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THE EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF RICHARDSON-ZAKI LAW ON

EXAMPLE OF SELECTED BEDS USED IN WATER TREATMENT

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Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities (EJPAU) founded by all Polish
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Copyright © Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we Wroclawiu, ISSN 1505-0297
Siwiec T. 2007. THE EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF RICHARDSON-ZAKI LAW
ON EXAMPLE OF SELECTED BEDS USED IN WATER TREATMENT, EJPAU 10(2),
#05.
Available Online: http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume10/issue2/art-05.html

THE EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF

RICHARDSON-ZAKI LAW ON EXAMPLE OF
SELECTED BEDS USED IN WATER TREATMENT
Tadeusz Siwiec
Department of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Water Supply and Sewage Systems Section,
Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland

ABSTRACT

The paper presents and discusses the characteristics of various methods of determining the exponent for
Richardson-Zaki [34] formula, which binds the flow velocity of rinsing water, sedimentation of bed grains in
water, as well as bed porosity at various states of expansion. The characteristic of methods served for verification
of their correlation with the results received from experimental tests, where the exponent was the degree of
inclination in the relationship log V = n · log ε + log Vs, which is a logarithmic form of Richardson-Zaki formula.
The tests were carried out for 8 minerals such as anthracite, barite, chalcedonite, diatomite, clinoptylolite,
nevtraco, sand and pyrolusite. In order to make results more trustworthy, they were carried out for 10 fractions of
each bed. It was shown that the formulas, from which the value of exponent n is commonly calculated, give
results not differing much from one another, but considerably different from experimental ones, where the
exponent was the degree of inclination of the above mentioned function. The results close to experimental ones
were given by the formula containing sphericity of particles developed by Dharmajah and Cleasby [5].
Experimental results of testing enabled to develop the exponential functions describing the relationship of
exponent n on Reynolds number in the state of free sedimentation.
Key words: backwashing filters, bed expansion, porosity, fluidization.

INTRODUCTION

The process of rinsing rapid filters consists in pumping rinsing water through bed in direction
from the bottom upwards. It causes bed loosening and carrying away of impurities left there
in filtration process. It should be stressed that different phenomena occur during the flow of
water through steady bed than through the one in loosened state.

The course of these phenomena is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The phenomena taking place during bed rinsing [22]

As may be seen in Fig. 1, slow increasing of the speed of rinsing has, at first, no effect on bed
behavior, porosity remains constant and, under laminar flow, the losses are linearly variable,
as it results from the Kozena-Carman formula [19]. The sum of hydraulic losses and grain
buoyancy is lower than the forces of gravity. As it flows between grains, the stream of rinsing
water is characterized by very differentiated local speeds, both in respect of value and
direction. In places where water stream is of high speed, individual grains may become
displaced or slightly lifted. Increasing in flow velocity of rinsing stream raises the speeds of
individual, local streams, which, in their flow among grains, affect higher lying grains.
Gradual increasing of flow velocity raises the hydrodynamic force and when the sum of that
force and displacement force becomes equal to the force of gravity, the bed becomes
weightless. From that moment any increase in flow velocity will translate into raising the bed
height, i.e. bed expansion. From such state the bed is called fluidal or fluidized bed, as is it
behaves like a liquid. The upper limit for rinsing speed increase is such bed expansion that the
lightest grains, those in the upper part of the fluidized bed, reach the edge of the filter outlet,
and begin to flow over, out of the filter.

A visualization of fluidization phase provides evidence of complex processes taking place at

that time, which makes bed behavior during rinsing difficult to describe [13]. In such
conditions, impurities that were stopped during filtration, through filtering, sedimentation or
other forces on bed grain surfaces, are carried away beyond the bed. Important role in the
removing of impurities from grain surfaces is played by shearing forces and by collisions of
grains. Weaver [38] claims that collision energy significantly affects the results of grain
cleaning and that it depends on granulation of bed grains.

Bed expansion significantly influences the effectiveness of its cleaning for two reasons. One
is the fact that in loosened state it is easier to carry off impurities from intergranular spaces
beyond the filter, and the other is the existence of shearing forces during water flow around
grains; they help to tear particles of impurities off the grains to which they stick.

A consequence of expansion is the gradual rise in intergranular porosity [30]. This porosity is
related to bed porosity in settled state and to bed height in that state, as well as in fluidized
state. The relationship between porosities and bed heights in any state is reflected by the
formula

(1)

where: L0 and ε0, Lmf and εmf, Le and εe, are height and porosity in bed state: settled, at
fluidization onset and at any fluidized state, respectively.

MODELING OF BED EXPANSION DURING RINSING

The basic formula utilized by the majority of researchers for correlation of rinsing speed and
bed porosity is Richardson-Zaki formula [34]

(2)

where: V – water flow velocity, Vs – sedimentation velocity of bed grains in water, ε – bed
porosity, n – exponent.
 If both speeds, V and Vs, are clearly determined, the exponent is not a constant value and
depends on several factors. Fair et al. [8] assumed n = 5, whereas Richardson and Zaki [34]
recommended the following formulas:

n = (4.35 + 17.5 · d/D) · Res-0.03 for 0.2 < Res < 1.0 (3)
n = (4.45 + 18 · d/D) · Res-0.1 for 1.0 < Res < 200 (4)
n = 4.45 · Res-0.1 for 200 < Res < 500 (5)
n = 2.39 for Res > 500 (6)

The above formulas were then recommended and utilized by Leva [15], Amirtharajah and
Cleasby [1], Razumow [31], as well as by Cleasby and Kuo-Shuh [4]

