Topic 11.5.1.

3 Instrument Systems – Compasses (ATA 31)

 Identify the following compass instruments, state their purpose and
describe their operation:
 Direct reading
 Remote reading.
 Describe precautions involved with compass systems and components.
 Describe compass compensation and adjustment.

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Introduction
The direct reading compass was the first of many airborne flight and navigational instruments to be fitted
to aircraft. The prime function of the compass was (and still is) to display the direction in which the aircraft
is heading in respect to the earth’s magnetic meridians. In many of the modern aircraft, the other
navigational aids serve as a sub-division of this function, employing radio waves or inertial gyro techniques
to provide directional reference. Most light aircraft use the magnetic compass as the primary heading
reference. In aircraft that employ a remote indicating compass system and radio navigational aids, it plays
the role of a standby compass, used as a backup heading reference if the primary navigation systems fail.
The operating principle of these compasses, and indeed of the other more complex remote indicating
compass systems is based on the established fundamentals of magnetism and on the reaction between the
earth magnetic field on a suspended permanent magnet. Firstly we must cover the fundamentals and
describe some terms.

Magnetic Poles
The principle on which the magnetic compass operates is very basic. The earth itself is a very large magnet
having lines of force surrounding it. These lines emerge from the poles and the lines form what are known
as magnetic lines or meridians.
A suitably suspended permanent magnet, such as a compass card will align itself to these meridians to
indicate the direction of the field. The north end of this magnet points towards the northern magnetic
region of the earth. This point which actually has a southern magnetic polarity (because the north end of a
magnet is attracted to it in our compass) being known as the earth’s North Pole. Likewise a similar but
opposite situation occurs in the southern magnetic region.

The earth’s magnetic poles are not located on but are close to the spin axis which is referred to as the
geographic poles. It should also be noted that the magnetic poles are continually changing position with
time, therefore their positional difference to the geographic poles is never constant. This slight variation in
the earth’s field occurs over approximately 960 year moving in a circular motion east to west as a cycle.
Every few years this will effect charts and they must be updated and re-distributed.

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Direct Reading Compass
Direct-reading magnetic compasses were the first of the many airborne flight and navigational aids ever to
be introduced in aircraft, their primary function being to show the direction in which an air craft is heading
with respect to the earth’s magnetic meridian.

As far as present-day aircraft and navigational aids are concerned, however, such a directional reference is
more accurately provided by remote-reading compass systems, and flight director systems and so direct-
reading compasses are relegated to a standby role.
The operating principle of these compasses, and indeed of the systems just referred to, is based on
established fundamentals of magnetism, and on the reaction between the magnetic field of a suitably
suspended magnetic element, and the field surrounding the earth.
Compasses have the following common principal features: a magnet system housed in a bowl; liquid
damping; and liquid expansion compensation. The majority of compasses in use today are of the card type.

Compass Construction
Direct reading compasses have the following common features:
A magnet system housed in a bowl Pivot point
Magnet deviation compensator Liquid damping
Liquid expansion compensation Lighting

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These are the most common type of aircraft compass in regular use on today’s aircraft. On the modern jet
they serve as the standby compass whilst on the light aircraft they act as the primary heading reference.
There are two main versions of this type of compass:
vertical mounted panel compass which is of American design suspended
mounting type which is of British design.
Both of these compasses have similar construction details, but differ in size and shape.
The compass consists of a non-magnetic metal or plastic case which houses the magnet system. This is a
lightweight alloy or plastic azimuth card or dial that is mounted upon the float assembly and cobalt
magnet. The British type uses an annular magnet whilst the American type uses small parallel bar magnets.
The card is graduated in 5 or 10 degree increments, identified every 30 degrees and having the four main
cardinal points identified by the letters N,S,E,W, for north, south, east and west.
The card is viewed against a lubber line through the front face of the compass which is either glass or
plastic. In some models, it is moulded to produce a magnifying effect. The card and magnet assembly is
supported by means of an iridium tipped pivot and sapphire cup or bearing. The bearing frame is
sometimes of special design to prevent the pivot jumping out of the bearing, or it is mounted in such a way
that the case gives insufficient clearance for this to happen. This is necessary should the compass become
inverted.

