbohydrates, proteins and fats are chemically digested into 2-

steps:

- With the enzymes in the lumen of the intestine

- With enzymes associated with microvilli

- After the food is transported either by carrier molecules or by passive diffusion

across the intestinal membrane.

a) Carbohydrate digestion: Starch, glycogen and various sugars constitute complex

carbohydrates or polysaccharides.

- So amylase in the saliva of the some species and the pancreatic juice into the lumen

of the duodenum convert the starch into smaller sugar segments called

disaccharides into monosaccharide by the enzymes of:

1. Sucrose: which splits the sugar cane into glucose and fructose

2. Maltase: converts the end product of seeds into glucose

3. Lactase: converts the lactose into dextrose.

- Sucrose, maltase and lactase are found in the cell membrane of the microvilli that

transports the border of the cell membrane, and absorbs into the body.

b) Protein digestion: protein protease enzyme reduces the large molecules into amino

acids before they are absorbed.

- First gastric pepsin breaks the proteins

- Then the pancreas produces 5-basic protease enzymes due to protein posses

different amino acids and chemical bonds that are:

a) Trypsin

b) Chymotrypsin

c) Elastase

d) Amino peptidase

e) Carboxy-peptidase
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c) Fat digestion: the process of the fat digestion is called emulsification. So the bile

acids secreted from the liver, and the pancreatic lipase digests the fat(

triglycerides) into glycerol, fatty acids and monoglycerides by resulting small

pieces called micelles that allows the fat droplets to become water soluble in the

intestine where they are absorbed.

Questions and answers

Q-Name the 3-segments of the small intestine? And which segment is the longest?

A-they are duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

- The longest portion of 3-segments is jejunum

Q-what is principal function of the ileo-sphinctor?

A-it separates the ileum from the colon

Q-what is villi, and how does it supports the digestion, and the absorption?

A-villi: are tiny cylindrical projections found in the intestinal wall.

- Micro-villi have enzymes and carrier molecules that support the digestion and

absorption.

Q-what is the role of the segmental contraction in the small intestine? And how do animals

get diarrhea?

A-the role of this contraction is to mix the intestinal content, and supports the

absorption. So lack of it the ingesta can rapidly slide

Q-Describe the following medical terms:

- Obstruction: is the blocking of a structure

- Diarrhea: frequent passage of abnormally watery bowel movement

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- Protease: is an enzyme which converts the proteins into amino acids

- Emulsification: is the process of the fat digestion

- Bile acids: are salts in the bile that are important in the digestion of fats in the

intestine

- Triglycerides: are the fat molecules

- Pancreatic lipase: is a fat digestion enzyme

- Micro-villi: are tiny cylindrical structures found in the small intestine

- Lactase: is an enzyme converting the lactose into dextrose

- Anti-parasympathetic drugs: cause to reduce the intestinal motility, blood flow, and

secretion.

IV- Large intestine

- Structure of large intestine is the cecum, colon, and the rectum.

- Function of the large intestine are to:

a) Recover fluids, and electrolytes

b) To store the feces until they can be eliminated.

- The cecum locates at the ileo-cecal junction

- Colon is the largest compartment of the large intestine which is responsible for the

absorption of the water, and the electrolytes.

- Rectum locates b/w the colon and the anus. It stores until the defecation(to expel

feces).

- The process of defecation: the terminal portion of the tract is called the anus that

has internal and external sphincter, so when the rectum distends the fecal

contents move into the internal sphincter to stimulate, then under the voluntary

motor impulse the external sphincter allows it to relax.

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VI- organs related to digestion

- Liver; is the largest organ in the body, that can be divided several hepatic lobes,

which locates on the right site beneath the diaphragm level with the bottom of the

sternum. Blood supply is from the hepatic artery which is branch of cilia artery

and hepatic portal vein which drains the intestine.

- Function ;

a) Bile acids or bile salts secreted by the hepatic cells which thick and bitter

taste fluid is store in the gall bladder. So during the digestion the gall

bladder contracts and forces the bile to let down to the bile duct into

duodenum to support the digestion of the fats.

b) The liver has the ability of removing the toxic substances from the materials

absorbed the G.I.T tract before they reach the systemic circulation ,

actually the hepatic sinusoids are phagocytes

- Sinusoid- are tiny blood vessels found in the liver , spleen , and bone

marrow that remove the bacterium , toxins , poisons , worn out R.B.C and

other infectious agent.

c) Blood protein from the liver like albumin maintains the proper fluid balance

d) The glucose absorbed from the G.I.T tract stores the livers as glycogen

through process glucogenesis. Then when there is demand breaks the liver

through the process called glycolysis. Also glucose may prepare the liver

from the amino acids through the process called gluconeogenesis

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- The pancreas: structure: the pancreas is a compound tubule-acinar gland situated

behind the stomach in front of the first and second lombor vertebrae in horizontal

position.

- Function: the pancreas has dual functions:

a) Exocrine gland: secrete digestive enzymes into the small intestine (protease

enzyme), amylase, and lipase. Also the pancreas secretes significant amount

of bicarbonate into the duodenum which helps to neutralize the acid content

from the stomach.

b) The endocrine functions: the pancreatic islels or langerhans islel:

- The beta cells produce insulin hormone which controls the blood glucose level so it

lowers the concentration of the glucose in the blood

- In the alpha cells of the pancreas produce glucagon hormone which mobilizes the

glucose through the liver via glucogenesis and glucogenolysis ( anti-gonize insulin).

- So insulin and glucagon cause the glucose in the blood tightly regulated in specific

concentration.

- Lack of insulin elevates the glucose level in the blood by resulting diabetes mellitus.

Question and answers

Q-What is fecal continuant?

A-Fecal continuant means the animal is unable to control defecation due to damage of the

anal sphincter.

Q-Where is produced the bile, stored, and reaches the small intestine?

A-Bile is produced from the hepatic cells, is stored in the gallbladder and is reached into

the duodenum.

Q-a-Glucogenolysis: means breaking down of the glucose.

B-Glucogenesis: is the process of storing the glucose.

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C-Gluconeogenesis: is the process that can be making the gluco from amino acids.

Q-what can of impact do insulin and glucagon have on the blood glucose concentration?

A-They regulate the blood glucose levels

- Insulin: lowers the concentration of the glucose

- Glucagon: mobilize the glucose in the liver

Q-In addition to the digestive enzymes what else does the pancreas secrete as exocrine?

A-it secretes bicarbonate which neutralize the acid content

Q-a- Mega esophagus: means the muscle of the esophagus loses it is normal tone.

- Emulsification: is the act of mixing fats and water by agitation or shaking.

- Chyme: is the partially digested food

- Hepatic sinusoids: are minute blood vessels found in the liver that removes the

toxins.

Q-Regurgitation: is the backward following as the return of the solids and liquids or fluids

to the mouth from the stomach.

Q-Mesentery: is a peritoneal fold enclosing the greater part of the small intestine, and

connecting it to the abdominal wall.

Q-Edema: is a local or generalized condition in which the body tissue contains an excessive

amount of tissue fluid. (Generalized edema is called dropsy or anasarca).

Q-Peristalsis: is a progressive wave like movement that occurs in hollow tubes of the body

especially in the alimentary canal.

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CHAPTER 6:-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1) Structure: upper respiratory tract

- Lower respiratory

- Lungs and Thorax

2) Negative intra-thoracic pressure

- Inspiration and expiration

- Respiratory volume

- Exchange of gases in alveoli

- Partial pressure of gases.

- Control of the breathing

- The structure of the respiratory tract consists of the 2-lungs and systems of tubules

which connects the external environment.

- The structures in the lungs include: bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar sacs, and the

alveoli.

- Structures outside of the lungs include: the nostrils, Nasal passage, pharynx, larynx

and the trachea (wind pipe).

1) The Nose: - starts the external opening (nostrils) that leads into the nasal passage

which locates b/w the nostrils and pharynx. There is a septum b/w the nasal passage

the hard and soft plates of the mouth also separate the nasal passage and mouth.

- Function: - condensing the in haled Air and humifies and mucus.

o Warming the air with blood

o Filtration and the dusts and pollen before they reach the lungs with the help of

the ciliated cells.

- Also in the nasal is found Para-nasal sinuses (out pouching) developed embryo logically

from nasal passage which locates.

a) The space the skull bones (frontal sinuses and maxillary sinuses) that have the same

function of the nasal passage.

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2) Pharynx: - is common passage of the respiratory tract and G.I.T with locates at the

back of the nasal passage.

- The soft plate divides the pharynx into:-

a) Dorsal Naso-pharynx

b) Ventral oro-pharynx.

- So theses 2-passages switch the larynx with thin 1 each shaped structure that locates

at the root of tongue called epiglottis prevents the food and water to enter the Air.

- N.B sometimes may occur and obstruction (choke) of the larynx by preventing

breathing if you try to swallow and to breath or laugh at the sometimes.

- The pharynx also control air flow , urination , defecation and parturition

3) Larynx: - is the tube that connects the pharynx with the trachea.

- The pharynx is made of the following cartilages

a) One epiglottitis

b) One hyoid

c) One cartilage

d) Paired arytenoids cartilage

- The epiglottitis and arytenoids are clinically important.

a) The epiglottitis during the swallowing is pulled back to cover the opening of the

larynx

b) The arytenoids cartilage attaches to the vocal cord in the larynx so whenever the

Air passage vibrates and produce sounds.

Figure: - A- Illustration of the anatomy of the epiglottis and larynx, B- Photography of the anatomy of the epiglottis
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Trachea (Wind pipe)

- The trachea extends from the larynx down through the neck region into the thorax,

where divides into two bronchi called bifurcans of the trachea.

- The trachea is made of fibrous tissue and smooth muscles which help to open the

hyaline cartilage rings lined by the ciliated cells.

The lower respiratory tract

- In this tract included all the structure with in the lungs with terminates the alveoli as

follows:-

1) The bronchiole tree forms the bronchioles

2) The bronchi forms the bronchial tree

3) The bronchiole to alveolar ducts

4) Alveolar ducts to alveolar sac

Figure: The lower respiratory tract

- The structure of lungs: - the shape of the 2-lungs are likes cone( flask) that has base

and apex and convex.

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- The Mediastinum b/w the two lungs contains

- The heart

- Trachea

- Esophagus

- Nerves

- Large blood vessels

- Lymphatic nodes

- Hillis of the lungs: - is the area where the air blood and nerve enter and leave the

lungs.

- Pulmonary circulation:-the blood enters the lungs through the pulmonary artery which

is de-oxygenated and returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein which is

oxygenated.

- The period of the prenatal life or before the birth the 2-lungs are not functioning due

to the fetus floats in liquids.

- So the fetal lungs at this time have solid consistency as the liver.

- Physiological functions of the respiratory system: the main of then system is to

bring 02 into the body and to carry Co2 out of it why so?

- Answer: because the body cells need 02 to burn nutrients to produce energy and

the co2 is the waste of the energy producing reactions

- Actually there 2.type of respirations

a) External respiration: is the exchanging of O2 and CO2 between the inhaled air and

the pulmonary capillaries

b) Internal respiration: is the exchange of O2 and CO2 between capillaries and the

tissue of the body.

c) Furthermore the respiratory system has secondary functions as;

1) The voice production from (phonation) the vocal cord or vocal folds or the voice

box which begins in the larynx voice box the vocal cord stretch the larynx to
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vibrate as the air passes over it in order to produce sound other organs that

contribute the voice include the thorax chest nose, the mouth and sinus pharynx.

2) Regulation of the body : temperature ; the systems helps cooling the body

panting through the mechanical of rapid respiration and in the cold environment

the blood vessels in the nasal passage warms the air before it reaches the lungs.

3) Acid and base balance:-in this case the more in blood lowers the PH (H+

concentration) into acid environment the respiratory system luckily alters the

carbon dioxide by breathing.

4) The sense of the smell (olfactory) locates in the nasal passage

5) The negative pressure in the thorax (partially vacuum) to the respect of the

atmosphere pressure causes to pull the lungs out against the thoracic wall with the

help of the diaphragm which reduces and large the volume of the thorax. Also the

negative pressure supports the blood return back into the heart.

6) Inspiration: - is the pulling of the Air into the lungs follows the enlargement of

the thoracic cavity with the help inspiratory muscle like:-

a. External intercostal muscle

b. The muscles of the neck

c. The chest that attach to the rib cages and

d. The diaphragm

7) Expiration: - is pushing out the air which does not require much work if it’s not

the breathing is fast and labored. The basic mechanism is that the size of the

thoracic cavity is described. The expiratory muscles include

a. The internal intercostal muscles

b. The abdominal muscles that rotates the ribs back ward

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Figure: The mechanism of breathing, the chest can be expended by fattening diaphragm or expending the rib cage

8) Exchange of gases in the alveoli: - the exchange of gases is sample diffusion

from high concentration to low concentration .For that case the atmospheric

pressure contains high level of oxygen and diffuses into the alveoli capillary and

the carbon dioxide low in the atmosphere contains 0.03% and diffuses from the

blood to alveoli.
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Figure: Transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood. The top portion of the figure shows gas

exchange at the tissue level, and the bottom portion is at the level of the lungs. As CO2 is

produced in the tissues, it diffuses into the red blood cells (RBCs) where it combines with

water to form carbonic acid. As carbonic acid dissociates, the HCO 3 − that was formed

diffuses out of the RBC and into the plasma in exchange for Cl−, which moves into the RBC,

a process called the chloride shift. Most CO2 (70%) is transported as HCO3 −; the

remainder is transported as either dissolved CO2 (7%) or carbaminohemoglobin (22%). The

bottom portion of the figure shows how the gases move when the blood arrives in the

lungs. Hb, hemoglobin

Control of breathing: - there are 2-types of control

a) Mechanical control:- this control occurs in the medulla oblongata of the brain

stem known as the respiratory center that set limits inspiration and expiration.

b) Mechanical control:-the carbon dioxide and the phare linked if the carbon dioxide

level in the blood rises the ph of the blood goes down indication acidic.

CO2+ H20 H2CO3.

- The level of oxygen is not clear but if there is hypoxia increases the rate of the

respiration.

Clinical Application

1) Sinusitis :- is the inflammation of the sinuses caused by allergic by resulting:-

- Swelling

- Pressure

- Obstruction

- Sinus fluid

- Pain or dolor

 Treatment: - can be treated with ant-biotic to combat the microscopes and nasal

decongestants which reduce the swelling and fluids.

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2) Tracheal collapse: - is abnormal retraction of the tracheal rings that blocks the

lumen by results cough, and difficult breathing (dyspnea)

 Treatment include:-

- Weight loss in obeys animals

- Exercise restriction

- Reduction of excitement and stress

- Medical therapy and surgical procedures

3) Aspiration pneumonia:-

a. Aspiration pneumonia:- is drawn in or out by suction

b. Pneumonia is the inflammation of the lungs

c. So aspiration pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs produced by

inhalation of foreign materials.

4) Endotracheal intubation:-is a plastic tube inserted through the glottis into trachea to

provide an open air ways: inhalation of the anesthetics or to allow artificial ventilation.

5) Roaring horse: - is the laryngeal hemiplegia or paralysis of the vocal cord which

produces a sound when an animal breath and dyspnea.

6) Cough:- is a protective reflex stimulating by

a. Irritant substance

b. Foreign other matter formed in the lower respiratory tract

c. The purpose is to clear the mucus and the foreign materials

7) Sneezing is similar to cough but irritants originated in the nasal passage

8) Yawn- is slow deep breath due to slightly decrease in oxygen, drowsiness, fatigue,

thinking and bore.

9) Sigh:- also is deep breath than the normal

10) Hiccups: - are spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm followed by sudden closure o

the colitis. The cause of the hiccup is spasmodic contraction

- The treatment: Although the hiccup is temporary and harmless sometimes may

become recurrent and prolonged then may require medical treatment

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Questions and Answers

Q) What is the primary function of respiratory system?

An) The primary function is respiratory system is to bring oxygen into the body and carry

out carbon dioxide.

Q) And what is the secondary function of respiratory system?

- Voice production

- Regulation of temperature

- Acid/Base balance and

- Sense of smell

Q) Differentiate external and internal respiration

An) External respiration occurs b/w the air and lungs and internal occurs b/w the blood

the tissue of the body.

Q) By which mechanisms the inhaled air is warmed humidified and filtrated.

An) The air is warmed the vessels beneath the nasal epithelium, is humidified by mucus and

is filtrated by ciliated cells.

Q) Describe how the respiration and the digestive systems switch the air passage in the

pharynx

An) In fact the pharynx and larynx work together to prevent the food and water from the

entrance of the air passage.

Q) What is role of epiglottis plays in the air passage?

An) The epiglottis bulls back to cover the opening of the larynx when the animal swallows.

Q) How does the larynx supports the defecation, urination and parturition process.
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An) The epiglottis closes the opening by applying pressure to the thorax with breathing

muscles.

Q) Why the hyaline cartilage are important for the function of the trachea.

An) Because the hyaline cartilage rings prevent the tracheal collapse.

Q) Where is found the hills of the lungs and what does it do?

An) Hills are located where the lungs are fastened and enter the air, blood vessels, and

nerves and leave the lungs.

Medical terms

- Larynx: is the voice box as commonly called

- Pharynx: is a common passage for both respiratory and digestive system

- Lyrygo: is the rostral of the laryngeal cartilage which covers the pharynx

- Glottis : is the sound producing apparatus of larynx

- Alveolar Ducts: are small air passages that carries the air to the alveolar sacs

- Alveolar sacs: are thin walled sacs

- Lobes: are subdivision of the lungs or regions

a) The left lung has two lobes cranial and caudal

b) The right lung has 4 lobes cranial, middle, caudal and small accessory lobes. Note

equine do not have lobe

c) Hillus : is the location of the lungs or kidneys that enter the blood vessels and

nerves

d) Mediastinum :- is the portion of the thorax between lungs which contains heart ,

trachea , esophagus , blood vessels , nerves and lymphatic structures

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CHAPTER 7:-URINARY SYSTEM

Chapter outline:

1) Kidney

a. Gross anatomy

b. Micro anatomy

c. Nerve and blood supply

d. Mechanism of renal action

e. Urine volume regulation

2) Uterus

a. Anatomy

b. Physiology

3) Urinary bladder

a. Control urination

4) Urethra

a. Anatomy

b. Physiology

Figure: Anatomy of the kidney

- Introduction:

- The urinary system removes urea which is harmful metabolic waste product substances

from protein, salts, water and other soluble materials.

1. Location of kidneys: - they locates the dorsal parts of the abdomen just few first

lumbar vertebra.