In his later publication Richardson [33] corrected previously proposed formulas and offered
the following summary:

n = 4.65 + 20 · d/D for Res < 0.2 (7)

n = (4.4 + 18 · d/D) · Res-0.03 for 0.2 < Res < 1.0 (8)
n = (4.4 + 18 · d/D) · Res-0.1 for 1.0 < Res < 200 (9)
n = 4.4 · Res-0.1 for 200 < Res < 500 (10)
n = 2.4 for Res > 500 (11)

In the above formulas, Res is the Reynolds number calculated for free sedimentation velocity
of bed grains, Vs, d – is the substitute diameter of grains, D – internal diameter of filtration
column. The above formulas are correct for spherical grains. Therefore, for grains of other
shapes, Richardson and Zaki [33] proposed a correction of exponent n, as well as a formula,
which, as they claim, is correct for Re > 500

n = 2.7 · P 0.16 (12)

where

(13)

where, in turn, dz – diameter of sphere having the same surface as the grains, ds – diameter of
circle with surface area of the particle projected, when it lies in most stable position.

Formulas expressing the exponent n may be divided into two groups. One is formulas
different for various ranges of the Res number, and the other – formulas, which the authors
consider universal and the same for a large range of the Res number.

In addition to the above discussed, the following formulas or recommended values may be
counted among the first group formulas utilized in successive years by other researchers [3,
10, 32]

Wen i Yu [39]
n = 4.65 for 0.001 < Res < 2.0 (14)
n = 3.37 for 2.0 < Res < 500 (15)
n = 2.35 Res > 500 (16)
Muslu [20. 21]
n = 3.17 for Res < 60 (17)
n = 4  Res-0.057 for 60 < Res < 200 (18)
n = 6.55  Res-0.15 for 200 < Res < 6000 (19)
n = 1.78 Res > 6000 (20)
Sholij i Johnson [35]
n = 4.35  Res-0.03 for 0.2 < Res < 1.0 (21)
n = 4.45  Res-0.1 for 1.0 < Res < 200 (22)
Di Felice [6]. Yang i Renken [40]
n = 4.65 for Res < 0.2 (23)
n = 4.45  Res-0.03 for 0.2 < Res < 1.0 (24)
n = 4.45  Res-0.1 for 1.0 < Res < 500 (25)
n = 2.4 for Res > 500 (26)

For Res > 500 Yang i Renken [40] recommended a lower value of n = 2.39.

The second group of formulas does not depend on Reynolds number ranges, and their author
believed they are universal for beds and rinsing speeds applied for regeneration of typical
filters. These formulas have forms combined with Archimedes number, Ar or Reynolds
number, Res and are presented below

(27)

Garside i Al-Dibouni [2, 41]

(28)

By modifying that formula with a relationship that binds Reynolds number with Archimedes
number, they obtained [2, 41]:

(29)

Limtrakul at al. [16]

(30)

Rowe [17]
 (31)

Khan i Richardson [7, 17]

(32)

Rowe [37]

(33)

Moldavsky at al. [18]

(34)

The formula (34) published in the paper [18], contains the editorial mistake consisting in
incorrect multiplier: 0.0043. It should read: 0.043.

The research presented below consisted in finding exponent n from the above formulas for
experimental data and comparing them with the results obtained from experimental research
referring to the formula.

EXPERIMENTS

The following 8 beds, which have already found practical application or are under intensive
research were selected for testing:

 Anthracite – imported from Ukraine by “Tlen” cooperative in Czempin,

 Barite – from Przedsiębiorstwo Produkcyjno Handlowo Usługowe “R & S” Ltd. Co. in
Boguszów Gorce near Wałbrzych [26],
 Chalcedonite – from ‘InowłódŸ’ mine, ‘Teofilów’ deposit, exploited by MIKROSIL
Ltd. Co. from Radom [36],
 Diatomite – obtained from Diatomite Product Dept. in Jawornik Ruski near Bircza, of
the Specjalistyczne Przedsiębiorstwo Górnicze GÓRTECH Ltd. Co. in Krakow [11],
 Clinoptylolite – from ZEOCEM a.s. near Bystre, Slovakia [23, 24],
 Roasted dolomite called nevtraco – offered by the Eurowater company,
 Sand – from Tomaszowskie Kopalnie Wyrobów Mineralnych “Biała Góra” mines in
Tomaszow Mazowiecki,
 Pyrolusite – from Gabon, purchased through Centrala Zaopatrzenia Hutnictwa in
Katowice.
The products were obtained in commercial quantities with mixed granulation. Therefore, the
first step prior to actual testing was to prepare beds in suitable grain fractions. The beds were
screened so as to enable grading of 10 following fractions: 3.15 – 5.0 mm, 2.0 – 3.15 mm, 1.5
– 2.0 mm, 1.25 – 1.5 mm, 1.0 – 1.25 mm, 0.8 – 1.0 mm, 0.63 – 0.8 mm, 0.5 – 0.63 mm, 0.4 –
0.5 mm and 0.315 – 0.4 mm.

The granulation ranges resulted from sieve set, used by the laboratory.

A substitute diameter was assigned to each fraction range and for each bed.
The measurement consisted in determining the mass of single bed grain, and then, knowing its
density, the diameter of a ball of the same volume as the grain was calculated using the
following formula (35)

(35)

where: m – mass of grains, ρs – their density and n – the grain number.