An expansion chamber is built into the rear of the case to provide for expansion and contraction of the
liquid caused by altitude or temperature changes. The liquid as explained in the earlier notes gives the card
system buoyancy and provides bearing lubrication and damping to the card movement. Lighting is
provided by either a panel mounted light or by a small low voltage internal light. The cabling to this light is
usually a twisted pair to reduce the magnetic interference.
The compass magnet system and its supporting wires must be free to tilt within the compass bowl so as to
allow the system to rotate following the magnetic meridian as the aircraft rolls and pitches in flight. This
tilting freedom is usually about 15°. The compass which we will discuss in this lesson will be the card type
or panel mount which is the most commonly used type to be found in today’s aircraft.
The majority of compasses today are of the card type.

Magnet systems
Magnet system consists solely of a single annular cobalt-steel magnet, to which is attached a compass card.
The suspension consists of an iridium-tipped pivot secured to the center of the magnet system and resting
in a sapphire cup supported in a holder or stem. The use of iridium and sapphire in combination provides
hard- wearing properties and reduces pivot friction to a minimum. The card is referenced against a lubber

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line fixed to the interior of the bowl and lying on or parallel to the longitudinal axis when the compass is
installed in an aircraft.

Magnetic dip
The earth’s lines of force behave in a manner similar to those of any magnet, in that they leave by the
north magnetic pole and enter at the south magnetic pole. Since these lines of force form great arcs
around the surface of the earth they will only be horizontal to the surface at the place known as the
magnetic equator. The lines become more vertical as they approach the magnetic poles.

The earth’s lines of force behave in a manner similar to those of any magnet, in that they leave by the
north magnetic pole and enter at the south magnetic pole. Since these lines of force form great arcs
around the surface of the earth they will only be horizontal to the surface at the place known as the
magnetic equator. The lines become more vertical as they approach the magnetic poles.

The magnet system is mounted pendulously, that is the pivot point is above the center of gravity.
Mounting the magnet below the point of suspension counters the dip, and allows gravity acting on the
magnet assembly to pull it into a smaller angle. This method reduces the apparent dip angle in aircraft
compasses so that it is limited to approximately 3 degrees between the latitudes 60° north and south.

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Mounting the compass pendulously minimizes the magnetic dip. It is also normal practice for aircraft
compasses to be counterbalanced for the region in which the compass is operated. Direct reading
compasses from higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere would be virtually unreadable in Southern
Australian states because the counterbalance weight would in fact be amplifying the dip angle. Always
check that a new compass from overseas is marked as having been calibrated for southern field before use
on Australian aircraft.

Compass Fluid

Direct reading compasses

The magnet system of any compass must be designed so as to be as dead beat in its operation as possible,
which means that it must be able to return to the equilibrium position in the minimum of time without
oscillating.

Aperiodic compass
This is a term often used in respect to aircraft compasses. It does not refer to a type of compass but rather
to the precision of operation. It means a compass that will return to its original position after disturbance
with the minimum of over swing. The magnet system of any compass must be designed so as to be as dead
beat in its operation as possible, which means that it must be able to return to the equilibrium position in
the minimum of time without oscillating. This is achieved by using damping devices such as filaments or
wires, (often referred to as the spider) and liquid. Movement of the magnet system and its spider does not
cause swirling in the liquid as a whole but rather, it sets up small eddies which are quickly dissipated.

Liquid damping
The primary reason for filling compasses with a liquid is to make them aperiodic as explained above. The
other reasons are that the liquid will steady the magnet system and give it buoyancy, thus reducing the
weight on the pivot and lowering the effects of friction and wear.

The liquids are normally mineral or alcohol, however some special silicone liquids are now being used. In
all cases the liquid must have:
Low freezing point low viscosity
High resistance to corrosion freedom from
discoloration.

Liquid expansion compensation

Compass liquids are subject to expansion and contraction with changes in temperature, and the resulting
changes in their volume can have undesirable effects. For example, with reduction of temperature the
liquid would contract and so leave an air space in the bowl thus reducing the damping effect. Conversely,
expansion would take place under high temperature conditions tending to force the liquid out and

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resulting in leaks around bowl seals. It is therefore necessary to incorporate a device within the bowl to
take up the volumetric changes and thus compensate for their effects.

The compensator takes the form of a flexible element such as a bellows or a corrugated diaphragm which
forms the rear part of the bowl. When the bowl is filled the flexible element is compressed by a specified
amount by means of a special tool, the effect of this compression being to increase the volume of the
bowl. If now, the compensated bowl is subjected to a low temperature the liquid will contract, but at the
same time the flexible element will respond to the decrease in volume by expanding and filling up with
liquid any air space that may form. With an increase of temperature, the liquid volume is further increased
by expansion and so the flexible element will be further compressed to take up the increase in volume.