- Structurally:- pre-renal fat surrounds the kidneys which helps to protect pressure in

fact the two kidney locate behind or retero-pretoneal of the abdominal cavity this

means they are outside of the peritoneum.

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2. Gross anatomy: the 2-kidneys are bean shaped in most animals covered by a capsule of

fibrous connective tissue.

1. The medial of the kidney there is hills which the Area that enters and leaves the

blood vessels, nerve and the ureters.

2. Inside of the hills there is funnel shaped area called renal pelvis which collects the

urine.

3. The outer portion of the kidney is called the cortex and has a rough the renal pelvis

is called medulla that has a smooth appearance so the cortex and the medulla of the

kidney with species some of the animals like pigs and cattle have multi pyramidal or

multi-lumbar and other animals the medullary pyramids fuse and are called uni-

pyramidal or Uri lobular.

Figure: Structure of the kidney

4. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney

- The kidneys are made up of hundreds of thousands of microscopic filtering,

reabsorbing and secreting systems called nephron.

- A nephron is the unit basic functional of the kidney that varies per kidney in number

according to the size of the animals.

- For each nephron composes: - renal capsule, proximal convoluted tube.

1) The renal capsule:- locates at the cortex of the kidney and is made up of:-
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a. The glomerulus that are tuft of capillaries

b. Bowman’s capsule that surrounds the glomerulus

c. The function of the renal capsule is to filter the blood in the first stage of the

urine production and the fluid filtered out from the blood is called gumerular

filtrate.

2) The proximal convoluted tube: - is the largest tube which communicates with the

capsular space of the nephron. This tubule is responsible for the

a. Re absorption

b. Secretion function.

3) Henles’loop: is continuous from the P.C.T, then descending into medulla of the kidney

by making a U-turn and ascends back into the cortex.

4) The distal convoluted: is continuous with the ascending part of the Henle’s loop. This

tube forms all the nephrons in the kidney empty into series of tubules called

collecting ducts that carry the filtrate through the medulla eventually into the renal

pelvis to urethra. The collecting ducts is the site of action of ADH, Potassium

regulation acid/base balance and urine volume.

Figure: The structure of the kidney

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- Nephron:-is the structural and functional unit of the kidney consisting( as above

indicated)

- The nerve supply of the kidney is the sympatic portion of the autonomic nervous

system which controls the blood flow but is not essential for the kidneys function,

because transplanted kidney will work although the nerve supply has been disrupted.

- Blood supply: 25% or ¼ of the cardiac output goes into the kidneys so every 5-

minitutes all the circulating blood passes the kidney for filtration.

- The renal artery enters the kidney at the hills by dividing into the arterials until it

become a series of afferent glomerular arterioles so after the glomerular filtrate

passes into the glomerular efferent arterioles.

- Glomerular filtrate rate which describes how fast the plasma is filtered is expressed

ml/minute

Function of the nephron. The illustration of the site if activity, as well the

target regions for the hormones aldosterone and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
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- Example. Case: - if 180ml of plasma flow to the kidney in every minute. Calculate the

glomerular filtrate removed from the circulation of the blood.

- Solution:- we know that each minute passes the kidney 25% then if 180ml flow to the

kidney will be 25% x 180ml= 45ml/180ml

Function of the kidney

- The kidney eliminates the metabolic waste materials from the body through the

process:-

1) Filtration of the blood :- normally the capillaries b/w the arterial and venal in the

body have low pressure that the glomerular capillaries that forces that forces

Plasma out of the capillaries due fenestration or pores in the capillary by forming a

fluid known as glomerular filtrate but large molecules as the proteins cannot passed

it.

2) Re absorption:- in the glomerular filtrate substances in the plasma that are still

requires the body are reabsorbed back such as ions of the Na +, K+, Ca+ , Mg+ , Cl-

and glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate and water through the mechanism b/w the

tubular epithelium cells as the proximal convoluted tubes either by passive and

active.

3) Secretory: - is the process where the glandular cells produce certain materials

from the blood.

4) Urine volume regulations: - through the urine volume is determined by the amount

of water contained in the tubular filtrate there are 2-hormones responsible the

majority of the urine volume regulations.

a) Aldosterone hormone secreted by the renal cortex increases the reabsorbed.

b) Anti-diuretics hormone plays an important role from water loss and lack of this

hormone results polyuria.

5) Urine production:- can be broken down into 6-basic steps:-

a. First the blood enters the glomerular via the afferent artiole
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b. Second the high blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries minus large

proteins and blood cells to the tubular filtrate.

c. The part of the plasma not forces out the glomerular capillaries enters a

particular capillary of the nephron.

d. In the tubular filtrate (P.C.T) some of the useful substances are reabsorbed

back into particular capillaries.

e. Water products are secreted from particular capillaries as it travels

through the tubules.

f. As the tubular filtrate reaches the collecting ducts is ready to leave the

urine in the kidney.

- Note that: - the urine is constantly being produced by the kidneys and is sent

down through ureters into the urinary bladder for storage until it’s eliminated.

- The ureter is a tube that exits the kidney at the hills and connective to the

urinary bladder.

a) Structurally the ureter has three layers:-

1) Outer fibrous layer

2) Middle of a smooth muscles

3) Inner layer made of transmission epithelium.

b) Function:-the ureters the urine continuously to the urinary bladder with the

help of the smooth muscle contractions as in the intestine does. The ureter

enters the bladder as oblique angle for physiological purpose.

- Urinary bladder:-stores in the urine and release it periodically.

- Structure: - the bladder is sac with variable size and position which depends on the

amount of the urine it contains.

- It has a smooth muscle that squeeze the urine the neck of the urinary bladder has

Spector ( musclurin) which close and opens the passage way of the urine

- Function:- the function of the urinary bladder is

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a) To collect b) to store and c) to release the urine so after the pressure reaches

a point that stimulate the receptors of the muscular sphincters the urine is

released.

- So the fuller the bladder gets the walls become thinner and more pressure is applied

to the muscular sphincter.

- Urethra:-connects with the neck of the urinary bladder, lined by transitional

epithelium that allows it to expand.

- The female’s urethra is short, straight and opens on the vestibule of the vulva.

- The vulva is the female external genitalia which consists a) labia b) clitoris c)

vestibule.

- The urethra of the male runs down the center of the penis.

- The urethra of the common passage of the urine and reproductive functions.

- So during ejaculation the sperm and seminal fluids are discharged into the urethra.

Urolithiasis

- Also urinary stones or urinary calculi

- Formation of the calculi:- The mechanism of urolith formation is not under stood, but

we know that the urine contains waste products dissolved in water that will

precipitate to form crystals which interact with each other (aggregate) to form

calculi.

- Location of the urolith:-can occur anywhere of the urinary system And clinical

symptoms depends on where the stones are located. Some of the uroliths may cause

no noticeable signs other may cause inflammation or obstructions.

Treatment of the urolith

1) The use of analgesic (ant-pain) ant-spasmatics and adequate fluid intake may help in

passing the stone relieving pain.

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2) The other method is by passing catheter into the urethra by flushing plug back into

the urinary bladder

3) Special urological or surgical procedure is used if the stone is large or impacted.

Questions and Answers

Q) What are the six structures that make up the urinary system?

An) They are a) the 2-kidneys b) the 2-urithra c) 1-urinary bladder d) 1-urithra

Q) Nitrogenous waste materials from the protein break down are eliminated the body

as what?

An) Are eliminated from the body in the form of urea.

Q) Name one hormone whose release in regulated by the kidney and other hormone

that directly affects the kidneys function.

An) Erythropoietin release is regulated by the kidney and the ADH- Hormone affects

the kidney function.

Q) What is the different b/w the hills and kidney?

An) Hills are where the vessels and nerves enter the kidney and the renal pelvis

collects the urine.

Q) What is meaning of the retro-peritonea?

An) Means behind the peritoneum

Q) List in order the parts of the nephron and specific found in the cortex or in the

medulla

- Renal capsule (cortex)

- P.C tubular (cortex)

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- D.C tubular (cortex)

- Loop of Henle descends into the medulla Collecting tubules.

- Tubeless located the medulla and empty into the renal pelvis.

Q) Name the structure that enters and leaves the hills of the kidney

An) Blood vessels b) lymphatic vessels c) ureters and nerves.

Q) What is the different b/w glomerular filtrate and the tubular filtrate.

An) Glomerular filtrate is fluid that has been filtrated out the glomerular capillaries

Tubular filtrate is the glomerular filtrate passed into the P.C.Tubule.

Q) How does differ the blood in the afferent glomerular arteriole from efferent

arteriole?

An) Afferent glomerular arteriole carry blood into the glomerulus form filtration

b) Afferent glomerular arterioles carry out from the glomeruli the blood has been

filtered

Q) What is the mechanism in which the glucose and the amino acids are reabsorbed at the

p.c. tubules and back into the body

An) Is the mechanism which involves removal of some of constituents of the tubular

filtrate through re absorption back into the blood

Q) Why it is important that ureters have an inner layer of transition epithelium

An) Because it allows the ureters to stretch

Q) What is the structure preventing the urine to back up during the contraction of the

bladder wall?

An) The oblique angle of the ureter collapses the penning

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Q) How the ureter takes the urine from the kidney

An) With the help of the smooth muscle layer propel the urine through the ureter by

peristaltic con traction

Q) How does the bladder know when to empty to itself?

An) Full bladder the pressure reaches a certain point that activates the bladder wall to

contract

Q) What part of the urinary bladder is under the voluntary control?

An) The sphincter of the bladder is under the voluntary control to open and close the path

way

Q) Does the urine production stop when the urinary bladder is full?

An) No it does not because kidneys continuously produce the urine

Q) Besides the urinary function what is the other functions to discharge during

ejaculation the spermatozoa and seminal fluids

Q) What is a urolith? Is the presence of urinary stone?

Q) Name 2 factors that can predispose an animal to urolith production

An) (a)- Adequate amount of minerals in the urine (b)-The pH of the urine tabors

precipitation

Q) Describe the following terms

a) Micturition is the voiding of the ruing

b) B) Ejaculation ejection of the seminal fluid from the male urethra

c) Transition epithelium is a type of epithelium capable to change their shape for

physiological function
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d) Uroliths:- is a stone or calculi in the urinary system.

e) glomerular filtrate :- is the fluid that is filtrated out of the a blood

f) Re absorption:- in the glomerulus filtrate substance that are still needed the body

are reabsorbed ( meaning back)

g) Uremia: - means urine in the blood

h) Diabetes mellitus:- the urine contains large amounts of glucose and tests sweet

while the diabetes insipidus is test less.

i) Both the 2-diabetes associated with polyuria and polydipsia.

j) Urinalysis:- is the laboratory examination and evaluation of urine sample.

k) Renal dysfunction:- is any pathological condition that results in ability of the

urinary system to remove west martials form the blood.

l) Anuria:- lack of urination

m) Polyuria:- increase of the urine volume

n) Oliguria:-decrease of the urination

o) Polydipsia:- is an excessive thirst

p) Hillis:- is a medical site of the kidney in which the blood vessels, nerves, and urate

enter and leave the kidney.

q) Renal pelvis:- is funnel shaped area in the medulla which collects the urine.

r) Multi-pyramidal:- or mult-lobular means the medulla of the kidney has Nemours

pyramid shaped areas.

s) Urinary pyramids: - or uri-lobullar means the medullary pyramids fuse to occupy the

entire inner area.

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CHAPTER 8:-REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- Chapter outline

1. Meiosis

- Chromosomes

- Spermatogenesis

- Oogenesis

2. Male reproductive organ

- Testes

- Urethra

- Accessory reproductive glands

- Vas deferens

- Penis

3. Female reproductive system

- Ligaments

- Oviducts

- Cervix

- Vulva

- Ovaries

- Uterus

- Vagina

- Estrus cycle

- Introduction:

1) The rest systems of the body work to ensure the survival of the individual, where as

the reproductive system works to ensure the existence of the species. For that case

the reproductive organs can be removed surgically if they are not sharing with the

other systems. So to produce offspring’s filials in the sexual reproduction require a

second sex to carry the function. The basic reproductive system starts with

fertilization means the head of the spermatozoa penetrate into the cytoplasm of the
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ovum. Then must be provided with a hospitable place to grow and develop until the

offspring is born.

2) Meiosis: is the reduction of the number of chromosomes from normal diploid number to

haploid. The chromosomes do not duplicate, and may result half of the total

chromosome. The mitosis the chromosomes first duplicate copy of itself, and ends up

with an identical full diploid set of chromosomes.

- Chromosomes: are threads like accumulations of DNA in the nuclei of cells. The number

of the chromosomes is constant within a given species (diploid) with the exception of

the reproductive cells that is haploid.

- Spermatogenesis: the sex cells of the male are produced in the seminiferus tubules of

the testes continuously in a very large number in order to ensure, and fertilize the

ovum at the breading (the formation of mature functional spermatozoa). In the process

un differentiated spermatogonia (un specialized cell which spermatogenesis give rise to

primary spermatocyte). Primary spermatocyte each of which divides to form 2-

spermatids which transform into functional motile spermatozoa.

- Oogenesis: the female sex cells are produced in the follicles of the ovary, but are not

produced continuously, because soon after the birth has fixed number of primary

oocyte, that is the total number available in her life time. The primary oocyte divides

into large secondary oocyte, and smaller pollar body, which further divides into ovum

and 3pollar bodies. So the process of oogenesis results one or more mature eggs

depends on the species.

- Case: if an x-bearing spermatozoa fertilizes the ovum which always contains an x-sex

chromosome what will be the future offspring? The offspring will have xx-sex

chromosome and be genetically female.

- Note that the sex chromosome determines the male that has xy-sex chromosome.

Male reproductive system

- Introduction: the tasks of the male reproductive system are:

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a) Formation of the male sex hormones

b) Development of the male reproductive cells

c) To deliver the spermatozoa into female genital tract

- Testes: are the male gonads means organs that produce the reproductive cells.

a) location of the testes: testes locate outside of the abdomen in the inguinal region

; but before the birth they develop in the abdominal cavity then gradually are

pulled back to descend into the inguinal region into scrotum; which is a pouch or a

sac that contains the testicles and part of the spermatic cord that connects the

testes to the abdominal inguinal ring.

b) Structurally: testes are oval, and their size varies among the species.

The testicles surround a serious membrane called tunica virginals. Inside of the

testes is found seminiferus tubule so between these tubules there are cells called

interstitial cells that produce sex hormone (androgens) called testosterone which

is responsible:

1) Male secondary characteristics as the shape of body and bone development.

2) Essential for the normal sexual behavior and the occurrence of the erection.

3) Also the male reproductive cells are produced in the seminiferus tubules.

- After the spermatozoa complete their physical development in the seminiferus tubules

are transported to the efferent duct testes called the epididymis which is a single,

long, very convoluted tubule at the efferent duct of the testes.

- Structurally the epididymis has three regions:

1) The head where the spermatozoa enter from the efferent duct.

2) A body that lies along the surface of testes

3) A tail that continuous on vasdeferens.

- Functions of the epididymis:

1) Epididymis is the storage site of the spermatozoa

2) Also is site where get mature the spermatozoa before they are expelled or

ejaculated. For a week or more.

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3) If not ejaculated will die and are broken down by auto immune reactions.

- At the tail of the epididymis connects a muscular tube called vasdeferens or ducts

deferens to the pelvic portion of the urethra (neck of the urinary bladder).

- Function of vas-deferens:

1) Is to propel the spermatozoa and fluids from the epididymis to urethra when the

ejaculation occurs.

2) Once the spermatozoa reach in urethra with the accessory reproductive gland’s

secretion will form semen discharged from the urethra.

Figure: The structure of a testis

- Urethra: the urethra of the male has two functions urination and the spermatozoa

from vas-deferens also the secretory glands enter the urethra during the ejaculation

is temporarily blocked the urine.

- Structurally: the urethra has two portions:

a) Pelvic portion within the pelvic cavity, where the vasdeferens enter.

b) Anus portion which runs down the length of the penis.

- Accessory reproductive glands:

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a) Seminal vesicle which locates the pelvic of the urethra.

b) Portate gland that surrounds the urethra

c) Bulbo urethral gland cowpea’s gland locates further caudally and produces mucinous

fluid before the ejaculation that clears, and lubricates the urethra for the

passage of semen.

- Function:

a) Accessory glands produce fluids that increase the volume of the semen.

b) They produce alkaline fluids that neutralize the acidity of the female genital tract.

c) They produce fructose as source of energy

d) Prostaglandins that are thought to stimulate the contraction of the female genital

tract in order to support the spermatozoa up to the oviduct.

- Penis: structurally: the penis is the breading organ that is made of:

a) Muscles

b) Erectile tissue

c) Connective tissue

d) Urethra in the center

e) Very large blood vessels

f) Sensory nerve endings

g) Roots of the penis that attaches in to the pelvis

h) The body of the penis that is found the erectile tissue and tiny blood filled spaces.

- Functions: after the male is sufficiently aroused, and stimulated probably from

olfactory and behavioral changes that signal the male the female is in heat results the

erectile tissue to make the penis to enlarge, and stiffen due to more blood enters the

penis (engorged), which allows the penis to be inserted into the vagina of the female

for breading.

- Note that: the penis of a dog is a special case, there is os-penis that causes the male

and the female to remain stuck together.

- Ejaculation: is the expulsion of the semen from the penis due to:
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a) The stimuli that produced erection

b) And the physical action, and sensations of breading.

Female reproductive system

- The female reproductive organs are:

 Vulva , vagina, urethral orifice ,cervix , uterus , uterine horn ,oviduct and the overy

- Functions:

a) Production of sex hormones

b) Development of reproductive cells

c) To receive the male reproductive cells

d) Is the site occurs the fertilization

e) To provide hospitable the fertilized egg

f) Is the canal of the birth

g) All the female organs locate in the abdomen, and in the pelvic cavity.

1. Ovaries: location: the ovaries locate in the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity near the

kidneys. A sheet of tissue called mesovariam attaches the ovaries to the body wall, and

supplies blood, and nerve fibers.

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- Functions: the ovaries produce the ova, and hormones as the estrogen secreted by the

follicles, and progesterone hormone secreted by corpus luteam under the control of

Gonadotrophins F.S.H( follicle stimulating hormone) and L.H( luteinizing hormone) which

develops the corpus luteum(CL)

- The number of oocytes in the ovaries soon after the birth is the maximum number

available her life time. Some will mature into the ovum, the rest may degenerate or will

never develop

- The number of the follicles developing into ovum in each cycle depends on the species.

a) Some are uniparous species like cattle, horses give birth only one offspring at a

time due their ovaries produce 1-mature ovum per cycle.

b) Multiparous: as cats, and dogs give birth to lithers due to ovaries produce multiple

ova/cycle

- Estrogen: released by the developing ovarian follicles is responsible the physical and

behavioral changes that prepare the animal for breading and pregnancy.

