Maths Formula

1 – Ratio Proportion, Logarithm and Indices

* Ratio :- a c
A ratio is a comparison of the sizes of i.e. = or a : b :: c:d
b d
two or more quantities of the same kind by The number a, b, c and d are in proportion.
division. a and d are called extremes or
a extreme terms.
e.g. Or a : b
b b and c are called means or middle
st
a = 1 term of antecedent. terms.
nd
b = 2 term of consequent. Similarly, if 3 quantities a, b, c of the
same kind are said to be in continuous
* Remarks :- proportion.
If a : b = b : c
1) Both terms can be multiplied of a b
divided by same (non zero) numbers. i.e.   b 2  ac  ac also, when
b c
2) A ratio is expressed in lowest form.
three or more (x, y, z, p, q, r) quantities are in
3) The order of the terms in a ratio is
continued proportion, then
important. e.g. 3 : 4 is not same as 4 :
x y z p q
3    
4) Ratio exists only between quantities of y z p q r
same kind. e.g. There is no ratio
between Age and Weight of children. * Properties of Proportion :-
5) Quantities to be compared (by
division) must be in the same unit. e.g. 1) If a : b = c : d then ad = bc
2) If a : b = c : d
* Inverse Ratio :- then b : a = d : c (Invertendo)
One ratio is the inverse of other if their 3) If a : b = c : d then
product is 1. a : c = b : d (Alternendo)
e.g. The inverse ratio of a : b is b : a. 4) If a : b = c : d then
a b ab cd
i.e. x =1  (Componendo)
b a b d
5) If a : b = c : d then
* Compounded Ratio :- ab c d
The Compounded ratio of a : b & c : d  (Dividendo)
b d
is ac : bd. 6) If a : b = c : d then
ab cd
* Duplicate Ratio :-  (C and D)
A ratio compounded itself is called ab cd
“Duplicate Ratio”. 7) If a : b = c : d = e : f = .......... then
e.g.
2 2
a : b is duplicate ratio of a : b. Each ratio is equal to
Similarly triplicate ratio of (a  c  e  ...)
3 3 .......... (Addendo)
a :b is a : b (b  d  f  ...)
8) If a : b = c : d = e : f = .......... then
* Sub-Duplicate Ratio :- a c e (a  c  e  ...)
Sub duplicate ratio of a : b is    .......
b d f (b  d  f  ...)
a: b (Subtrahendo)

* Continued Ratio :- * Indices :-

5
It is the comparison between the 4x4x4x4x4=4
magnitude of three or more quantities of the In above case the number which
same kind. multiplies i.e. 4 is called base and the number
e.g. The continued ratio of Rs. 200, Rs. of times it multiplied i.e. 5 is called “index of
400, Rs. 600 is 200:400:600 it means 1:2:3. power”.
r
Also, a1  a1 / r
* Proportion :-
An equality of 2 ratios is called
“Proportion”. * Laws of Indices :-
 Maths Formula
* Characteristics :-
m n m+n
1) a xa =a
3 2 3+2 5
e.g. 2 x 2 = 2 = 2 1) If number is greater than 1 then
a a =a
m n m-n
2) characteristic is +ve and it is one less
e.g. 2  2 = 2 = 2 = 2
3 2 3-2 1
than the number of digit to the left of
m n mxn
3) (a ) = a the decimal point.
3 2 3x2 6
e.g. (2 ) = 2 = 2 e.g. Number Characteristic
0
4) a =1 37 1
0
e.g. 2 = 1 4623 3
-m 1 1 m 6.2 0
5) a = and =a 2) If number is less than 1 then
a m
a m
characteristic is –ve and it is 1 more
-3 1 1 3 than the no of zeros on the right
e.g. 2 = and =2
3 3
2 2 immediately after the decimal point
x y
6) If a = a then x = y e.g. Number Characteristic
a a
7) If x = y then x = y .8 -1 or 1
m
8) a a 1/m
.07 -2 or 2
1
3 .00507 -3 or 3
e.g. 4  41 / 2 , 7  (7) 3
.000670 -4 or 4
* Logarithm :- * Mantissa :-
If ax = n, Then, x is said to be the
It is the fractional part of the logarithm
logarithm of the number n to the base a.
of a given number. Mantissa is always a +ve
i.e. loga n = x
quantity.
i) 2 = 16  log2 16 = 4
4
e.g. e.g.
ii) 10 = 1000  log10 1000 = 3
3
Number Mantissa Logarithm
i.e. Logarithm of 1000 to the base 10 is 3. Log 4597 =(0.6625) 3.6625
Note: Remember “Base will be base”. Log 459.7 =(0.6625) 2.6625
Log 45.97 =(0.6625) 1.6625
* Properties of Logarithm :- Log 4.597 =(0.6625) 0.6625
Log 0.4597 =(0.6625) 1 .6625
1) loga mn = loga m + loga n
e.g. log(2 X 3) = log2 + log3 Log 0.497 =(0.6625) 2 .6625
2) loga (m/n) = loga m = loga n
e.g. log3/2 = log3 – log2 * Antilogarithm :-
If  is the logarithm of a given number
n
3) loga m = n loga m
n then ‘n’ is called the Antilogarithm
2
e.g. log3 = 2log3
4) loga a = 1 i.e. if loga n =  then n = antilog(x)
e.g. log5 5 = 1
0
5) loga 1 = 0  a = 1 e.g. If log 61720 = 4.7904 then,
6) logb a X loga b = 1 antilog 4.7904 = 61720.
e.g. log3 2 X log2 3 = 1
7) logb a X logc b = logc a
e.g. log3 2 X log5 3 = log5 2
logc a
8) logb a =
logc b
log2
e.g. log3 2 =
log3
 How to find logarithm of a number using
log tables:
The logarithm of a number consists of
2 part, the whole part or integral part is called
characteristic and decimal part is called
mantissa.
i.e. Characteristic – Whole part
Mantissa - Decimal part
 Maths Formula
2 – Equations

* Equation :-  -7x + 3x = 5 – 1
It is defined to be a mathematical  -4x = 4
statement of equality.  x = -1 Option(b)
2
e.g. x + 2x + 3 = 0
x2 x3 2) Trial and Error Method
 =3
3 2 1) For option (a).
L.H.S. = -7x + 1 = - 7(2) + 1
* Conditional Equation :- = -14 + 1 = -1..(1)
If the equality is true for certain value R.H.S. = 5 – 3x = 5 – 3(2)
n
of the variable involved, then eq is called = 5 – 6 = -1.….(2)
conditional eq
n -13  -1
x2 x3 a is not correct option
e.g.  = 3 holds true only for x 2) For option (b) i.e. (-1)
3 2 -7x + 1 = 5 – 3x
=1 -7(-1) + 1 = 5 – 3 (-1)
7+1=5+3
* Identity :- 8=8
If the equality is true for all value of the b is correct option.
n
variable involved, the eq is called identity.
x  2 x  3 5x  13 * Simultaneous linear equation is 2
e.g.   is an
3 2 6 unknown :-
identity. General form: ax + by + c = 0
The value of variable which satisfies
n
the equation is called solution of the eq or * Method of Solution :-
n
root of eq . 1) Elimination method :-
In this method, eliminate 1 variable by
* Types of eqn :- i) Making their coefficient equal.
n
n
1) Linear or simple eq highest power 1 ii) Adding or substracting the eq
e.g. 8x + 17(x-3) = 4(4x-9) + 12 depending upon their sign.
n
2) Quadratic eq : highest power 2 iii) Solving for the remaining variable.
2
e.g. 3x + 5x + 6 = 0 e.g. Solve :-
n
3) Cubic eq : highest power 3 2x + 5y = 9 (1)
e.g. 4x + 3x + x – 7 = 1
3 2
3x – y = 5 (2)
n
4) Simultaneous eq : 2 or more linear
n
eq involving 2 or more variable. Step 1 :-
e.g. x + 2y = 1; 2x + 3y = 2 Making their coe. Equal.
2x + 5y = 9 (1)
* Simple equation :- 3x – y = 5 (2)
n
Simple eq in 1 unknown ‘x’ is in the
n Multiply eq (2) by 5
form of x + b = 0 where a, b are constant and  5(3x – y = 5)
a0 15x – 5y = 25 (3)
n
There eq s can be solved by
transposing the variable on 1 side and the Step 2 :-
n
constant on the other side. Addind eq (1) and (3)
2x + 5y = 9
* Note :- 15x – 5y = 25
From exam point of view solve these 17x = 34
n
types of eq s by trial and error method x=2

i.e. substituting options in given eq and

n Step 3 :-
n
balancing L.H.S and R.H.S. Sub x = 2 in eq (2)
Ex. -7 x + 1 = 5 – 3x will be satisfied for x 3x – y = 5
equal to a) 2 b) -1 c) 1 d) nod. 3(2) – y = 5
6–5=4
Solution :- 1) Regular Method. y=1
-7x + 1 = 5 – 3x
 Maths Formula
2) Cross-Multiplication Method :- b c
x –
2
n
If the eq are x+ =0
a a
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 i.e.
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 Then
x – (sum of the roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
2

x y 1  b  b 2  4ac
  * Nature of Roots :- x =
(b1c 2  b 2 c1 ) (a1c 2  a2 c1 ) (a1b 2  a2b1 ) 2a
Value Nature of root
1) b – 4ac = 0
2
And solve for x and y. Real and equal
e.g. 2 x+5y = 9 and 3x – y = 5 2) b – 4ac > 0
2
Real and unequal
Solution :- Convert them in std form
3) b – 4ac < 0
2
e.g. 2x + 5y – 9 = 0 Imaginary
4) b – 4ac is perfect Real, rational and
2
3x – y – 5 = 0
Then , square unequal
5) b – 4ac is not a Real, Irrational and
2
x y 1
  perfect square unequal
(5)(5)  (9)(1) (2)(5)  (3)(9) (2)(1)  (5)(3) Ex. Examine the nature of the root
x y 1 1) x – 8x + 16 = 0
2
  
2) 3x – 8x + 4 = 0
2
 25  9  10  27  2  15
3) 5x – 4x + 2 = 0
2
x y 1
   4) 2x – 6x – 3 = 0
2
 34 17  17
x 1 y 1 Solution :-
  and 
 34  17 17  17 1) a = 1, b = -8, c = 16
b – 4ac = (-8) – 4(1)(16) = 0
2 2
 34 17
x and  y  The roots are real and equal.
 17  17
x2 y 1
2) a = 3, b = -8, c = 4
 b – 4ac = (-8) – 4(3)(4) = 16 > 0 and p.s.
2 2
* Quadratic Equation :- The root are real, rational, unequal
2
General form: ax + bx + c = 0, x is
called variable and the value of variable is 3) a = 5, b = -4, c = 2
n
called as root or solution of the eq . b – 4ac = (-4) – 4 X 5 X 2 = -24 < 0
2 2
n
Quadratic eq has 2 roots. Roots are imaginary and unequal
 b  b 2  4ac
x= 4) a = 2, b = -6, c = -3
2a
b – 4ac = (-6) – 4(2)(-3) = 60 > 0 But not a
2 2
Let 1 root be  and another be 
p.s.
 b  b 2  4ac  Roots are irrational and unequal.
 =
2a
* Solution of cubic eqn :-
 b  b 2  4ac
= For this type use trial and error
2a method
Also, i.e. substitute option in question and
b check.
+= 
a d
Note :- Also, multiplication of roots = 
b a
i.e. Sum of the roots = 
a
c * Application of equations in co-
. = ordinate geometry.
a
c 1) Distance of a point = x 2  y 2 form
i.e. Product of the roots =
a origin p(x, y)
2) Distance between 2 points P(x,y)
n
* Construction of quadratic eq :- Q(x2y2 )
2
ax + bx + c = 0 PQ = (x1  x 2 )2  (y1  y 2 )2
2 b c
x + x+ =0
a a
 Maths Formula
* Equations of straight line :-
1) Slope intercept form
y = mx + c
y 2  y1
Where, m = slope =
x 2  x1
c = y intercept
2) Slope – point form
(y – y1) = m(x – x1)
3) Intercept form
x y
 1
a b