Compass illumination
In order to be useable for night flying or flying in low light situations, the direct reading compass will be
illuminated by a small bulb. Because the passage of an electric current causes a magnetic field which will
affect the accuracy of the compass, very low power lighting is used. Power to supply this is usually fed
through either screened cable or what is called a twisted pair. (A two wire system, twisted to minimize
magnetic field effect.)

Magnetic compass compensation

In order to determine by what amount compass readings are affected by hard and soft-iron magnetism, a
special calibration procedure known as swinging is carried out so that adjustment can be made and the
deviation compensated.
These devices fall into two distinct groups,
Mechanical and electromagnetic,
The former being employed with simple direct-reading compasses and detector elements of certain
remote-indicating compasses, and the latter being designed solely for use with detector elements of
remote-indicating compasses.

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In both cases, the function is the same, i.e. to neutralize the effects of the components of an aircraft’s
hard- and soft-iron magnetism by setting up opposing magnetic fields.

Mechanical Compensation Devices

One of the earliest mechanical devices is the micro-adjuster. It consists of two pairs of magnets (a feature
common to all types of mechanical compensator), each pair being fitted in bevel gears made of a non-
magnetic material. The gears are mounted one above the other so that, in the neutral condition, one pair
of magnets lies longitudinally for the correction of coefficient C, and the other pair lies laterally for the
correction of coefficient B.

Production of magnetic fields required for correction is obtained by rotating small bevel pinions which
mesh with the gears, causing them to rotate in opposite directions. As can be seen, the magnets are thus
made to open up in the manner of a pair of scissors, the fields being produced between the poles and in a
direction dependent on that in which the operating head is rotated.

In-flight errors
Earlier in this section we saw how the magnetic dip causes the compass card to tilt towards the magnetic
pole. This causes the center of gravity (C of G) to move away from the point of card suspension. This
displaced C of G will cause errors during flight. These are known as:
1. Turning errors
2. Speed and acceleration errors.

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Turning error
When an aircraft, operating in the southern hemisphere, is turning from either a northerly or southerly
heading, turning or centrifugal forces act on the C of G of the compass card, to produce a turning error.
When an aircraft turns from a northerly heading towards the east, the C of G of the compass card is placed
north of the point of suspension. (Dip angle of the magnetic field causes the compass magnets to tilt
towards the south) and the turning forces cause the magnet system to rotate more rapidly in the opposite
direction to the turn being made. Because you view the compass card from the rear side, it shows a turn in
the correct sense, but at a greater rate than is actually carried out.

The card tends to run ahead of the aircraft, reaching the required heading first. The pilot has to anticipate
this turn rate and recover to straight and level flight a few degrees after (overshoot) the required heading.
When the aircraft turns west from a southerly heading, the C of G of the compass card is now behind the
compass card suspension point, applying a force on the card in the direction of the turn, slowing the card
movement down and making the aircraft appear to be turning at a slower rate than it actually is. This gives
the card a tendency to undershoot, requiring the pilot to undershoot the required heading by a few
degrees. In high bank angles, the compass card movement can even make the pilot think that he is turning
in the other direction.

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Speed error (acceleration-deceleration)
In the southern hemisphere, when the aircraft flies on the east/west headings, any speed change will allow
the inertia of the card to cause it to swing in a direction governed by the speed change.
If an aircraft on an easterly heading increases its speed, the acceleration forces causes the magnet system
to be displaced and rotate in a counter-clockwise direction, indicating an apparent turn towards the south.
When the aircraft decelerates, the reverse action takes place and the effect is for the magnet system to
rotate in a clockwise direction, giving an apparent turn to the north.
As with the northerly errors, the dip angle displaces the C of G away from the center of suspension
allowing the acceleration forces to rotate the compass card.

Remote Compasses
An instrument panel usually has a concentration of magnetic fields around it due to the location of
electrical wiring looms in the vicinity of the cockpit. So the instrument panel is not the ideal place to install
a direct reading compass. To eliminate the problem of the interfering magnetic fields it is much better to
mount the magnetic compass sensing element in a wing tip or at the top of the vertical fin, as far as
possible from the influence of soft and hard iron magnetism, and electrical interference as possible.
This is the basis of a remote indicating compass system. The magnetic sensing element is located well away
from the cockpit, so an electrical interface is then necessary to transmit the heading signal to a Horizontal
position indicator mounted on the instrument panel. A pure remote indicating compass system consists
solely of a magnetic field detector and a heading indicator. This simple system still suffers many inherent
problems, and because electronics and gyro systems have developed significantly since remote indicating
compass systems were first conceived it is now standard for remote indicating compass systems to
incorporate a gyro to provide gyro stabilized magnetic heading to the horizontal situation indicator.

