WELDING PROCESSES

Prepared

By

Saad Ahmed Khodir

CMRDI
 Introductions

Welding is a process that used to join the metals parts together by the

application of heat, pressure, or a combi-nation of both.

Welded joints and their advantages:

. A welded joint has following advantages:

(1) Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint has higher efficiency.

(2) Since the added material is minimum, the joint has lighter weight.
(3) Welded joints have smooth appearances.
(4) Due to flexibility in the welding procedure, alteration and addition are possible.
(5) It is less expensive.
(6) Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible through welding.
 Categories of Welding Processes

2. Basic types of welded processes: Welding can be broadly classified in two groups
1) Liquid state (fusion) welding where heat is added to the base metals until they
melt. Added metal (filler material) may also be supplied. Upon cooling strong
joint is formed. Depending upon the method of heat addition this process can be
further subdivided, namely
* Electrical heating: Arc welding
Resistance welding
* Chemical welding: Gas welding

* Laser welding
•Electron beam welding

2) Solid state welding: Here mechanical force is applied until materials deform to
plastic state. Bonds are then formed through molecular interaction. Solid state
welding may be of various kinds, namely,
* Friction welding
* Diffusion welding
* Hot forging
Types of Welding

4
Types of Joints and Welding Positions
Types of Joints

Hardfacing or overlaying
 Liquid state (fusion) welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene welding process overview

Types of Flames
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Chemical reactions and temperature distribution in a neutral flame

 Oxyacetylene Welding

Advantages
1- The equipment is simple
2- portable, and inexpensive.
Therefore, it is convenient for maintenance and repair applications.

Disadvantages
1- Due to its limited power density, the welding speed is very low
2- The total heat input per unit length of the weld is rather high, resulting
in large heat-affected zones and severe distortion.
3- The oxyacetylene welding process is not recommended for welding
reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium because of its limited
protection power.
 Liquid state (fusion) welding
Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved by

the heat from an electric arc between an electrode and the work
• Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures up to 5500 0C, hot
enough to melt any metal
• Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume and strength of
weld joint
• Same basic process also used in arc cutting

What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc = discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit.

• It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma) through which
current flows
• To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into contact with work
and then quickly separated from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding (AW)
• A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip
• As electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an arc welding process

• Consumable – consumed during welding process

– Source of filler metal in arc welding
• Non-consumable – not consumed during welding process
– Any filler metal must be added separately
 Consumable Electrodes
• There are 2 forms of Consumable Electrodes
1. Welding rods (also called sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and
3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be changed
periodically
2. Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools with
long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent interruptions
• Coated electrode diameter 1.5–8 mm, 150-460 mm
in length

In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by

arc and added to weld joint as filler metal
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
- Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with
chemicals that provide flux and shielding
- Sometimes called "stick welding"
- Uses AC or DC power supply to create an arc to a grounded metal work
piece melting the two materials together

Figure - Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

 Consumable Electrodes and Electrode Coating
• Coated by Oxides, Carbonates, Fluorides, metal alloys and cellulose
• Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal
• Basic functions
– To stabilize the arc
– To generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding
atmosphere
– To control the rate of the molten electrode.
– To protect the weld against formation of oxides, nitride and other
– Alloys element protect the molten weld poor.
– Deoxidizer enhance properties of the joint
Power Source in Arc Welding

• Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

– AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but generally
restricted to ferrous metals
– DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally noted for
better arc control
 Coating Materials -Partial List

Slipping Agents to Aid Extrusion

Arc Stabilizers
Clay
Titania TiO2
Talc
Glycerin
Gas-Forming Materials
Wood Pulp
Binding Agents
Limestone CaCO3
Sodium Silicate
Asbestos
Slag-Forming Materials
Starch
Alumina Al2O3
Sugar
TiO2
SiO2
Alloying and Deoxidizing Elements
Fe3O4
Si, Al, Ti, Mn, Ni, Cr
 SMAW Applications
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain nonferrous
alloys
• Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium
• Commonly used in shipbuilding, on pipelines and for maintenance
work
• The process is best suited for workpiece thicknesses of 3 mm-19 mm
(0.12 in – 1.75 in)
• Advantages of stick welding:
– Simple and versatile
– Low cost of equipment
– The use of safety equipment is essential
• Disadvantages of stick welding:
–Sticks must be periodically changed
–High current levels may melt coating
prematurely
 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
• Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode that is used to melt two metals
together in the presence of shielding gas.
• Historically developed along side MIG welding with developments in
electricity and shielding gasses.
• Made of tungsten which resists melting
• Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is principal mechanism)
• Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire fed into weld pool
 Materials that can be welded with TIG
• Can be used to weld nearly most of metals except that lead and zinc.
• Again different shielding gasses are used for different material.
• Also different types of power sources are used for different types of metal.