- Progesterone: produced by the corpus luteum from the empty follicle after the

ovulation helps the uterus for the implantation of the fertilized ovum and to maintain

pregnancy

2. The oviduct(fallopian tube), and the uterine tubes: are small convoluted tubes from the

uterine horns

- Functions: after the ovulation takes place the oviduct catch the ova in a funnel called

infundibulum which is the usual site fertilize the ovum by the spermatozoa, and to

carry it into the uterus for implantation.

- Uterus: structurally: the uterus is a hollow muscular organ, somewhat Y-shaped, with 2-

uterine horns that are forming the arms.

- The wall of the uterus is made up of 3-layers:

a) The endometrium within simple tubular epithelial glands that secrete mucus, and

other substances.
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b) The myometerium made up of smooth muscles that support the uterus to strength,

to push the fetus out at the parturition.

c) The peri-meterium which is the outer most layer which covers the visceral layer of

the peritoneum

- Functions:

a) The uterus is the location where the fertilized ovum implants, and lives till it

develops into a new animal.

b) During the parturition the uterus pushes the fetus through the birth canal.

c) After the parturition the uterus returns to it is original size known as involution.

d) As the offspring in the uterus develops there is placenta that surrounds and

attaches to the lining of uterus to get nutrients and to excrete waste products.

- Cervix: structurally: the cervix is a muscular valve or sphincter locates b/w the uterus,

and the vagina.

- Function: The cervixes seals off or tightly close the uterus to control from the outside

most of the time except at the heat period or the parturition the cervix gradually

opens and dilates.

- Vagina: is a muscular tube that extends caudally from the cervix, and connects it with

the vulva. The lumen of the vagina is closed most of the time. But can stretch

considerably to accommodate the penis at the breading and at the birth process.

- Vulva: is the only portion that is visible from outside in the female genital tract.

- The vulva consists:

a) The vestibule is the site of entrance of the vagina from the outside world, and is

the portion where the urethra opens.

b) Labia: are the folds or libs lying on either sides of the vagina.

c) Clitoris: also is a structure on the floor of the vestibule that erectile tissue and

glands that is extensively supplied with sensory nerve endings like the penis of the

male reproductive organs.

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The estrous cycle

- Animal breading takes place when the female is receptive to a male that is known heat

period or estrus, which is under the control of the gonadotrophins (F.S.H, L.H, C.L).

- The estrous cycle intervals can be classified into:

a) Polyestrous animals: the cycle is continuous throughout the year if the animal is not

pregnant as the cattle and swine cycle.

b) Seasonal polyestrous: means at certain times of the year like horses, sheep

c) Diestrous; have 2-cycles per year as the dogs

d) Monoestrous animals: have only one cycle per year as the foxes.

- The stages of the of the estrous cycle which reflects what is going in the overy as the

follicles develop, mature, rapture, release of the ovum, and the formation of the

corpora lutea.

- The stages of the estrous are:

a) Proestrous: is the period of the follicles begin to develop, and the output of

estrogen hormone that causes many physical changes.

b) Estrous: is the period of receptivity due to behavioral changes that signal

the female’s willingness to bread the male.

c) Metsterous: is the period follows the ovulation and the corpus luteum

develops under the stimuli of L.H hormone . then C.L produces the

progesterone hormone.

d) Diestrous: at this stage if the fertilization occur the C.L persists into the

pregnancy if does not occur the C.L degenerates.

e) Anestrous: is a period of temporary ovarian inactivity seen in seasonally

polyestrous, diestrous, and monoestrous.

- N.B-unfortunately some animals can have exaggerated diestrous period commonly called

pseudo-pregnancy means they looks like pregnancy due to:

a) Mammary glands become enlarged

b) The pelvis may relaxes

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c) Lactation and signs of labour may occur

d) he animal often shows maternal behavior.

Medical Terms

 Chromosomes: are threads like accumulations of DNA in the nuclei of the cells, and

their number are constant within a given species.

 Autosomes: any of the chromosomes other than the sex (x and y) chromosomes.

 Gonads: are the organs that produce the reproductive cells (overy and testicles).

 Testes: are the organs that produce the spermatozoa, and the androgen hormone.

 Overy: is the female gonad that produces an ovum, estrogen, and progesterone.

 Androgen: is a hormone that promotes the development of the male characteristics.

 Reproductive cells: are the cells found in the overy, and testes that carry the genetic

code.

 Reproduction: is the process by which animals give rise to offspring.

 Spermatozoa: is the male reproductive cell, and the ovum is in the female reproductive

cell.

 Fertilization; is the penetration of the spermatozoa into the cytoplasma of the ovum.

 Meiosis: is the reduction division that the reproductive cells undergo during their

development by resulting reduction number of the chromosomes from diploid to

haploid.

 Gamete: is a mature male or female reproductive cell the spermatozoa or the ovum.

 Seminiferus tubules: is the area of the testes producing semen.

 Scrotum: is a pouch or a sac containing the testicles, and part of the spermatic cord.

 Spermatic cord: is the cord suspending testes composed of veins, arteries, lymphatics

and ducts.

 Ejaculation: ejection of the seminal fluid from the male urethra.

 Tunica virginals: is a serious membrane surrounding the testicles.

 Semen: is the mixed product of various glands plus the spermatozoa having been

produced in the testicles.

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 Erectile tissue: are specialized cells that results the penis to enlarge and stiffen.

Clinical application

1. Cryptochidism: is when the testes retained in the abdominal cavity and to descend into

the scrotum which can be either unilateral or bilateral. Unfortunately bilateral are

usually sterile due to the temperature of the abdomen the testes retained in it.

However testosterone is continuously produced and the animal shows all the

characteristics of the male but cannot reproduce.

2. Sertoli cells tumor:

a) Physiologically sertoli cells support the seminiferus tubules to nourish the

spermatids and to cause auto-immune reaction that attack the spermatozoa.

b) Pathologically: the affects Sertoli cells produce small amount of estrogen which

results:

- Feminization of the male due to:

- Mammary glands may become enlarged known gynectomastia.

- The penis and the opposite testes atrophies

- The prepuce often become pendulous

- The affected male may attracted the others as if he were a female in heat.

- Treatment: the only treatment for Sertoli cells tumor is usually is a castration.

3. Vasectomy: is a contraceptive surgery to produce sterility in the male by removing all

or part of the vas-deferens. The purpose is to prevent the spermatozoa to reach the

urethra during ejaculation. The animals performed are capable to ejaculate the other

components of semen, but there is no any spermatozoon. So they are teasers means

help to identify animals in heat.

4. Prostate problems: as a result of inflammations from infections, tumors or normal

aging causes significant enlargement of the prostate gland which squeezes the urethra

partially or completely by blocking the passage of the urine leading to difficult

urinating.

- Treatment: can manage with medication but others require surgery.

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5. Ovariohysterectomy: commonly known spaying (inactivation of the gonad) means

rendering incapable of reproduction after a surgical procedure removed from an animal

the ovaries, oviduct, and uterus.

Questions and answers

Q- Differentiate b/w diploid chromosome number and haploid chromosome number and in

which body cells is each found?

A-a-diploid chromosome is the total number found the cells of the body.

B-haploid chromosome is a reduced number found in reproductive cells.

Q- How the meiosis divisions differ from mitosis?

An-a-mitosis division produces with identical set of chromosomes but meiosis

chromosomes do not duplicate, and results half of the total chromosome.

Q-which is the reproductive gamete (ovum/spermatozoa), determines the gender of the

offspring?

A-the spermatozoa determines the genetic sexes.

Q-How does the spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?

A-in the oogenesis only one functional ovum is produced, and in the spermatogenesis 4-

spermatozoa are produced.

Q-what are the major functions of the testicles and where do they locate in the body?

A-a-the testicles locate outside of the abdomen in the inguinal region.

b-the major functions of the testicles include:

- Spermatogenesis

- Hormone production
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- And to deliver the spermatozoa into female reproductive system.

Q-name the three parts of the spermatozoa? And the function of each part?

A-a-The 3-parts of the spermatozoa are the head, mid-riece, and a tail.

b- The head contains the nucleus, covered by acrosome, the mid-piece is found the power

house of the cell, and the tail propels the cell forward.

Q-Why bilateral cryptochid animal is a sterile?

A-Because the spermatogenesis require a temperature slightly lower than the body

Q-Would a bilateral cryptochid exhibit the normal behavior? Why or why not?

A-Yes he could due to the testosterone is produced continuously but can not reproduce

Q-List the structures of the spermatic cord?

A-They are: Vessels, lymphatics, nerves and ducts

Q-Where is stored the spermatozoa before the ejaculation?

A-They are stored in the epididymis.

Q-Can the volume of the semen from an animal vasectomized differ from the normal

animal?

A-Yes there is a difference the animal has had a vasectomy the component has no

spermatozoa.

Q-Does the bulbo uretheral function differ from the other glands?

A-Due to this gland locates caudally than the other glands secretes mucinous fluids that

clear and lubricate the urethra for the passage of the semen.
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Q-How does the spermatozoon pass through their site of reproduction and reach the

female genital tract?

A-The contraction of the tail of the epididymis, vasdeferens with the help of the

spermatozoa propel the semen into the female genital tract.

Q-what is contraceptive and types of contraceptive?

A-contraceptive is any process, device or method that prevents conception.

Types of contraceptive used include:

- Oral forms which have been termed colloquially ( the pill) that consists chemicals

similar to natural hormones (estrogen or progesterone ) by preventing the ovulation

almost hundred percent is effective.

- Long acting injectable or implanted steroid contraceptive

- Spermicides in the form of cream, jelly or suppositories may be placed in the vagina

prior to the coit (intercourse ).

- Piece of rubber with flexible in various size are inserted into the vagina to cover

the cervix.

- Tubial ligation involves surgical of the fallopian tube which is irreversible.

o Male include:

- Withdrawal which is the removal of the penis from the vagina prior to ejaculation.

- The use of the condom is a flexible tube placed over the erect penis

- Vasectomy by cutting the vas-deferens which does not interfere with normal

enjoyment
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CHAPTER 9:-CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEM

Chapter outline

1) Cardiac introduction

- Structure

- Function of the heart

2) Blood through the heart

3) Cardiac cycle

4) Normal heart sound

5) Heart rate and heart output

6) Electro-electric gram (E.C.G)

7) Vascular anatomy and physiology

8) Venipuncture

9) Arteries vs veins

Introduction: - structure / location

- The heart is a muscular organ which lines in the mediastinum (interpleural

space) protects by ribs

- The outer layer of the heart is called pericardium that is made of tough fibrous

connective tissue that attaches it to the diaphragm.

- The inner visceral layer called epicardium, so in b/w the 2-layer there is a thin

cavity filled with fluid that acts as lubricant allowing the heart to expand and

contract as it fills and empties.

- Myocardium: - is the cardiac muscle and in between this muscle and chambers

of the heart there is a membrane lining the inner surface called endo-cardium

(interior coat).
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Function of the heart

 The heart keeps the blood through a closed system of tubules (blood vessels).

 Transports of oxygen, nutrients and hormones required to regulate the body

functions.

 Delivers the anti-bodies and inflammatory cells that are needed for protection.

 Removes the waste products from the tissue

Blood through the heart

- The blood receives the deoxygenated blood from the tissue of the body, then

pumps it through the lungs where it pack up oxygen after that the oxygenated

go back through the systemic circulation that travels only in one direction with

help of valves preventing backward.

Figure: Overview of the cardiovascular system. The blue areas represent the venous blood with reduced oxygen content; the red areas

represent the arterial system with oxygenated blood. The solid black circles represent areas of resistance and the percentage is the proportion

of cardiac output delivered to the organ at rest. The size of the capillary bed varies with organ systems.
 121

- Right heart receives venous blood and pumps it through the pulmonary arteries

to both lungs where it’s oxygenated.

- Left heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary

veins. The blood is then pumped the aorta to the interior body.

- Right heart:- deoxygenated blood is received into the right atrium from many

veins collecting blood from the tissue until they form cranial venacava and

caudal venacava that empty into right atrium, then the blood passes into the

right arterio-ventricular valve knowns tricuspid valve

- During the systole of the right ventricle the blood is ejected through the

pulmonary valve to pulmonary artery into the pulmonary capillaries of the alveoli

where the exchange of gases occur.

- After the blood travels through the pulmonary vein that deliver blood into the

left atrium that flows to the left atrioventricular valve (mitral valve).

- During the systole of the left ventricle the blood is ejected into the aortic

valve (the largest artery in the body) into the coronary artery and aorta to

arterial branches to capillaries of the tissues.

Figure: The flow of blood through the body.

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Cardiac cycle

- Is the complete contraction (systole) that is the blood is ejected from the

atria to ventricles and then from the ventricles to arteries.

- Relaxation of the heart after the systole contraction the refills.

- The question is that where does the force come from that causes the heart to

contract and push the blood?

- The answer of the question is that the force of the heart beat come from

specialized myocardium cells locating in the right atrium called Sino-atrial node

(sa-node) that possess automatically generating electrical impulses through the

myocardium to atrioventricular node (Av-node) then initiates signal through the

ventricular myocardium by way of Av-bundle of this, and purkinje fiber.\

- Mechanisms: - the SA-node generates an electric currents by pumping out of

cations (+) across the membrane in process called polarization (in which ions of

the opposite charge are separated from a semipermeable membrane) by

resulting outside of the cell having more positive charge (+) than inside of the

cell flows the process of depolarization (producing polarized condition) that

causes the heart muscle to contract. Lucky the SA-node automatically

repolarized itself then depolarizes again, so the heart keeps going in the way.

FIGURE Depolarization and repolarization of a cardiac

Cell. Repolarization: the sodium–potassium–adenosine triphos
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- Note that other muscle in the body only contracts when they receive an

electrical message from nerve tissue

Blood circulation in the fetus

- Introduction: - the major distinction b/w a fetus and newborn is that:-

1. The newborn receives the oxygen through its lungs

2. A fetus receives oxygen from the blood of the mother because the lungs of

the fetus not used form exchange but they keep the blood to grow.

- So the fetus get oxygen through the placenta b/w the fetal and maternal

circulation through 2-structures allow the fetal blood to by-pass the lung

tissue.

- The first bypass is the foramen oval (opening) b/w the right and left atrium but

some does flow through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle to pulmonary

artery may flow through another bypass called duct of arteriosus directly into

aorta to the fetal systemic circulation where it supplies oxygen and collects

waste products from the tissue the deoxygenated blood is then sent back to

the placenta through the arteries.

- Note that vessels that carries oxygenated blood to the fetus are veins since

they flow toward the heart of the fetus. After the birth the lungs inflate

(occupies by air) and beings to oxygenate its own blood. The foramen oval and

ducts arteriosus are closed there force no more bypass the lungs.

Normal heart sound

When the heart is auscultated through the chest wall with stethoscope the usual

rhythm of the cardiac are lub and dub

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- Lub: - relates with the closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves at beginning

of the ventricular systole.

- The second rhythm of the heart associates with the closure of the semilunar

and pulmonic diastole

- Method of auscultation: - the heart sounds can auscultated=listened by

placing the stethoscope against the chest wall at the level of the heart. In

cattle and horses the stethoscope is placed against the caudal to elbow.

Heart rate and cardiac output

- The cardiac output is the amount of the blood leaves the heart to maintain

perfusion and is determined by two factors:-

a) Stock volume:- is amount of blood ejected in each cardiac contraction

b) Heart rate: - is often the heart contracts.

- So cardiac output= heart rate x stroke volume.

- Example: - if a dog’s heart ejects 2ml of blood into the aorta with each

systolic contraction and heart beat is 100rates/minute. Calculate the cardiac

output of the dog.

- Solution

- Cardiac output (CO)= stock volume x heart rate = 2mlx100beat/min

- Cardiac output (CO)= 200ml/minute

- N.B:- many factors can increase or decrease the demand of the cardiac output

by changing heart rate. as Vigorous exercise (increase) , if the ventricular wall

stretch slightly (increase), changes in blood pressure (decrease) and general

anesthetic drugs( decrease)

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Electro cardiac gram (E.C.G)

- The contraction of the heart results electrical current and the instrument used

to measure this activity is called electro-cardiac graph which measures the

electrodes attached to the skin to produce an electro cardiac gram (E.C.G).

- The E.C.G printed on a graph paper at steady measured rate. Then the

electrical current moves up and down by creating a record of depolarization and

repolarization as moves in the line. So the heart rate can be calculated by

measuring the height and the width of the various phases.

Figure: Electro cardiac gram

- Vascular anatomy and physiology

- Introduction:- the vascular system composes

1) The heart

2) The blood vessels

3) Lymphatic and heart parts

4) The pulmonary vessels and

5) Portal vessels
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a. Arteries: - are vessels that carry the blood from the heart through systemic

circulation under high pressure into far distances.

- The largest artery in the body is called aorta that has a thick wall and large

diameter.

- So the walls of the aorta has similar structures to that of the heart (tough

outer layer), middle layer and endothelium.

- Then the branches of the aorta splits into smaller arteries to smaller arterioles

into tiny thin wall capillaries that don’t have muscles.

- Finally terminates where the oxygen, nutrients, in the blood supplies the tissue

of the body and waste products are taken back into the heart.

b. Veins: - are vessels that brings back the blood into the heart except for

pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood. They differ from arteries in

their larger capacity and create number also in their inner walls and presence of

valves which prevents backward circulation with relatively low pressure.

- Venipuncture: - most of the blood vessels are buried deeply with in the body.

But some are superficial that can be seen or felt just under the skin. So the

superficial vessels are used to collect blood sample, to administrator medicines

and to place arterial catheter.

- There for vet-clinician are important to become familiar with the names and

locations of the superficial blood vessels

1) In dogs and cats the cephalic vein of the thoracic limb and b/w elbow and

carpus of the fore arm and the femoral vein of the pelvic limb are used in

venipuncture

2) In general jugular vein is used for venipuncture in nearly all veterinary

species.
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Medical terminology

- Venipuncture: - is a puncture of the vein for any purposes.

- Vessels:- are veins, arteries and capillaries

- Endothelium: - is a layer from squamous epithelium which lines the blood and

lymphatic vessels, the heart and various other body activities.

- Electro cardio gram: - is a measurement of the electrical current resulted by

the activity of the heart.

- Epigastric vein: - commonly called milk vein visible long the ventral of the

abdomen from udder to about the level of the sternum. Epigastric not used for

venipuncture because it’s prone to excessive bleeding and hematoma formation.

- Acetyl choline: - is an ester that play an important role the transmission of

nerve impulses at synapses and myoneural junction.