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In its early form in World War 2 the distant reading compass or magnesyn compass suffered the errors
associated with both direct reading compasses and DG’s, there were also some practical difficulties
associated with the synchronisation methods adopted. To overcome these problems new methods and
techniques were adopted. The most notable was the changeover from the permanent magnet type of
detector element to one which utilises electromagnetic induction to to detect magnetic meridians.
Additionally improved electronics and gyro precession control methods have contributed to the make-up
of the remote indicating compass systems in widespread use today.

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Slaved Gyro
Remember a gyro can be precessed to align to any attitude. The magnetic heading output is used to
control the torque motor to keep the gyro aligned to a heading reference. This effectively slaves the gyro
to the magnetic heading and is commonly called a slaved gyro compass.
Provide as much description as necessary to ensure students comprehend how the electrical magnetic
heading output from the flux valve (and amplified) is used to stop the gyro from drifting.

Gyro will maintain it’s attitude in space and the aircraft will rotate around it in exactly the same manner as
was explained during the phase on DG’s, the magnetic heading signal will only have an effect if the gyro
drifts off the magnetic heading. For a perfectly weighted gyro with no drift, the torque motor will never
need to precess the gyro to the correct heading because it will never drift out of alignment. Refer this
system to the pilot updating his DG, but this is done automatically.
Initially pilots had to rely on just the direct reading compass as their primary heading information source.
The direct reading compass suffered disadvantages due to magnetic dip, turning and acceleration errors
and was not a reliable reference when turning onto new headings because the magnetic compass was
unable to synchronize with the aircraft heading change so overshooting a new was a common problem
because the direct reading compass could not display the new heading until after the pilot had returned to
straight and level flight and allowed sufficient time for the direct reading compass to catch up to the new
heading.

The advent of the DG eliminated many of these errors, but the pilot had to update the DG by caging it and
aligning the magnetic heading every 10 minutes or so to counter gyro drift.
The remote indicating compass system united these two heading references and provided a standalone,
reliable and accurate heading reference that did not require continual pilot interaction to keep up to date.

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Remote Compass Indicators
Horizontal Situation Indicators and derivatives of this concept have already been covered. If any revision is
required refer back to the relevant topic.
HSI’s, are simply remote indicating instruments with a dial and pointers electrically driven by remote
sensing elements.
HSI compass card is rotated by a servo motor within the HSI case. The servo motor is controlled by the
output of a remotely located directional gyro (which is slaved to magnetic heading).

Flux Valves
The flux valve magnetic detector unit is used in conjunction with a directional gyroscope to provide
magnetic stability to compensate for the apparent precession, due to the earth’s rotation.
Electromagnetic induction, use the earth’s lines of magnetic flux to modify the output of a transformer.

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Unlike the detector element of a simple magnetic compass the element used in all remote indicating
compasses is of the fixed type (meaning it doesn’t try to align itself with a magnetic meridian) which
detects the earth’s magnetic field as an electromagnetically induced voltage. In other words the flux valve
acts as an alternating current type synchro transmitter and therefore is just another special application of
the transformer principle.
The flux valve takes the form of a three spoke metal wheel consisting of 3 sensing arms, set 120 ° apart
around a center point or hub.
The flux valve takes the form of a three spoked metal wheel consisting of 3 sensing arms, set 120 ° apart
around a center point or hub. The sensing arms act as 3 individual flux collectors. Around the hub of the
wheel is a coil corresponding to the primary winding of a transformer while the three coils on the spokes
are effectively secondary windings. The amount of voltage induced into the spoke or secondary windings is
equal when the flux valve is not subjected to any external magnetic interference.
The sensing arms or spokes are manufactured from permalloy which is specially chosen because of its
characteristic property of becoming easily magnetized but losing all it’s magnetism once the external force
is removed. So it is a soft iron magnet, remind students of soft and hard iron magnetism.