As individual grain fractions contained grains of different shapes and sizes, limited only by
the size of sieve, differing numbers of grains were added to the weighing vessel.

In case of courser fractions (3.15 – 5.0 mm) 30 grains were counted in each time, 50 grains
each – for smaller fractions and so on, ending with over 3000 grains each being counted for
the smallest fraction. This growing number of grains for smaller granulations was used in
order to reduce the effect of weighing error.

Density of minerals was determined by standard method using pycnometer [25] and
denaturized alcohol.

Volumetric density of each mineral may have different values, depending on the degree of
grain compaction. Since bed is quite loose during rinsing process, once it is ended the bed is
in the state of bulk-density conditions. That is why the porosity calculation utilized volumetric
density determined by standard method [27, 29] with steel cylinders and funnels for
continuous grain feeding.

If density and bulk density values are known, porosity can be calculated according to the
standard method [28]

(36)

εl – porosity, ρs – density of bed grains, ρp – bulk density.

Inspection under microscope, as well as initial density and hydraulic testing, found out that
some minerals exhibited significant internal porosity with consequent long degassing of
grains when immersed in liquid. This phenomenon applied primarily to diatomite and
clinoptylolite, and less to chalcedonite, nevtraco and barite. Since the intergranular porosity
rather than internal/grain porosity plays a significant role in the flow through both settled and
fluidized beds, the effect of the latter should be eliminated in calculations.

Therefore, additional experiment was carried out by immersing grains of all beds in kerosene
of density precisely determined (by pycnometric method). Once the pores were filled with
kerosene (air bubbling has stopped), grains were removed onto a screen and left for kerosene
to drip off. Seen under microscope, the internal pores in grains remained filled with kerosene
with convex meniscus, while flat surfaces were covered with kerosene film. In order to
remove this excess of kerosene, the grains were gently rolled on paper of average
absorptivity. The final stage was weighing of grains with their pores filled with kerosene.
Using the mass of dry grains, that of grains saturated with kerosene and knowing the densities
of kerosene and that of the minerals, the volume of pores per 1 g of bed (ml/g) was calculated.
This information permitted correcting of porosity calculated from the formula (37) by internal
porosity

(37)

where: ρp – bulk density [kg/m3], vw – specific volume of pores [m3/kg], ρs – density of the
mineral [kg/m3].

The porosity value, as determined for each bed and each fraction from the formula (37) was
used in further tests and calculations.

The sedimentation velocity was tested with use of 2m-long column of transparent material
(PLEXI) of internal diameter 52 mm. Appropriate levels were marked on column wall and the
time of grain sinking was measured on sections of 0.5 m and 1.0 m. The lengths of sections
and sinking times became a basis for calculating of sedimentation velocity Vs. In order to
obtain reliable results, the sedimentation velocity was measured for 100 grains of each
mineral and each fraction.

All measurements of sinking velocity, as well as bed fluidization testing described in the
following, were performed in water at the temperature of 13°C. The constancy of that
temperature was observed, because water was taken from a drilled well and, after its
conditioning, was stored in reserve and surge tank. This tank of 1000 m3 capacity is buried
under ground under a quite thick layer of soil, thus ensuring constant temperature conditions
in it.

The testing of bed expansion and head losses during water flow through the bed in both
steady state and during fluidization was conducted with use of the stand shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Diagram of the stand for bed testing

The testing stand was built of a 2m-long transparent tube of PLEXI plastic material with
internal diameter of 52 mm. A strainer, made of plastic filtration nozzle, with additional small
holes drilled in its upper surface to enable rather uniform water flow, was installed in the
lower part of the tube. A gravel layer of quartz sand in granulation from 3.15 do 5.0 mm was
poured first onto the strainer. The height of the gravel layer ranged from 13.0 to 14.0 cm.
Then a layer of tested bed was poured onto that gravel layer. Its height was 50 cm for courser
beds and 40 cm – for bed of finer granulation. These heights resulted from the distance of the
top surface of bed from column outlet, so as to allow for expected expansion and to avoid
grain escape to drain. These strata thicknesses were determined during earlier, preliminary
tests.

Each series of tests began by filling the column with water to approximately half of the height
and with gravel layer filling. Then water was pumped with high intensity through column
inlet in order to fluidize the layer. This operation permitted removing of any impurities which
could get in among gravel grains, and enabled obtaining flat horizontal top surface of that
layer.

The second part of measurements consisted in filling the tested bed on thus prepared gravel
layer. Then valves were opened to enable water flow through the column from the bottom up
for the bed 'settle down' and to flush any dust fraction out, as well as to remove air. The latter
was particularly important for bed with significant internal porosity, especially clinoptylolite
and diatomite. Once the flowing water was clean and contained no air bubbles, the
measurement started from the lowest intensity to higher and higher intensities, with water
flow velocity being measured with flow meter Promag A Endress+Hauser firm, as well as the
upper surface level.
 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Properties of materials.
Since the tests were carried out on natural materials, which are in use in water treatment
filters, the results of measurements of density and porosity differed slightly between
individual fractions. It was because of natural admixtures occurring in them. Therefore, such
parameters as density and porosity were determined separately for each fraction and these
individual results for specific fraction, rather than the averaged result for the mineral, were
taken for further testing. The results of measurements of density, substitute (equivalent)
diameter, dz, and intergranular porosity in both loose and compacted state are specified in
Table 1.