- Epinephrine: - it’s closed therapeutically as a vaso-constrictor cardiac stimulant.

- Cardiac output: - is amount of blood that levels the heart.

- Cardiac rate:- relates how often the heart constricts

- Stroke volume:- is amount of blood ejaculated during the construction of the

heart

- Induction: - is the transition from conscious to unconscious state.

- Sympathetic: - is autonomic of the fight respond.

- Polarization:- is the process in which ions of the opposite changes are

responded
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- Placenta: - is structure in the uterus through which the fetus derives its

nourishments.

- Systole: - is the construction of the heart.

- Av-bundle: - is a bundle of modified fibers which forms an impulses conducting

system of the heart.

- Diastole:- is the relaxation of the heart

- Umbilical artery: - is an artery goes from the placenta to fetus.

- Cardiac cycle: - is complete construction and relaxation of the heart.

- Purkinje fibers: - is a typical muscle fibers laying beneath the endocardium.

- Rhythm: - is a movement regulatory of occurrence of an action as Dub and Lub.

- Visceral layer: - is a layer that has relation with soft organs.

- Myocardium:-is a muscle of the heart.

- Diuretics:- cause urination(polyuria)

- Congestive heart failure: - is a problem resulting to reduce the pumping of the

heart.

- Pericardial effusion: - is an excessive fluid accumulated in the pericardial sac.

- Cardiac glycosides: - are drugs that increases the construction of the heart.

- Idiopathic:- is disease of unknown causes

- Hormone: - is substance in the blood stimulating the action of another organ.

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Clinical application

1. Pericardial effusion: - is an excess fluid accumulated in the pericardial sac sue

to infection, inflammation or hemorrhage by resulting the heart to unable

expand b/w the normal contraction, cardiac tamponade.

- Treatment: - may be treated by inserted into the pericardial sac needle to

draw the fluids.

2. Congestive heart failure: - is decrease of the heart ability to pump the blood

.due to diseases and malfunction of the heart. By resulting edema, ascites,

perfusion of the kidneys.

- Treatment:- can be treated with the cardiac glycosides that increases the

strength

- Diuretics that eliminates extra fluids

Questions and answers

1) What is the other name of inter-pleural name?

- Is the mediastinum

2) Name the 3-layers of the heat?

- Pericardial, epicardium and endocardium

3) Describe the important function of the fluid b/w the visceral and pericardial

layer.

- This fluid acts as lubricants allowing the heart to contract and expand.

4) List the structures found in the mediastinum.

- They are: - the heart, lungs esophagus vascular, trachea and lymphatic nodes.

5) Describe the chambers and the valves through which the blood cells can pass
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Chambers Valves

Left and right atrium A-valves

Left and right ventricle Aortic valves

Left and right ventricle pulmonary valves

6) What is the other name of mitral and tricuspid?

- Mitral valve:- is the left atria-ventricular valve

- Tricuspid valve:- is the right a-v-valve

7) Where coronary artery is supplies the blood?

- It supplies the blood the heart muscles

8) How the fetus in the uterus does gets oxygen?

- The fetus receives the oxygen from the blood of the mouth.

9) Which kind of blood vessels that carries the blood to and from the heart of the

fetus?

- The oxygenated blood to the fetus is carries by veins and sent back to the

placenta through umbilical arteries.

10) Where signal of electric impulse in the heart is starts automatically?

- From SA-node found on the right atrium of the heart.

11) What is the major difference b/w a fetus and new born respiration?

- The new born receives the oxygen through its lungs whereas fetus receives

from his mother

12) Name the 2-normal heart sound

- Lub and dub

13) What are the 2- factors that control the cardiac output?

- Stroke volume and heart rate

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14) Why does the cardiac output increases during exercise?

- Because due to demand of oxygen in the tissue

15) Why are the pulses weak and rapid in animal suffering from a shock?

- Due to stroke volume decreased and the heart rate increased to compensate

the demand.

16) How the autonomic nervous system does influences the cardiac output?

- For example during fighting the sympathetic nervous system releases

epinephrine which increase the stroke volume and heart rate.

17) Name the instrument used the measurement the E.C.G

- Electro cardio gram

18) What are names and locations of the veins commonly used in venipuncture of

the small animals.

- They are:- the cephalic vein locates at the thoracic limb b/w the elbow and

carpus and the femoral vein locating the pelvic

19) What are precautions required to do in the injection into the jugular vein of

horse?

- Since the jugular vein locates near the carotid arteries at each of the neck

then required to take care accidental injection of this artery.

20) Which vein is used for vein-puncture in all vet-species?

- The jugular vein is commonly used for all species.

21) What are the purposes used the superficial vein.

- For collecting of the blood samples, the administration of drugs and to place

the arterial catheters

22) Why is prohibits the use of vein-puncture to the epigastric vein or the milk

vein?

- Due to it’s prone to excessive bleeding and hematoma formation.

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CHAPTER 10:- BLOOD, LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM

BLOOD

1. Introduction:-the blood is fluid specialized connective tissue that flows all over

the body through the vessels of the cardio-vascular system.

2. Components of the blood:- as we know the blood is liquid that is dissolved by:-

cells, cell fragments , electrolytes, oxygen, hormone, nutrients drugs, and waste

product and can be classified into

a) A liquid portion which is make up of 45-78% of the blood volume called

plasma containing many substances dissolved in it like:- albumin, globulin,

fibrinogen, oxygen and carbo dioxide , electrolytes , nutrients, lipids, amino

acids, glucose , hormone and metabolic waste

b) The cellular components of the blood that are suspended in the plasmatic

part which can fall into-3 categories.

1. Red blood cells (R.BC) or erythrocytes

2. White blood cells (W.B.C) leukocytes

3. Platelets or thrombocytes

FIGURE A. Centrifuged blood separating serum from the formed elements. B. Blood and its components.
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Function of blood

a) Transport system:- transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, platelets,

leukocytes and removes the metabolic wastes

b) Regulatory system: - regulates the body temperature, regulates the tissue

fluids by preventing the dehydration, concentration, hem dilution and regulates

the ph. from 7.45 but the blood in the artery is more alkaline than the veins.

c) Defense system:- leukocytes provide defense through the process of

phagocytoses or immunity

d) The platelets clot the blood vessels demand.

Hematopoiesis

- Is the production of all blood cells constantly, after that some may leave the

circulation to fight foreign invaders where they can be killed others may die

due to an old age.

- In the fetal stage hematopoiesis takes place in the liver and spleen.

- In the post-natal life the bone marrow gradually takes the production of the

blood cells that is found at the end of long bones.

The stimuli of hematopoiesis

1. When there is hypoxia kidneys detects and produce a hormone called

hematopoitein into the bone morrow to stimulate for the formation of R.B.C

2. Pathological conditions stimulate a massive release of W.B.C.

3. Lymphocytes development takes place in the lymphoid tissue and the rest

cells in the red bone marrow.

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Blood storage

- When the body does not need of its blood circulation this is capable of hold a

lot of blood to store and when the animal is physiological active the spleen

contracts and puts the stored blood back into the circulation.

Blood volume

- The total blood volume from any animal can be used to calculate the animal’s

lean body weight as broad rule 50-100 ml the average is 75 of blood/kg lean

body weight.

- By using this guideline if a horse weight is 545kg find the total blood volume of

this animal and dog of 16kg? By taking each 200ml of blood?

a) 454kgx75ml/kg=34050 total blood volume by taking 200ml of blood without

causing any problem would results 200ml/34050mlx100=0.58% blood loss of

the total blood and will not cause a serious problems.

b) 16kgx75ml/kg =1200ml of blood volume by taking 200ml would results:-

200mlx100/1200ml= 16.6% which still not problem.

Red blood cells

- The mature red blood cells is a nucleated, biconcave disk, the body of the cells

consists of spongy like substances containing a respiratory pigments.

- Function of Red blood cells:- is to carry oxygen to the tissue of the body.

- Hemoglobin: - is a protein that composes 2-components hema- and globin.

1. Hema:- is the pigment protein produced by mitochondria

2. Globin: - is the protein portion produced by ribosomes so the oxygen

attaches to iron atoms which is a part of hema groups in the red blood cells.
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- Hemoglobin transports oxygen to the tissue and exists into 2-physiological

stages:- Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin (empty).

- There are some factors having the ability of influencing the function of the Hb

like:-

a) PH. of blood b) oxygen c) carbon dioxide

- The carbon dioxide is transported directly or indirectly by the R.B.C and

dissolved in the plasma Co2+H2O H2Co3 , HCo3 2H+HCo-

- Then the deoxyhemoglobin accepts the H+-ions and the bicarbonate HCo3

diffuse into the plasma, after that the lungs converts back to Co 2 and H2O and

eliminated via respiration.

1) Life span of the R.B.C: as the R.B.C become senescent glycolytic enzymes

(source of energy) after that the cells loses their deformability due to volume

decreases, but this life span varies with species for example:

1) The average life span in dogs are 110days

2) In cats is 68days

3) Cow can live 160days

4) Human blood cells live the average of 120days

5) Horses and sheep is 150days

6) Mice can life 20-30days

2) Destruction of the R.B.C (erythrocytolysis): macrophages of the spleen are

active in removing aging, dead, and abnormal R.B.C to break down into

components, then the iron from the hema, and the amino acids from globin are

either transported into the red bone marrow or into the liver. To do this

process first must be converted to bilirubin and then is excreted as a bile

pigment into the intestine.

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1) Hyperbilirubinemia: means there is an excessive amount of unconjugated

(not joined) bilirubin in the plasma that deposits in the tissue by resulting

jaundice or icterus(yellowish)

2) Anemia: is a decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood due to the

following factors: blood loss , blood destruction , radiation, bleeding and

not enough hemoglobin-being produced due to deficiency of iron and vitB12

3) Polycythemia: is an increased above normal the number of the R.B.C, and

there are three types:

I. Relative polycythemia: there is a loss of fluid from the

blood(hemoconcentration) commonly seen in animals that are

dehydrated due to diarrhea, vomiting, profuse, sweating, or not

drinking enough water.

II. Compensatory polycythemia: due to results of hypoxia that the tissue

are not getting enough oxygen then the bone marrow is stimulated to

make more blood. As the animals living in the high attitude, and

patients with congestive heart failure.

III. Polycythemia rubra-vera: is increased production of R.B.C for unknown

reason which is a rare case.

Platelets

3) Platelets (thrombocytes): are not complete cells, but are pieces of the plasma

listed as one of the blood types in the peripheral blood.

4) Function of the thrombocytes: are essential for the hemostasis under 3-

specific platelet functions:

a. Maintenance of the vascular integrity growth factor into the endothelial

wall.

b. Platelet plug formation: to stop hemorrhage

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c. Stabilization: is a hemostic plug with the process of fibrin formation (to

happen various clotting factors and enzymes

5) Life span –after the platelets released from the bone marrow remain in the

peripheral blood until they are removed by macrophages due to an old age or

damage.

White blood cells

6) White blood cells (leukocytes): so called leuko due to when they accumulate

grossly appear white like pus, and there are 5-kinds of W.B.C:

1) Neutrophils

2) Eosinophils

3) Basophils

4) Monocytes

5) Lymphocytes

7) That can be classified into 3-different ways:

a) Defence function: through phagocytosis and ant-body production

b) Shape of the nucleus

1) Polymorph nuclear(neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)

2) Mononuclear(lymphocytes)

3) Pleomorphic(varying shape) monocytes

8) Presence or absence of specific staining cytoplasmic granules:

a) Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils)

b) A granulocytes(monocytes, and lymphocytes)

9) The formation of the W.B.C is called leukopoiesis by developing in the bone

marrow except for some lymphocytes that starts in the bone marrow but

develop elsewhere.
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Function of the W.B.C

1) Neutrophils: are named so due they do not stain either blue stain or the red

acid stain

2) Neutrophils are the second line of the defence after the skin, and the mucous

membranes against the foreign invaders.

3) Neutrophils contain chemicals called lysosomal enzymes capable to engulf the

microbes.

4) Neutrophils leave the blood vessels wall through the process called diapedesis

by squeezing the endothelium.

5) The average life span of the neutrophils is 10-hrs in the circulation.

Phagocytosis and destruction of the microbes

1) Neutrophil membrane engulfs the microbes

2) Phagocytic vacuole is formed

3) Lysosomes around the vacuole release enzymes

4) Microbes are destroyed

1) Eosinophils: appear red granules in their cytoplasm

- The function of the eosinophils are not yet entirely understood.

- But the key functions of the eosinophils are: anti-inflammatory respond and

immunity and minimal phagocytic

2) Basophils: are so named due to their blue granules in the cytoplasma

- They are least phagocytic, but the granules of the basophils contain histamin

which increases the gastric secretion and the flow of the blood.

And heparin which inhibits the coagulation of blood.

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3) Monocytes: are a granulocytes that make up 5-6% of the circulating W.B.C,

that stay in the circulation for long time.

- Monocytes are: phagocytic cells known as macrophages that are able engulf

the cellular debris remained from inflammation and infection, fungi,

protozoans, dead neutrophils so are the second line of defense for the

chronic infections.

- Monocytes also possess certain antigens

4) Lymphocytes: are the predominant W.B.C that has no the phagocytic action,

commonly found in the lymphoid tissue like the: lymph nodes , spleen , Tonsila

and the thymus

- Constantly circulating b/w these tissue and the blood.

- The lymphocytes in the peripheral of the blood are processed by the thymus

before they go to the lymphoid tissue (thymocytes or T-lymphocytes) that

can stay in alive for 5years.

- Lymphocytes are responsible for the antibody production. Means for

specific antibody type against one specific antigen.

- There are natural killer lymphocytes capable to destroy tumor cells, and cels

affected by viruses.

5) Memory cells: are T-cells and B-cells originated from the lymphocytes that do

not participate at the first immune respond to a specific antigen, but survive in

lymphoid tissue for a second exposure to the same antigen.

Lymphatic system

- are series of vessels or ducts that carries the excess fluids to the blood

vessels near by the heart as the thoracic duct which empties into the venacava

before it enters the heart

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- The fluids of the lymphatic system contain: few blood cells , nutrients ,

hormones and other substances

- The trouble is that fluids may accumulate in the tissue due to weakness on the

venous side, then the lymph capillaries gathers up that excess fluids and if

micro-organism contain in the tissue fluids macrophages in the lymph nodes will

be removed.

- The lymphatic system include the lymphatic tissue that are :lymphatic nodes,

the tonsila ,spleen , the thymus and gut associated lymph tissue

Lymphatic function

a) Removal of the excess tissue fluids in order to inhibit the formation of edema

(excess fluids).

b) Transport of the waste materials in the interstitial fluids from the tissue

metabolites

c) Filtration due to that the tissue fluids contains :Microorganisms , cellular

debris and other foreign materials

Lymphatic structures

a) Lymphatic nodes or lymph glands : are not true glands, but are been shaped

structures locating at various points along the lymphatic vessels, some are close

to the surface of the body that can be palpated, when there is infection for

that case enlargement of the lymph nodes can be used as a clue to the location

there is infection. For example: mandibular lymph nodes in the neck region may

swell when there is a cold due to the mandibular lymph nodes drain the nasal

cavity, pharynx, and the mouth. The principal ones of the lymphatic glands are

found: in the neck(cervical) , the goin (inguinal) and the armpit (axillary)
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b) The spleen: is the largest organ of the reticulo-endothelial cells that has dual

functions lymphatic and hematologic. The spleen locates in the left side of the

abdomen near the stomach.

Functions of the spleen

1) Hematopoiesis of the embryo and in the adult if the bone marrow is damaged

2) Storage of the blood

3) Removal of the foreign materials in the circulation

4) Removal of worn out R.B.C and abnormal R.B.C

5) And in immune system

6) if the spleen become affected from trauma or from splenic tumor can be

surgically removed (Spleenectomy) because it is not essential for the life the

other lymphoid tissue will pick up the spleen’s duity.

c) The thymus: is lymphoid organ locates in the mediastinal cavity above the

heart. Function: is important the development of the neonate immune, but at

the puperty it undergoes involution then it is tissue replaces with adipose and

connective tissue, but is essential for the maturation of the thymic lymphoid

cells (T-cells) that enter in the circulation, and remain for 5-yrs (immune)

d) Tonsils: are also lymphoid tissue found the epithelial tissue of all over the body,

but the ones in the pharynx in the root of the tongue is more familiar, that

protects the infections of the respiratory and in the digestive system. Other

tonsils are found in the larynx , intestine , prepuce and the vagina

- Functions

1) Tonsils do not have capsules, and acts as a filter

2) Protects the invasion of the bacteria

3) Tonsils supports the formation of the W.B.C

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e) Gut associated lymph tissue :

- Are a lymphatic tissue found in the intestine organized into a single organ

contained in one capsule may be much larger than the spleen.

Immune system

- Is a system that protects from animals anything that threaten their life as the

microorganisms, foreign materials, and chemicals is able to detect or to

recognize by destroying into the following mechanisms

a) Phagocytosis and destruction of the foreign cell

b) Lysis of the foreign cell ‘membrane

c) Inactivation of the pathogenic organisms

d) Precipitation or clumping or agglutination of cells

1) Adverse reactions of the immune respond: sometimes immune respond can go

over active by resulting anaphylaxis means exaggerated allergic respond.

- Auto-immune disease is a defect that animal‘s own body recognizes as a foreign

by resulting hypersensitivity reaction like the auto-immune hemolytic anemia.

2) Advantages: as long as an immune system is functioning, the animal will remain

healthy, but if is overpowered the animal will get sick.

Immune reaction

- There are 2-types of immune reactions: specific and non-specific

1) Non-specific immunity: is a rapid response that protects from an animal against

anything it recognizes as non self

a) The first line of defense is the skin and mucous membrane

b) The second line of defence involves as flows:

1) Inflammatory respond
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2) Phagocytosis

3) Complement (antigen/antibody)

4) Natural killer

5) Interferon prevents spread of the infection

2) Specific immunity which is the third line of defence by destroying specific

antigens constantly, but the respond will be initiated only after the antigen

enters the body, the second time there will be a memory of the antigen, so the

immune respond will occur more quickly.

- There are 2-types of specific immunity

1. Cell mediated immunity: in this case T-cells processed in the thymus via the

blood to lymph nodes and spleen attach to the antigenic sites to form either

cytotoxic cells which kills the antigen on contact or memory cells that

produce antibodies the subsequent attack.

- Mechanism: T-cells secrete chemicals called cytokines capable to kill any cell

that they attack as flows:

a) Cytotoxic T-cells: are killer cells that destroys the antigenic cells

without damaging themselves.

b) Helper T-cells: secrete cytokines that increases the activity of the

cytotoxic cells.

c) Suppressor T-cells: inhibit the helper T-cells

d) And the cytotoxic T-cells function by negative feedback which is a

control over the cell mediated immune, and humoral immune respond.