The voltage induced into the secondary coils is therefore made up of the voltage induced from the primary
coils lines of flux, and the voltage induced by the earth’s lines of flux. Depending on the angle at which the
flux valve is with respect to the earth’s magnetic field, the voltages in the secondary coils will vary, on one
heading the earth’s magnetic field will assist the primary coils induction into one or two secondary coils,
while it will oppose the induction into the 3rd coil, on any other heading the combined outputs from the
secondary coils will always be dependent upon the flux valves alignment with respect to the earth’s
magnetic field. This change in voltage output from the secondary coils is very small, but has the effect of
producing an output indicative of the aircrafts heading which then works on the same principle as an AC
synchro output. The output of the flux valve is an electrical indication of magnetic heading, and once
amplified can be distributed to all aircraft systems dependent upon magnetic heading information,
e.gAutopilot, Navigation, Flight Director and Flight Data Recorder systems.

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The whole array is suspended from a central point of the case by a universal joint known as a Hookes joint.
This allows the arms to move in the pitch and roll axes up to about 25°. So as the aircraft flies around the
flux valve will remain parallel to the earth’s lines of magnetic flux in all but the most aerobatic of
manoeuvres (of course near the magnetic poles this will not be absolutely true, but navigating in this
region is always difficult when relying on a magnetic heading reference).

The whole sensing element is enclosed in a sealed bowl and immersed in a damping oil to minimize
pendulous jarring caused by rapid attitude changes

Flux Valve Location

As previously stated flux valves are typically positioned well away from any magnetic influences. This is
usually in the wing-tips or at the top of the tail fin. Aircraft designers will select the most appropriate place
for flux valve positioning. There are two flux valves fitted to provide for redundancy and both are
selectable, although one usually supplies the heading reference for the pilots HSI and the other flux valve
for the co-pilots HSI. Smaller aircraft will only have one flux valve fitted.

In more recent times the flux valve heading reference has been superseded by Inertial Navigation Systems,
Satellite Nav, GPS and many more radio navigation systems and networks. All aircraft still have flux valves
and remote indicating compass systems fittedthough as secondary navigation systems for redundancy in
the event of a failure of the primary navigation systems.

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Remote Indicating Compass System
The magnetic heading signal maintains the gyro heading reference (corrects for gyro drift and performs the
same function as a pilot manually updating the DG). It does this by applying a currents to the gimbal torque
motors to counter any gyro drift away from the detected magnetic heading, eg if the gyro were to drift and
its electrical output no longer matched the magnetic heading signal, an electrical signal is applied to the
gimbal torque motor to return the gyro to the correct heading.

The system illustrated more closely mirrors an actual remote indicating compass system.
Begin by introducing the components already covered, flux valve, DG and HSI.

The flux valve magnetic compensation assembly doesn’t perform the compensation task by positioning
magnets, it is done electronically..
The slaving system is to detect any mismatch with the gyro heading output to generate a signal to precess
the gyro back to the correct heading.
The gyro erection system is the same as was covered during gyro theory and is incorporated to tie the gyro
to earth, it is referenced to gravity and utilizes the mercury switches and torque motors.
The HSI compass card servo system is just a straight forward servo loop. A signal sent out by the gyro to
rotate the compass card coincident with heading changes is applied to a servo motor and drives the card. A
feedback signal is sent back to the gyro to null the original error signal.

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Compass Controller
On more complex systems a separate compass control panel may be incorporated. This has the advantage
of decluttering the instrument bezel/display.
Selections available are same as those previously covered.
Synchronizing indicator
Mode selector – DG, Slaved or Synchronize (used in conjunction with a synchronization adjustment knob)
Warning Light – when not synchronized
Course/heading set knob – controls heading bug on indicator
Latitude setting knob as described in overcoming problems associated with navigation in polar regions

Electromagnetic Compensation Devices

The design & construction of electromagnetic compensation devices varies depending on the type of
remote indicating compass, but in general they comprise two variable potentiometers which are
electrically connected to the coils of the flux detector. The potentiometers correspond to the co-efficient
‘B’ & ‘C’ magnets of the mechanical compensator & when they are rotated with respect to calibrated dials,
they inject very small DC signals into the flux detector coils. The fields produced by the signals are
sufficient to oppose those causing deviations, & they accordingly modify the detector output, which via the
synchronous transmission link, will drive the compass indicator to the corrected readings.