Table 1. The properties of studied bed materials

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Anthracite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 1793.2 1750.7 1776.5 1743.2 1742.9 1773.2 1745.2 1763.5 1794.1 1.8009
stand. dev. 26.2 14.9 28.3 4.1 23.7 9.1 21.4 20.1 29.9 16.3
dz [mm] 3.877 2.544 1.883 1.368 1.083 0.905 0.824 0.607 0.441 0.351
εloose [-] 0.491 0.486 0.491 0.539 0.580 0.582 0.568 0.544 0.553 0.562
stand. dev. 0.011 0.006 0.011 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.005
Barite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 4235.4 4047.8 4071.3 4237.7 4181.0 4165.6 4096.0 4038.9 3989.0 3906.6
stand. dev. 260.1 232.5 319.0 165.8 122.0 65.5 9.5 154.2 30.9 123.2
dz [mm] 4.251 2.882 2.059 1.490 1.217 1.009 0.764 0.590 0.507 0.403
εloose [-] 0.472 0.453 0.459 0.490 0.483 0.465 0.457 0.459 0.452 0.463
stand. dev. 0.029 0.026 0.035 0.016 0.013 0.018 0.003 0.017 0.006 0.014
Chalcedonite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 2488.0 2560.0 2563.6 2541.5 25.39.5 2653.5 2627.0 2701.6 2657.7 2681.7
stand. dev. 8.1 49.4 48.1 39.9 48.0 99.0 78.4 94.4 80.7 104.1
dz [mm] 3.370 2.522 1.763 1.359 1.124 0.788 0.640 0.524 0.404 0.321
εloose [-] 0.503 0.474 0.512 0.518 0.519 0.511 0.498 0.491 0.483 0.477
stand. dev. 0.003 0.009 0.007 0.005 0.007 0.013 0.011 0.12 0.011 0.014
Diatomite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 2428.7 2323.1 2354.9 2360.4 2391.5 2380.8 2421.1 2432.1 2377.6 2358.3
stand. dev. 97.6 38.8 15.9 6.1 43.5 25.3 10.1 40.0 42.3 29.5
dz [mm] 3.730 2.320 1.644 1.345 1.047 0.829 0.635 0.514 0.414 0.329
εloose [-] 0.513 0.466 0.490 0.496 0.492 0.493 0.501 0.506 0.514 0.483
stand. Dev. 0.013 0.008 0.005 0.004 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.007 0.006 0.005
Clinoptylolite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 2391.3 2407.1 2393.7 2371.5 2380.5 2375.2 2378.2 2376.0 2339.6 2349.0
stand. Dev. 23.9 8.4 9.6 14.7 6.3 19.3 15.3 12.1 19.5 15.4
dz [mm] 3.449 2.247 1.698 1.295 1.015 0.792 0.647 0.516 0.394 0.313
εloose [-] 0.517 0.528 0.547 0.502 0.532 0.522 0.515 0.528 0.517 0.534
stand. Dev. 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.04
Nevtraco
 3
ρs [kg/m ] 2620.8 2630.8 2635.5 2627.2 2666.8 2647.3 2639.3 2676.1 2673.3 2656.0
stand. Dev. 26.8 38.2 5.6 30.8 24.8 19.7 39.4 18.9 18.5 21.1
dz [mm] 3.337 2.335 1.824 1.500 1.211 0.911 0.698 0.639 0.405 0.321
εloose [-] 0.512 0.510 0.513 0.513 0.521 0.528 0.525 0.532 0.546 0.551
stand. Dev. 0.007 0.008 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.004
Sand
3
ρs [kg/m ] 2667.1 2664.0 2659.5 2655.5 2656.6 2649.6 2665.0 2657.3 2657.6 2657.1
stand. dev. 7.0 16.1 11.9 23.5 24.7 11.9 17.1 25.5 22.3 7.6
dz [mm] 4.427 2.804 1.899 1.324 1.172 0.947 0.749 0.583 0.431 0.329
εloose [-] 0.430 0.427 0.423 0.421 0.423 0.418 0.417 0.412 0.410 0.418
stand. dev. 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.005 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.005 0.002
Pyrolusite
3
ρs [kg/m ] 4006.2 4188.2 4231.1 4109.9 4134.7 4184.4 3998.8 3811.9 3808.3 3838.1
stand. dev. 27.7 20.6 150.4 106.9 114.2 51.7 35.6 70.7 69.8 127.4
dz [mm] 3.729 2.443 1.771 1.374 1.141 0.880 0.678 0.486 0.423 0.336
εloose [-] 0.517 0.508 0.492 0.482 0.495 0.461 0.489 0.520 0.515 0.506
stand. dev. 0.008 0.006 0.014 0.010 0.010 0.006 0.004 0.007 0.007 0.013
stand. dev. – standard deviation

The densities specified in Table 1 exhibit a relative spread, which is unavoidable because of
the presence of lighter admixtures, as well as the inherent measurement error.
The measurement error applied in equal measure to all minerals and fractions, whereas any
admixtures influenced all materials to different degrees. The greatest differences in results,
confirmed under microscope, are noticeable for barite, which was contaminated with schist
impurities so soft that they crumbled during screening but were hard to remove. From all
fractions of barite they were removed hydraulically through intensive flow of water from
bottom upwards, but this method has not succeeded to eliminate them entirely. That is why, in
case of courser fractions, they were additionally removed manually, but it could not be done
in respect to the finest fractions.

