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Engineering Materials
Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction
of manmade structures and components. The primary function of an engineering
material is to withstand applied loading without breaking and without exhibiting
excessive deflection. The major classifications of engineering materials include metals
and its alloys, polymers, ceramics, and composites.
Metals & alloys:
Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are
especially common, and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other
metallic and/or non-metallic materials. The combination usually occurs through a
process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of alloying is to improve the properties
of the base material in some desirable way. The properties of an alloy are different from
that of combining elements. For example when iron is mixed with Carbon, nickel and
chromium, stainless steel is obtained which is hard and does not rust. Other examples
of alloys include brass, bronze, solder etc.
Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of the various
elements in the alloy, where the percentages are measured by weight.

Properties of Metals
 Metals can be hammered into thin sheets. It means they possess the property of
malleability.
 Metals are ductile
 Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Metals are lustrous which means they have a shiny appearance.
 Metals have high tensile strength
 Metals are sonorous
 Metals are hard.

 Properties of alloys
 Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made.
 Alloys are harder than the constituent’s metals.
 Alloys are more resistant to corrosion.
 Alloys have lower melting points than the constituent metals.
 Alloys have lower electrical conductivity than pure metals.

Ferrous & Ferrous Alloys:

The iron is usually found in the form of its ores like magnetite & hematite. Iron is extracted by
reduction of its iron oxide ores. Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys
include steels and cast irons. Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in use
due to the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high versatility of the material.
The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low corrosion resistance.
Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of
carbon increase strength and hardness, and decrease ductility and weld ability.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium
as an alloying ingredient. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least
11%. Passivation occurs with chromium content at or above 12%, in which case a
protective inert film of chromic oxide forms over the material and prevents oxidation.
The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation. Different
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composition of carbon from 0.03 -1.2%, chromium 11-27%, nickel 3.5-22%, manganese
1-2% and silicone 1-2% are added with base material i.e. iron to produce different
types of stainless steel for varying uses and cost.
Cast Iron :
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%.
The carbon present in the cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons
have a low melting temperature which makes them well suited to casting. Cast irons
have a low melting temperature which makes them well suited to casting to produce
machine parts, pump bodies, valves, manhole covers etc.

Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum produced comes from the aluminum ore bauxite The bauxite is purified to
produce aluminium oxide, a white powder from which aluminium can be extracted. The
extraction is done by electrolysis.
Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure
aluminum has good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the
material and prevents oxidation. Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion
resistance.
Aluminum is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry, due to its
light weight and corrosion resistance. Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are
generally not as strong as steels, but still they are worthy.

Chromium Alloys
The only ore of chromium is the mineral chromite (sulphide ore).Chromium metal is
obtained by heating chromite ore in the presence of carbon, aluminum, or silicon.
Sodium chromate and dichromate are produced by roasting chromite ore with soda ash
and are the primary chromium salts from which chromium is extracted after heating with
aluminum.
Co-Cr alloys were originally developed for aircraft engines and heat-resistant materials.
Co-Cr alloys show excellent mechanical properties such as strength and toughness,
castability, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance.
Chromium is added to cobalt alloys in amounts up to 25 percent to obtain corrosion
resistance and hardness. Cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys are used for cutting tools
and hard facings. Chrome vanadium alloy is also used in tools.

Copper Alloys
Copper was initially recovered from sulfide ores by directly smelting the ore called
Chalcopyrite in a furnace.
Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good
corrosion resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful
engineering material, copper alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in
decorative applications.
Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying
ingredient in brass. Tin is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may also
contain aluminum, nickel, zinc, silicon, and other elements. The bronzes are typically
stronger than the brasses while still maintaining good corrosion resistance.
The Aluminum bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing properties, and so
are commonly used in bearing applications.
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Zinc Alloys :
Worldwide, 95% of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite
(ZnS) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron
Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate from its ore to zinc oxide.
Zinc sulfide is reduced with carbon to zinc
zinc alloys include nickel silver, commercial bronze, zinc aluminum. Zinc alloy
applications vary widely based on industry.