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Magnetic variation (Mag Var)
Magnetic variation (Mag Var) is mapped throughout the world
Mag Var maps are updated every few years to take into consideration and movement of the earth’s
magnetic poles
To calculate the direction to true North using magnetic North read your compass and add the magnetic
Variation correction if it is an easterly variation or subtract it if it is a westerly variation.
Compass reads a heading of 79°, mag var for your region is 11° East, so add 11° to 79° and the aircraft is
heading 90° or east with respect to True North.
If mag Var was 7° west for the same headings referred to above, the true heading would be 72°.

Compass Deviation
The permanent magnet in a compass does not differentiate between the earth’s magnetic field and
magnetic fields either induced or resident in the aircraft structure. Ferrous metal parts and wires carrying
electrical current have a tendency to attract the compass magnet and induce deviation. To minimize the
error a compass calibration (or swing) is performed. Large errors are minimized by the use of
compensating magnets incorporated into the compass.
Errors which cannot be eliminated are recorded on a compass correction card. The compass correction
card provides the pilot with information so he can apply corrections to aircraft heading to ensure he is
flying the actual magnetic heading he wishes. Eg on the correction card above, if the pilot wants to fly
directly magnetic South he would need to maintain a heading of 183°. The Mag Var correction to then
calculate true heading is applied to the 180°, not to the 183°, which is an erroneous reading attributable to
inaccuracy of that particular compass.

Aircraft Magnetism And Its Effect On Compasses

A fact which has always been a challenge to designers of aircraft compasses is that all aircraft are
themselves in possession of magnetism in varying amounts. Such magnetism is of course a potential source
of error in the indications of compasses installed in any type of aircraft and is unavoidable. However, it can
be analyzed and, for any aircraft can be divided into two main types and also resolved into components
acting in different directions, so that steps can be taken to minimize errors, or deviations as they are
properly called, resulting from such components.

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The two types of aircraft magnetism can be divided in the same way that magnetic materials are classified
according to their ability to be magnetized, namely hard iron and soft iron.
“Hard” and “Soft” are terms used to qualify varieties of magnetic materials according to the ease with
which they can be magnetized. Metals such as cobalt and tungsten steels are of the hard type since they
retain the property for a considerable length of time, hence the term permanent magnetism. Metals which
are easy to magnetize (silicon iron for example) and generally lose their magnetic state once the
magnetizing force is removed are classified as soft.

Hard Iron
Hard iron magnetism can be described as the resident permanent magnetic fields present within the
aircraft. Iron and steel parts of the aircraft structure become magnetized due to the earth’s magnetic field
“building itself into the ferrous parts during construction or when the aircraft is left on one heading for
lengthy periods. The strength of these components will not vary with heading or change of latitude but
may vary with time due to a weakening of the magnetism in the aircraft.
Hard iron magnetism can be described as the resident permanent magnetic fields present within the
aircraft and affecting components P, Q and R as shown in illustration. The strength of these components
will not vary with heading or change of latitude but may vary with time due to a weakening of the
magnetism in the aircraft. Earth’s magnetic field “builds” itself into aircraft’s ferrous parts whilst lying for
long periods on one heading.
Hard iron magnetism can cause deviations of the compass reading as a one (1) cycle error..

For hard iron magnetism (permanent magnets) – When an aircraft is heading North, the equivalent hard
iron magnet will be in alignment with the aircrafts longitudinal axis and the earth’s magnetic field, so will
not induce any heading error. The same will occur on southerly headings, although the hard iron
magnetism will oppose the earth’s magnetic field, it will only weaken it, but it will not induce errors. The
error induced will be at the maximum and minimum on easterly and westerly headings, and the errors
induced will be of opposite polarity
Magnetic Component R is an imaginary magnet lying vertically through the aircraft. Its effects are small and
usually disregarded when compensating the compass. It would have an effect on vehicles travelling
vertically, eg rockets &space shuttle, but is not normally compensated for in a conventional aircraft.

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However, whenever during flight the aircraft leaves the level flight condition, its effects combine with the
other components to produce temporary errors.

Soft Iron
Metals which are easy to magnetize (silicon iron for example) and generally lose their magnetic state once
the magnetizing force is removed are classified as soft.