Expansion
The variability of bed expansion during rinsing is defined as a ratio of the bed height in
expanded and settled state to the height of bed in settled state, expressed with the formula [14]

(38)

As bed expansion variations are caused by the rinsing stream, a natural relationship expresses
it as a function of rinsing speed. Within the framework of this paper, several curves of such
relationship(s) were plotted for all beds and fractions and, for example, a curve for one
granulation, 1.0-1.25 mm is presented in Fig. 3. and Fig. 4 on the other hand shows examples
of expansion variations for selected 5 fractions of chalcedonite bed.

The diagrams (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) indicate that expansion variations versus rinsing speed are
clearly linear functions. The assessment of test results for all beds and all fractions permits a
conclusion that this linearity was common for all analyzed cases.
 Fig. 3. Bed expansion versus rinsing speed and the type of bed for granulation 1.0-1.25 mm

Fig. 4. The expansion of chalcedonite bed versus rinsing speed for selected fractions

Fig. 3 shows that the curves tend to form groups. The highest inclination is exhibited by
anthracite, then diatomite and clinoptylolite, followed by sand, nevtraco and chalcedonite, the
lowest – pyrolusite and barite. The curves show clearly a significant effect of density on
function inclination. Fig. 4 in turn shows that, within a single mineral, granulation of grains
has effect on function inclination. Both these parameters are bound with each other in/by
Archimedes number (formula 27) [9]. In logarithmic formula (2), the formula becomes a
linear relationship
 (39)

Once a diagram is plotted for experimental data, logV = f(logε) is a straight line with
inclination of the exponent n. Examples of diagrams for selected fractions of diatomite,
clinoptylolite, sand and pyrolusite are presented in Figs 5 and Fig. 6.

Fig. 5. Variability curve as logV=f(logε) for two selected fractions of diatomite and
clinoptylolite

Fig. 6. Variability curve as logV=f(logε) for three selected fractions of sand and two fractions of
pyrolusite
 The diagrams permit obtaining the additional information. If porosity equal to one is
substituted in the formula, thus expressing a phenomenon of bed being carried out of filtration
column, then the formula shows that V = Vs, meaning that, with the use of data from Fig. 5
and 6, one may obtain values corresponding to sedimentation velocity of individual bed
grains.

The results of experimentally determined values of exponent n as the inclination of functions,

presented as examples in Fig. 5 and 6, are specified in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and
designated n exp. For comparison, Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 specify also the values of
exponent n as calculated for all minerals and all fractions using the formulas from other
models. These are designated as form. with the number of the respective formula. Letters Res
designate the Reynolds number referred to experimentally determined sedimentation velocity
of individual grains.