Note :-
1) If 2 lines are parallel then their slopes
are equal.
2) If 2 lines are perpendicular then
product of their slope = -1
n
3) If ax + by + c = 0 is eq of line. Then
n
i) eq of parallel line is ax + by + k = 0
ii) eq of perpendicular line is bx – ay
n

+k=0
4) If 2 lines interest at (x1, y1) then (x1, y1)
n
satisfies the eq of line.
n
5) The eq of line passing through at (x1,
y  y1 x  x1
y1) & (x2, y2) is 
y 2  y1 x 2  x1
6) If, (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) are collinear
then. x1(y2 - y3) + x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1 –
y2 ) = 0

* Note :-
1) If 1 roots is reciprocal of the other
them c = a
2) If one root is equal to other root but
opp. In sign then b = 0
3) Irrational roots always occur in parts.
i.e. {m + n , m - n }
If  is common root of the eq
n
4)
2
a1x + b1x + c1 = 0
2
a2x + b2x + c2 = 0
Then,
c a  c 2 a1 b c  b 2 c1
= 1 2  1 2
a1b 2  a2b1 c1a2  c 2 a1
And the condition is,
(a1b2 – a2b1) (b1c2 – b2c1) = (c1a2 –
2
((2a1)
 Maths Formula
3 – Inequalities

* Inequalities :-
Inequalities are statements where 2 y
quantities are unequal but a relationship exist
between them.
e.g. 3x + y < 6; x 
x
x – y  2; y 
2

* Method of drawing the graph of

inequality :- X=6
Let the equation be ax + by  c
1) Replace the sing  by equality i.e. take
ax + by = c
4) x7 Solution :-
2) Draw the graph of ax + by = c which
will be a straight line.
3) For the sign  or  the points on the Y 7 Y=7
line are included, and a thick line
should be drawn
4) The line divides the plane is 2 regions.
Now to identify which region satisfies
the inequation plot any point. If this
point satisfies the inequation, then the
region containing the plotted point will
be the desired region.
Ex. Draw the graph of following 5) x + y  12
inequalities. x + y = 12
1) x0 x 0 12
y 12 0

x + y  12
x

P(2+2)
2) y0

3) x  6, x=6
 Maths Formula
4 – Simple and Compound Interest, Annuity

* Interest :- Now, I = P x i x t
It is the price paid by a borrow for the = 2000 x 0.06 x 2
user of lenders money. = Rs. 240

* Why is Interest Paid :- Ex. 2: Sachin deposited Rs. 100000 in his

1) Time value of money. bank for 2 years at simple interest rate at 6%.
2) Opportunity cost. How much would be the final value of
3) Inflation. deposited?
4) Liquidity Preference. Solution: Given data
5) Risk Factor. P = Rs. 100000
i = 6% = 0.06
* Principle :- It is the initial value of lending. t = 2 years
Now, A = P(1 + it)
* Rate of Interest :- = 100000(1 + 0.06 x 2)
The rate at which the interest is A = Rs. 112000
charged for a defined length of time for use of
principle. Ex. 3: Rahul invested Rs. 70000 in a bank at
It is generally expressed in p.c.p.a. the rate of 6.5% pa simple interest rate. He
received Rs. 85925 after the end of the term.
Find the period for which sum was invested by
* Accumulated Amount (Balance) :-
Rahul
It is the final value of an investment.
Solution: Given data
i.e. sum of the principle and interest earned.
P = Rs. 70000
i = 6.5% pa
* Types of Interest :- A = 85925
1) Simple Interest To find, t = ?
2) Compound Interest We know,
A = P (1 + it)
1) Simple Interest :- 85925 = 70000(1 + it)
It is the interest computed on the 85925 6.5
principle for the entire period of borrowing. =1+ xt
It is calculated on the outstanding 70000 100
principle balance and not on interest t = 3.5 Years.
previously earned.
As the interest is proportional to the Ex. 4: Kapil deposited some amount in bank
money we borrow, period of time for which we for 7½ years at the rate of 6% p.a. Simple
keep the money and the rate of interest. interest. Kapil received Rs. 1,01,500 at the
The simple interest can be computed as, end of the term. Compute initial deposit of
I=PxIxt Kapil.
Where, Solution: Given data
I = Amount of interest. 15
t = 7½ years = years
P = Principle. 2
i = Rate of Interest in decimal. i = 6% = 0.06
t = Time period in Years. A = Rs. 1,01,500
Also, To find, P = ?
A=P+I We know,
= P + Pit A = P(1 + it)
A = P(1 + it) 15
Where, 1,01,500 = P(1 + 0.06x )
2
A = Accumulated Amount P = 70,000
Ex. 1. How much interest will be earned on Ex. 5: A sum of Rs. 46,875 was lent out at
Rs. 2000 at 6% simple interest for 2 years? simple interest and at the end of 1 year 8
Solution :-Given data months the total amount was Rs. 50,000. Find
P = Rs. 2000 the rate of interest percent per annum.
i = 6% = 0. 06 Solution: Given data
t = 2 years & To find I P = Rs. 46,875
 Maths Formula
t = 1 year 8 months
8 b) For semi-annual compounding
8 Months = year
12 0.10
P = 2000, i = =0.05, n = 4
8 100
t = (1 + ) year  A = P(1 + i)
n
12

4
20 A = 2000 (1+0.05)
= year  A = Rs. 2431
12
We know,
c) For Quarterly compounding
A = P(1 + it)
0.1
20 P=2000, i= =0.025, n=4x2=8
50,000 = 46,875 (1 + 1 x ) 4
12 n
A = P(1 + i)
i = 0.04 8
A = 2000 (1+0.025)
i = 4% pa
A = Rs. 2436.80
2) Compound Interest :- d) For Monthly Compounding
If the interest is calculated on the
0.1
principle and the amount of previously P=2000, i= =0.00833, n=2x12 = 2
earned interest, then it is called as 12
“Compound Interest”. 4
n
Now, An = P(1+i) and
n A = P(1 + i)
24
I = P[(1+i) – 1]
n A = 2000 (1+0.00833)
A = Rs. 2440.58
Where, An = Accrured Amount
P = Principle Ex. A certain sum invested at 4% per
Annual rate of int erest annum compounded Semi-Annually amounts
I = to Rs. 78030 at the end of 1 year. Find the
No. of conversion periods / year
n = No. of conversion periods sum.
Solution:- Given data
* Conversion Period:- 0.04
i = = 0.02
The period at the end of which the 2
interest is compounded is called “Conversion no of conversion period = 2 per year.
Period”. t = 1 year
No. of n =1x2=2
Conversion Description i.e.
conv. A = Rs. 78030
Period Compounded n
Period As, A = P(1+i)
2
1 Day Daily 365 78030 = P(1+0.02)
1 Month Monthly 12 P = 75000
3 Month Quarterly 4
Ex. What annual rate of interest
6 Month Semi-Annually 2 compounded annually doubles an investment
1 Year Annually 1 1
in 7 years given that 2 7 =1.10409
Ex. Rs. 2000 is invested at annual rate of A = 2p, t = 7 years
interest of 10%. What is the amount after 2 n =1x7=7
n
years if compounding is done? Now, A = P(1+i)
7
a) Annually b) Semi-Annually 2p = p(1+i)
7
c) Quarterly d) Monthly 2 = (1+i)
1

Solution:- Given data 27 = 1+i

P = Rs. 2000 1.104090 – 1 = i
i = 10% i = 0.10409
T = 2 Years. i = 10.41%
a) For annual compounding
10 Ex. In what time will Rs. 8000 amount to
P = 2000, i = ,n=2 Rs. 8820 @ 10% per annum interest
100
compounded half yearly

n
A = P(1 + i) Solution: Given data

2
A = 2000 (1+0.1) No. of conversion period per year = 2
 A = Rs. 2420 i = 0.1/2 = 0.05
 Maths Formula
n
Now, A = P(1+i) It is the sequence of periodic

n
8820 = 8000(1+i) payments or receipts regularly over a specified
8820 period of time.

n
= (1.05)
8000
* Perpetuity :-

n
(1.05)2 = (1.05)
If the sequence of periodic payments
n =2
or receipts taken place forever, it is called as
We know,
perpetuity.
n =tx2
n
 t = * Condition to be Called Annuity :-
2 1) Amount paid received must be
2 constant over the period of annuity.
 t =
2 2) Time interval between 2 consecutive
 t = 1 year payments or receipts must be the same.

* Effective Rate of interest(E) :- * Types of Annuity :-

It is the equivalent annual rate of 1) Annuity Regular
interest compounded annually if interest is 2) Annuity due or Immediate
compounded more than once a year.
= (1+i) – 1 * Annuity Regular :-
n
E
Where, E = Effective interest rate In this, the first payment or receipt
st
i = Actual interest rate in taken place at the end of 1 period e.g. Rent
decimal of house.
n = no of conversion period.
Ex. Find the effective rate of interest if an * Annuity due or Immediate :-
amount of Rs. 20,000 is deposited in a bank In this, the first payment or receipt is
for 1 year at the rate of 8% p.a. Compounded made today. i.e. At the beginning of the
Semi – annually. annuity.
Solution: Given data e.g. Premium of LIC
P = Rs. 20,000
No. of conversion period = 2 per year. * Future Value :-
0.08 It is the cash value of an investment at
i = = 0.04 some time in the future i.e. it is tomorrow’s
2 value of today’s money compounded at the
n =2x1=2 rate of interest.
Now, It can be calculated as,
= (1+i) – 1
n
E F = C. F. (1+i)
n
= (1+0.04) – 1
2
Where,
= 0.0816 or 8.06% F = Future value
Cf = Cash flow
Ex. Which is better investment 3% per i = Interest rate
year compounded monthly or 3.2 per year n = No of conversion period.
simple interest given that (1+0.0025)12 = Ex. You invest Rs. 3000 in 2 year investment
1.0304. that pays you 12% per annum. Calculate the
Solution:- Given data future value of the investment.
No. of conversion period = 12 per year Solution: Given data
0.03 Cf = Rs. 3000
i= = 0.0025
12 n =2
n = 12 x 1 = 12 i = 12% = 0.12
Now, we know,
= (1+i) – 1
n n
E f = cf (1+i)
= (1+0.0025) – 1
12 2
= 3000(1+0.12)
= 0.0304 F = Rs. 3763.20
= 3.04%
* Future value of annuity regular.
As effective rate of interest being less  (1  i)n  1 
than 3.2%, the simple interest 3.2% per year is A(n, i) = A  
the better investment.  i 
Where,
* Annuity :-
 Maths Formula
A (n, i) = future value of annuity at the An
end of n year. Now, P =
(1  i)n
I = rate of interest in decimal
1
=
* Future value of Annuity due or immediate: (1  0.1)2
F = A (n, i) x (1 + i) P = 0.83
Ex. Find the future value of an annuity of Rs. * Present Value of Annuity regular :-
500 made annually for 7 year at interest rate of
7
14% compounded annually Given that (1.14)
= 2.5023  (1  i)n  1 
V =A  n 
Solution: Given data  i(1  i) 
A = 500
V = A. P(n, i) _______ (1)
N =7 Where,
i = 14% V = present value of annuity
= 0.14
A = Annuity
 (1  i)n  1  From eq
n ________ (1)
 A(7,0.14) = A  
 i  v
A=
P(n, i)
 (1  0.14)7  1 
= 500  
 0.14  Ex. Sachin’s mom promise him to give Rs.
st
A (7, 0.14) = Rs. 5365.35 10000 on very 31 Dec. for the next five year.
st
Suppose today is 1 Jan.
Ex. Z invests Rs. 10,000 every year starting What is the present value of this
from today for next 10 years. suppose interest annuity if the interest rate is 10%.
rest is 8% p.a. compound annually. Calculate Solution:
n
future value of annuity. GT(1+0.08)10 = Year end Gift amount p.v. An/(1+i)
2.158925. i 10,000 9090.91
Solution: Given data:
A = 10,000 ii 10,000 8264.46
i = 8% = 0.08 iii 10,000 7513.15
N = 10 Years iv 10,000 6830.13
Now, v 10,000 6209.21
 (1  i)n  1  P.V. = 37907.86
A (n, i) = A  
 i 
 OR
10
 1
A(10,0.08)=10,000  (1  0.08)   (1  i)n  1 
 
0.08
V = A n 
A(10, 0.08) = Rs. 144865.625  i(1  i) 
But this is e.g. of Annuity due  (1  0.1)5  1 
 FAD = A (n, i) x (1+i) = 10,000  5
= (144865) x (1 + 0.08)  1.1(1  0.1) 
= Rs. 156454.875 V = 37907.86

* Present Value :- * Present Value of annuity due :-

It is today value of tomorrows money Steps
discounted at the interest rate. i) Compute the present value of annuity
An as if it were a annuity regular for 1
P= period short.
(1  i)n
ii) Add initial cash to the step 1.
Ex. What is the present value of Rs.1 to be
received after 2 years compounded annually Ex. In the previous example if Sachin’s mom
@ 10% interest rate. start giving the money from today i.e. 1
st
Solution: Given data January what is the present value of annuity?
N = 2 years Solution:
i = 0.1 Step I:
An = Rs. 1
 Maths Formula
 (1  i)n  1  P=
An
V =A n  (1  i)n
 i(1  i) 
7) Present Value for
 (1  0.1)4  1  i) Annuity Regular
= 10,000  4 
 1.1(1  0.1)   (1  i)n  1 
V = A n 
V = 31698.70
 i(1  i) 
Step II: Add initial cash to step I ii) Annuity due
= 31698.70+10,000 Present value of annuity regular for 1
P.V = Rs. 41698.70 period short + initial cash.