Soft iron magnetism is of a temporary nature and is caused by metallic parts of the aircraft which are
magnetically soft becoming magnetized due to induction by the earth’s magnetic field. The effect of this
type of magnetism is dependent on aircraft heading and attitude in its geographical position. Must be
compensated for during the compass swing process.
The soft iron magnetism errors are induced by the earth’s magnetic field inducing a magnetic field into
aircraft components. An aircraft is effectively a cross of wings and the fuselage. So when the aircraft is
heading North or South the earth’s magnetic field runs directly down through the fuselage and doesn’t
induce any errors because it is aligned with the earth’s magnetic field. The same occurs on East and West
headings, but in this case the earth’s magnetic field runs directly down through the wings, again not
inducing any error in the compass reading.
The greatest soft iron magnetism errors are induced on NE, SE, SW and NW headings when the earth’s
magnetic field is distorted with lines of flux bending to run through the fuselage and wings, inducing errors
into the compass. This error is represented by the two cycle error sine wave with 0 error on each of the
cardinal headings and maximum error on the intercardinal headings
These resident magnetic fields are compensated (neutralized) for by the use of compensation magnets in
direct reading compasses (& some old flux valves) or Electro-magnetically in remote reading compasses.

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Introduction to compass compensation and adjustment
In order to determine by what amount compass readings are effected by hard and soft iron magnetism, a
special calibration procedure known as swinging is carried out so errors can be identified, adjustment can
be made and deviation compensated.

Magnetic compass compensation

We can determine the accuracy of a magnetic compass which is fitted to an aircraft by comparing the
indication shown by the compass to the actual heading of the aircraft as found by a master compass
located outside the aircraft, for a range of headings. A list of these headings and the deviations between
them is used during a compass swing to calculate what is called coefficient A, B and C. The coefficient A is
called the installation error and we correct for it by moving the compass about in its mounting base.
Coefficients B and C are related to errors caused by magnetic influences within the aircraft causing errors in
compass headings. To correct for these errors, we must slightly distort the earth’s magnetic field around
the compass with an external magnetic field known as a compensator field.

Methods of Compass Swinging

There are three possible methods of carrying out a compass swing, using as a reference:
A datum or hand-held master compass an electronic
compass calibrator
The comparison method.

Datum compass
The datum compass or land compass as it is sometimes called, is a tripod mounted master compass. There
is a hand-held master reference compass which could also be used. Both types are used to sight the
reference points on the aircraft, so that we can compare the reading on the aircraft compass to the master
compass.

Electronic compass calibrator

Complex aircraft operated by large organizations may have access to an electronic compass calibrator
system. The use of this system is beyond the scope of course and so will not be covered, suffice to say that

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it is basically an electrically controlled device which will alter the alignment of a magnetic field around a
flux valve so it can be checked on all headings without the need to physically reposition the aircraft.

Comparison method
In the comparison method, the compass being swung is usually a backup compass to a higher level system.
For example a standby compass is a backup to a remote reading compass system, or a remote reading
compass is a backup to an inertial navigation system. In this case, the compass is swung and compared to
the higher level system.

Compass Calibration
This procedure is performed whenever the compass systems has reason to be suspected of inaccuracies. If
a full compass swing is necessary, this check should not be performed as it will simply add additional time
to the whole process. This procedure is performed to determine if a compass needs to be calibrated or not.
Compass calibration will be explained shortly, but first an explanation of how to test the accuracy of a
compass system.
Tow the aircraft to the compass swing area and position it on headings at 30° intervals and record the
headings and deviations on a chart.
Note: The aircraft must be positioned within 5° of each reference heading.
Determine the deviation at each heading and perform adjustments as necessary to compensate for any
errors.
Perform a confidence check following adjustment by checking aircraft compass headings at 30° intervals.

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Compass Tolerances
Determine the deviation at each heading. At each cardinal heading check whether a change in deviation
occurs when engine(s) electrical or radio equipment is operated. Repeat these checks at each 30° if a
change in deviation does occur. Compare the results of the calibration with the previous calibration.
Compasses shall be compensated when the result of the compass calibration discloses (Refer to applicable
maintenance manual & airworthiness regulations to determine applicable tolerances)
a deviation which differs by 3° or more from that anticipated by virtue of a previous calibration: or
a deviation in excess of the limits specified below on any heading.
The deviation at any heading shall not exceed:
2° degrees for a remote indicating compass (stabilized); 5° for a remote indicating compass (non-
stabilized);
5° for a direct reading compass used as the primary compass 10° for a standby
compass.
Any practical combination of aircraft systems that are positioned, operated or loaded within their
operating limits shall not vary the compass deviations in excess of:
2° for a remote indicating compass (stabilized);
4° for a remote indicating compass (non-stabilized);
5° for a direct reading compass used as the primary compass; and 8° for a standby
compass except that in specific circumstances,
Magnetic interference to a standby compass may exceed 8° provided that details of these circumstances
are stated in the operations or flight manuals and placarded adjacent to the compass. Magnetic
interference that occurs only occasionally and for short periods may be ignored.