2. Humoral immunity (body fluids): is the B-cells that transform into plasma

cells by producing specific protective proteins called anti-bodies that

destroys if a specific antigen come into the blood stream.

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- N.B: memory cells can stay in alive for years in the circulation of the blood or in

the lymph nodes.

- Immunization: is the rendering a patient immune or protected from a disease.

1) Acquired immunity: received from the blood of the mother (belonging to

birth).

2) Natural or congenital immunity: is a permanent immunity to a disease with

which an individual is born (race or species).

3) Local immunity: is the immunity which is limited to a given area or tissue of

the body

4) Passive immunity: is a kind of anti-bodies that were not produced by the

animals own immune system that the mother transmitted or passed

through the placenta or the ingestion of the colostrums.

5) Active immunity: may result from having the disease or by injection of the

infectious organisms usually attenuated (weakened) or products produced

by the organism.

Medical terms

 Hemodilution: is an increase in the volume of the blood plasma by reducing

relative concentration of the R.B.C

 Hemoconcentration: is the increase of the number of R.B.C due to decreased

in the volume of plasma.

 Hematopoitein: is a hormone stimulating the formation of the R.B.C

 Hematopoiesis: is the production of all blood cells

 Anticoagulant: are substances that tie up clotting factors. Anticoagulants

are used to add samples in the test tube or in a syringe , the most common

anticoagulants are ethylene diamic-tetracetic

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 Learn body weight: is the broad rule used to calculate the total blood volume

of any animal.

 Hypoxia: is a deficiency of oxygen

 Anemia: is a decreased oxygen carrying capacity

 Hemoglobinuria: is a presence of a hemoglobin in the urine

 Hemolysis: is the destruction of the R.B.C with the liberation of hemoglobin

which diffuse into the fluid surrounding them

 Life span: is the normal life of the blood cells that they stay in the

circulation.

 Senescence: is the process of aging the R.B.C

 Macrophages: are large phagocytic cells

 Polycythemia: is the increased above normal the number of the R.B.C

 Relative polycythemia: there is a less of fluids from the blood commonly

seen in animals that are dehydrated (hemoconcentration).

 Thrombocytosis: is the increase of the number of thrombocytes opposite of

thrombocytopenia.

 Calculate the total blood volume of an animal whose weight is 600kg?

 600kg×75ml/kg=45000

 Describe the major function of the spleen

 It stores the blood

 Immune respond

 Formation of the fetus blood

 Removal of the foreign materials

 Name the major functions of the blood

 Transport system

 Defence system
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 Regulatory system

 Why are the platelets not considered as a complete cells

 Because they are part or pieces of the cytoplasma that have been

isolated

 List the major functions of the platelets

 Maintenance of the vascular integrity

 Plug formation

 Stabilization of the homeostatic plug

 What is the physiological state of the blood which cause the release of the

erythropoietin hormone?

 Is the state of the blood that there is hypoxia

 How does the R.B.C transport the oxygen from the lungs to the tissue of the

body

 With the help of the hemoglobin

 Differentiate anemia from polycythemia

 Polycythemia: is the increase above normal the number of the R.B.C,

and the anemia is a pathological condition that results in a decreased

oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.

 Name the 5-types of W.B.C and indicate each one whether a granulocyte or a

granulocyte

 Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are granulocytes

 Monocytes and lymphocytes are agranulocytes

 The common function of all W.B.C is

 Defence system

 The only cell of the W.B.C not capable the phagocytosis is called

 Lymphocytes
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 What is a lysosome and what does it do in the cell it contains

 Lysosome is an enzyme capable to destroy any foreign body invade the

cells

 Neutrophils: are the first line of the W.B.C defence

 The 3-types of the lymphocytes are:

 T-lymphocytes

 B-lymphocytes

 Natural killer

- How does the lymph differ from the plasma

 The lymph is an excess fluid formed in the tissue

 Plasma is the fluid in which cellular elements of the blood are

suspended

- How can occur the formation of lymph

 Is formed when the blood pressure forces some of the plasma out

into the tissue.

- Summarize the functions of the lymph nodes

 To remove the excess tissue fluids

 Transport of the waste materials

 Filtration of the micro-organisms

 Transport of the large proteins

- Which one of the lymphatic structures that is very large at birth, and gets

smaller gradually

 Thymus which is important immune in the newborn and in puperty goes

to involution

- Why is the lymphatic system carries the excess fluids formed in the tissue
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 Due to the arterial pressure is more stronger than the venous system

the fluids will accumulate in the tissue by forming edema

- What are the 2-types of the immune system

 Specific immunity

 Nonspecific immunity

- Describe the 3-properties of the immune system

 Respond initiates after the antigen enters the body

 Respond specific against the antigen

 Response from the memory cells which is more rapid

- Differentiate the humoral immunity and the cell mediated immunity

 In the cell mediated immunity the function is from the T-cells that

attach to the antigen sites

 Humoral immunity: the function is the B-cells transformed into the

plasma cells which produce specific protective proteins (anti-bodies)

- How does a vaccine protects an animal from a disease

 It develops an immune system which destroys the foreign invaders

- Specifically what is the function of the memory cells

 Is an immune respond which is more rapid action

- Why a young animal is given a series of vaccination

 Because we cannot be sure when the passive immunity has worn off

- Identify the different kinds that anti-bodies destroys the antigens

 In the form of toxins that destroys the cells

 By phagocytosis of the macrophages

 By the memory cells

- A virulent: lack of toxins/not capable to produce disease

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- Colostrums: is the milk produced at the end of the pregnancy which are rich

in anti-bodies.

- Antigen: is the foreign protein

- Agglutination: means clumping together or adhesion on the surface of a

wound.

- Auto-immune: is the condition in which antibodies are produced against the

body’s own tissue

- Passive immunity: is the administration of preformed immunity(antibodies)

- Immunoglobin: are also known the antibodies

- Cytokinesis: are the chemicals secreted by the T-cells

- Cytotoxic cells: are able to kill the antigens either by contact or memory

- Phagocytosis: is a kind of defence against the foreign invaders

- Anaphylaxis: is an exaggerated allergic responds

- Immune system: is a protective form or a resistance to a disease due to

development of antibodies

- Gut associated lymph tissue: are a kind of the lymphoid tissue found in the

lumen of the intestinal tract

- Spleenectomy: is the procedure of cutting or removing the spleen

- Hematology: is the studying of the blood

- Anemia: is a pathological condition that resulted from a decreased oxygen

carrying capacity of the blood.

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CHAPTER 11:-INTEGUMENT SYSTEM

Chapter outline

The integuments

- Epidermis

- Hypoderm

- Special features of the integument

Related structures

3. Hairs

4. Glands of the skin

5. Claws and declaws

6. And horns

- Introduction: - the integument or the skin or the derm - is one of the largest and

most extensive systems in the body that composes the 4-basic tissue of the body.

Function of the skin

- The skin covers and protects underlying structures from the microbes, chemicals

and ultraviolet radiation.

- It maintenance body temperatures and excretes H2O, salts, and organic wastes.

- It is sensory organ that takes the information via touch and pressure from

external.

- It synthesis vitamin D and stores nutrients.

1. the thickness of the skin varies so the hardest parts are found in the:-

a. Center of the back

b. b/w the shoulders

c. blades and

d. paw pads
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And thinnest parts are found:-

a. around the eyes

b. scrotum

c. and mammary

2. The outer shell of the skin is entirely dead, although derived from living germinal

layers and are called keratinized or expired cells for protection.

3. The skin and related structures forms the integumentry system.

4. Histologically the skin can be divided into two separated by an epithelial basement

membrane.

a. Epidermis that compose

i. Kertinized stratified squamous epithelium that forms water proof

ii. Epidermis is a vascular, but receives the nutrient molecules from the

intestinal fluids.

b. The dermis composes the majority of the skin that contains the blood vessels

and the nerve.

Figure: Anatomy of skin

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Epidermis

a. The cell of the epidermis :- the principle epidermal cell are:-

1. Keratinocytes :-

-Location: - are found on the superficial layers that are old cells loosed their

nuclei, cytosol, the organelles, and lifeless sheets of keratin through the process

called keritization to rub off daily.

-Function: - keratinocytes are touch, fibrous water proof proteins that give the

skin it’s resistance and strength.

2. Melanocytes: - locates deep in the epidermal layers.

-Function: - are the cells responsible the pigment of the skin, where they are

released in the intercellular spaces to protect from the derm the damaging

ultraviolet rays.

3. Langerhans cells: - are cells originated from the marrow, and migrated into the

skin.

- Function: - are macrophages where they phagocytize the micro

invaders.

4. Markel cells: - are cells that associate with the sensory endings, and though to

help the sensation of touch.

b. The layers of the epidermis ( or strata )

- There are 5-distinct layers in the epidermis

1. Strata germinativum: - or stratum basale: - is the layer which attaches

to epithelial basement membrane locating the markel, melano, and

keratinocytes.

2. Strata spinosum: - this layer contains several strata cells that help

together, and the water.

3. Stratum granulosum or granular layer: - is the middle layer which

contains the water proof important to lower the water loss.

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4. Stratum lucidum or clear layer: - are found in very thick skin it is

frequently absent most of the skin.

5. Stratum coneum: - are the outer most layers that compose the

keratinocytes, actually are dead cells.

Dermis

- The dermis makes up the greatest portion of the integument.

Structurally the dermis composes:-

- Dense irregular connective tissue that contains:-

o Hair follicle

o Nerve endings

o Glands

o Fibro blast

o Smooth muscles

o Blood vessels

o Lymphatic chanels

o Adipocytes

- The dermis compose 2-layer

a) Thin layer which is superficial that forms nipple like projections called dermal

papillae connecting the epidermis and dermis together which is found

- Blood vessels nourish the stratum basale of epidermis removes the waste products,

controls the body temperature also is found the nerve ending of pain, and touch

receptors.

b) A thick layer – which is the deepest portion that consists for 80% of the

dermis ( true skin )

Hypodermis or subcutaneous layer

- is a thick layer found below the derm which is rich

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o adipose

o blood

o lymphatic vessels

o nerve endings that contains all types of touch and pressure

- Function: - the hypoderm of the skin moves freely over underlying bones and muscles

without putting any tension on the skin that may result tearing.

The special features of the integument

a. Pigmentation: - is endogenous produced within the body due to melanin granules

released into the intercellular spaces, absorbed by the keratinocytes which acts

to protect damages of ultraviolet rays.

N.B- melanin pigments are arranged on the side of the cells that has

greatest amount of the sun exposure.

b. Paw pads: - is the foundation of the digital pads that bears the weight of the

animal. Pads surface is thick, tough of the skin.

- Function :- provides protective barrier against

a. Abrasion

b. Thermal

c. Enables to walk on rough surfaces

- Many species have multiple foot pads that include

a. The carpal pads which reside on to the caudal surface of the wrist.

b. The metacarpal and metatarsal pads which are the central weight

bearing pads of the food.

c. The digital pads which protects each of the digits.

Planum nasale
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- The planum nasale represents an un usual skin which locates the top of the nose , and

in the horses and the cow commonly is called the ,muzzle so some abnormalities of

the planum nasale can indicate certain illness ( of wetness or dryness ).

Related structures of the integument

- Hair :- in most species the hair occurs as fur others like marine mammals , pigs , and

human covers their bodies sparse and thin hairs but may be avoided of hair in:-

a. Hooves

b. Lips

c. Paw pads

d. Nasal regions

e. Horns

f. Nipples

g. Inner folds of genitalia

- Function of the hairs

a. Hair traps, and protects the body from electrolytes heat or sound.

b. It maintains the body temperature

c. Play an important role in protecting through the via camouflage (covers).

- Hair follicles: - is invagination of the epidermis from which a hair develops , then

the hair anchored by hair follicles that extends from the skin surface to the dermis

or to the hypodermis.

a. The visible part of the hair is called shaft

b. The brurried part is called the root (in the skin) so the root envelops as web of

sensory important in touch receptor.

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Figure: Hair Follicles

- Growth cycles of the hair: - the hair undergoes a cycle of growing and falling out.

a. The volume of falling or shedding is influenced by :-

- Genetics

- Environment

- Hormonal

- Mans loses to make room in follicles

b. For the production of the new hair strands (threads) more cells are added at

the base of the root, then the hair lengenthens.

- The colors of the hair: - the pigments of the hair in the cortex and in the medulla

originate from programmed melanocytes located at the base of the hair follicles. So
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when an animal become senescence the production of the melanin decrease and the hair

starts to turn grey.

Types of the hair

- The hair can be classified in to 3- broad groups

- Primary or guard hairs:- are straight or arched and are thicker and longer than

the secondary hairs ( are dominant hairs ).

- Secondary hairs:- are short , and soft ( wool type)

- Tectile hairs :- are hair feelers well supplied with sensory endings that make them

sensitive to light and touch , that are mostly found around the mouth , muzzle , as

well as mixed intermitant through the hair coat.

Arrector pili muscle

- Arrector pili muscle attaches to each hair follicle , and is innervated by the

sympathetic nervous system that pullsthe hair to erect when animal frightened or in

cold condition for defense mechanism.

Gland of the skin

- Sebaceous glands

a) Location: - all found all over the body exception paw pads, and the planum

nasal.

b) Structurally can be simple or complex alveolar structures in the dermis.

c) Sebaceous glands empties their secretions into:-

 The hair follicles

 Into the surface of the skin

 At the muco-cutaneous junctions

 Eye lids

 Ear canals

 Inguinal pouches

 The lips

 Labial vulves
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 Penis

 Prepuce

 Digital pouches

- Function :- the sebaceous glands plays an important role :-

- to trap moisture by preventing excessive drying of the skin , and the hair to keep

them soft , paltent , water proof.

- To reduce skins risk against the infections.

- Sebaceous glands are also sensitive to change levels of sex-hormone during the

puberty of human.

- sweat glands ( sudoriferous glands)

- Are found most of domestic species , and sweat is a watery transparent liquids

that helps to cool the body through evaporations.

a) Eccrine sweat glands that empties their secretions into the hair follicles.

b) Apocrine sweat gland that empty on to the surface of skin.

- Tail glands are also rich in sebaceous glands that are active during puberty and

estrus.

- Anal sacs that are famous for their power full foul smelling secretion when the

animal defecates or becomes frightened.

- Claws and declaws :- claws are important for :-

a) Running

b) Walking

c) Climbing

d) As life saving tools for defence

e) And for catching prey

- Declaws are remains of digits that have regressed in the course of evolution.

- Hooves and horns: - structurally are epidermal in origin similar to the hair.
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a) Hooves :- sheep , cattle and goats have 4-hooves per/for each digit , however

weight is carries only 2-of the 4-hooves ( 3rd and 4th) , the second and fifth have

regressed into declaws.

Figure: Anatomy of the equine

b) Horns: - like hooves are external on origin that structurally similar to the hair.
hoof.

 Horns are capable to grown continuously throughout the life of animal to

greater length.

 So many horns are dehorned by using different instruments , and methods

which depends on the

a) Species , and

b) Age involved

 The procedure used to remove the horns is via cauterization in order to

prevent for further growth.

Medical terms

1) Integument: - the skin together with the related structures forms integument

consisting of the corium or dermis, and epidermis.

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2) Keratinization: - to become hard, and tough, although derived from living germinal

layer (process).

3) Keratin: - is an extremely tough protein substance in hair, nails, horns (water

proof) = keratinocytes.

4) Micro invaders: - microbes enter the body.

5) Pigmentation: - is coloration due to deposition of pigments.

6) Pawpads: - is the thickest and toughest skin of the body which provides the animal

to protect against abrasion, and thermal variance.

7) Planum nasale: - is un usual of the skin locating at the top of the nose, and in the

cattle is called muzzle.

8) Invagination: - enclosed in a sheet.

9) Follicle: - is small secretory sac or cavity. For example the hair follicle is an

Invagination of the epidermis from which hair develops.

10) Declaws: - are the remnants of the digitals that have regressed in the course of

involution.

11) Anal sacs: - are lined with sebaceous glands so when the animal is frightened or

defecates produce powerful foul smelling.

12) Cauterization: - means of destroying tissue by electricity, freezing, heat or

erosive chemicals. The thermo cautery consists of red-hot or white hot object

pointed metallic instrument.

Clinical application

Q- What is mange any way? And what does it cause?

1. Mange is a communicable disease by resulting inflammation of the dermis and

epidermis.

2. Caused by tiny mites that lives on or in the skin

3. So mites result

a. Irritation (injury)
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b. Itchiness ( pruritus)

c. Animals oftenly rub and scratch themselves.

d. Skin thickness ( hyper-keratosis)

e. Hair loss ( Alpecia)

f. Unable to sleep ( insomnia)

4. The species of the mites that causes the scapies or mange and his animal is called

sarcoptes scabies ( is a zoonosis)

5. Treatment of the scapies or mange

a. Is used to treat anti-scapies or sacbicides such as:-

i. Gamma benzene hex chloride

ii. Benzyl benzoate cream or lotion 25%

iii. Crotamitone 10%

 Are used to apply all of the body except the

o Eyes

o Mouth

o Nose

o Genital organs ( internal )

6. After that patient is required to take a prolonged hot path or showers before the

medicine is applied flows the second application after 24-hours.

Questions and answers

Q – Why is the skin an important organ? Can you think 5-imporatnt functions of the skin?

- Due to the skin is one of the largest system covers the whole of the body , and

protecting the underlying structures is considered an important system

- 5 – of the skin functions include

1. Protection

2. Attacks microbes

3. Synthesis vitamin D

4. Maintains the body temperature

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5. Is a sensory organ via in touch?

Q- What is keratinization? And why is it an important process?

- Keratinization: - is the formation of touch water proof protein, which is an important

process due it helps the body to retrain moisture, to protect, and regulate the

temperature.

Q- List the 5 layers of the epidermis? And what is happening in each layer?

- Stratum spinosum-found the langer han’s cells

- Stratum granalosum- containing H2o-proof

- Stratum lucidum-which is the thickest for protection

- Stratum corneum-found on dead cells

- Stratum germinatioum-which attaches to the basement

Q- How is the skin of hairy animals differs from that of the human?

- the skin of the hairy animals covers withy far that is very thick

Q- How does the dermis of the skin differ from the epidermis?

- The epidermis compose the keratinized cells and is a vascular

- Dermis is the greatest portion that is found of the blood vessels and nerve endings

responsible pain receptors , touch receptors and temperature changes

- lymphatic channels

- smooth muscle

- and glands

Q- In general what is the causative agent of the skin pigmentations?