Polymers :
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating
units. They may be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are
polymers, such as plastics, rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are
classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and
elastomers.
Plastics and resins may be defined as organic materials that can be easily molded or
shaped by mechanical or chemical action to give tough, non-crystalline substances that
are solid at ordinary temperatures. These solids may have various substances
incorporated with them to impart color and strength. They are resistant to the action of
many chemicals and atmospheric conditions.
Plastics and resins may generally be formed as a result of (1) Addition polymerization
(2) condensation polymerization reactions.

(i) Thermoplastic Polymers

In general, the synthetic resins of the thermoplastic type are formed by polymerization,
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat.
If heat is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return
to solid form. Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change through repeated
heating and cooling (unless the temperature is high enough to break the molecular
bonds). They are therefore very well suited to injection molding. Examples of
thermoplastic materials are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides,
polyesters etc.
(ii) Thermosetting Polymers
The thermosetting resins are obtained from fusible intermediates which, under the
influence of heat, pressure, and a catalyst, undergo chemical changes of condensation
polymerization to form a rigid final shape which is unaffected by heat or solvents.
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become
permanently hard. Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes
extreme however, the thermoset will degrade due to breaking of the molecular bonds.
Thermosets typically have greater hardness and strength than thermoplastics. They
also typically have better dimensional stability than thermoplastics, meaning that they
are better at maintaining their original dimensions when subjected to temperature and
moisture changes. The various examples of Thermosetting Polymers include Bakelite,
Epoxy Resin, Melamine Resin and Urea-Formaldehyde.

About some common Polymers and their synthesis:

(1)Polyvinyl chloride is produced by addition polymerization of the vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM), as shown.
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Vinyl chloride monomer and water are introduced into the reactor along with a
polymerization initiator and other additives. The contents of the reaction vessel are
pressurized and continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform
particle size of the PVC resin. The reaction is exothermic and thus requires cooling.
water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension. PVC may be
manufactured from ethylene, which can be produced from ethane or other petroleum
feedstock.
Additives
Before PVC can be made into finished products, it always requires conversion into a
compound by the incorporation of additives such as heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers,
plasticizers, processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, fillers, flame
retardants, biocides, blowing agents and smoke suppressors, and, optionally,
pigments. The choice of additives used for the PVC finished product is controlled by the
cost performance requirements of the end use specification

Plasticizers:
Among the common plastics, PVC is unique in its acceptance of large amounts of
plasticizer with gradual changes in physical properties from a rigid solid to a soft
gel,[19] and almost 90% of all plasticizer production is used in making flexible
PVC.[20][21] The majority is used in films and cable sheathing.Flexible PVC can consist of
over 85% plasticizer by mass, however unplasticized PVC (UPVC) should not contain
plasticizer.
Phthalates or phthalate esters, are esters of phthalic acid. They are mainly used
as plasticizers, i.e., substances added to plastics to increase their flexibility,
transparency, durability etc. They are used primarily to soften polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

(2)Nylon,6,6 is synthesized by equivalent amounts of hexamethylenediamine , adipic

acid and water are combined in a reactor. This is crystallized to make nylon salt, and
thus molten nylon,6,6 is formed.
(3)Poly ethylene terephthalate (PET), can be synthesized by the condensation
(esterification) reaction between terephthalic acid (also called dimethyl terethalate) and
ethylene glycol with water as a byproduct.
Elastomers (a type of Polymer or Rubber)
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers. Elastomers are commonly used for seals,
adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The strength and stiffness of rubber
can be increased through a process called vulcanization, which involves adding sulfur
and subjecting the material to high temperature and pressure. This process causes
cross-links to form between the polymer chains. Examples of elastomers include natural
rubbers, styrene-butadiene block copolymers, polyisoprene, polybutadiene, ethylene
propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, silicone elastomers,
fluoroelastomers, polyurethane elastomers, and nitrile rubbers.
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Ceramics :
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or nonmetallic elements.
The primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products,
refractories, and abrasives.
Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high melting
temperature, high stiffness, and low electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are
also very brittle materials.