* Sinking Fund :-
It is the fund credited for a specified
purpose by Annuity at a specified interest rate.
It can be calculated by the formula of
future value of annuity regular.

Ex. How much amount is required to be

invested very year so as to accumulate Rs.
3,00,000 at the end of 10 years.
If interest is computed annually @
10%
Solution: Given data
A(n,i) = 300,000
I = 10% = 0.1
n = 10
 (1  i)n  1 
A (n, i) = A  n 
 i(1  i) 
 (1  0.1)10  1 
300,000= A  
 0.1 
A = Rs. 18823.62

* Notes :-
Difference between C.I. and S.I.
2
i) For 2 years = p.i
2
ii) For 3 years = P x i (3 + i)

List of formula :-
1) For simple interest
S.I. = p.i.t.
A = p(1+i t)
2) For compound interest
n
An = p(1 + i)
3) Effective rate of interest
= (1 + i) – 1
n
E
4) Future value (f)
n
F = C.F. (1 + i)
5) Future value for
i) Annuity Regular
 (1  i)n  1 
A (n, i) = A  
 i 
ii) Annuity due
FAD = A (n, i) x (1 + i)
6) Present Value (p)
 Maths Formula
5 – Permutation and Combination
* Permutation and Combination :- f) No. of possible arrangement in which
‘n’ boys and ‘n’ girls **
A) Factorial Notation :- **

1) 0! Or 0 = 1 g) The No. of permutations of n different

2) n! = n (n-1) (n-2)........2 x 1 object taken al at a time when 2 Specified
= n (n-1) (n-2)! objects always come together = 2(n-1)!
= product of n to 1 natural
number. h) The No. of permutations of ‘n’ different
objects taken all at a time. when 2 specified
B) Fundamental Principles of Counting never comes together.
:- = (n-2) (n-1)!
1) AND  Multiplication
2) OR  Addition 2) Circular Arrangements :-
a) The No. of circular permutation of ‘n’
C) Permutations different object = (n-1)!
Arrangement of r objects out of n
objects where order of arrangement is b) If clockwise and anticlockwise orders
important are not distinguish i.e. (same) then,
n
i.e. Pr = n ** t 1
The No. of arrangement = (n -1)!
2
* Types of Permutation :- e.g. In necklace or garland
1) Linear or row or straight line
arrangement. c) The No. of ways in which ‘n’ things of
a) For non-repetition : which P are same, can be arrange in circular
n! order.
n
Pr 
(n  1)! (n  1)!
=
= n (n-1) (n-2).......... (n-r+1)! Total r factors p!
e.g. Imp:-
10! 10! 1) Particular Total Never + always =

10
P4 = arrange Included
(10  4)! 6!
n
10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6!
 r. p = pr+1 – 1
r n+1
= 2) r= r
6! 1
n
= 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 .........4 Factors. 3) pn = n!
n
4) p1 = n
* Remember :-
1) n  0 * Combination :-
2) n  r Selection of smaller or lesser number
of things where the of order of selection is not
b) For Repetition Arrangement :- important is called combination.
n r n
pr = n pr n!
n
cr  
r! r!(n  r)!
c) For no of permutation of n objects
st nd
when p objects of 1 kind q object of 2 kind, r n n
rd
object of 3 kind and the rest are different then Relation:- r! x cr = pr
n
* co = 1
n n! n
pn = * cn = 1
p! x q! x r!
d) When particular object is always * Complementary Combination :-
n n
included in each arrangement i.e. If cx = cy
n-1
.r. pr-1
then, either x = y
e) When particular object is never
included in each arrangement or x+y=n
n-1
= pr
n n
i.e. cr = cn-r
 Maths Formula
* Pascals Law :-
n n n+1
cr + cr-1 = cr

* Atleast one selection: (1 or more)

c1 + c2 + c3 … + c n = 2 – 1
n n n n n

* One or more in Alternative :-

3 –1
n

* Combination with Repeatation

{(p+1) (q+1) (r+1) ..........} – 1

* Division into Groups :-

1) The No. of ways in which m + n + p
different things can be divided into 3 groups
containing m, n, p things respectively.
(m  n  p)!
m! xn! xp!

2) m = n = p, then 3 groups are equal,

hence required No. of ways of division,
(3m)!

3! x (m! )3

3) If 3m things are distributed equally

among 3 person
(3m)!
=
(m! )3

* Combination in Geometry :-
For ‘n’ non – collinear
n
1) No. of straight line = c2
No. of diagonal line = c2 – n
n
2)
n
3) No. of triangle = c3

* For ‘n’ points, in which ‘m’ points are

collinear
No. of straight line = c2 – c2 +1
n m
1)
No. of triangle = c3 – c3
n m
2)
 Maths Formula
6 – Sequence and Series (A.P. and G.P.)
* Sequence :-
An ordered collection of numbers a1, * A.P. Series :-
a2, a3 .......... an is a sequence if according to an = a + (n-1)d
some definite rule or law, there is a definite
value or ‘an’ corresponding to any value of the
st
1) Sum of 1 n terms of A.P.
natural number ‘n’. n[2a  (n  1)d]
an is called term or element of the Sn =
2
sequence. Or
n (a  l)
* Finite sequence :- Sn =
If the number of element in a 2
sequence is finite, the sequence is called finite Where,
st
sequence. a = 1 term
e.g. A sequence of even positive l = last term
integer within 12 i.e. 2, 4, 6, 10. d = common difference
st
2) Sum of 1 n natural number
It is denoted by ai i 1
n
n (n  1)
S=
2
* In finite sequence :-
If the no of element in a sequence is 3)
st
Sum of 1 n odd number
infinite the sequence is called infinite S=n
2
sequence.
1  4)
st
Sum of the squares of the 1 n natural
e.g. The sequence   is
n  nos.
i.e.  n
2
1 1 1
1, , , , .......... n (n  1) (2 n  l)
2 3 4 Sn =
It is denoted by ai i 1 a or {an}
 6
st
5) Sum of the cubes of the 1 n natural
* Series :- nos.
i.e. n
The sum of the all elements of the 3

sequence {an} is called a series. 2

i.e. a1 + a2 + a3 + ........ + an n (n  1) 
S=  
n  2 
sn  a
r 1
r
* Geometric progression :-
Or If in a sequence of terms, each term is
sn = an constant multiple of the proceeding term, then
Where, the sequence is called a geometric
Sn = sum of the 1 ‘n’ term
st progression.
nd
That means in G.P. the ratio of the 2
st
* Arithmetic progression (AP) :- term to the 1 term is constant (r)
A sequence a1, a2, a3, ......... an is e.g.
called an arithmetic progression (A.P.) 1) 5, 15, 45 ....... Common ratio = 3
When 2) 1, ½, ¼ ....... Common ratio = ½
a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = an – an-1
* General form of an :- (A.P.)
2
The means AP. is a sequence in a + ar + ar + ..........
which the difference between each term and
its proceeding term is constant. * Geometric mean :-
The constant ‘d’ is called the common If a, b and c are in Gross Profit. Then,
difference of A.P. b c

e.g. a b
2, 5, 8, 11, 14 .......... 17 is an A.P. in i.e.
which d = 3 2
b = ac and b = ac
 Maths Formula
Here, ‘b’ is called geometric mean
between a and c

* Formula :-
th n–1
1) n term = ar
sum of 1 ‘n’ term of an G.P.
st
2)
a (1  r n )
Sn = .......... r < 1
1r
a (r n  1)
3) Sn = when, r > 1
r 1
4) Sum of infinite Geometric series:
a
S = r<1
1r
 Maths Formula
7 – Set, Functions and Relation

* Set :- If total number of elements of 1 set is

A set is defined to be collection of well equal to the number of element of another set,
defined distinct object. then the two sets are said to be equivalent set.
Each object is called as an element of AB
set. e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
We denote set by capital letters and B = { b, a, c, d}
their elements by small letters.
e.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u} 6) Subset :-
b = {2, 4, 6, 8} If each element of set A belongs to set
B, then A is said to be a subset of B. It is
* Method of describing a set:- written as A  B
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3 }
1) Tabular method or Roster method B = {3, 1, 2, 4, 5} then A ** B
For ‘n’ elements there are 2 subsets.
nd
or Braces form :-
In this we put all the elements of set
within { } 7) Proper Subset :-
e.g. A = Set of vowel in a alphabet If P is a subset of Q but P is not equal
= {a, e, i, o, u} to Q then P is called proper subset of Q.
It is written as P  Q.
A set having ‘n’ element has 2 1
2) Set-Builder form or Algebraic form nd

or Rule method :- proper subset.

In this we list the property or
properties satisfied by the elements of the set. 8) Power set :- P(A)
e.g. B = The set of even number between The set of all the subset of given set is
2 and 10 both inclusive. known as power set.
B = {x:x = 2m, x  10 < m < 6} e.g. A = {a, b}
Or = {x:x is even positive integer and x10} then, P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {a, b}, }

* Type of set :- 9) Universal set :-

A fixed set under consideration is
1) Finite Set :- called as Universal set.
It is a set consisting of finite number of It may be finite or infinite.
elements. e.g. A pack of cards may be taken as
e.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u} Universal set for set of diamond or spade.
B = {2, 4, 6, ..........50}
10) Singleton set :-
2) Infinite Set :- A set containing 1 element is called
A set having an infinite number of singleton set.
element is called an infinite set. e.g. A = {1}, B = {2}, C = {0}
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, ..........}
c = {x:x is a number of stars in the sky} 11) Overlapping sets :-
If tow sets A and B have some
3) Null or empty or Void Set :- common element then A and B are called as
A set having no elements in it is called Overlapping set,
as null set. e.g. A = {2, 5, 7, 8}, B = {5, 6, 8}
It is denoted by ‘’
e.g. 12) Disjoint set :-
A = {x:x is a perfect square of an Two sets A and B are said to be
integer, 5 < x < 8} disjoint of their intersection is empty.
  {0} also   {} i.e. no elements of set A belongs to set B
e.g. A = { 1, 3, 5,}, B = {2, 4}
4) Equal Set :-
If A and B have the same elements * Important Terms :-
then they are called as equal set. (A = B)
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 1, 2, 4} 1) Cardinal number of set :-

5) Equivalent Set :-
 Maths Formula
The number of distinct element set A ii) AB
is called its cardinal number and it is denoted
by n(A).
e.g. R = {2, 3, 5, 7} then n(R) = 4