Coefficient A
We can now calculate the coefficient A error by taking the cardinal deviations as follows:
With the aircraft standing on East, correct for A error by adding the correction factor to the compass
reading and moving it on its mounting. This corrects for apparent A.
With the aircraft on any cardinal magnetic heading add coefficient A algebraically to the compass reading.
Rotate the compass or magnetic sensing element until the compass reads the corrected heading.

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Coefficient B
The aircraft fuselage soft and hard iron magnetism produces deviation due to an imaginary magnet lying
along the fore and aft axis of the aircraft
When flying on north or south headings, this has no effect on the compass reading.
When flying east or west, the earth’s field is distorted by some value.
Because earth’s lines of flux travel North- South, when the aircraft is heading North or South, the fuselage
magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or weaken it because all the
magnetic flux (earth’s and aircrafts) are in alignment. So the magnetism in the fuselage which is termed
coefficient B error effects compass accuracy predominantly on East-West headings, and has no effect on
North-South headings.
One pair of magnets are located in the lateral axis across the aircraft and when rotated will correct for
coefficient B.
While the aircraft is still on East calculate and correct for coefficient B:
On an Easterly heading we add coefficient B algebraically to the compass reading (Be sure to observe the
algebraic signs). Adjust the (EW) corrector magnet to make the compass read the corrected reading. If the
aircraft were facing West we would subtract the deviation (this means change the sign from plus to minus
or vice versa).
Remember you must use a brass or aluminium screwdriver when making adjustments. Coefficient C

Magnetic component Q produces a deviation due to an imaginary magnet lying across the aircraft (lateral
axis) which adds to or subtracts from the earth’s field. When flying east or west, this has no effect on the
compass, but when flying on the north or south headings, the earth’s field is distorted through the aircraft
by some value.
Because earth’s lines of flux travel North-South, when the aircraft is heading East-West, the lateral or
wingspan magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or weaken it because
all the magnetic flux (earth’s and aircrafts) are in alignment.
So the magnetism in the wingspan which is termed coefficient C error effects compass accuracy
predominantly on North-South headings, and has no effect on East-West headings.
Because earth’s lines of flux travel North-South, when the aircraft is heading East-West, the lateral or
wingspan magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or weaken it because
all the magnetic flux (earth’s and aircrafts) are in alignment.
So the magnetism in the wingspan which is termed coefficient C error effects compass accuracy
predominantly on North-South headings, and has no effect on East-West headings.
To correct for coefficient C, with the aircraft on a Northerly or Southerly heading, we add the coefficient C
error (if on Northerly heading, subtract if on Southerly) to the compass reading. (Make the aircraft
compass read 1 degree more than the present reading). As before, be sure to observe the algebraic signs.
Move the coefficient C (NS) corrector magnet, to make the compass read the new heading.
Now that you have completed the initial corrections, you must now check the entire compass range by
carrying out a check swing. Remove any items such as tools and any unnecessary equipment from the area
which could give any magnetic interference.11

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Compass Calibration Preforma
Use this proforma as it simplifies compass compensation process.

Also now that the compensation process is complete the compass must be calibrated, that is all residual
deviations must be identified and recorded on a compass calibration card.

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Compass swing precautions
An aircraft compass needs to be swung in an area which is free from all unusual magnetic influences other
than those derived from the aircraft.
The area should not be near any hangars or other buildings, electronic transmitting devices, underground
or above-ground power cabling, piping or plumbing, or any other metal objects including concrete
reinforcing, which will cause distortion of the earth’s magnetic field. The area needs to be large enough to
allow the aircraft to be manoeuvred around and have the datum compass approximately 50 meters away.
The aircraft should be prepared in the normal in- flight condition; that is, all equipment in the correct
stowage position. Some aircraft require a final check to be carried out with the engine running. If this is the
case an authorized engine runner should be available. Use only non-magnetic tools for adjusting the
correctors.

Usually there will be a surveyed compass swing site established at major airfields and compass swings
should only be performed at this appropriate site.

Signature of the Instructor Signature of Training

Manager

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