- The pigmentation of the skin is due to the presence or absence f the melanin

pigment.(granules)

Q- How are the paw pads and the planum nasale differ fro the rest regions of the body?

- They both represent an usual skin used for protection or show certain ilness
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Q- Name the 2-types of the sweat glands and their differences.

- The 2-types are eccrine and apocrine secretion .The differences is that eccrine

empties into its secretion into the hair follicles while apocricrine empties onto the

surface of the skin

Q- Where is found the anal sacs? And what is the role of the sacs do in the anus?

- The anal sacs locate with the sebaceous glands and acts as reservoir of secretions

that are produced when defecates or become frightened.

Q- In the majority of the animals hair may be devoid

- In ( hooves) , ______ (lips) , ______ (paw pads ) , ______ ( horns ) , ______ (

nipples ) , ______ , ( folds of genitalia ) , ______ ( and nasal regions)

Q- The hair is essential by protecting the body from the

- Heat, electricity, also warms and covers.

Q- What are factors that influence the shedding of the hair?

- By genetics , environment and hormonal

Q- Why does the hair becomes grey in an adult animal?

- Due to the cortex of the hair loses entirely its pigment.

Q- What causes or can make an animal’s hair to stand up beyond the normal when it

frightened or there is excessive cold?

- Due to presence small, and smooth muscles called arrector pili muscles, that are

attached to the hair follicles.

Q- Where do sebaceous glands empties their secretions?

- They empties their secretions into the :- hair follicles , into the surface of the skin ,

muco-cutaneous junctions of the lips , penis , eye lids , they prevent excessive drying ,

protects microbes and to change levels of sex hormones.

-
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CHAPTER 12:-NERVOUS SYSTEM

Chapter out lines

1. Introduction

2. Neurons and supporting cells

3. Organization of N.S

4. Neuron functions

5. How neuron communicate

6. The brain and spinal cord

7. Autonomic nervous system

8. Reflex

- Introduction

- The nervous system is a complex communication, and control which governs the animal’s

body by monitoring the internal and external environment of the body.

- Directs the activities of the body like:

 If anesthetized or

 Unable to move due to trauma

 If intoxicated

- Structurally nervous system has 2-main division:-

a) The central Nervous system (C.N.S) which composes the brain and spinal cord.

b) The peripheral nervous system (P.N.S) which consists of cord like nerves that

link the C.N.S with the rest of the body.

- Function: the activities of the nervous system fall into 3-main classes:

a) Sensory function:-sense from:-

- within the body

- outside of the body

b) Integration function:-the sensory received the brain and spinal cord is analyzed,

stored and integrated to produce respond.

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c) Motor functions: - the motor respond instructs the body to do something as the

muscle construction and glands secretion.

- Neurology:-is the branch of science that deals with the studying of the nervous

system.

Neurons and supporting cells

- The neurons or nerve cells are the basic function unit of the nervous system

characterized by :-

o To respond stimuli

o To conduct impulses from one cell to another

o Neurons require sufficient O2so they con not survive without O2 even in few

minutes.

o Neurons lose to reproduction after birth but can repair from mild injury.

- Structure: structurally the nervous system can be divided into 3-parts:-

a) Cell body or soma or perikaryon

b) Dendrites or branches that receives stimuli or impulses from other neurons

conducting into the cell body like

a. Heart

b. Could

c. Tough

d. Pressure

e. Stretch or

f. Other physical changes

c) Axon:-conducts the nerve impulses away from the cell body to another

neurons or an efferent cell( to a cell does something ) like:- the muscles and

glands

a. Supporting cells or neuroglia or glial cells

b. Supports and protects the neurons

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c. In addition they play an important role the reaction of the nervous

system to an injury and infections.

Medical terms

- Sensory nerve: is an afferent neuron that conveys impulses given rises to sensation

- Motor neurons: is a neuron that conveys impulses instructing the body to do

something.

- Afferent neuron: is a neuron that conducts impulses toward the brain and the

spinal cord

- Efferent neurons: conducts impulses away from the brain

- Central neurons: is a neuron confined centrally (C.N.V) brain and spinal cord

- Associated neurons: is a neuron mediated the impulses b/w the sensory and motor

neuron.

Anatomical location of the nervous system

a. The central nervous system as the name implies anatomically compose the brain,

and spinal cord that are found in the central axis of the body.

b. In the peripheral nervous system (P.N.S) extends away from the t central axis

toward the periphery (outward) of the body.

c. Cranial nerves are those nerves of the P.N.S originated directly from the brain and

the spinal nerves.

Directions of the impulses (afferent vs. efferent)

1. Afferent nerves conduct impulses toward the C.N.S (AD-ward, ferre-to carry).

Means conduct sensations from the sensory receptors like the skin, muscles, tongue

etc. to the central nervous system, and are called sensory nerves.

2. Efferent nerves (Ex-away, ferre-to carry) conduct nerve impulses away from the

central nervous system means conducts impulses from the central nervous system

out toward the locations of the body as glands, skin, muscles etc and are called

motor nerves.
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Autonomic N.S and somatic sensory

1. Somatic sensory functions are consciously perceived by the brain (voluntary) means

being sent to the central nervous system from the receptors in the muscles, skin,

eyes, ears, nose, tongue and etc.

2. Autonomic nervous system (auto-self, names law) involuntary. Send impulses to

smooth muscles and has both motor nerves and sensory nerves

- In the cardiac muscles increase the heart rate.

- In the intestine causes to contract

- In the lungs causes to inflate

- In the glands causes to release

- So the autonomic nervous system regulates the body functions that are

involuntary

Neuron function

Q. What occurs while neurons are conducting the impulses from one end to another?

Q) How can the anesthetic drugs prevent the nerve impulses?

Q) How is the imbalance of Na + and K+ in the body can affect the nerve functions

- The answers of the above questions are under the polarization, depolarization and

repolarization.

- Polarization: is the condition in which ions of opposite charges are separated by

semi-permeable membrane (cell membrane)

- Depolarization: is the process of reducing to non-polarize condition, (neutralization

of the polarity)

- Repolarization- is the change of the cells charges back toward negative resting

membrane.( is the distribution of the negative and positive ions) by resulting high

concentration of Na+-ions outside of the cell, and negatively charged inside the

cell.
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Synapses

- Is the point of junction b/w two neurons where the termination of axon of one neuron

comes into close proximity with the cell body of another or a neurons and target cell.

For that case synapse are polarized, the impulses pass in one direction only so they are

susceptible to:-

 Fatigue

 Susceptible to O2 deficiency

 Anesthetics and other therapeutic drugs

 Chemical toxin

 Offer résistance to the passage of the impulse.

- Again in the neuron cell is the chemical capable to stimulate the next neuron through

the process of synaptic transmission which can be divided into:-

a) Excitatory neuro-transmitters:- are the agents that will excite a special

function of the body as

 Alcohol

 Cocaine

 Strychnine results excitation

b) Inhibitory neuro-transmitters- are agents that will depress or will slow down

the action of an organ or tissue.

- N.B: some neuro-transmitters can have an excitatory and inhibitory effect on the

same cells so it’s difficult to make a fixed statement.

Neuro-transmitters

1. Acetyl choline- is the most commonly known of the neuro-transmitters that can be

excitatory or inhibitory depends the location of the body.

 In the heart inhibits the heart rate.

 In the muscle fibers causes an excitatory action.

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2. Nor-epinephrine – is a kind of hormone released by the adrenal medulla similar in

chemical and pharmacological to epinephrine having fight reaction on the

sympathetic N.S.

3. Dopamine- is a neuro-transmitters found in the brain that has an autonomic

function and muscle control so the deficiency of the dopamine causes:

 Muscle termors

 Weakness and

 Rigidity

- Gama amino butyric acid-are 2-neuro-trnasmitters of inhibitory locating in the

brain by reducing the anxiety and then results sedation and drowsiness.

The brain and spinal cord

- Introduction: the veterinary technicians are required to know the various parts of

the brain in order to understand better the effect of the neurological diseases and

medications that affect the nervous system.

- The brain can be divided into 4-parts:-

1. Cerebrum

2. The cerebellum

3. Diencephalon and

4. Brain stem

- The brain stem and diencephalon are more primitive parts of the brain.

- Cerebrum is the highest center of the functions

- Cerebellum- co-ordinates the motor control note that each part of the brain

produces different clinical signs of the diseases.

- Cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain that locates the outer layer concerned

or responsible the functions associate with the higher order behavior like:-

1. Learning

2. Intelligence and
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3. Awareness

- It receives and interprets sensory information and the initiates conscious nerve

impulses as the:-

1. Learning memory and recall

2. Communication

3. Expression of the motional respond associates with the conscious activity

- For that case if the cerebrum neuron disrupts as the a result of:-

1. Drugs

2. Damage

3. Or imbalance of neuro-transmitters

- They may exhibits spontaneous movement, seizures and abnormal behavior.

- If damage or injury is due to lack of oxygen, or poisonous substance or blood clot.

The animal:-

a) May lose the perception of the specifics.

b) May not able to recall information and unable to learn.

- Cerebellum:- is the second largest component of the brain which locates behind

the cerebrum

- Function:-

1. It allows the body to co-ordinate movements

2. Balance and complex reflex

3. Damage or disease of the cerebrum may causes:-

a. Hypometeria-means the voluntary movement became jerky( sudden

muscular movement) and exaggerated

b. Past pointing- means unable to place part of the body accurately on a

selected point.

- Diencephalon: - this part of the brain cannot be physically defined as the cerebrum

and the cerebellum, but serve.

- As the nervous system passage way b/w the brain it include:-

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a. The epitheliums

b. Thalamus

c. Meta thalamus

d. Hypothalamus

1. Hypothalamus play an important role:-

a. In the temperature regulation

b. In the hunger respond

c. In the releasing and inhibiting of the hormone secretions.

2. Thalamus is the largest subdivision of the diencephalon which acts as a station

regulating the sensory input to the cerebrum

3. Brain stem: - is the most primitive of the brain which connects the brain and the

spinal cord.

- The brain stem composed of:-

o The medulla oblongata

o the bones and the mid brain

- Function of the brain stem

- The role of this part of the brain is the maintain the body functions specially controls

the autonomics related to:-

a) The heart

b) The blood vessels diameter

c) Swallowing and vomiting

d) Respiratory including:- the cough, sneezing and the hiccups

- The damage of the brain stem results:-

o Rapid death due to respiratory and heart failure, cardiovascular collapse or

narrowing or stenosis.
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Spinal cord

- Definition:- the spinal cord locates the caudal continuation of the brain stem outside

of the skin, for that case all the nerves to the trunk and it’s the center of reflex

action containing the conducting paths to and from the brain.

- Function of the spinal cord

a) It conducts the sensory information and motor instructions b/w the brain and

periphery of the body.

b) The sensory afferent fibers contain dorsal nerve roots, thus the comes via dorsal.

c) The motor efferent fiber is in the ventral nerve roots the instructing the body go

out information.

- Other important clinical structures of the brain

- That are required veterinary technicians to acknowledge how the drugs and disease

affecting the brain include:-

a) Meninges

b) Cerebrospinal fluids

c) Blood brain barrier

d) Cranial nerves

- Meninges : (membranes) there are 3-membranes investing the brain and spinal cord

- An external membrane called durometer( tough)

- A middle membrane called arachnoid(delicate) and

- Pia meter found In the internal (thin)

- Meninges: - is the connective tissue layer of the brain and the spinal cord which

contains:-

a) Blood vessels –that supplies nutrients and oxygen

b) Fluid – that provides cushioning and the distribution of the nutrients.

- Meningitis:- is the inflammation of the meninges due to bacteria, virus, or other

organisms or trauma by resulting:-

1. Irregular fever
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2. Loss of appetite

3. Constipation

4. Intense headache

5. Sound

6. Constructed pupils

7. Delirium( mental confusion)

8. Convulsion And coma

- Cerebrospinal fluid (C.S.F) are clear watery and colorless that serves for cushion and

protection of the brain and spinal cord from shock.

- Function of the cerebrospinal fluids:-

 For cushioning

 Regulation of the autonomics functions

- The inflammation of the central nervous may cause alteration of the protein in its

cells.

- Blood brain barrier

- The capillaries in the brain are aligned tightly together without opening or

fenestration which help the cell membrane of the glial cells by protecting:-

a) The drugs

b) Ions

c) Proteins

d) Toxins /circulating the blood.

- Cranial nerves: are 12 pairs of nerves originated from the brain that contains:

a) Axons of motor neurons

b) Axons of sensory neurons or

c) Combination of both

- So lesions of the cranial nerves gives rise to the following manifestation :-

1. First olfactory nerve: is responsible for conveying sensory impulses from the

receptors in the nose to the brain for the senses of the small.
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So disturbances or lesions of the olfactory nerves results loose of smell.

2. Optic nerve: is responsible for reception of light and vision its disturbances

results blindness and various types which depends upon the exact location of the

lesion.

3. Oculomotor: damages of this nerve results

a) Drooping of eyelid

b) Deviation of the eyeball out word

c) Double vision

4. Trochlear nerve: - which controls the eye movement upward and outward. Lesion

results double vision.

5. Trigeminal nerve: - controls of the muscles of the jaw for chewing and conveys

sensation from the nose, mouth, and parts of the throat. Damages of this results:

a) Loss of sensation in face

b) Difficult in chewing.

c) Deviation of the jaw toward paralyzed side

6. Abducens nerve: also is another motor nerve of the eye movement and the lesion

of this nerve causes deviation of the eyes out word and double vision.

7. Facial nerve:- has both sensory and motor nerve of the face for salivation, tears

and taste.

Lesions of this nerve results:-

a) Paralysis of all muscles on one side of the face

b) In ability to close the eyes

c) In ability to whistle

d) Deviation of the mouth toward the sound side.

8. Vestibulocochlear: - is the sensory nerve of the balance and hearing.

Lesion of this nerve results:

a) Deafness or ringing in the ears

b) Dizziness
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c) Noising and vomiting

d) And reeling( ataxia)

9. Glossopharyngeal nerve:- is a sensory and motor nerve of the tongue movement,

so loss of this nerve causes:

a) Disturbance of taste

b) Difficult in swallowing

10. Vagus nerve:- is a sensory and motor nerve

a) Sensory from G.I Tract and respiratory tree

b) Motor nerve to larynx and pharynx

c) Motor to abdominal and thoracic organs

Lesions of the vagus nerve results:-

 Paralysis in one side of trunk

 Difficult swelling and speech

 Hoar senses- rough quality of the voice.

11. Accessory nerve:- is a motor nerve of the head movement( form spinal

cord)

Lesions of this nerve:-

 Drooping of the shoulder

 In ability to rotate the head away from the affects side

12. Hypoglossal nerve:- is motor nerve of the tongue

Lesions, damages of this nerve results:-

 Paralysis of one side of tongue

 Deviation of the tongue toward the paralysis side

 Thick speech.
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Autonomic nervous system

- This system of the nervous system controls many functions of the body at

subconscious level through 2-ways:

a) Sympathetic and

b) Parasympathetic

- That have opposite effects on:-

 Organs

 Tissue

 And whatever syste

 m dominates (controls).

1. The nerves of the sympathetic nerve originate from the thoracic and lumbar

vertebra known as thora-lombar system.

 The efferent nerve of the system due to it helps the body to cope an

emergency situation that might have the animal to defend it’s self like:-

a) Fighting

b) Escape

c) Needs to move rapidly there for the muscles of the animal work vigorously.

2. The parasympathetic nervous system emerges from the brain and several

vertebral regions and are called cranial-sacral system often called rest and

restore systems due to its ability to:-

a) Decrease

b) The strong excitatory effects of fight

c) Returns back to the resting state

d) It’s ability to facilitate and to replace the emergency

- The structure of sympathetic nerves system locates at the thoracic and lumbar

vertebra at T1, T12, T13, and L1.

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- Concern with the involuntary body functions under the emergencies such fight with the

expenditure of energy as a response to the need to either flee, fight or to be

frightened by producing;-

 Vaso contraction

 Rice in blood pressure

 Erection of hair

 Acceleration of the heart beat

 Pupillary dilation

 Secretion of thick saliva

 Depression of G.I.Tract

- The structure of the parasympathetic N.S the cranial- sacral system at the mid-brain,

bones, medulla in S2, S3, S4.

- The parasympathetic stimuli produce vasodilatation, general fall in the blood pressure

contraction of pupils, secretion of the saliva increased gastro intestinal activity and

slowing of the heart.

Medical terminology
1. Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain, which is responsible functions of higher

behavior like intelligence, learning, awareness

2. Cerebellum:- is the second largest part of the brain which allows the body to have

coordinated movement, balance, posture and complex reflex.

3. Diencephalon:- serves as N.S passage way.

4. Brain stem:- connects b/w the rest parts of the brain and spinal cord

5. Meninges :- are connective layers that surrounds the brain and spinal cord

6. Cerebrospinal fluid:- is a fluid which protects the brain and spinal cord

7. Parasympathetic:- decreases the activity or the strong excitatory effects

8. Sympathetic:- helps the body to cope with emergency situations that an animal might

have to defend itself.

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9. Axon: - conducts the nerve impulse away from the cell body to another neurons or an

effectors cell.

10. Neuroglia:- are cells supporting and protecting the neuron from an injury

11. Spinal cord:- is the caudal continuation of the brain stem where the nerves of the

trunk and the limbs are issued.

12. Sensory formation:- is an efferent neuron that conveys impulses

13. Motor instruction:- is the efferent impulses initiating the muscle contractions

14. Brain: - is the large soft mass of nerve tissue contained within the cranium.

15. Hypermeteria:- is a condition in which the voluntary movements became jerky and

exaggerated.

16. Neuro-transmitters:- are chemical released by the presynaptic neurons.

17. Pre synaptic neuron:- is the neuron releasing the chemicals stimulating the next

cells.

18. Synapses:- is junction b/w neurons or a neuron and a target cell.

19. Autonomic N.S:- is self regulating system which has motor and sensory nerve that

send impulses to smooth muscles in order to regulate variety of autonomic body

function.

20. Somatic N.S:- controls somatic motor functions and somatic sensory functions of

the skeletal muscles( under conscious)

21. Myelin :- are fatty substance that covers the axon

22. White mater:- is myelin grossly appears without magnification.

23. Sensory receptors:- are modified nerve endings that converts the chemical into

nerve impulses to central nervous system.

24. Nerves: are a group of bundles of nerve fibers locating outside of C.N.S which

conducts the brain and spinal cord with various parts of the body.

25. Central nervous system :- the brain and spinal cord

26. Peripheral nervous system:- are nerves found outside of the central nerves

system
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27. Efferent neuron:- conducts impulses away from the brain.