2) Union of set :-
For the 2 set A and B the set of all the
elements of A and B is called union of A and
B.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {4, 5, 6}
then A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
* Symmetric Difference :-
3) Intersection of set :- For the 2 sets A and B, the symmetric
For the 2 sets A and B the set of difference is (A  B) U (B  A)
common elements of A and B is called And denoted by A  B
intersection of set.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {3, 4, 7} * Laws in Algebra of sets :-
then A  B = {3, 4}
1) Commutative Laws :-
4) Difference of 2 sets :- A  B = B  A And A  B = B  A
For the 2 sets A and B the set
containing all those elements of A which does 2) Associative Laws :-
not belong to B is known as difference of 2 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
sets. It is denoted. A (B  C) = (A  B)  C
A  B or A – B and read as A
difference 3) Idempotent Laws :-
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A  A = A, A  A = A
B = {3, 5, 6, 7}
Then, A  B = {1, 2, 4} 4) Distributive Laws :-
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  A  C
5) Complement of set :- A  (B  C) = (A  B)  A  C
If U be the universal set and A be it’s
subset. 5) Identify Laws :-
Then the set of all the elements which A   = A; A   = 
are not in A is called as complement of A and A  U = U; A  = A
–1
denoted by A’ or A
e.g. U = {1, 2, 3, .......... 9} 6) Complement Laws :-
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} A  A` = U ; A  A` = 
Then, A’ = {2, 4, 6, 8} ` = U, U` = . (A’) = A

* Ven Diagram :- 7) Debenture-Morgan’s Laws :-

John Venn, an English logician (A  B)’ = A’  B’
invented this diagram to present pictorial (A  B)’ = A’  B’
representation, the diagram display operations
on sets. * No of elements in a set :-
In Venn diagram, we denote universe
(U) by a region enclosed within a rectangle 1) n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
and any subject of U will be shown by circle or
For disjoint set n(A  B) = 0
closed curve.
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)
e.g. i) AB
2) n (A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) –
n(A  B) – n(A  C) – n(B  C) +
n(A  B  C)
For disjoint set,
n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)

* Ordered Pair :-
Two elements a and b listed in specific
order, form an ordered paid, denoted by (a, b).
 Maths Formula
A one-one and onto function is said to
* Cartesian Product of set :- bijective
The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such It is also known as one to one
that a  A and b  B is called Cartesian correspondence.
product of set.
Where, A and B are two non empty * Identity function :-
sets. A bijective function with domain A and
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5}, then range A is known as identity function.
A x B = {(1, 4), (1,5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)
Also, n(A x B) – n(A) x n(B) and * Into Function :-
(3, 5)  (5, 3) Let F : A  B. If there exist even a
AxBBxA single element in B having no pre image in A,
But, n(A x B) = n(B x A) then f is said to be an into function.

* Function :- * Constant Function :-

If x and y be 2 real variable related to Let F : A  B. If all the elements in A
some rule such that corresponding to every have the same image n B then  is said to be
value of x, we get value of y then x is said to a constant function.
be Function. Let F : A  B : (x) = 5  x  A
Let A and B be 2 non empty set, then Then, all the elements in A have the
the rule  by which the very element of set is same image namely 5 in B.
associated with element of B((x)) is called The range of constant function is
Function or mapping from A to B. singleton set.
We Write F : A  B
A is called domain of f and B is called * Equal Function :-
co-domain or range of f. The two functions F and g are said to
be equal, if they have some domain and they
* Domain :- satisfy the condition (x) = g(x) for all x.
It is the set of the value that the
independent variable x can take * Inverse Function :-
If F : A  B is one – one onto function,
* Range :- –1
then F : A  B :  (y) = x is called an inverse
-1

It is the set of value that (x) can take –1

function ‘ ’ is called inverse of .
for all possible values of x
e.g. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} * Relation :-
B = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25} If A and B are 2 non-empty set then,
The Rule (x) = x
2
every subset A x B is a relation from A to B.
i.e. (1)=1, (2) = 4, (3) = 9, (4) = 16
Here, domain of  = {1, 2, 3, 4} * Domain of Relation :-
Range of  = {1, 4, 9, 16} If R is a relation from A to B then set
of all first co-ordinates of elements of R is
* One – One Function :- called the domain of R.
Let F A  B, if different elements in A
have different images in B, then  is called as * Range of Relation :-
One–One or Injective Function. The set of all second co-ordinates of
e.g. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} elements of R is called range of R.
B = {2, 4, 6} e.g. Let A = {1, 2, 3}
F : A  B. B = {2, 4, 6}
(x) = 2x Then, AxB = {(1,2)(1,4)(1,6)(2,2)(2,4)(2,6)(3,2)(3,4)(3,6)}
(1) = 2, (2) = 4, (3) = 6. Here, If we consider the relation
different element is A have different images is A x B = {(1,2)(1,4)(3,2)(3,4)}
B, Hence,  is One – One. Then, Dom (R) = {(1,3)}
Range (R) = {(2, 4)}
2) Onto or subjective Function :-
Let F : A  B. If every element of B * Type of Relation :-
has at least 1 pre-image in A, then f is said to
be an onto function. 1) Reflexive Relation :-
If R contains all the ordered paid of
3) Bijection Function :- the form (a, a) the R is called reflexive.
 Maths Formula
2) Symmetric Relation :-
If R contains the all ordered pair of the
form (a, b) as well as (b, a) then R is called
symmetric relation.

3) Transistive Relation :-
If the relation R contains the (a, c) for
every (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R then R is called
transistive relation.
e.g. Let A = {1, 2, 3}
Then,
i) R1 = {(1,1) (2,2) (3,3) (1,2)} is
reflexive and transitive but no symmetric, since
(1,2)  R but (2, 1)  R1

ii) R2 = {(1,1) (2,2) (1,2) (2,1)} is

symmetric and transitive but not reflexive,
since (3, 3)  R2.

iii) R3 = {(1,)(2,2) (3,3) (1,2) (2,1) (2,3)

(3,2)} is reflexive and symmetric but not
transitive since (1,2)  R3 and (2,3)  R but (1,
3)  R3.
 Maths Formula
8 – Limits and Continuity

* Function :- 1.99 3.98 Hand

If x and y be 2 variable related to 1.999 3.998 Limit)
some rule. Such that corresponding to every 2 4
value of x we get a defined value of y, then is
said to be function of x and it is written as i.e. As the value of x approaches to 2
y = (x) such that x < 2 the value of (x) approaches to
lim 2x = 4.
* Types of Function :- x 2
This, can be written as
1) Even Function :-
If (-x) = (x) 2) if x Then (x)
Then, (x) is said to be an even function.
2.0001 4.0002 ( Right
e.g. Let (x) = x + 2x
2 4 2.001 4.002 Hand
2.01 4.02 Limit)
2 4
Now, (x) = (–x) + 2 (– x)
2 4
2 4
= x + 2x
i.e. As the value of x approaches to 2 such
(–x) =  (x)
that x > 2 the value of (x) approaches to 4.
 The given function (x) is an even
This, can be written as lim 2x = 4.
function. x 2

2) Odd Function :- * Rules :-

If (-x) = – (x)
(x) is said to be an odd function. 1) lim [(x)  g(x) = lim (x)  lim g(x)
x a x a x a

e.g. Let (x) = 5x + 6x

3 2) lim [(x)  g(x) = lim (x)  lim g(x)
x a x a x a
(-x) = 5(-x) + 6(-x)
3

= –5x – 6x
3
f(x) lim f(x)
3 3) lim  x a
= - (5x + 6x ) x  a g(x) lim g(x)
(-x) = - (x) x a

(-x) is an odd function. 4) lim k = k .......... k = constant

x a
5) lim k. (x) = k. lim [(x)]
3) Periodic Function :- x a x a
If the function (x) repeats after equal 1
interval of time then the (x) is called as 6) lim + =+
x a x
Periodic Function.
1
7) lim + = – 
4) Inverse Function :- x a x

If y = (x) then we can write x = g(y) As is called infinity thus

then the function g(y) is called as the inverses 1
lim + ***********
of (x). x 0 x
2
e.g. x = y is the inverse function of
y= x * Note :-
If the left hand limit and right hand limit
are not equal then the limit does not exist.
5) Composite Function :-
If y = (x) and x = g(y) * Some Important Limits :-

Then y = f[g(y)] is called composite

ex  1
function. 1) lim =1
x a x
* Concept of Limit :- ax  1
2) lim = loge a
x a x
1) Let (x) = 2x log(1  x)
If x then (x) 3) lim =1
x a x
1.9 3.8 ( Left
 Maths Formula
x
 1
4) lim 1   =e
x  a x
1
5) lim[1  x] x = e
x a

xn  an n–1
6) lim = n.a
x a x  a

ex  1
7) lim =n
x a x

Where, e = exponential number

= 2.71828182
 2.7183

* Continuity :-
A function (x) is said to be continuous
at x = a if and only if.

i) (x) is defined at x = a
ii) lim +(x) = lim + (x)
x a x a
iii) lim – (x) = (a)
x a

* Useful Information :-

i) The sum difference product of

2 continuous functions is a
continuous function.
ii) The quotient of 2 continuous
function is a continuous
function provided the
denominator is not equal to
zero.
 Maths Formula

9 – Differential and Integral Calculus

* Differential Calculus :- dy dy du
Differentiation is defined as the limiting Then, = x
dx du dx
value of the ratio of the change in the function
dy
corresponding to small change in variable as = ’(u) x g(x)
the change in variable tends to zero. dx
2
i.e. derivative of (x) e.g. Differential log(1 + x )
w.r.t.x
f(x  h)  f(x) 2
lim solution:- Let (1 + x ) = u
h0 h y = log (1 + x ) = log u
2

dy d
This is denoted by ’(x) or = (log u)
dx dy
dy d
or (x) dy 1
dx dx  (1) and
du u
2
The process of differentiation is called U=1+x
the first principle or definition. du
= 0 + 2x
dx
* Rules :- du
1) Sum Rule :- = 2x (2)
dx
d du dv n
(u  v) =  From eq (1) and (2)
dx dx dx dy dy du
= x
dx du dx
2) Product Rule:-
1
d dv du = x 2x
(u . v) = u v u
dx dx dx
3) Quotient Rule :- 1
= x 2x
du dv 1  x2
u u
d u dy 2x
  = dx 2 dx =
dx  v  v dx 1  x 2
Where, u and v are functions of x

* Formula :- * Implicit Function :-

d The function where y cannot be
1) (x) = 1 directly defined as a function of x is called an
dx
implicit functions of x.
d e.g. xy = 0
2) (kx) = k
dx diff. w.r.t.x
d n n–1 dy
3) (x ) = n x x. + y = 0 ........ Product Rule
dx dx
4)
d x x
a = a . loge a dy y
=
dx dx x
d x x
5) e =e
dx * Parametric Function :-
d When both the variables i.e. x and y
6) k = 0 .......... k = constant are expressed in terms of a third variable then
dx
the equations are called parametric equation.
d 1
7) (loge x) =
dx x dy 3 1
d 1 1 e.g. find if x = at , y =
8) =  2 dx t
dx x x dx 2 dy 1
= 3at , =  2
dt dt t
* Chain Rule :-
If y = f(u) and u = (x)
 Maths Formula
1 dx
 2 v)  = log x + c
dy dy / dt x
  t
dx dx / dt 3at2 ax
vi)  ax dx = +c
dy 1 loge a

dx 3at4 dx 1  x  a
vii)   log + c
x a
2 2 2a  x  a
* Logarithmic Differentiation:-
The process of finding aut derivative dx 1 a x
viii)   log + c
by taking logarithm in the first instance is a x
2 2 2a a x
called Logarithmic Differentiation.
dx
ix)   x  x 2  a2 + c
dy x x a2 2
e.g. Find if = y = x
dx dx
x x)   x  x 2  a2 + c
solution:- y = x
x a2 2
log y = x. log x
Diff. w.r.t.y. xi)  ex . ((x) + ’(x)) dx = ex. (x) + c
x
1 dy
.
1
 x.  logx.1 xii)  x2  a2 dx  x2  a2
y dx x 2
a2
dy
= y(1 + logx)  log(x  x2  a2 + c
dx 2
x
xiii)  x2  a2 dx  x2  a2
* Geometrical Interpretation :- 2
The derivative of (x) at a point x a2
represents the slope or gradient of the tangent  log(x  x 2  a2 ) + c
2
to the curve y = (x) at point x.
f(x)
e.g. Find the gradient of the curve xi)  dx = log [(x)] + c
y = 3x – 5x + 4 at the point (1, 2)
2 f(x)
Solution:- y = 3x – 5 + 4
2

dy * Integration by Substitution :-
= 6x – 5 It is some time possible by a change
dx
of independent variable to transform a function
dy
( ) (t.2) = 6(1) – 5 = 1 into another which can be readily integrated.
dx e.g.  (2x + 3) dx
7