Table 2. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of anthracite and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.761 3.294 3.638 4.168 4.950 5.354 5.421 5.052 6.696 -
Res 490.68 278.17 182.55 112.4 65.57 45.48 37.03 18.52 7.48 3.53
form. 4÷6 2.395 2.535 3.031 3.070 3.176 3.252 3.300 3.480 3.764 4.033
form. 9÷11 2.368 2.506 3.001 3.039 3.143 3.218 3.265 3.443 3.723 3.988
form. 15.16 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.586 2.816 2.810 2.902 2.973 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - 2.644 2.775 2.929 3.038 3.101 3.324 3.639 3.923
form. 25.26 2.395 2.535 2.644 2.775 2.929 3.038 3.101 3.324 3.639 3.923
form. 28 2.336 2.406 2.481 2.601 2.786 2.945 3.047 3.444 4.006 4.404
form. 29 2.435 2.482 2.544 2.668 2.804 2.933 3.029 3.360 3.765 4.084
form. 30 2.826 2.883 2.945 3.044 3.196 3.327 3.411 3.737 4.199 4.526
form. 31 2.525 2.586 2.648 2.741 2.877 2.990 3.062 3.337 3.740 4.054
form. 32 2.440 2.484 2.535 2.629 2.726 2.815 2.881 3.105 3.391 3.635
form. 33 2.472 2.532 2.592 2.684 2.817 2.928 2.998 3.267 3.662 3.970
form. 34 2.502 2.579 2.658 2.795 2.923 3.032 3.111 3.357 3.640 3.866
No results for the finest fraction of anthracite is caused by the fact that this fraction did not expand even at very flow velocities (below the
limit of measurability), so the minimum fluidization conditions could not be measured
Table 3. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of barite and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.810 2.949 2.913 3.522 3.460 3.596 3.647 4.399 4.785 5.122
Res 1180.34 707.78 440.14 269.89 184.43 137.71 89.03 58.75 44.07 27.62
form. 4÷6 2.390 2.390 2.421 2.542 2.892 2.934 3.011 3.099 3.168 3.293
form. 9÷11 2.400 2.400 2.394 2.514 2.862 2.903 2.979 3.066 3.134 3.257
form. 15.16 2.550 2.550 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.267 2.448 2.628 2.829 2.827 2.907 2.971 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - - - 2.641 2.719 2.841 2.961 3.048 3.193
form. 25.26 2.400 2.400 2.421 2.542 2.641 2.719 2.841 2.961 3.048 3.193
 form. 28 2.275 2.305 2.347 2.410 2.479 2.546 2.674 2.831 2.960 3.206
form. 29 2.411 2.425 2.448 2.491 2.534 2.591 2.719 2.897 3.047 3.327
form. 30 2.776 2.800 2.835 2.887 2.943 2.998 3.103 3.233 3.339 3.542
form. 31 2.466 2.496 2.535 2.590 2.646 2.699 2.795 2.909 3.001 3.172
form. 32 2.416 2.431 2.454 2.491 2.527 2.572 2.666 2.791 2.892 3.082
form. 33 2.415 2.444 2.482 2.535 2.591 2.642 2.737 2.848 2.938 3.106
form. 34 2.442 2.470 2.509 2.568 2.622 2.686 2.812 2.967 3.086 3.296
Table 4. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of chalcedonite and calculated from respective
formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.865 2.919 2.943 3.597 3.594 3.801 4.080 4.274 4.456 4.697
Res 476.11 320.84 196.55 142.02 103.87 57.38 41.06 29.29 19.07 12.56
form. 4÷6 2.402 2.499 2.986 3.000 3.044 3.149 3.221 3.303 3.418 3.541
form. 9÷11 2.375 2.471 2.957 2.969 3.012 3.116 3.187 3.267 3.381 3.503
form. 15.16 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.598 2.756 2.815 2.879 2.960 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - 2.624 2.711 2.797 2.968 3.069 3.175 3.314 3.455
form. 25.26 2.402 2.499 2.624 2.711 2.797 2.968 3.069 3.175 3.314 3.455
form. 28 2.339 2.385 2.466 2.538 2.624 2.841 2.995 3.173 3.426 3.687
form. 29 2.429 2.451 2.503 2.570 2.642 2.845 3.025 3.232 3.553 3.857
form. 30 2.828 2.866 2.933 2.992 3.063 3.241 3.368 3.514 3.722 3.936
form. 31 2.527 2.568 2.636 2.693 2.759 2.916 3.025 3.149 3.324 3.507
form. 32 2.435 2.456 2.502 2.556 2.610 2.755 2.878 3.018 3.239 3.459
form. 33 2.474 2.514 2.580 2.636 2.701 2.855 2.962 3.083 3.255 3.434
form. 34 2.485 2.521 2.595 2.676 2.752 2.938 3.085 3.241 3.472 3.684
Table 5. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of diatomite and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.760 3.050 3.287 3.507 3.785 4.208 4.611 4.867 4.948 5.113
Res 398.65 262.52 183.06 122.79 84.57 59.25 38.31 26.65 17.96 11.24
form. 4÷6 2.445 2.549 2.982 3.040 3.088 3.149 3.242 3.332 3.441 3.583
form. 9÷11 2.418 2.521 2.953 3.009 3.055 3.116 3.208 3.296 3.404 3.544
form. 15.16 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.668 2.840 2.843 2.912 2.972 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - 2.643 2.751 2.855 2.959 3.091 3.205 3.334 3.494
form. 25.26 2.445 2.549 2.643 2.751 2.855 2.959 3.091 3.205 3.334 3.494
form. 28 2.358 2.415 2.480 2.576 2.691 2.827 3.030 3.227 3.463 3.756
form. 29 2.439 2.467 2.530 2.589 2.698 2.847 3.080 3.316 3.603 3.920
form. 30 2.844 2.891 2.945 3.023 3.118 3.230 3.396 3.558 3.752 3.994
form. 31 2.544 2.593 2.647 2.722 2.808 2.907 3.050 3.186 3.350 3.557
form. 32 2.444 2.471 2.524 2.570 2.651 2.756 2.915 3.075 3.274 3.506
form. 33 2.491 2.539 2.592 2.665 2.749 2.846 2.986 3.120 3.280 3.483
 form. 34 2.502 2.548 2.630 2.699 2.809 2.944 3.132 3.307 3.512 3.734
Table 6. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of clinoptylolite and calculated from respective
formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 3. 117 3.149 3.700 3.529 4.234 4.568 4.652 4.826 5.006 5.946
Res 497.60 327.3 181.73 132.14 81.43 53.26 36.6 25.33 14.9 8.92
form. 4÷6 2.392 2.494 2.993 3.006 3.092 3.175 3.261 3.350 3.501 3.662
form. 9÷11 2.365 2.466 2.964 2.975 3.060 3.141 3.226 3.314 3.463 3.622
form. 15.16 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.581 2.748 2.808 2.875 2.974 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - 2.645 2.731 2.866 2.990 3.105 3.221 3.397 3.575
form. 25.26 2.392 2.494 2.645 2.731 2.866 2.990 3.105 3.221 3.397 3.575
form. 28 2.334 2.382 2.482 2.556 2.704 2.873 3.053 3.256 3.579 3.900
form. 29 2.430 2.449 2.521 2.603 2.716 2.884 3.066 3.320 3.682 3.989
form. 30 2.825 2.864 2.946 3.007 3.129 3.267 3.416 3.582 3.848 4.111
form. 31 2.523 2.566 2.648 2.707 2.818 2.939 3.066 3.206 3.431 3.661
form. 32 2.436 2.454 2.517 2.581 2.664 2.781 2.906 3.078 3.331 3.560
form. 33 2.471 2.512 2.593 2.650 2.759 2.878 3.002 3.139 3.360 3.585
form. 34 2.487 2.519 2.619 2.714 2.827 2.975 3.122 3.311 3.568 3.782
Table 7. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of nevtraco and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.691 3.065 3.464 3.847 4.177 4.339 4.738 5.113 5.284 5.710
Res 614.79 379.7 264.01 198.42 142.69 90.88 57.68 48.88 23.59 15.71
form. 4÷6 2.390 2.457 2.548 2.929 2.964 3.036 3.128 3.166 3.346 3.463
form. 9÷11 2.400 2.429 2.519 2.899 2.934 3.004 3.095 3.132 3.310 3.425
form. 15.16 2.350 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.500 2.687 2.838 2.851 2.911 2.959 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - - 2.622 2.710 2.835 2.967 3.016 3.244 3.379
form. 25.26 2.400 2.457 2.548 2.622 2.710 2.835 2.967 3.016 3.244 3.379
form. 28 2.316 2.364 2.414 2.464 2.537 2.667 2.838 2.912 3.298 3.546
form. 29 2.429 2.457 2.494 2.538 2.605 2.744 2.939 3.018 3.546 3.864
form. 30 2.809 2.849 2.890 2.931 2.991 3.098 3.239 3.299 3.617 3.821
form. 31 2.506 2.550 2.593 2.634 2.692 2.790 2.915 2.967 3.235 3.408
form. 32 2.435 2.462 2.495 2.530 2.582 2.684 2.819 2.873 3.234 3.464
form. 33 2.454 2.496 2.538 2.579 2.635 2.732 2.854 2.905 3.168 3.337
form. 34 2.483 2.530 2.583 2.637 2.712 2.848 3.017 3.079 3.466 3.690
Table 8. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of sand and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4