28. Afferent neuron:- is a neuron that conducts impulses toward the brain or to the

spinal cord

Clinical application

1) Local anesthetic:- are a kind of drugs or medicines used to apply the superficial areas

of the body to block the conduction of the sensation by preventing the sensory nerves

from depolarization during the surgical procedures.

-So if not depolarized the sensory nerve then the brain will become unawarethe

sensation of the pain.

2) Poisons or toxins effecting the nervous System

Yearly many animals may die due to toxins of the nervous system from:-

a) Insecticide

b) Rodenticide

c) Phytoxins

d) Venom

e) Pollution and from other sources

- Mechanism:- by blocking the neurons transmitter’s receptor’s after the toxins binds

with receptors as the natural neuro-transmitters do that causes:-

a) Seizures

b) Muscular termors

c) Vomition

d) Blockage of the respiration and heart beat and the autonomic function.

Questions and answers

Q) What is the difference b/w the C.N.S and P.N.S?

a) Sensory and motor nerve

b) Dendrites and axon

c) Neurons and Neuroglia

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d) Afferent neuron and efferent neuron.

e) Autonomic and somatic nervous system

An) The central nervous system composes of the brain and spinal cord that are found in

the central axis of the body.

But the P.N.S is away from the central axis

a) Sensory and motor nerve :- are the afferent neurons that convey

impulses that gives rise to sensation and motor nerves is a neuron that

conveys impulses initiating muscle contraction, secretion e.t.c

b) Dendrites and axon :- - are branches that receives stimuli from other

neurons to the cell body and the axon conducts the nerve impulses away

from the cell body to another cell that does something

c) Neuron- is the basic functional unit of the N.S and Neuroglia supports and

protects the neuron.

d) Afferent neuron conducts the impulses toward the brain and spinal cord

and the efferent neuron conducts the impulses away from the brain.

e) Autonomic N.S- is a self-regulating system that has motor and sensory

nerves that sends impulses into smooth muscles to regulate, and somatic n.s

is the efferent branch

Q) Identify each of the following as being Autonomic or somatic as being motor or

sensory.

a) Conscious movement of the forelimb (somatic-motor)

b) Slowing of the heart rate (Autonomic- sensory)

c) Reception of pain from an injury (somatic motor)

d) Constriction of blood vessels (Aut0-sensory)

Q) List 3-parts that has a typical neuron.

a) Perikaryon

b) or dendrites

c) the axon cell body

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Q) describes the function of the afferent and efferent nerves;

a) Afferent neuron conducts impulses toward the brain and spinal cord

b) Efferent neuron conducts impulses away from the brain

Q) What is the part of the brain which is responsible for the conscious though and

perception of the sensation?

- This part of the brain is the cerebrum. And the brain responsible for co-ordination

and the motor control.

- This part of the brain is the cerebellum which accomplishes this responsibility by

reflex

Q) State the part of the brain controls the Autonomic function of the:

Cardio-vascular

- Respiratory and gastro-intestinal functions. This part of the brain is the brain

stem.

Q) List the protective membranes surrounds the C.N.S they are :

 Durometer

 Arachnoid and

 Piamater

Q) Name the kinds of fluid that bathes, cushions and support the transport materials to

and from the C.N.S

- This fluid is called the cerebrospinal fluid(C.S.F)

Q) Identify the structures which keep the poisons and the drugs from the brain.

- The B.B.B keeps the harmful substances from the brain due to it’s capillaries are

tightly aligned with the help of the cell membrane of the glim cells

Q) In the cranial nerves which is a motor, sensory or both

a) Motor nerve induces movement or motions

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b) Sensory conducts the stimuli toward the brain

c) Motor and the sensory both are vagus nerve

Q) Fill the blank space below with one of the following terms

1) Cerebrum ----is the portion of the brain associated with the highest order behavior

2) The part of the brain allows the body to coordinate the movements is called ------

cerebellum

3) Diencephalon---- serves as A N.S passage way b/w the brain

4) Brain stem--- is a part of the brain connects the rest parts of the brain and spinal

cord

5) Also is a part of the brain stem the midbrain and medulla oblongata.

6) Decrease the strong excitatory effect parasympathetic.

7) Axon are structures conducting the nerve impulses away from the cell body

8) Sympathetic---- helps the body to cope the body with an emergency situations to

defend its self

9) Specialized cells for supporting and protecting the neuron from an injury are called –

Neuroglia

10) Spinal cord locates the caudal continuation of the brainstem where the trunk and

limb nerves are issued.

11) The sensory received is -----integrated----- to produce response

12) Sensory--- is an afferent neuron

13) Motor--- is efferent neuron initiating response

14) Motor instructs---- instructs to do something

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CHAPTER 13:- MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Chapter Outline

1. Skeletal Muscular (voluntary)

a. Gross Anatomy of The Skeletal Muscular

b. Micro Anatomy of The Skeletal Muscular

c. Physiology of The Skeletal Muscular

2. Cardiac Muscle (involuntary)

a. Gross Anatomy of The Cardiac Muscular

b. Micro Anatomy of The Cardiac Muscular

c. Physiology of The Cardiac Muscular

3. Smooth Muscle (involuntary)

a. Gross Anatomy of The Smooth Muscular

b. Micro Anatomy of The Smooth Muscular

c. Physiology of The Smooth Muscular

- Introduction

- Muscles are made up of cells That Can Shorten or can Contract when the micro

Filaments slide Over one Another in Order to Move

1) The bones

2) Soft Tissue Structure

3) The Blood

4) Food in the G.I. Tract

- Also muscles possesses the properties of

1) Irritability

2) Conductivity

3) Elasticity

- In General the Nervous System Give the Orders in all Muscular Systems although

things are different for Cardiac muscle …NB…….. initial stimuli from the nervous

system at the sometimes the n.s adjusts and modifies there basic activities.
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Muscle Terminology

- Myo Refers to muscle Such As The myology myo cardiam

- Sarco Refers To muscle cells like Sarco blaste In the embryonic Cells that Develops

into muscle

- Sarcoplasma is the cytoplasm of the muscles Cells

- Myocardial muscle of the heart

- Myo ccele :- muscular protrusion through muscles sheet.

- Myocyte is muscular of Tissue Cells

Skeletal muscle

- Definition is a voluntary striated muscle means is under the control of conscious

mind that is called so due it moves the bones of the skeleton

- Gross anatomy of the skeletal muscle are those features that can be seen with

unaided eye

1) Some are tiny and delicate

2) Other are large and powerful

3) Vary in Shape And Size

4) They have common central portion called belly and attachments sites

5) Muscles are attached to bones at both end by tendons or by other muscles

sheets called baponeurosis

6) One of the Attachments Sites is More Stable (Origin of the Muscle ) And

The Other Side is Movable Called (insertasion of Muscle)

Muscle Action

- When the muscle stimulated by the nerves pulls on the attachments sites to move

bones and other structure by working in a group to describe their desired to

movement

1) Prime mover is muscle group that directly produce a desired movement

2) An antagonist is muscle group that directly opposes the action of prime mover
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3) Synergist helps the action of something else means contracts like the prime

move assist out its

4) Fixator muscle is holding or fastening in fixed position means stabilize joints to

allow other movements to take place

Muscle Naming

- Muscles named according to their physical characteristics

1. Action : such as :- flexor muscle (bend) joints and extensor muscle

(strechen) the joints

2. Shape: like the deltoid muscle (triangular of the shoulder joints)

3. Location like the biceps brachi muscle on the upper arm region

4. Directions of the fibers – as the rectus muscles of the external

abdominal muscles

5. Number of heads or divisions :- refers to the number of the attachments

on its origin .as the term head which stands

1. Biceps brachi 2 heads

2. Quadriceps 4-heads

3. Triceps Brachi 3 heads found the femoris muscle

Selected muscles

- We will discuss muscles that are used as reference points or that have clinical

importance.

1. Cutaneous muscles (skin)

- Have ever watched an animal which it is skin to get rid of but are an annoying

insects? Actually the muscles are not in the skin but are connective tissue just

beneath it

- Structurally cutaneous muscles are thin broad super facial and the serve only to

which the skin

2. Head and neck muscles

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- The muscles of the head control

a) Facial expressions

b) Enables chewing ( mastication)

c) To move the sensory structures like eyes and ears

3. The muscles of the head and neck functions

1. Supports the head and allow the neck to flex, and extends, and move the

head laterally.

2. Masseter muscles in the cheek area support to the mastication, and closes

the jaws.

3. Splenius, and trapezius locating on the dorsal part of the neck extends and

the head and the neck.

4. Brachio cephalus which locates the proximal area of the humerus up to the

base of the skull is also a neck flexor.

5. Steno cephalus that extends from the sternum acts to flex the head the

neck.

4. Abdominal

1. Structurally of the abdominal muscles

a. External abdominal oblique muscles

b. Internal abdominal oblique muscles

c. The rectus abdomen is muscle

d. Transverse abdomen is muscle

2. Function of the abdominal muscles

a. Supports the abdominal organs

b. Flexes ( arches ) the back

c. Expulsion the feces from the rectum

d. Expulsion of the urine from the bladder

e. Expulsion of the newborn from uterus

f. Process vomiting and regurgitation

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g. And play an important role in respiration

5. Thoracic limb muscles

1. Structurally the primarily muscles of thoracic limbs are:-

a. Latissimusdorsi: - from the spinal column to the humerus.

b. Pectoral muscles

c. Deltoid muscles

6. Pelvic limbs muscles: - that are mainly involved in locomotion of extensor muscles

of hib joints are gluteal and hamstring muscles.

7. Muscles of the respiration

1. These muscles increase and decreases the size of the thoracic activity to

drawn air into , and to push air out that are called inspiratory , and

expiratory muscles

2. The main inspiratory muscles are the

1. Internal intercostals muscles , and

2. the abdominal muscles ( ribs cage)

3. The elasticity of the lungs help to collapse

4. Mechanical forces like gravity

5. So expiration does not require as much efforts as inspiration

8. Neuromuscular junction

- Since the skeletal muscle are under conscious if interrupted the muscles nerve for

long time will shrink down through the process called “atrophy”

- The neuromuscular junction are found at the end of the nerve fiber and the muscle

fiber (sarcolemma = cell membrane )

- When a nerve impulse comes acetylecholine disfuses across the synaptic space to

bind the receptors on the sarcolemma in order to cause muscle contraction, after

that there is an enzyme in the synaptic space splits it apart.

- So the muscle contraction must be powered by potential supply of energy from the

sources of:-
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 Due to the muscle are capable to store glucose in the form of glycogen and O2

in the form of myoglobin

 Then ATP compound produced by the mitochondria in the muscle fibers can

release energy and another compound in the muscle fibers cells called Creatinin

Phosphatic converts back the ADP to ATP for further muscle contraction or

relaxation, that come from the breakdown of the nutrient molecules of the

glucose and O2 and then be re charged with powers sliding the actin

(microfilaments found in the cytoskeleton) and the myocin which is another

protein present in the muscle fibers.

9. Heat production

1. Muscles produce energy in the form of heat which the body uses to maintain a

constant internal temperature

2. If that heat exceeds then the body eliminates through panting and sweating.

3. In the cold conditions the body produces heat by spasmodic muscle contraction

known as SHIVERING (which is a slight tremor of the stein)

10. Rigormortis

- Is a stiffness or rigidity of the skeletal muscle that occurs shortly after animal

dies?

- Due to: ceastation of the nerve stimuli and lack of oxygen

 Resulting:-

a. Break down within the cell barriers

b. Split of the ca++ in the sarcoplasmic reticulum

c. All the ATP is used up in contraction; there is no source energy available to

relaxation.

11. Intramuscular injection sites (IM)

1. Skeletal muscle have large blood supply so the drugs or medicines can be

injected and absorbed into the blood stream

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2. Theoretically any skeletal muscle can be used , but in practice only few

muscles are suitable due to :-

a. The muscle maybe too thin/small to allow an injection

b. Others have nerves that damages the injection

3. So injectable muscles must have the following characteristics

a. of airly large muscle

b. Be easly accessible

a. must have a sufficient thick (Belly) into which can deposit the

drugs

4. Injectable sites of the body

(a) Pelvic limb – Gluteal muscle and hamstring group

(b) Thoracic limb- Triceps ,and brachi muscles

(c) Neck – Trapezius

(d) Chest – Pectoral muscle

CARDIAC MUSCLE

- Is found only in the heart that started beating before the birth, and till continue

up to the death.

- The heart muscle are involuntary striated muscles like that of the skeletal muscle

cells

- Gross anatomy of the cardiac muscle: - cardiac muscles are much smaller than the

skeletal muscle and often have multiple branches.

- The attachment sites of the cardiac muscles is called intercalated disc that

fastens the cells together and transmits the impulses from cell to cell in a

coordinated maner.

- That cardiac muscles make the heart chambers (atria and ventricles )

- Physiology of the cardiac muscles :-

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- The cardiac muscles contracts without any external stimulation, that enables the

heart to function as very efficient pump.

- The impulse of the heart beating initiates from the S.A Node that locates at the

right atrium of the heart wall coordinates the contraction and spreads cell to cell.

- Nerve supply –the heart has a nerve supply which modifies only its activities but not

initiates the contraction for that case the heart can be transplanted successfully

,nerves are not essential

- Q- So what is the role does the hearts nerve supply play in the control of the heart

beat?

- A- The nerves supplying the heart are the sympathetic and parasympathetic of the

autonomous nerve system.

(a) Sympathetic stimulates the heart to beat harder and faster as the fight

respond if an animal threatened.

(b) Parasympathetic fibers do the opposite of the sympathetic ,by inhibiting

thereby causing the heart to beat more slowly and with less force when the

body is in relax and rest

Smooth muscles

- Are not striated involuntary muscles means the contraction is not under conscious

control , that carries out most of the unconscious internal movement such as :-

a. the eye

b. the air passage

c. the blood vessels

d. G.I.T tract

e. The reproductive tract

- Gross anatomy of the smooth muscles :- are found in all over the body , that

have not in distinct sutures like the other muscles :-

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a. Visceral smooth muscles found in the walls of many soft internal organs

such as the :-

1) Stomach

2) Intestine

3) Uterus

4) Urinary bladder

5) By causing large rhythmic waves of contraction which moves the food

along the G.I.T tract, and the uterine contraction during parturition

without an external stimulation.

- N.B in the gestational period (pregnancy) the uterus does not contract as the fetus

grows, instead it stretches due to hormone of progesterone other hormones such

as the estrogen, and oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles.

- The nerve supply of the visceral smooth muscles serves to modify the contraction

that are sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system that are reserve what

we have seen in the cardiac muscles, means in this case sympathetic decrease the

activity of the visceral smooth muscles and parasympathetic increases.

b. The multi-unit smooth muscles :- are small and delicate that are made up

of individual smooth muscles calls locating where there is required delicate

contraction such as :-

1) The iris and ciliary body of the eye

2) The walls of the small blood vessels

3) Around the small passage way in the lungs

- But the contraction of the multi-unit smooth muscles are not autonomic

instead they require specific impulses from autonomous nerve to

contract means allows fine control of action such as :-

a) A dusting the size of the pupil of the eye.

b) Focusing of the lens

c) Control of the blood flow through the body.

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d) Air flow through the lungs

Medical terms

1. Belly: - is the central portion of muscles cell.

2. Tendons: - attaches the muscles into the bones.

3. Origin of the muscles: - is the less movable of the muscle.

4. Insertion: - is the site of the muscles that undergoes contraction.

5. Flexor muscles: - are the muscles that decrease the angle of the joint (bone).

6. Extensor muscle: - extends or straighten the joints.

7. Inspiratory: - is drawing air into the lungs (inhale).

8. Expiration: - are the exhale muscles (pushing out).

9. Defecation: - means expulsion of feces.

10. Atrophy :- is an injury causing the muscles to shrink

11. Neuro: - muscular junction – is the end of the motor nerve contracts to muscle

fiber.

12. Acetyl chloine :- is a chemical of neuro-transmitter that diffuses the synaptic

spaces.

13. Sarcolemma: - is the membrane surrounding muscle cells.

14. Sarcoplasma :- is the cytoplasm of the muscles cells

15. Myoglobulin: - is a large protein muscles that are stores the oxygen.

16. Hypothermia: - low of the temperature.

17. Spasmodic contraction:- is shivering or termor contraction.

18. Myofibrils: - is a tiny fibril found in the muscular tissues that are the contractile

elements.

19. Mycology: - is branch of the science which deals the studying of muscles.

20. Myomectomy: - removal of a portion of muscles.

21. Mayopathy :- is abnormal condition of the muscle tissue.

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22. Myositis: - is the inflammation of the muscle tissue due to infection, trauma , or

infestation of parasites.

23. Myoschelerosis: - hardening of the muscles.

24. Hypothermia: - rise of the muscle temperature due to its activity or infection.

25. Myo edema: - edema in the muscles.

26. Myo cells: - is a muscular protrusion through activity.

27. Myo colpitis :- is the inflammation of the vaginal muscle tissue.

Questions and answers

Q – What is a muscle? And the 3-types of the muscles tissue?

- A muscle is one of the 4-basic tissue of the body that can shorten or contract

after the microfilaments slide over one another.

- The 3-types of the muscle tissue are :-

a) Cardiac muscle

b) Smooth muscle

c) Skeletal muscle

Q – Describe the characteristics of the muscle types?

- Cardiac muscles has specialized cells that initiates the heart beat.

- Smooth muscle carries out most of unconscious internal movements of the body.

- Skeletal muscles move the bones of the skeleton under the conscious of the mind.

Q- Why the smooth muscles do not require from nerve stimulate.

- Due to they are involuntary muscle although the nervous system modifies their

activity.

Q- State the principle of the head and neck muscle?

- Control of the facial expressions.

- To move the sensory structures.

- To enable the mastication.

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- To support the head.

Q- Describe the various functions of the abdominal muscles.

- Expulsion of the feces ( Defecation)

- Expulsion of urine ( Urination)

- Expulsion of fetus ( Parturition)

- Regurgitation and vomition

- Respiration (inspiration, expiration).

Q- Where is found the sources of the energy used to cause the muscles to contract and

relax?

- From ATP and certain phosphate that come from the breakdown of the nutrient

molecules.

Q- What does the body uses the energy or the heat / what is used the body energy or the

heat release by the muscle?

- The body to maintain the internal temperature.

Q- List the common location of the muscle used for administration of the drugs.

- Gluteal and the hamster group of the pelvic limbs.

- Triceps and brachi muscles of the thoracic limbs.

- Trepezius and splenius of the splenius of the neck.

- Pectoral or the chest muscle.

Q- Name the etiological factors of the rigor –mortis.