Thus the gradient of the curve at (1, 2) is 1

Solution:-
* Integration :-
Integration is the inverse process of Put 2x + 3 = t
differentiation and is denoted by symbol “” dt
2=
dx
d 1
e.g. log x = dt
dx x  dx =
2
1
 
x
dx = log x
I=t .
7 dt
2
7 1
* Rules:- 1 t
 .
1) [(x)  g(x)] =  (x) dx   g(x)dx 2 7 1
2) [k . fx]dx = k  (x) dx 1 t8
 x
2 8
* Basic formulas :- 8
t

16
xn  1
i)  xn dx = + c ….. (n  -1) (2x  3)8
n1 
ii)  dx = x 16
iii)  ex dx = ex + c
* Integration by Parts :-
e ax
iv)  eax dx = +c u.vdx =
a
 Maths Formula
d
u  v.dx - [ u.  vdx] dx
dx
Where,
u and v are 2 different functions of x
e.g.  x. ex dx
d
= x.  ex.dx - [
x
(x). e . dx]dx
dx
= x. e -  [1 . e ] dx
x x

=x.e –e
x x

= e (x – 1) + c
x

* Method of Partial Fraction :-

1) Non-Repeated liner factor.

f(x) A B
 
(x  a)(x  b) (x  a) (x  b)
2) Repeated linear factor.

f(x) A B **
  
(x  a)2  (x  b) (x  a) (x  a)2 (x  b)
3) Irreducible quadratic factor.
f(x) A x B

ax2  bx  c ax2  bx  c

* Definite Integration :-
b

 f(x)dx = f(b) – f(a)
a
“b” is called upper limit and “a” is the lower
limit of integration.
2
e.g.
0
(x 5 )dx

Solution :-
2  x6 
0
(x 5 )dx =  2
 6 0
 
1 6 64 32
= (2 – 0) = =
6 6 3

* In definite integration the constant “c” should

not be added.

* Important Properties :-
b b
1)
a
(x) dx =
a
(t). dt
b a
2)
a
(x) dx = -
b
(x).dx
c b c
3)
a
(x) dx =
a
(x) dx

b
(x) dx

4) 0
a
(x) dx = 0
a
(a – x) dx
5) When (x) = (a + x)
 na
0 (x) dx = n .  0 (x) dx
a

6) 0
a
(x) dx = 2 0
a
(x) dx ….. If (x)
is even
= 0 ................ If (x) is odd
 Maths Formula
10 – Statistical Description of data
* Origin of word ‘Statistics’ :- e.g. data collected for cencus.

Latin – Status (LS) * Secondary data :-

Italian – Statista (TA) If the already collected data used by a
German – Statistik (GK) different person or agency is called secondary
French – Statistique (FS) data.
e.g. data collected from government and
* Definition of Statistic :- international sources.

1) Singular Sense :-
The scientific method that is * Collection of primary data :-
employed for collecting, analyzing and
presenting data, leading finally to drawing 1) Interview method.
statistical interference a) Personal interview method.
b) Indirect interview method.
2) Plural Sense :- c) Telephone interview method.
Data qualitative as well as 2) Mailed questionnaire method.
quantitative, that are collected, usually with a 3) Observation method.
view of having statistical analysis. 4) Questionnaires filled and sent by
enumerators.
* Application of Statistics :-
1) Economics * More Accurate Methods :-
2) Business Management
3) The theory of statistical sampling is 1) Personal interview method and
depend upon rules of random indirect method :-
sampling. Covers Large / Wide area.
2) Mailed questionnaire method. Non
* Data :- responses are maximum in.
It is defined as the quantitative 3) Telephone interview and Mailed
information about some particular questionnaire method :-
characteristics under consideration. Quickest method – Telephone
characteristics interview method

* Sources of Secondary Data :-

Qualitative Quantitative
(attribute) (variable) 1) International sources
2) Government sources
3) Private and quasi – Govt. sources
Discrete Continuous 4) Unpublished research institute.

* Objective of Classification of Data :-

* Discrete Variable :-
When a variable assumes a finite or a 1) To make the data easily
countable infinite number of isolated values it understoodable and interpretable.
is known as discrete variable. 2) To make comparison possible
e.g. No of petals in flower. between various characteristics.
3) To make it good for statistical
* Continuous variable :- analysis.
If a variable assumes and value from 4) To eliminate unnecessary details
the given interval then it is called as
continuous variable. * Classification of data :-
e.g. Height, weight, sale, profit etc.
1) Chronological or Temporal or time
* Primary data :- series data.
The data which are collected form the 2) Geographical to spatial series data.
st
1 time by investigator or agency are known 3) Qualitative of ordinal data.
as primary data. 4) Quantitative or cardinal data.
 Maths Formula
Qualitative data or data
* Mode of presentation of data :- varying over space.

1) Textual Presentation :- ii) vertical Bar diagram :-

Presents data with the help of Quantitative data or time
paragraph which describes the information. series data.
It is not preferred, because it is dull,
monotonous and comparison between diff. * Types :–
observation is not possible. 1) Multiple or grouped bar diagram :-
To compare related series.
2) Tabular Presentation :- 2) Component or sub divided bar
A systematic presentation of data with diagram :- To represent data which is
the help of statistical table having rows and divided into no of components.
column 3) Divided bar chart or percentage bar
diagram :- To compare different
The statistical table contains 5 component of variable. Relating of the
different things. components to the whole.
1) Caption :-
Upper part of column which * Frequency Distribution :–
describes the column. It is defined as a tabular
2) Box – Head :- representation of statistical data usually in
Entire upper part of the tale ascending order.
which includes column, sub The figure, signifying the number of
column along with caption times or how frequently a particular class
3) Stub :– occur is known as the Frequency.
Left part of the table providing When Tabulation is done in respect of
the describing of rows. discrete random variable, it is known as
4) Body : – discrete or ungrouped or simple frequency
It is the main part of the table distribution.
that contains numerical figure. When the characteristic under
5) Title and Footnote :– consideration is a Continuous variable then it
is known as grouped frequency distribution.
* Feature of Tabulation :– * For continuous variable :-
1) If facilitates comparison between rows Range  No. of class interval x class length
and column.
2) Complicated data can also be * Important terms :-
represented.
3) It is must for diagrammatic 1) Class limit (CL) :-
presentation. It is the minimum value and
4) Without Tabulation, statistical analysis maximum value of class interval.
of data is not possible. The minimum value is called
as Lower class limit (CL). The
3) Diagrammatic representation of maximum value is called as Upper
data :– class limit (UCL).

1) Line diagram or histogram 2) Class Boundary :-

2) Bar diagram It is defined as the actual
3) Pie chart class limit of a class interval.
For overlapping classification
1) Line diagram or histogram :- i.e. (20 – 30, 30 – 40)
In this we plot each pair of LCL = LCB and,
values (t1, 1) and the plotted points UCL = UCB
are then successively joined by line For Non – overlapping classification.
segments and the resulting chart is i.e. (20 – 29, 30 – 39)
known as line diagram. d
 LCB = LCL
2
2) Bar diagram :-
 30  29 
 LCB = 20 –  
i) Horizontal Bar diagram :-  2 
= 19.5
 Maths Formula
class frequency and by joining this point by
d line segments we get frequency polygon.
And, UCB = UCL =
2 3) Ogives or cumulative frequency
 30  29  graph :-
= 29 +  
 2  By plotting cumulative frequency
= 29.5 against the respective class boundary we get
ogives.
3) Mid point or Mid value of Class Ogives are used to get quartile and
mark :- median.
It is defined as the total of the 2 class
limits or class boundaries to be divided by 2. * Frequency Curve :-
Frequency curve is a smooth curve for
LCL  UCL
 Mid – Point = thick the total area is taken to be unity.
2 It is obtained by drawings a smooth
LCB  UCB the mid–points of the upper sides of a
=
2 rectangles forming the histogram.
They are mainly 4 types.
4) Width or size of class interval :- 1) Bel – shaped curve –
It is defined as the difference between 2) U – shaped curve
the UCB and the LCB of that class interval. 3) J – shaped curve
4) Mixed curve
5) Cumulative Frequency :-
It is defined as the No. of observations 1)
less than the value or less than or equal to the
class boundary for less than type cumulative
frequency.
For more than type it is defined as the
No. of observations more than the value or
equal to the or more than the class boundary.

6) Frequency density :-
It is defined as the ratio of the
2)
frequency of that class interval to the
corresponding class length.
7) Relative Frequency :-
It is defined as the ratio of the
frequency to the total frequency.

* Graphical Representation or a frequency

distribution :-

1) Histogram or Area diagram 3)

2) Frequency Polygon
3) Ogives or cumulative frequency
polygon

1) Histogram :-
In order to draw histogram the class
limits are first converted to the corresponding
class boundaries and a series of adjacent
rectangles, one against each class interval is
drawn. 4)
Histogram is used to find mode
graphically.

2) Frequency Polygon :-
In order to plot frequency polygon we
first plot the points for mid point of interval and
Maths Formula
 Maths Formula
11 – Measures of Central Tendency and Disperson
* Central Tendency :- 3) The two groups with n1 and n2
It may be defined as the tendency of a observations and X 1 and X 2 AM, then
given set of observation to cluster around a their combined mean
single central or middle value.
n x  n2 x
And this single value known as X = 1
Measure of Central Tendency or location or n1  n2
average.
* Median :-
* Different Measures of Central tendency :- It is defined as the middle most value
1) Arithmetic Mean (AM) when the observations are arranged in
2) Median (Me) ascending or descending order.
3) Mode (Mo)
4) Geometric Mean (GM) * For Discrete Variable :-
5) Hannonic Mean (HM) Median can be found out by
inspection.
* Criteria for an Ideal Measure of central
tendency :- * For Simple (Ungrouped) Frequency
i) It should be properly and distribution :-
unambiguously defined. Median can be found out by finding
ii) It should be easy to comprehend. th
N
iii) It should be simple to compute. the   observation.
iv) It should based on all observations. 2
v) It should have certain desirable
mathematical properties. * For Grouped Frequency distribution :-
vi) It should be least affected by the Median can be find out by following
presence of extreme observations. formula
N
* Arithmetic Mean (AM) :–  f1
It is defined as the sum of Micro economics = L1 + 2
fm
observations to the number of observations.
Where,
x i
X = l1 = Lower limit of median class
N N = Total Frequency
f1 = c.f. of pre – median class
* Simple (Ungrouped) frequency fm = frequency of median class
distribution :- c = length or width of median
fi xi f x class
X =  i i
xi N
* Partition Values :-
* For Grouped Frequency distribution :- It may be defined as values dividing a
given set of observations into number of equal
fidi
X =A+ xc parts.
N
Where, X = AM * Quartiles :-
N = Total No. of observation These are the values which divides
A = Assumed mean the given set of observation into 4 equal parts.
x A So, there are 3 Quartiles Q1, Q2 and
di = i Q3 .
c
c = Class Width p
Qp = (n + 1) x
4
* Properties of AM :- * Deciles :-
1) If all the observations are equal the These are the values which divides
AM is that number itself. the given set of observations into 10 equal
2) The algebric sum of deviation from AM parts.
is zero. So, there are 9 deciles.
i.e. (xi – X ) = 0
and  i (xi – X ) = 0 i.e. D1, D2, D3 .......... D9
 Maths Formula
P 3) GM of the product of 2 variable is the
Dp = (n + 1) x product of their GM’s if z = xy then
10
(GM) of z = (GM) of x X (GM) of y.
* Percentiles or Centiles :- 4) GM of the ratio of 2 variables is the
These are the values which divides ratio of the GM’s of the 2 variable.
the given set of observations into 100 equal i.e. If z = x/y then,
parts. (GM) of x
(GM) of z =
So, there are 99 percentiles. (GM) of y

i.e. P1 , P2, P3 ..........P99. * Harmonic Mean (HM) :-

It is defined as the reciprocal of the
P AM of the reciprocal of the observations.
PP = (n+ 1) x
100 n
H=
Where, 1
n = Total observations [ ]
xi
* Mode :-
* Frequency distribution :-
It is defined as the value that occurs
the maximum number of times. N
H=
Depending upon the observation f
[ i ]
values of modes may one or more or none. xi