Tests 2.378 2.532 2.642 2.831 3.168 3.466 3.779 4.008 4.047 4.084
 Res 1088.08 585.73 337.85 197.39 163.3 115.9 86.45 51.65 31.41 20.37
form. 4÷6 2.390 2.390 2.486 2.893 2.917 2.971 3.015 3.136 5.465 3.376
form. 9÷11 2.400 2.400 2.458 2.864 2.887 2.940 2.983 3.102 5.430 3.339
form. 15.16 2.350 2.350 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.295 2.518 2.735 2.782 2.870 2.960 2.992 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - - 2.623 2.673 2.767 2.849 3.000 3.152 3.292
form. 25.26 2.400 2.400 2.486 2.623 2.673 2.767 2.849 3.000 3.152 3.292
form. 28 2.279 2.320 2.378 2.465 2.505 2.592 2.683 2.887 3.135 3.386
form. 29 2.416 2.440 2.487 2.573 2.618 2.720 2.879 3.110 3.468 3.831
form. 30 2.779 2.813 2.861 2.932 2.965 3.036 3.112 3.279 3.483 3.689
form. 31 2.470 2.510 2.562 2.635 2.667 2.734 2.803 2.949 3.122 3.296
form. 32 2.421 2.446 2.488 2.558 2.592 2.667 2.778 2.935 3.180 3.439
form. 33 2.419 2.457 2.509 2.580 2.611 2.677 2.744 2.887 3.057 3.227
form. 34 2.458 2.503 2.572 2.678 2.725 2.827 2.966 3.150 4.052 3.666
Table 9. Exponents “n” for Richardson-Zaki formula obtained from testing of pirolusite and calculated from respective formulas

Granulations [mm]
Parameters
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4
Tests 2.356 2.793 3.031 3.159 3.410 3.583 4.122 5.029 5.186 5.131
Res 966.20 534.28 337 234.35 175.25 114.86 57.76 39.68 28.72 19.93
form. 4÷6 2.390 2.390 2.487 2.579 2.888 2.956 3.123 3.208 3.286 3.385
form. 9÷11 2.400 2.400 2.459 2.550 2.858 2.925 3.089 3.174 3.250 3.348
form. 15,16 2.350 2.350 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370 3.370
form. 17÷19 2.336 2.553 2.736 2.889 2.871 2.931 3.170 3.170 3.170 3.170
form. 22 - - - - 2.655 2.769 2.966 3.080 3.181 3.299
form. 25,26 2.400 2.400 2.487 2.579 2.655 2.769 2.966 3.080 3.181 3.299
form. 28 2.285 2.328 2.378 2.433 2.490 2.595 2.838 3.012 3.184 3.399
form. 29 2.415 2.435 2.467 2.510 2.556 2.653 2.806 3.016 3.273 3.560
form. 30 2.784 2.819 2.861 2.906 2.952 3.039 3.238 3.382 3.523 3.700
form. 31 2.477 2.517 2.563 2.609 2.655 2.736 2.914 3.037 3.157 3.305
form. 32 2.420 2.441 2.470 2.507 2.545 2.618 2.728 2.872 3.046 3.244
form. 33 2.425 2.465 2.509 2.554 2.599 2.679 2.853 2.974 3.091 3.236
form. 34 2.451 2.488 2.535 2.593 2.647 2.748 2.891 3.064 3.258 3.463

The above tables indicate that results for exponent n obtained from individual formulas do not
differ much from each other. However, in confrontations with the values from the top row, i.e.
experimental data, a significant discrepancy can be noticed. That discrepancy occurs primarily
for small granulation, i.e. for small Reynolds numbers. It shows that grain shape, expressed by
sphericity, will have a significant share in determining the values of the exponent. With this in
mind calculations were carried out with the use of formulas (40) and (41) [5], and their results
are specified in Table 10.
 n = (4.45 + 18 · d/D) · Res-0.1 · ψb (40)
0.884
where b = -2.9237 · ψ · Res-0.363 (41)
Table 10. Exponent “n” from tests and calculation using formulas (40) and (41)

Granulations [mm]
Parametry
3.15÷5.0 2.0÷3.15 1.5÷2.0 1.25÷1.5 1.0÷1.25 0.8÷1.0 0.63÷0.8 0.5÷0.63 0.4÷0.5 0.315÷0.4