- Lack of oxygen , ceastation of the nerve stimuli and break down of the cells

barriers.

Q- While does an animal breath in heavy for a while after an exercise.

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- Due to an animal repays its oxygen.

Q- What is called the molecules functioning as a battery charge in the body?

- ATP molecules

Q- What is a myoglbulin? And why is an important in the muscle fibers?

- Due that the myogloulin is like the hemoglobin in the blood , stores large quanties of

oxygen the form of glycogen.

Q- Differentiate visceral multi-unit smooth muscles.

Visceral smooth muscles Multi-unit smooth muscles

Locates the wall of many soft internal Are found where is required small and

organs delicates contraction

Contracts without an external stimuli Requires specific autonomic nerve to control

Are large an relatively powerful Are small and delicate

Q- Describe the effect of the smooth muscles role do in the internal organs.

- Results peristaltic contraction in the G.I.T tract, urine contractions during the

parturition and urination in the urinary bladder.

Conclusions of the muscles tissue type

- The skeletal muscles involve primarily the movements of the body parts under the

conscious control.

- Smooth muscle is involuntary in action, and is found in the visceral organs such as

the uterus.

- Cardiac muscles are also striated involuntary muscles which allow starting the

heart beat due to Myo cardial specialized cells.

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CHAPTER 14:-ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Chapter outlines

- The major endocrine system

1) Hypothalamus

2) Pituitary glands

3) Parathyroid glands

4) Adrenal glands

5) Pancreas

6) Gonads

- Other endocrine organs

1) The kidneys

2) The placenta

3) The thymus

4) Prostoglands

5) The stomach

6) Small intestines
FIGURE: General location of endocrine glands in a horse.

7) The pineal body

- Introduction

- Endocrinology: is the study of the endocrine system or ductless glands.

o Endocrine system: is a system of the glands that control and regulate body

functions through hormones placed directly into the blood stream.

o Endocrine glands: are glands that release regulatory products (hormones) into the

blood stream.

o Hormones: are chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands to receptors or

target such locks and the hormones are like key that binds.

o Control of the hormone section is controlled by negative feedback. For example

o Thyroid glands produce it’s hormone under the stimulation of another hormones

called thyroid stimulating hormone (T.H.S) from the pituitary gland. So the level of
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the thyroid hormone drops below when reaches the level required in the body due

to T.S.H From the pituitary glands reduce the stimulation.

FIGURE 9-3 Feedback control mechanisms. Positive and negative

feedback mechanisms control the quantity of a particular hormone.
- Mode of the hormone transmission

o The hormone transmission through the blood depends the distance over which the

spinal acts as:

1. Autocrine hormone: acts the same cells that are released

2. Paracrine hormones: acts only on the cells that are close to the cell

released.

3. Endocrine hormones: that acts on cells distant from the site of their

release.

- Comparison of endocrine System and Nervous System

o General function they both regulate the body

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Characteristics Endocrine system Nervous system

Regulation to stimuli Slow Fast

Duration of effect long Short

Target tissue All cells Muscles / glands

Chemical message Hormone Neurotransmitter

Messenger producing Endocrine cells Neurons

o Control: the N.S uses physical structures (nerves) to transmit message/impulses.

o In endocrine glands uses fluids (humoral) as a medium of transmitting the message.

- The major of endocrine glands

1. The hypothalamus: locates in the diencephalon of the brain that has many other

important function like

1. The appetite control

2. Body temperature

3. To link the conscious mind with the rest

4. So hypothalamus links the endocrine system over the activity of the pituitary

gland as a bridge b/w the N.S and endocrine system.

- This means the pituitary gland attached to the hypothalamus with a system of tiny

blood vessel called system in addition modified neurons of the hypothalamus

secrete hormone into the portal blood vessels into the posterior of the pituitary

gland

2. The pituitary gland called master of the endocrine glands due to its hormones activity

directing the either endocrine gland the pituitary glands has 2-parts that are

different structure function and embryological origin

a. The anterior pituitary gland or the hypophysis produces 7- known hormone after

stimulated the hypothalamus to the target organs.

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1. Growth hormone

2. Prolactin hormone

3. Luteinizing hormone

4. Thyroids stimulating hormone

5. Adeno cortico tropic hormone

6. Follicle stimulating hormone

7. Milano stimulating hormone

b. The posterior pituitary gland or neurophysis does not produce any hormone

instead it stores , and releases 2 hormones produced by the hypothalamus along

nerve fibers that are

1. Anti-diuretic hormone ( ADH)

2. oxytocin

FIGURE 10–4 Hypothalamus–pituitary structure. The posterior lobe has neural secretion. The anterior lobe
is stimulated by releasing factors carried in the
blood from the hypothalamus
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Questions and answers

Q- How do endocrine glands differ from exoring gland?

- Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood but exocrine glands secret into

ducts or tubules

Q. in what ways the functions and the characteristics of the endocrine system similar to

those of the nervous system? And what ways do they differ?

Similarities Difference

Regulation of the body Reaction to stimuli

Systems in order to Duration of effect

Maintain homeostasis Target distance

And chemical messenger

Q. How does negative feed basic system control the secretion of many hormones?

- Once the hormone in the blood reaches the level required the pituitary gland reduces

the stimuli and the secretion under the control endocrine system and nervous system

Q. Define the following terms

a) Exocrine glands - are glands that have ducts

b) synapse - is the point of junction between 2- neurons in a neural path way

c) Homeostasis –is a dynamic equilibrium

d) Hypocalcaemia – is abnormally low of blood calcium

e) Pregnancy – is the condition of carrying a developing embryo in the uterus

f) Pseudo pregnancy – is a false pregnancy

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g) Hormone target –is a cell that has a particular hormone ( key) which binds to its

receptor (lock)

h) Hormone –a chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands

i) Endocrinology – is the study of the study of the endocrine system

j) Autocrie hormone –acts the same cells that are released

k) Paracrine hormone –acts only on the cells that are close to the cell released

I- Growth hormone (GH) or somato tropic

- This hormone promotes the growth of bones and muscles in young animals and in adults

- So GH regulates the metabolism of proteins carbohydrates and lipids in all body cells.

1. In proteins encourages the synthesis of the body cells regeneration and the

repair of body tissue that have undergoing an injury

2. In carbohydrates and lipids met obolismare linked for energy production at

the same discourages if the lever of glucose in the blood rises

(hyperglycemia)

- GH deficiency results

a. Dwarfism: which is a condition in young animals do not grow in normal

b. Alopecia (hair loss) thin skin ; abnormality of reproductive hormones

- Excess of GH results

a. A form of (Giantism ) characterized by elongation and enlargement of

extremity bones , bones , head bones , enlargement of the nose lips

thickening of the soft tissue of the face due to pituitary tumor.

- Synthetic GH: - of a drug is used to increase the production of milk in dairy cows but

may cause a serious of adverse like (site offer unwanted).

1. Elevation of the body temperature

2. Reduction of the conception rate

3. Increased of mammary in factions (mastitis)

4. Increased the risk of the digestive orders

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II-Prolactin Hormone

 Prolactin hormone in association with estrogen and progesterone stimulate the

mammary and the formation of the milk

 So the act of sucking (nursing ) or milking stimulate the teat or nipple then pituitary

gland releases the Prolactin hormone to main lactation lack of stimuli results

1. Stoppage of the milk production

2. Mammary gland dries

3. Mammary gland shrinks black

 Hyperprolactinemia –associates with amenorrhea (absence of menstruation in man )

due to

1. Before puberty

2. After menopause

3. During pregnancy

4. and lactation period

III. Gonadotrophins
- Are F.S.H and L.H that stimulate the growth and the development of the gonads

(The ovaries and the testes or testicles)

- Follicle stimulating hormone (F.S.H) stimulates the growth and development of the

follicles in the ovary known as oogenesis by producing the follicles an estrogen that for

the physical and behavior changes which prepare the female for the breeding and

pregnancy.

- Luteinizing Hormone (L.H) this hormone completes the process of the follicles

development in the ovary after the progesterone reaches high level in the blood

- Feed back to the pituitary gland decreases F.S.H stimulate and produces L.H which

stimulates the empty follicle to multiply and produce progesterone which is necessary

for the maintenance of the pregnancy.

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- In male L.H also known interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) produce the male

sex hormones testosterone which is responsible for the development of male secondary

characters as the:-

 The male lipido or the sex drive

 Development of male accessory glands

 Spermatozoa production and

 Stimulate the growth of the penis.

- N.B Gonads (testicles and ovaries)

 The testes are housed in the scrotum in the inguinal region. Testes are made up of

coiled somniferous tubes where the spermatozoa and testosterone are produced

continuously under the control of the pituitary Hormone L.H.

 The ovaries locates the abdomen up near the kidneys unlike testes, ovaries

hormones are in cycles under the control of pituitary hormone F.S.H and

 L.H then the ovaries produces hormones estrogen and progesterone.

1. Estrogen- is responsible for the physical and behavioral changes that prepare

in the female breeding and pregnancy thus signal the male that the time for

breeding.

2. Progesterone- helps the uterus to receive the fertilized ovum, in order to

maintain pregnancy

 Progestin drugs are used therapeutically

 To delay the onset of the estrus

 To maintain pregnancy due to its deficiency.

IV-Thyroid glands

- Anatomically the thyroid gland consists of 2-lobes locating on the either side of the

larynx.

- Microscopically the gland has thousands of the tiny follicles produced by the hormones.

- The thyroid gland produces 2-hormones:

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a) Thyroid hormone that regulates the body’s metabolism rate

b) Calcitonin: that regulate the blood calcium level by preventing hypocalcaemia

- Thyroid stimulating hormones(S.T.H) from the pituitary gland reaches the thyroid

gland produces 2-hormones teraiodothyronin (I4) and triodothyronin (I3) which

regulates the metabolic rate of all body cells this means the burn nutrients to

produce energy(heat) in order to maintain constant internal body temperature if

the outside world changes.

- Also the thyroid gland hormone affects the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates,

and lipids the G.H.

- Calcitonin: maintain the homeostasis of blood calcium levels due to calcium is a vital

substance for

o Muscle constriction

o Formation of the skeleton

o Milk secretion

o Blood clotting

Clinical application

- Thyroid dysfunction results :-

a) Goiter
b) Hypo thyrodism
c) And hyper thyrodism
Goiter :- is non neoplastic , non-inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid gland due

to deficiency of iodine attempts to compensate by producing more T.S.H resulting

hyperplasia of the thyroid glands which can be treated with iodine(I2)

supplementation

- Hypothyroidism: is the deficiency of the thyroid hormone which affects the whole

of the body

- Symptoms

o Dry skin

o Lack of heat
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o Lathery

o Gain weight

o Impaired growth in young animals

- Treatment

o Is the administration of the thyroid hormone for the rest of the animal’s

life

- Hyperthyroidism: from too much thyroid hormone production results to speed up

the cellular metabolism of the body.

- Symptoms

o Nervousness

o Excitability

o Weight loss

o Increased appetite

o Thecycardio

o Vomition

o Diarrhea

o Polyuria

o Polydipsia

- Treatment is used to treat either by thyroidectomy or administration of thyroid

hormone inhibiting drugs in long term

V-Parathyroid glands

- Are several small, pale nodules glands found in, on ,or near the thyroid glands

- Parathyroid hormones has opposite effect to Calcitonin by preventing

hypocalcaemia through the mechanism of:

a) The kidney retains calcium

b) The intestine absorbs calcium from the blood

c) And it withdraws calcium form bank (Bones)

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VI-Adrenal glands
- Adrenal glands: are named so for their proximity the kidney.
- Anatomically the 2-adrenal glands locate near the cranial end of the kidneys.
- Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla that are differ

a) Embryological origin

b) Structure and Function

Figure: Location and structure of the adrenal glands.

- After the A.C.T.H hormone from the pituitary glands stimulates the adrenal cortex

produces the following hormones

1. Gluco corticoid hormone: effects on the glucose level by resulting

hyperglycemic through several mechanism :

- By breaking down of proteins and lipids ultimately converted to glucose in

the liver through process called gluconeogenesis

- Also the Gluco corticoids help to maintain

a) The blood pressure and resist the effect of stress

 Gluco corticoid related drugs are –

o Hydrocortisone

o Dexamethone

o Prednisole

o And tri amcinolone

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 Side effects of the gluco corticoid related drugs include

o Lowers the animal defence

o Loss of hair

o Slowing of wound healing

o Thining of the skin

o Loss of general muscles mass

o In pregnant animals can cause abortion

o Hyperglycemia by changing the insulin

o Polyuria , polydipsia , polyphagia appetite )

2. Hypo adreno cortisim: due to deficiency of adrenal cortical hormones causes

- Weakness , diarrhea , circulatory problem and kidney failure

- Mineral corticoid: - this hormone regulates the level of the electrolytes (mineral

salts).

- The principal hormone is aldosterone which affects the level of the sodium,

potassium and hydrogen ions.

Sex-hormone

- The adrenal cortex in both female and male produces small amount of sex hormones

androgens And estrogens

Adrenal medulla

- Develops from nervous tissue so its hormones are modified neurons. These

hormones are 2-very similar hormones

o Epinephrine hormones and nor epinephrine

- The two hormones are under the control of the sympathetic portion of the N.S are

threat control system or fight respond by increasing

a) The cardiac output and heart rate

b) Increased blood pressure
c) Dilated air passage way in lungs
d) By decreasing the G.I.T function

VII. Pancreas
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- Anatomically is a long, flat, abdominal organ located near the abdomen

- Functionally has duel function

a) Exocrine glands which produce the digestive enzymes

b) Endocrine portion organized into thousands of cells called islet cells or islet

of Langerhans

1. Alpha cells that produce the hormone of glucagon.

2. Beta cells that produce insulin.

3. Delta cells that produce somatostatin.

- Insulin acts to lower the level of the glucose in the blood so the deficiency of insulin

in the body results hyperglycemia which is the clinical symptom of the diabetes

mellitus, are polyuria, poly-dipsia , Polyphagia ,weight loss and glycosuria

1. The condition is fatal if left untreated

- Treatments of the diabetes mellitus –although this disease incurable, diet, exercise,

administration of insulin injection, and frequent monitoring of the animals urine, and

blood glucose levels; but the over dose of insulin can cause hypoglycemia which can lead

weakness and collapse or coma.

- Glucagon has an effect opposite to insulin by resulting hyperglycemia.

- Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to Glucose that also converts the

lipids and Proteins to produce Glucose through the process of the Gluconeogenesis.

- The posterior of the pituitary glands (neurophysis) the posterior lobe of the gland

does not produce any hormones instead the services as place of anti-diuretic hormone

(ADH) and oxytocin nerve to store produced by hypothalamus, and nerve impulses from

this gland tell the nerve ending to release them into blood stream.

1. Anti-diuretic hormone helps the body to conserve kater, but may in habit caffeine

contain drugs, drinking alcoholic beverage, to reabsorb more water on the kidneys.

- Lack or deficiency of ADH in the body causes the disease of diabetes insipidus

resulting Polyuria and polydipsia.

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2. Oxytocin:- the 2- targets of the Oxytocin hormone are the uterus , and the

mammary gland in the uterus the Oxytocin causes the contraction of the

myometerrum at the time of breading , at the parturition during prolonged labor,

and after the parturition for the involution of the uterus.

- On the mammary gland the oxytocin causes the contraction of the Myo epithelial

cells around the alveoli to let down the milk after stimulated the teat or the nipple

by sucking ( nursing ) or milking

Question and Answers

Q- Through what mechanism does the hypothalamus control the production of the

pituitary hormone how do its effect on the anterior and the posterior portions of the

pituitary differ?

- The hypothalamus links the endocrine system with the brain, through this it

controls over the activity of the pituitary glands

- The hypothalamus effects on the interior of the pituitary gland through tiny blood

vessels called portal system.

- The effect of the hypothalamus on the posterior parts is through modified neurons

that produce the hormone

Q- Why is the pituitary referred to as the master of the endocrine glands?.

- Due to its hormone activity directing the other endocrine glands.

Q- Other that promoting the growth in young animals what is the some of the effect of
G.H?

- The growth hormone also regulates the metabolism of the proteins, carbohydrates,

and lipids in all of the body

Q- What stimulates the continuous release of Prolactin during lactation?

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- The act of nursing or milking will continue as long as the teat or nipples to be

stimulated

Q- Do F.S.H and L.H play important roles in male animals? If so what are they?

- Yes they do due to that they are stimulating the growth and development of the

gonads

Q- Does the A.D.H promote the loss of large amount of water in the urine?

- It prevents the loss of water in the urine and lack of this hormone results Polyuria

and polydipsia

Q- What kind of hormone plays an important role to maintain the body temperature under
the cold environment?

- Thyroid hormone regulates the body temperature when the outside world changes

by increasing the metabolic rate to generate heat.

Q-How do the clinical symptoms of the hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism relate to the

normal function of the thyroid hormone?

- The thyroidism results from the deficiency of the thyroid hormone which effects

the whole of the body

- The hyperthyroidism results too much hormone production that speed up cellular

metabolism in all over the body.

Q- What is the hormone maintain the blood calcium levels in the body and which one

prevents hypocalcaemia and hypocalcaemia?

- Calcitonin in hormone regulates blood calcium levels

- Hypocalcaemia prevents the action of the parathyroid hormone and

- Action of the Calcitonin prevents the hypocalcaemia.

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Other endocrine organs

- Hormone production is not restricted in endocrine glands but other organs and tissue

produce hormones as follows:

1. The kidneys :produce erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to increase
the production of oxygen carrying red blood cells due to the hypoxia detected the

kidneys , deficiency of the erythropoietin causes hypoxia then blood transfusion

are often necessary to support

2. The placenta: is an important an endocrine organ so small amounts of estrogen And

progesterone are produced significant for the pregnancy diagnosis.

3. Prostaglandin: are tissue hormones that travel a short distance (pancrine) so they
regulate the activities of neighboring cells.

4. The stomach: cells of the stomach produce gastrin-hormone that acts on the
stomach wall too (auto-crine) to secrete H.C.L acid

5. The small intestine: the cells of the small intestine produce 2-hormones:
The stomach: cells of the stomach produce gastrin-hormone that acts on the

stomach wall too (auto-crine) to secrete H.C.L acid

6. The small intestine: the cells of the small intestine produce 2-hormones:
a) Secretion: which stimulates the pancreas to secrete fluids rich in

NaHCo3 which neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach

b) Cholecystokinin: also stimulates the release of the digestive enzymes

from the pancreas

- Both the secretion and cholecystokinin stimulate the gall bladder of the liver to

secrete bile which helps the digestion and absorption of fats and fat soluble vitamins