* For unclassified Data :- * Properties :-

Mode can be find out by inspection. 1) If all the observations are equal (say
k) then the HM is also k.
* For Frequency (Ungrouped) distribution :- 2) If there are 2 groups with n1 and n2
Mode is the observation having observations and H1 and H2 as
maximum frequency. respective HM’s then the combined
HM is given by
* For Frequency (grouped) Distribution :-
n  n2
Mode can be calculated as, H= 1
n1 n2
 f0  f1  
Mode = l1 +   xc
 H2 H2
2f  f
 0 1 2  f
3) Relation between AM, GM and HM.
Where, For any set of +ve observations
l1 = LCB of modal class AM  GM  HM
0 = frequency of modal class
1 = frequency of pre–modal class * Properties of GM and HM :-
2 = frequency of post modal class
c = Class length. 1) Both posseses some mathematical
properties.
Mean – Mode = 3(Mean – Median) 2) Rigidly defined
3) Based on all observations
* Geometric Mean :- 4) Difficult to comprehend
th
It is defined as the n root of the 5) Difficult to Compute
product of the observation. 6) Applications are limited like
1/n
G = ( x1, x1, x3 .......... xn) For unclassified computation of average rates and
data ratios and such like things.
= 
x1f1 , x2f 2 , x3f3 , .......xnfn 
1/n
.......... For
frequency distribution AM Median Mode
*****
* Properties :-
1) Logarithm G for a set of observations
is the AM of the logarithm of the * Dispersion :-
observations. It is defined as the amount of deviation
2) If all the observations are equal (say of the observation, from an appropriate
K) then their GM is also K. measure of central tendency
It may be classified into.
 Maths Formula
1) Absolute Measure of Dispersion * Mean Deviation (MD)
2) Relative Measure of Dispersion It is defined as the root mean square
deviation when the deviations are taken from
1) Absolute Measure of Dispersion the AM of the observations.

 (x x
It again classified into
i  x)2 n
i 2
i) Range S=  x
ii) Mean Deviation n n
iii) Standard Deviation
iv) Quartile Deviation For grouped frequency :-

 (x fx
2) Relative measure of Dispersion 2
It again classified into i  x)2 .fi i i 2
SD =  x
i) Coefficient of Range N N
ii) Coefficient of Mean deviation
iii) Coefficient of Variation * Variance :-
iv) Coefficient of Quartile deviation The square of standard deviation is
known as varience.
* IMP Points :- i.e. Varience = S2
i) Relative measures of dispersion
are unit free / unit less. * Coefficient of Varience :-
ii) Relative measures are used to SD
compare two or more distribution. Cv = x 100
AM
iii) Relative measures of dispersion
are difficult to compute and
* IMP Notes :-
comprehend.
1) If all the observations are constant i.e.
equal then SD is zero.
* Range :-
It is defined as the difference between 2) If y = a + bx Then, [SD]y = bx (SD)x
the largest and smallest observation. 3) For 2 groups containing n1 and n2
 Range = L – S observations, x1 and x2 as
For grouped frequency distribution it is respective AMS, s1 and s2 as
the difference between extreme class respective SDS. Then combined SD is
boundaries (Not Limit) given by.

* Coefficient of Range :- n1s12  n2 s22  n1d12  n2 s22

S=
L S n1  n2
= X 100
L S
* If y = a + bx and Where,
Rx is range of x then range of y (Ry) is d1 = x1 – X
given by.
Ry = b x Rx d2 = x 2 – X
n1 x1  n2  n2 x 2
* Mean Deviation (M.D.) :- And, X = =
n1  n2
It is defined as the arithmetic mean of
the absolute deviation of the observations from combined AM
an appropriate measure of central tendency.
M.D. about ‘A’ is given by * Quartile Deviation (Qa) :-
Q  Q1

1 Qd = 3
(MD)A = xi  A 2
n
For grouped frequency
* Coe of quartile variation :-

1
(MD)A = xi  A . t Q3  Q1
n x 100
Q3  Q1
* Coefficient of Mean deviation :-
meandeviationaboutA * Standard Deviation (SD) :-
= x 100 i) Best measure of dispersion
A
ii) Rigidly defined
iii) Based on all observations
* If y = a + bx then
iv) Easy to compute
MD of y = b x MD of x
 Maths Formula
v) Not much affected by sampling
fluctuations.
vi) It has some desirable mathematical
properties.
vii) Most widely and commonly used
measure of dispersion.

* Range :-
i) Quickest to compute
ii) Applications in statistical quality
control
iii) Too much affected by the presence of
extreme observations.

* Mean deviation :-
i) Rigidly defined
ii) Based on all observation
iii) Not much affected by sampling
fluctuation
iv) Difficult to compute and comprehend.
v) Does not possess mathematical
properties.

* Quartile Deviation :-
i) Rigidly defined
ii) Easy to compute
iii) Not much affected by sampling
fluctuations
iv) It is based on the central fifty percent
observations.
v) It is not based on all the observations.
vi) It has no mathematical properties.
vii) It is best measure of dispersion for
open end classification.
 Maths Formula
12 – Correlation and Regression
* Bivariate Date :- 2) Conditional Distribution :-
When data are collected on 2 variable The distribution of any of the variable
simultaneously, they are known as bivariate under particular condition ** group is know as
data. e.g. The conditional distribution of marks in
The corresponding frequency statistics for students having mathematics
distribution is known as bivariate frequency marks between 8 – 12.
distribution or Two way classification or joint
frequency distribution. Marks No. of students
0–4 2
e.g. Prepare a Bivariate frequency Table for
the following data Relating to the marks in 4–8 5
statistics (X) and Mathematics (Y): 8 – 12 4
(15, 13), (1, 3), (2, 6), (8, 3), (15, 10), 12 – 16 3
(3, 9), (13, 19), (10, 11), (6, 4), (18, 14), (10,
16 – 20 1
19), (12, 8), (11, 14), (13, 16), (17, 15), (18,
18), (11, 7), (10, 14), (14, 16), (16, 15), (7, 11), Total 15
(5, 1), (11, 15), (9, 4), (10, 15), (13, 12), (14,
17), (10, 11), (6, 9), (13, 17), (16, 15), (6, 4), * Correlation Analysis :-
(4, 8), (8, 11), (9, 12), (14, 11), (16, 15), (9, There are 2 types of correlation.
10), (4, 6), (5, 7), (3, 11), (4, 16), (5, 8), (6, 9), 1) Positive Correlation
(7, 12), (15, 6), (18, 11), (18, 19), (17, 16), (10, 2) Negative Correlation
14)
1) Positive Correlation :-
Take class interval for both 0 – 4 If the 2 variables move in the same
direction i.e. an increase in one variable
Y introduce increase in another variable are
0–4 4–8 8–12 12–16 16–20 Total
X known to be positively correlation.
0–4 III(1) I (1) II (2) 4 e.g. Height and weight, profit and investment.
4–8 I (1) IIII (4) (5) I (1) I (1) 12
2) Negative Correlation :-
8–12 I (1) II (2) IIII (4) I (6) (5) 11
If the 2 variable mover in the opposite
12–16 I (1) III (3) II (2) III (3) 9 direction i.e. increase in 1 variable result a
16–20 I (1) (5) decrease in another variable, then the 2
Total 3 8 15 14 10 50 variables are known to have a negative
correlation e.g. The Price and Demand.
* The two variables are known to be
From the above distribution we can
uncorrelated if the movement on the part of 1
obtain 2 types of univariate distribution.
variable does not produce any movement on
the other variable.
1) Marginal Distribution
e.g. Shoe size and intelligence.
2) Conditional Distribution
* Measure of Correlation :-
1) Marginal Distribution :-
1) Scatter Diagram
It is the distribution of the any one of
2) Karl pearson’s product moment
the variable under consideration.
correlation coefficient
e.g. The marginal distribution of marks
3) Spearmans rank correlation coefficient
in statistics is,
4) Coefficient of concurrent deviation.
Marks No. of students 1) Scatter Diagram :-
0–4 1 It is simple diagrammatic method used
4–8 12 to establish relation between a pair of variable
having linear or curvilinear relationship. But It
8 – 12 14
fails to measure the extent of relationship.
12 – 16 11 Each data point (Xi Yi) is represented
16 – 20 9 on rectangular axes of coordinates. The set of
Total 50 all such points gives the scatter diagram.
 Maths Formula
A single formula for computing correlation
coefficient is,
y y nXi Yi  Xi x Yi
r=
nxi  (xi )2 nyi2  (yi )2
2

* In Case of Bivariate Distribution :-


0 x 0 x i, j x i y i fi j
cov (x, y) =  xXy
-ve Correlation Perfect +ve N
(0 < r < 1) Correlation fi xi2 2
(r = 1) Sx = x
N
y y fi yi2 2
Sy = y
N

Single formula is given by,

Nij fijuivj  fjvj
0 x 0 x r=
Nfiui2  (fiui)2  Nfivj2  (fjvj)2
-ve Correlation Perfect +ve
(-1 < r <0) Correlation
(r = -1) * Properties :-
1) The coefficient of correlation is unit
free measure.
y y 2) The coefficient of correlation has no
effect of change of origin.
xa x b
3) If u = and v =
b d
Then,
0 x 0 x bd
rxy =  ruv.
No Correlation Curvilinear b  d
(r = 0) Correlation 4) The coefficient of correlation always
(r = 0) lies between –1 and 1 including both
the limit
–1  r  1
2) Karl Pearson’s Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (r) :- 3) Spearmon’s Rank Correlation
It is defined as the ratio of covariance Coefficient :-
between 2 variables to the product of the It is used to find correlation between 2
standard deviations of the 2 variables. qualitative characteristics and it can also be
applied to find the level of agreement between
Cov(x, y) Cov(xy) 2 judges.
i.e. r = yxy =  It is given by,
sx x sy 6x.6y
Where, rR = 1 –
  di 2

 X  Y  y
2 n (n2  1)
i x i
cov (x, y) = rR = Rank correlation coefficient,
n –1  r  1

cov (x y) =
 Xi Yi
 x.y
di = xi – yi
= difference in ranks
n n = No. of individuals.
(Xi  x
2
Xi
2
2 In case ‘u’ indivisuals gets the same rank, the
and, Sx =   x ---(**) above formula becomes.
n n
 (tj3  tj) 
2 2 di2   
(Yi  y Yi 2
 12 
6y = Sy =  y rR = 1 –
n n n(n2  1)
 Maths Formula
* Coefficient of Concurrent Deviation :- 1) The regression coefficients (byx and
This is very simple and casual bxy ) remain unchanged due to shift of
method, origin.
In this we attatch a +ve sign for a x – 2) But changes due to shift of scale.
value (except the first) if this value is more xa y b
than the previous value and assign a –ve If u = ,v=
p q
value if this value is less than the previous
value. This is done for the y – series as well. q
Then, byx = X bvu
If both (x, y) the deviations are same, p
then it is known as “concurrent’ deviation. p
The coefficient of concurrent deviation bxy = X buv
q
(2c  m) 3) 2 Lines of regression intersect at a
is given by, rc =  
m point ( x , y )
c = No. of concurrent deviations
4) The coefficient of correlation between
m = Total No. of deviations
2 variables x and y is the simple
If 2c – m < o we take +ve
geometric mean of the 2 regression
Sign both inside and outside
coefficients.
And
If 2c – m < o we take –ve r=  byx  bxy
Sign both inside and outside. r takes the common sign of both.
–1  rc  1
* IMP Points :-
* Regression Analysis :-
In this we find or estimate the value of 1) The best measure of correlation is
1 variable for a given value of another provided by persons correlation
variable. on the basis of an average coefficient.
mathematical relationship between 2 2) Pearson’s correlation coefficient is
variables. only applicable to linear relationship
In case of simple regression of ‘y’ between variables.
depends on ‘x’ then the regression line of ‘y’ 3) If x and y are independent then
on ‘x’ is given by correlation coefficient is zero, but
y = a + bx converse is not always true.
where, 4) If in a relation the 2 variables are not
a, b = regression parameter causally related due to the existence
also, a = y - b x of third variable, such a correlation is
known as spurious correlation or non-
And b = regression coefficient of
sense correlation.
y on x = byx
5) The square of the correlation
cov(x, y) coefficient is known as coefficient of
byx = 2
Sx determination.
sy 2 ExplainedVarience
byx = r  r =
sx TotalVarience
6) Coefficient of non-determination
nxiyi  xi  yi
=1–r
2
byx =
nxi2  (xi)2 7) If r = 1 or –1, the two lines of
Similarly, regression coinside
If x depends on, then the regression line of x 8) If r = 0, the regression lines are
on y is perpendicular to each other.
x = z + b’y
cov(x, y) s
b’ = bxy = 2
r x
sy sy

a’ = x - b’ y
nxiyi  xi  yi
also, bxy =
nyi2  (yi)2

* Properties of regression line :-

 Maths Formula
13 – Probability and Mathematical Expectation
* Introduction :- e.g. head and tail are equally likely events in
Probability is the branch of tossing an unbiased coins.
Mathematics.
The 2 broad divisions of probability are 9) Independent Event :-
i) Subjective probability. If the occurrence of 1 event does not
ii) Objective probability. affect the occurrent of another event then the
The subjective probability is basically events are said to be independent event.
dependent on personal judgment and
experience and it can be used in field of 10) Dependent Events :-
decision making management. If the occurrence of 1 event affects the
occur rent of other subsequent event then the
* Important Terms :- events are said to be dependent events.