Anthracite
Tests 2.761 3.294 3.638 4.168 4.950 5.354 5.421 5.052 6.696 -
form. 40 i 41 3.415 3.386 3.459 3.732 4.092 4.354 4.500 5.083 6.464 8.078
Barite
Tests 2.810 2.949 2.913 3.522 3.460 3.596 3.647 4.399 4.785 5.122
form. 40 i 41 3.105 3.020 3.050 3.180 3.294 3.382 3.512 3.683 3.795 4.096
Chalcedonite
Tests 2.865 2.919 2.943 3.597 3.594 3.801 4.080 4.274 4.456 4.697
form. 40 i 41 3.361 3.282 3.438 3.552 3.674 3.970 4.134 4.320 4.669 5.069
Diatomite
Tests 2.760 3.050 3.287 3.507 3.785 4.208 4.611 4.867 4.948 5.113
form. 40 i 41 3.349 3.333 3.407 3.544 3.672 3.874 4.187 4.493 4.862 5.190
Clinoptylolite
Tests 3. 117 3.149 3.700 3.529 4.234 4.568 4.652 4.826 5.006 5.946
form. 40 i 41 3.366 3.417 3.534 3.520 3.815 4.039 4.241 4.634 5.145 5.669
Nevtraco
Tests 2.691 3.065 3.464 3.847 4.177 4.339 4.738 5.113 5.284 5.710
form. 40 i 41 3.241 3.255 3.313 3.395 3.506 3.719 3.977 4.115 4.771 5.200
Sand
Tests 2.378 2.532 2.642 2.831 3.168 3.466 3.779 4.008 4.047 4.084
form. 40 i 41 3.109 3.011 3.018 3.108 3.169 3.240 3.322 3.491 6.146 3.969
Pirolusite
Tests 2.356 2.793 3.031 3.159 3.410 3.583 4.122 5.029 5.186 5.131
form. 40 i 41 3.124 3.111 3.154 3.236 3.329 3.416 3.860 4.190 4.477 4.768

As may be seen, the results obtained from formulas (40) and (41) are closer to the result of
experimental testing, but also not satisfactory. Therefore, an attempt was made to find a
function expressing the value of the exponent for studied minerals in Reynolds number ranges
corresponding to the study ranges. The general formula was assumed in form formulated on
the approach of Gunasingham at al. [12] n = A · ReiB. Upon arranging exponents n in
function of the Reynolds number, Res, the obtained diagrams were approximated with
exponential function. Refer to the example of the diagram of measuring points, as well as the
function for pyrolusite in fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Exponent n versus Reynolds number, Res

Functions which enable determination of exponent n values for individual minerals are
presented in Table 11.

Table 11. Approximation functions

2
Mineral Function R
n = 10.467  Res
-0.2015
anthracite 0.9152
n = 8.384  Res
-0.163
barite 0.9234
n = 6.928  Res
-0.1464
chalcedonite 0.9535
n = 8.413  Res
-0.1794
diatomite 0.9732
n = 8.192  Res
-0.1598
clinoptylolite 0.9542
n = 10.480  Res
-0.1999
nevtraco 0.9512
n = 7.084  Res
-0.1596
sand 0.9316
n = 10.212  Res
-0.2111
pirolusite 0.9820

Presented formulas enable determination of values of the exponent with quite high precision
(high values of R2). Similarly as done by Gunasingham et al. [12] an attempt was made to
determine a general formula (for all minerals) that would bind parameters A and B with
density, sphericity as well as porosity in conditions of minimum fluidization velocity.
However, they have not succeeded, as the obtained formulas showed rather low value of R2,
below 0.4.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The presented research results, referred to 8 different minerals in 10 granulation ranges,
showed that formulas published hitherto describe the value of the exponent n rather well, but
they apply to beds with spherical grains. The formula (30) proposed by Limtrakul et al. [16],
as well as formula (34) [18], give the highest values. Formula (34) is a modification of
formula (32) of Khan and Richardson [7, 17], where higher values result from the added term,
which accounts for the ratio of substitute diameter of grains to internal diameter of the filter
i.e. wall effect.

Bed expansion indicated clearly a linear relationship for both all beds and nearly all
granulations. Only in case of course granulations, 3.15-5.0 mm, a very small curving of the
function may be noticed.

In case of beds of shapes deviating from spherical, exponents n obtained from experiments
and utilizing the logarithmic form of Richardson-Zaki formula (2) [34] show much higher
values. For this reason formulas (40) and (41) [5], which include sphericity of grains, were
verified. By utilizing sphericities measured for analyzed minerals, values for n for all minerals
were calculated within the framework of a separate paper. The comparison of calculation
results with the results of these tests, shown in Table 10, was not satisfactory.

For course granulations of grains the values from formulas were significantly higher than the
results from experiments, whereas for fine granulations, n from formulas was lower, except
for chalcedonite and diatomite.

Therefore, within the framework of those research, functions (specified in Table 11) were
developed to enable calculation of exponent values for studied beds within the studied
granulations. The measuring points were quite well characterized with the exponential
function, as evidenced by high values of R2. Similarly as done by the predecessors, the
functions refer to Reynolds number, Res, in conditions of free sedimentation.

Formulas specified in table 11 are not universal, because their coefficients differ for different
minerals. Despite that, their practical importance is high, because they cover granulation
ranges and hydraulic parameters applied in rapid filters in various water supply stations.

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Accepted for print: 12.03.2007

Tadeusz Siwiec
Department of Civil Engineering and Geodesy,
Water Supply and Sewage Systems Section,
Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland
Nowoursynowska St. 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Phone: +48 22 59 35 161
email: Tadeusz_Siwiec@sggw.pl

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