Uses of TIG welding

• Oil Pipelines
• Medical Industry (SS)
• Exhaust piping
• Aluminum radiators

Advantages of TIG vs MIG

• TIG is irreplaceable in critical applications

• TIG has higher strength and heat resistance
• TIG is cleaner
• Can weld nearly any metal
• Can weld extremely thin materials (0.1mm)
• Can join metals without additional filler material in many cases.
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
• Welding process utilizing a consumable electrode and shielding gas (to prevent
corrosion) are fed through a gun.
• Was not widely used until the 1950s when the use of carbon dioxide as a
shielding gas became popular and other changes were made to make it more
effective at welding iron and steel as well as less expensive.
 Uses of MIG welding

• Automotive Industry
– Can weld sheet metal as thin as 0.5mm
– Can be done almost exclusively by robots
– Can be setup with a continuous feed system
• Ship building
– Can be used to weld thick materials up to 25mm thick
– Can weld outside with the use of flux cored welding wire

• General repair shops

• Railroad

• Furniture

• Structural steel in construction

 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Short circuiting transfer characteristics:

At low current and voltages, short circuit Spray Globular
transfer occurs. The weld is a shallow
penetrating weld with low heat input. Allows
welding in all positions.
Low productivity.
Used primarily for sheet metal applications.
This mode produces large amounts of spatter..
Globular transfer characteristics:
This mode is obtained at intermediate current
and voltage levels or at high current and Short Circuiting Pulsed Spray
voltage levels with 100% CO2 shielding gas.
Has higher heat input and penetration than
short circuit transfer.
It produces significant amounts of spatter.
Spray and pulsed spray transfer characteristics:
Spray is achieved at higher welding currents and voltages with argon or Helium based
shielding gas (over 80% Ar). This high-heat-input, deep-penetrating weld limits the
application to the flat position. This mode produces little or no spatter and is known for the
high deposition rate (higher productivity). Pulsing the current where spray transfer occurs
allows for better control for out of position welding.
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
• Shielding gas can affect
– Weld bead shape
– Arc heat, stability, and starting
– Surface tension
Shielding Gas
– Drop size
– Spatter

GMAW Advantages
• Deposition rates higher than
SMAW
• Productivity higher than SMAW
with no slag removal and Ar Ar-He He CO2
continuous welding
• Easily automated
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

• Used for ferrous, nonferrous metals and

Limitations in the metal-fabrication industry.
• Advantages of Gas Metal Arc Welding :
• Equipment is more – Simple and versatile
expensive and complex than – Easy to train operator
SMAW
• Process variants/metal
transfer mechanisms make
the process more complex
and the process window
more difficult to control
• Restricted access
– GMAW gun is larger
than SMAW holder
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), to overcome limitations of
stick electrodes
Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils) that contains flux and other
ingredients (e.g., deoxidizers and alloying elements) in its core

Two versions:
–Self-shielded FCAW -
Core includes
compounds that produce
shielding gases, not
require external gas
shielding
–Gas-shielded FCAW -
Uses externally applied
shielding gases
 FCAW Applications

• Used for metals e.g. steels, stainless steels and nickel alloys by adding
alloy elements to the flux core.
• Used for welding a variety of joints
• Advantages of Flux-Cored Arc Welding :
– Economical and versatile
– Higher deposition rates than GMAW
– Able to join of sections of all thickness
– Very high quality weld joint (smooth & uniform)
Limitations
• Slag must be removed
• More smoke and fumes than
GMAW and SAW
• Spatter
• FCAW wire is more expensive
• Equipment is more expensive and
complex than for SMAW
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc shielding
provided by a cover of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a hopper,
completely submerging operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation

Figure Schematic
illustration of the
submerged-arc
welding process
and equipment.
The un fused flux
is recovered and
reused.
 SAW Applications
Flux
• Steel fabrication of structural shapes
• prevents formation of oxides.
(e.g., I-beams)
• dissolves them and facilitates removal
• Seams for large diameter pipes,
tanks, and pressure vessels • Provides protective atmosphere .
• Welded components for heavy • Stabilizes arc
machinery • Reduces spattering
• Most steels (except high C steel)
Limitations
• Not good for nonferrous metals
• Flux obstructs view of joint
• Workpiece thicknesses of 12 - 75
during welding
mm (0.5 – 3 in)
• Flux is subject to contamination
• Advantages of Submerged Arc
and porosity
Welding :
• Normally not suitable for thin
– Large limit in a flat or horizontal
material
position because the flux is fed
by gravity • Restricted to the flat position for
grooves - flat and horizontal for
– Quality of the weld is very high,
fillets
with good toughness, ductility
and uniformity of properties • Slag removal required
• Flux handling equipment
Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)
 Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)