1) Experiment :- 11) Complementary Events :-

It is the performance or act that The complement of an event means
produces certain result. non-occurrence of that event.
It is denoted by, A’, A or A .
c
2) Random Experiment :-
It is the experiments whose results are 12) Favorable Cases :-
depend on chance i.e. uncertain. The number of outcomes which result
e.g. Tossing a coin, rolling a dice. in the happening of a desired event are called
favorable cases.
3) Events :-
The results or outcomes of random * Classical Definition of Probability (P) :-
experiment are known as events. Probability of occurrence of the event
A is defined as the ratio of the number of
4) Simple or Elementary Event :- events favorable to A to the total No. of
The event which cannot be events.
decomposed into further events. No. of equally likely events favourable to A
e.g. Tossing a coin once. P(A) =
Totalno. of equally likely events

5) Composite or Compound Event :- * Remarks :-

The event that can be decomposed
1) 0  P(A)  1
into two or more events.
2) P(A) + P(A’) = 1
e.g. Getting head when coin tossed
twice.
* Limitations :-
1) It is applicable only when the total No.
6) Mutually Exclusive or Incompatible
of events is finite.
Events :-
2) It can be used only when the events
If the occurrence of 1 event implies
are equally likely.
the non occurrence of other event.
3) This definition is confined to the
i.e. only 1 event can occur simultaneously,
problems of games of chance.
then such events are called mutually exclusive
events.
* Statistical Definition :-
e.g. If a coin is tossed we get 2 mutually
The probability of A is defined as the
exclusive event head and tail.
limiting value of the ratio of FA to ‘n’ as ‘n’
tends to infinity.
7) Exhaustive Events :-
F
The total number of possible i.e. P(A) = lim A
outcomes of a random experiment is called n  n

exhaustive events. It is based on Relative frequency.

8) Equally likely Events :- * Set Theoretic Approach :-

Two or more events are said to
equally likely if the chance of their happening n(A)
1) P(A) =
is equal. n(S)
 Maths Formula
2) If A and B are mutually exclusive then
i) P (A  B) = O * Dependent Events :-
ii) P (A  B) = P (A) + P (B)  B  P(A  B)
i) P  
A P(A)
3) If A and B and C are mutually
exclusive then  A  P(A  B)
ii) P  
P (A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) B P(B)
Where,
4) 2 events A and B are exhaustive if A and B are dependent event.
P (A  B) = 1  
B
P   read as probability of event B given that
5) 3 events A, B and C are exhaustive if A
P (A  B  C) = 1 the event A has already occurred.

6) If A, B and C are equally likely then * For Independent Events :-

P(A) = P(B) = P(C) B
i) P   = P (B)
A
* Axiomatic or Modern Definition :-
P (A) is defined as the probability of A A
ii) P   = (A)
i P satisfies the following axioms. B
iii) P (A  B) = P(A) X P(B)
i) P(A)  0 for every A  S iv) P (A  B  C) = P(A) x P(B) x
ii) P (S) = 1 P(C)
iii) For any sequence of mutually v) If A and B are independent
exclusive events A1, A2, A3 .......... then following pairs are also
independent.
P(A1  A2  A3  ..........) = P(A1) a) A and B’
+ P(A2) + P(A3) + .......... b) A’ and B
c) A’ and B’
* Addition theorems :-
* Theorems of Compound Probability :-
1) Theorem 1 :-
For 2 mutually exclusive events A and 1) Theorem 1 :-
B B
P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) P (A  B) = P(A) x P  
A
2) Theorem 2 :-
For n mutually exclusive events A1, A2, 2) Theorem 2 :-
A3, .......... An B  C 
P(ABC) = P(A) x P   xP  A  B 
P(A1  A2  ..........  An) = P(A1) +  
A  
.......... P(An)
Extension of theorem 1 * Random Variable–Probability Distribution :-

3) Theorem 3 :- 1) Random Variable or stochastic variable

For any 2 events A and B :-
P (A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(AB) It is denoted by capital latter.
e.g. If a coin is tossed 3 times and X denotes
4) Theorem 4 :- the No. of heads, then X is a random variable.
For any 3 events A, B and C further it can be classified as
P(ABC) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) a) Discrete random
- P(A  B) – P(B  C) – P(A  C) + b) Continuous random
P(A  B  C)
a) Discrete random variable :-
* Compound probability or Joint Probability it is the random variable which
:- assumes finite number or countably infinite
The probability of occurrence of two number of values.
events A and B simultaneously is known as e.g. No. of petals in a flower
compound probability. And is denoted by
P(AB). b) Continuous random :-
 Maths Formula
it is the random variable which * For Random Variable :-
assumes uncountably infinite number of
values.
e.g. like Height, Weight etc. * Proportion of Expected Value :-
1) E(k) = k k = Constant
* Probability Distribution of Random 2) E (x + y) = E (x) + E (y)
Variable :- 3) E (k . x) = k . E(x)
It is defined as a statement expressing 4) E (x . y) = E (x) . E (y)
the different values taken by random variable
and the corresponding probabilities.
e.g. If a random variable X assumes a finite
value, X1, X2, X3, .......... with corresponding
probabilities P1, P2, P3, .......... Pn
Such that,
i) Pi  0 ii) Pi = 1

Then. probability distribution is given by

X Xi X2 X3 .......... Xn Total
P P1 P2 P3 ..........Pn 1

* Probability Mass Function :-

If X is discrete variable and (x) really
exists, then (x) is known as probability mass
function (pmf) of x, (x) must satisfy.
i) (x)  0 for every x
ii)  (x) = 1
Where, (x) = p(x) = x

* Probability Density Function :-

If (x) is continuous random variable
defined over an interval [, ] and (x) is exist
in that interval, then it is called as probability
density function (pdf) it must satisfies the
following condition.
i) (x)  0 for x  [, ]

ii)  (x) . dx = 1

* Expected Value or Expectation of

Random Variable :-
It is defined as the sum of products of
the different values taken by the random
variable and the corresponding probabilities.
i.e.  = E(x) = pixi
2
i) Expected value of x is
E(x ) = pixi
2 2

2
ii) Variance value of x ( )
 = V(x) = E(x - )
2 2

= E(x ) - 
2 2

iii) y = a + bx

iv) y = b x x
Where,  = Standard Deviation
 = Expected Value
 Maths Formula

14 – Theoretical Distribution

* Theoretical Probability Distribution :- probability mass function of ‘r’ is given

Distributing the total probability (i.e. by
f(r) = P(X=r) = “Cr.p .q .....
r n-r
one) to different mass point or different class
interval is known as theoretical probability r = 0, 1, 2 ......n, 1= 0 Otherwise
distribution.
This may be help in making statistical * Important Points :-
analysis. 1) (r)  0 and  (r) = (0) + (1) + … +
This may be profitably employed to n = 1
make short terms projections. * It is biparametric (n and p). It is
There are main 2 types of probability parametric (n & P)
distribution. 2) Mean () n.p
3) Depending on the values of n and p.
I) Discrete Probability Distribution :- The B.D may be bi-modal or uni-
The probability distribution of discrete modal.
variable is known as discrete probability 4) Mode (0) = The largest integer in
distribution. (n+1) P.......... (n+1) p  1
It again classified into = (n + 1) P and (n+1) P – 1 .......... (n +
a) Binomial distribution. 1) p  1.
b) Poisson distribution.
Variance =  = npq
2
5)
* Variance is always less than mean.
II) Continuous Probability Distribution:- * Also it has its maximum value at p =
The probability distribution of 0.5 = q and it is n/4
continuous variable is known as continuous
probability distribution * Applications :-
It against classified into. 1) It is applied when the trials ae
a) Normal distribution independent
b) Chi-square Distribution 2) Also each trials has just 2 outcomes
c) T-Distribution 3) Such as coin tossing, sampling
d) F-Distribution inspection plan, genetic experiment
and so on.
* Binomial distribution :-
It is the most important and frequently * Poisson distribution :-
used probability distribution. It is a theoretical discrete probability
distribution which can describe many
* Trial :- processes. A random Variable X is defined to
It is an attempt to produce a particular follow Poisson distribution with parameter m,
outcome which is neither certain nor
to be denoted by X  P (m) if the probability
impossible.
mass function of X is given by.
* Characteristics of Trial :-
e m  mx
(x) = P(X = x) =
1) If trial contains 2 mutually exclusive x!
and exhaustive outcomes. The x = 0, 1, 2 ..........
occurrence of one is known as
success and non occurrence is known * Important Points :-
as failure. 1) (x)  0 and  (x) = (1) + (2) + … =
2) Trials are independent. 1
3) Probability of success usually denoted 2) It is known uniparametric distribution
by ‘p’ hence that of failure by q = 1 – p (m)
4) The number of trials ‘n’ is a finite 3) Mean,  = m
Varience  = m
positive integer. 2
4)
Now, A discrete random
5) Standard Deviation =  = m
variable ‘r’ is defined to follow binomial
distribution with parameters n and p to 6) It is also unimodal or bimodal.
be denoted by X  B (n,p) if the Mode No. = The largest integer in m, if
m  1 m and m – 1 if m  1.
 Maths Formula
7) If n = No. of independent trial of B.D. Where,  = Standard deviation
such that n   9) First Quartile Q1 =  -0.6756
And P = Probability of success, tends 10) Third Quartile Q3 =  + 0.675 
to zero. 11) Quartile Deviation = 0.675
Then, binomial distribution can be 12) Its Skewness is zero.
approximated by Poisson distribution 13) Point of Inflexion :- The point at
with parameter (m = np) which the normal curve changes its
i.e. B(n, p)  p(m) curvature from concave to convex and
vice versa
* Applications :- 14) The normal curve has 2 point of
It is applied when the total No. of inflexion at x = u -  and x = u + 
events are large but the probability of 
If x  N (u,  ) then z = x -  N(0,
2
occurrence is very small. 15)

1) The distribution of printing mistakes
1), z is know as standardized normal
per page of large book.
variate or normal deviate.
2) The distribution of no of road
16) If x & y are independent normal
accidents on a busy road per minute.
3) The distribution of no of radio active variable with means and SD at 1, 2
elements per minute in a fusion then z = x + y also follows normal
process. distribution with mean (u1 + u2) and
SD = 612  622
* Normal or Gaussian distribution :-
To find the probability distribution * Applications :-
continuous random variable we use ** 1) Many science subject, social science
distribution.
subjects, commerce management find
It is the most important and universal
many application of normal
accepted continuous probability distribution.
distribution.
A continuous random variable x, **
2) When n No. of trials of a binomial
defined to follow normal distribution with distribution is large and ‘p’ the
parameter  and  to be denoted ** X  N (,
2
probability of success is moderate
 ) if the pdf of random variable ** given by
2
then the binomial distribution also
(x  )2 tends to normal distribution.
1 22
(x) = e
  2 * CHI – Square Distribution :-
 or –  < x <  If a continuous random variable x
follows chi – square distribution with n degrees
* Important Points :- of freedom, to be denoted by x  x n2 , then the
1) The probability curve of normal
distribution takes the bell shape curve. probability density function of x is given by (x)
x x
 1
= kk  e 2  x2

Where, K = const. for o < x < 

* Important Properties :-
i) Mean = u
ii) = 2n
iii) It is positively skewed. i.e. the
probability curve of chi – square
2) It is symmetrical about x = u distribution is inclined more on the
3) It has one peak i.e. unique mode right
4) The total area of the curve is taken
unity. * t-Distribution :-
5) Area between -  to  = Area between If a continuous random variable **
 to  follows t – distribution with n df, then its pdf is
6) It is known as biparametric distribution given by
 and 
2
(n  1) / 2
 t 2 
7) Mean = median = mode =  (t) = k . 1 
Mean deviation  0.8  n 
8) 
 Maths Formula
* Important Properties :-
1) Mean = 0
n
2) Standard deviation = n>2
n2
3) Symmetrical about t = o
4) For large n(> 30), t – distribution tends
to Standard normal distribution.

* F – Distribution :-
It a continuous random variable f –
Follows F – distribution with n1 and n2 degrees
of freedom to be denoted by   n1.n2 then its
probability density function is given by
n1 (n1  n2 )
1 n1f
() = k . f 2 (1  ) 2
n2

* Important Properties :-
n2
1) Mean =
n2  2
n2 2(n1  n2  2
2) S.D. = n2 > 4
n2  2 n1 (n2  4)
3) It has positive Skewness.
4) For large values of n1 and n2 F –
distribution tends to normal
distribution.
 Maths Formula
15 – Sampling Theory
* Introduction :- 6) Sampling Distribution :-
It is used to know about the unknown The probability distribution of the all
universe on the basis of our knowledge from the values of the statistic (T) of different
the known sample. possible sample is known as sampling
distribution.
* Some Important Terms :-
7) Statistics :- (T)
1) Population or Universe :- It may be defined as a statistical
It may be defined as the aggregate of measure of sample observations.
all the units under consideration and the No. of
units belonging to population is known as * Standard Error (S.E.) :-
population size (N). The Standard deviation of the statistic
(T) is known as the standard error (S.E.) of T.
2) Existent Population :- S.E. can be regarded as a measure of
A population consisting of real objects precision achieved by sampling.
is known as existent population. 
e.g. Population of Town, Population of S.E. ( x ) = .......... for SRS WR
n
lamps produced by a company etc.
 Nn
3) Hypothetical Population :- = .......... for SRS
n N 1
A population consisting of hypothetical
objects is known as hypothetical population. WOR
e.g. Population of heads when a coin Standard Error for proportion
is tossed infinitely. pq
S.E. (p) = .......... for SRS WR
n
4) Sample : - (n)
pq Nn
It is defined as the part of population =  .......... for SRS WOR
so selected with a view, to represent the n N 1
characteristics of population. Where,
SRS WR – simple Random Sampling
5) Parameter :- with Replacement
It may be defined as a characteristic of SRS WOR – Simple Random
a population based on all the units of the Sampling without Replacement
population. Nn
e.g. Finite population’s correction
N 1
a) Population mean ()
n
(fpc)
x
 1
d
* Basic Principle of Sample Survey :-
= Sample survey is the study of the
N
unknown population on the basis of a proper
Where,
representative sample drawn from it.
x =  member of population.
d th

1) Law of Statistical Regularity :-

b) Population Proportion (P)
A/c to this, the sample would posses
X the characteristic of that population.
P=
N
Where, 2) Principle of Inertia :-
X = X people possessing attribute. The results derived from a sample are
likely to be more reliable accurate and precise
2
c) Population Varience ( ) as the sample size increases.
(x   u)2
  =
2
3) Principle of Optimization :-
N
It ensures that an optimum level of
(x   u)2 efficiency at minimum cost, with the selection
And SD =  =
N of an appropriate sampling design.
 Maths Formula
4) Principle of Validity :- Lapse of memory, preference for certain digit,
It states that a sampling design is valid ignorance, psychological factors
only if it is possible to obtain valid estimates. communication gap etc.
We prefer sample survey to complete
enumeration due to following factor. * Type of Sampling :-
1) Probability sampling
a) Speed :- a) Simple Random Sampling
Sample Survey conducted more b) Stratified Sampling
quickly. c) Multistage Sampling
2) Non – Probability sampling
b) Cost :- a) Judgment or purposive
For each unit it is more in case of sampling.
Sample Survey but incase of over all cos 3) Mixed sampling
Sample Survey likely to be inexpensive. a) Systematic sampling

c) Reliability :- 1) Sampling Random Sampling (SRS)

Sample Survey is more reliable due to :-
trained person. The units are selected independent of
each other in such a way that each unit
d) Accuracy :- belonging to the population has an equal
in Sample Survey the sampling error chance of being a part of the sample.
can be reduced to greater extent (these error It is very simple and effective method
are absent n complete enumeration). But the if.
non – sampling error can not be controlled in 1) The population is not very large.
case of complete enumeration. 2) The sample is not very small
3) Te population under consideration is
e) Necessity :- not heterogeneous.
When it cames to destructive Also, it is free from sampler’s biases.
sampling, sampling becomes necessity.
2) Stratified Sampling :-
* Errors in Sample Survey ;- When a population is large and
It may be defined as the deviation heterogeneous, then we use stratified
between the value of population parameters sampling.
as obtained from sample normal distribution its In this we devide the population into
observed value. No. of strata or sub-population such that there
These are of 2 types. should be very little variation among the unit of
1) Sampling Error some stratum, and maximum variation
2) Non – sampling Error between diff. stratum.

1) Sampling Error :- * Purpose :-

Since only a part of population is 1) To make representation of all the sub
investigated in a sampling, very sampling population.
design is subjected to this type of error. 2) To provide an estimate of parameter
The factor contributing to sampling 3) Reduction in variability and thereby an
errors are listed below. increase in precision.
4) It is not advisable if,
a) Error arising due to defective sampling a) The population is not large.
design b) Some prior information is not
b) Error arising out due to substitution. available.
c) Error owing to faulty demarcation of c) There is not much
units. heterogeneity amongst the
d) Error owing to wring choice of unit of population.
statistics. There are two types of
e) Variability in the populations. allocation of sample of size.

2) Non – Sampling Error :- 1) Proportional allocation of Bowelys

This type of errors happen both in allocation :-
sampling and complete enumeration. Used when there is not much variation
Factors responsible for this are: between strata variances. In this sample sizes
 Maths Formula
are taken as proportional to the population 1) The point estimation of population
size. mean, varience and proportion are the
corresponding sample statistics.
2) Neyman’s Allocation :- i.e. û= x
Used when there is much variation
between strata variance. In this sample size (xi  x)2
= and ** = p
vary jointly with population size and population n
standard deviation.
1) Interval Estimation :-
3) Multi – stage Sampling :- In this we consider an interval of
In this type of complicated sampling, values which is supposed to contain the
the population is composed of first stage parameter i.e. the unknown which we want to
sampling units, each of which in its turn is find.
supposed to compose of second stage
sampling units and so on till we reach the
ultimate sampling unit.
1) The coverage is quite large.
2) It same computational labor
3) Cost effective
4) Adds flexibility in sampling but
compared to stratified it is less
accurate.

4) Systematic Sampling :-
It refers to a sampling scheme where
te units constituting the sample are selected at
regular interval after selecting the vary first unit
at random i.e. with equal probability.
This type of systematic sampling is
known as “liner systematic sampling”.
1) Very convenient method
2) Less time consuming
3) Less expensive and simple
4) No statistical interference can be
drawn about population parameter.

* Perposive or Judgment Sampling :-

The type of sampling is dependent on
the samples will and he applies his own
judgment based on his belief, prejustice,
whims and interest to select sample.
- Non – probabilistic
- Varies from person to person
- No statistical hypothesis can be
tested.

* Theory of Estimation :-
If the population under consideration
is completely unknown and we find the
population parameter from our knowledge
about the sample observation. Then, this
aspect is known as Estimation of population
Parameter.
And if some information about
population is already known to us and we want
to verify that information on the basis of
random sample this aspect is known as tests
of significance.
 Maths Formula
16 – Index Number
* Index Number :- Methods
It is a ratio or an average of ratios
expresses as a percentage.
These are of 2 types.
1) Simple :-
It is computed for 1 variable. Simple Weighted
1) Aggregative 1) Aggregative
2) Composite :-
2) Relative 2) Relative
It is computed for 2 or more variable
most index numbers are composite in nature.
1) Simple Aggregative Method :-
* Issues involved in the construction of In this we express the total commodity
Index Number :- prices in a given year as a percentage of total
commodity prices in the base year.
1) Selection of data Pn
i.e. x 100
2) Base period P0
3) Selection of Weights
4) Use of average 2) Simple Average or Relative :-
5) Choice of variables In this method, we find the relatives of
6) Selection of formula each variable for the base period. And the
index number is the average of all such
* Construction of Index Number :- relatives.
th
We denote the prices during n period
by ‘Pn’. And corresponding price during a base * Weighted Method :-
period by ‘Po’
And  Pn = Summing of prices during 1) Weighted Aggregative Method :-
th
n period for all the commodities. In this method we weigh the price of
each commodity of by a suitable factor
* Relatives :- (quantity or value weight sold during base year
It is the simplest example of Index or any year).
number. Example.
P
Price Relative = n
Po a) Laspeyre’s Index :-
In this base year quantities are used
2) Link Relative :- as weight.
When successive price or quantities PnPo
L.I. = x 100
are taken, the relatives are called the link P0Po
relative,
P1 P2 P3 b) Paasche's Index :-
, , ,......
P0 P1 P2 In this current year quantities are used
as weights.
3) Chain Relative :- PnPn
P.I. = x 100
When relatives are in respect to a PoPn
fixed base period these are called the chain
relative. c) Method based on some typical period :-
P1 P2 P3
, , ,...... In this any year ‘t’ quantities are used
P0 P0 P0 weights.
PnPt
= x 100
* Method of Computing Index Number :- PoPt

d) Marshall – Edgeworth Index :-

In this we uses average of base year
and current year as weight.
 Maths Formula
Pn (Qo  Qn ) this test also satisfies by fisher only
= x 100 and therefore it is called as ideal index
P0 (Qo  Qn )
number.
e) Fisher Ideal Index :- 4) Circular Test :-
It is geometric mean of Laspeyre's and The test of shiftability of base is called
Paasche's the circular Test.
PnQo PnQn Only simple GM of price relative and
F.I. = x x 100
P0Qo PoQn the weighted aggregative with fixed weight
meets this test.
f) Dorbish and Bowley's index No. :-
* Limitation of Index Number :-
In this the weighted arithmetic mean is
1) Errors cannot be always avoided.
used.
2) It only depict the broad trend and not
the real picture.
* Chain Index Number :-
3) Different methods gives different value
Link Relative current year X Chainindex of previous year
creating confusion.
10

* Advantages :-
* Deflated Value :-
1) Provide guidelines for decision
Current x Value making.
Price Index of the Current Year 2) Reveal trends and tendencies in
making important conclusion.
* Shifting Price Index :- 3) Used in forecasting future economic
activity.
Original Pr ice Index
4) Useful in deflating.
x100 5) Changes in the cost of living
Pr ice Index of year on which it has to be shifted
measured by index No.
* Test of adequacy :-
* Notes :-
1) GM makes index No. time reversal
1) Unit Test :-
2) AM of group indices gives general
This test requires that the formula
index.
should be independent of unit.
Wages x 100
Only simple aggregative index does 3) Real wages =
index Number
not satisfy this test.

2) Time Reversal Test :-

This method determines weather a
given method will work both ways in time,
forward and backward i.e. The two indices
should be reciprocal of each other.
P01 X P10 = 1
Where,
P01 = Index for time 1 on 0
P10 = Index for time 0 on 1

Only Fisher’s ideal formula satisfies this test.

For Fishers :-
P1Q0 P1Q1
P01 = x And
P0Q0 P0Q0

P0Q1 P0Q0
P10 = x
P1Q1 P1Q0
And P01 x P10 = 1

3) Factor Reversal Test :-

This holds when the product of price
index and the quantity index should be equal
to the corresponding value index.
i.e. P01 x Q01 = V01