Top/Side and Cross-section of Laser Welds

• thickness: 3 [mm] • thickness: 12[mm]
• speed: 1.5[m/min] • speed: 2.2[m/min]
 Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)

• Heat source • Material Joined

– Laser Light – All common metals
• Protection – Thermoplastics
– None, or externally supplied gas – Circuit components
• Electrode
– None • Limitations
– Possible problems with
• Rate of Heat Input
reflectivity of certain metals
6
– High: 10 [W/mm ] 2
– High Precision positioning
and fit-up required
• Weld profile (depth/width) • Computer controlled
– 5 [mm/mm] • Work-holding
• Maximum penetration – Eye Hazard
– 25 [mm] • Absolute safety
precautions must be
adhered
– Line of sight required
 Liquid state (fusion) welding
Power Density of Heat Source

Figure Relationship between

Figure Power density of the
weld strength and heat input per
heat source
unit length of the weld per unit
thickness of the workpiece.
 Liquid state (fusion) welding

Power Density of Heat Source

Figure Angular distortion of productivity of different welding processes

Overview of Welding Processes
Figure (a) Resistance Spot Welding
Sequence in
resistance spot
welding. (b)
Cross-section of
a spot weld,
showing the
weld nugget and
the indentation
of the electrode
on the sheet
surfaces. This
is one of the
most commonly
used process in
sheet-metal
fabrication and
in automotive-
body assembly.
Welding Machine Design
 Examples of Spot Welding
(a) (b)

(c)

Figure (a) and (b) Spot-welded cookware and muffler. (c) An automated spot-welding
machine with a programmable robot; the welding tip can move in three principal
directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 m X 0.55 m (88 in. X 22 in.) can be accommodated in
this machine.
 Spot Welding Example

Figure Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated by computer controls, in
a mass-production line for automotive bodies.
 Resistance Seam Welding

Figure (a)
Seam-welding
process in
which rotating
rolls act as
electrodes.
(b)
Overlapping
spots in a
seam weld.
(c) Roll spot
welds. (d)
Resistance-
welded
gasoline tank.
 High-Frequency Butt Welding

Figure method of high-frequency butt welding of tubes.

Resistance Projection Welding

Figure (a)
Schematic
illustration of
resistance
projection
welding. (b) A
welded bracket.
(c) and (d)
Projection
welding of nuts
or threaded
bosses and studs.
(e) Resistance-
projection-
welded grills.
 Explosion Welding
(b)
(a)

Figure Schematic
illustration of the explosion
welding process: (a)
(c) (d) constant interface clearance
gap and (b) angular interface
clearance gap. (c) and (d)
Cross-sections of explosion-
welded joints. (c) titanium
(top piece) on low-carbon
steel (bottom). (d) Incoloy
800 (an iron-nickel-based
alloy) on low-carbon steel.
Solid-State Welding Processes
 Friction Welding

(a)

(b)

Figure (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand
component is rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact
under an axial force. (3) Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand
component stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash can subsequently be removed
by machining or grinding. (b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function
of the force applied and the rotational speed.
Friction-Stir Welding
 Microstructure analysis

Optical micrographs of regions (a), (b) and (c) of the stir nugget.
 FSW Characteristics

• Mechanics • Uncertainties and reliability

– Welding tool spins, – Welding tool abrasion
– stirring bonding surface – Highly reliable if process is well
• Economics controlled and properly fixtured
– Tooling and engineering costs are
presently very high • Weld speeds
• Process capability -Relatively Slow
– Butt joints • Skills
– Surface treatment – Can be fully automated
• Constraints
– Thickness of material
– Computer control
– High powered, precision fixturing
 FSW Process Summary

• Advantages • Limitations
– Excellent weld quality
– Ultra fine grain refinement – High power, precision
– Wide range of materials positioning and
• Including some tooling required
“unweldable” materials
– Low distortion • High force required
– High joint strength to move weld tool
– No loss of alloy elements through material
– No cracking • Powerful fixtures
– No shield gas required required
– No pre- or post- finishing • High welding tool
processes required wear rate
– Autogenous
 Hybrid Welding Processes
• Processes incorporating various welding processes,
combining their strength and minimize their weaknesses
– Laser and Arc (LBW and GMAW)
• Laser provides
– Deep penetration, Low distortion, High-welding speed
• Arc provides
– Wider weld pool, Gap-bridging capability, Shield-gas
– Laser assisted Friction-Stir Welding (LAFS)
• Laser provides
– initial heat to pre-heat material
– Minimizing FSW force requirements, fixturing strength and tool wear
• Friction-Stir provides
– Excellent weld strength, Expanded material selection,
– Lack of pre- and post-processing
 Hybrid (GMAW and LBW)
Gas Metal Arc-Laser Welding
 Hybrid (LAFS)
Laser Assisted Friction-Stir Welding
Welding Positions