(i) Glass
Glass ceramic materials have the same chemical compositions as glasses but differ from them
in that they are typically 95-98% crystalline by volume, examples are solar collector panels, LCD
screens etc. Ceramics glass are crystalline while glasses are amorphous.
Glass is a solid-like and transparent material that is used in numerous applications in
our daily lives. Glass is made from natural and abundant raw materials (sand, soda ash
and limestone) that are melted at high temperature to form a new material: glass. The
sand commonly used to make glass is comprised of small grains of quartz crystals,
made up of molecules of silicon dioxide, which is also known as silica. When those
molecules are heated to high enough temperatures, the sand melts and loses its
crystalline structure, and as it cools it gains an entirely different structure. That structure,
on a molecular level, is somewhere in between a liquid and a solid.
Glass may be defined: physically as a rigid, undercooled liquid having no definite
melting point and a sufficiently high viscosity (greater than 10 to13 poises) to prevent
crystallization; chemically as the union of the nonvolatile inorganic oxides resulting from
the decomposition and fusing of the alkali and alkaline earth compounds, sand, and
other glass constituents.
Glass is a completely vitrified product or at least such a product with a relatively small
amount of nonvitreous material in suspension.

In general, commercial glasses fall into six different classes:

1. Vitreous silica-a glass made by fusing pure silica without a flux, and very
resistant thermally and chemically.
2. Alkali silicates-soluble glasses used only as solutions.
3. Lime glass-the soda-lime-silica glass of such wide applications, for windows,
transparent fixtures, and all manner of containers.
4. Lead glass-the product obtained from lead oxide, silica, and alkali for
decorative and optical effects.
5. Borosilicate glass-boric oxide and silica glasses for optical and scientific
work.
6. Special glass-such as colored glass, translucent glass, safety and laminated
glassl fiber glass, photosensitive glass, phosphate glass, and specialties for chemical
uses.
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses,
and containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly
crystalline. Primary advantages of glasses include transparency and ease of fabrication.
The base element of most glasses is silica, and other components can be added to
modify its properties.
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(ii) Cements
Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens.
Because of this characteristic, cements can be formed into useful shapes while in paste
form before they harden into rigid structures. Plaster of paris is one common cement
ingredient. The most common cement is called Portland cement. It can also be mixed
with sand and water to form mortar. Cement is very inexpensive to produce, and it is
used widely in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other large structures.
(a) Portland cement
Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement
in general use around the world., common materials used to manufacture cement
include limestone, and chalk combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica
sand, and iron ore. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with
other materials (such as clay) to 1,450 °C in a kiln, (huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns
lined with special firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet in diameter and the
height of a 40-story building) in a process known as calcination that liberates a
molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other materials in the mix to form
calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard substance,
called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) into a
powder to make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement
(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar.
The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Portland cement may
be grey or white.
(b) Supersulfated cements contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag,
15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They
produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow
Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including
sulfate. Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily
from limestone and bauxite.
(c) White blended cements may be made using white clinker (containing little or no
iron) and white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin. Colored
cements serve decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments to
produce colored Portland cement. Other standards (e.g., ASTM) do not allow pigments
in Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements.
(d) Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or blast furnace cement , contains up to
95% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little
gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is
increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat
evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and
low-heat cements.

Setting, hardening and curing of cement

proper curing requires maintaining the appropriate moisture content necessary for the
hydration reactions during the setting and the hardening processes. If hydraulic
cements dry out during the curing phase, the resulting product can be insufficiently
hydrated and significantly weakened
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Environmental impacts of cement industry

Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These
include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration
The majority of carbon dioxide emissions in the manufacture of Portland cement
(approximately 60%) are produced from the chemical decomposition of limestone to
lime, an ingredient in Portland cement clinker. Nearly 900 kg of CO2 are emitted for
every 1000 kg of Portland cement produced.
CO2 absorption
Hydrated products of Portland cement, such as concrete and mortars, slowly reabsorb
atmospheric CO2 gas, this natural process, reversed to calcination, is called
carbonation. It is estimated that ement products reabsorbed nearly 30% of atmospheric
CO2 during their whole life-cycle.
Carbonation process is considered as a mechanism of concrete degradation. It reduces
pH of concrete that promotes reinforcement steel corrosion.
Heavy metal emissions in the air
In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw
materials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals
can release in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals,
e.g. thallium, cadmium and mercury are the most toxic.

(iii) Clay Products

Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then
hardened through firing at high temperature. The two primary classifications of clay
products include structural clay products and white wares. Structural clay products see
applications including bricks, tiles, and piping. White wares see applications including
pottery (means pots, dishes, and other articles made of fired clay. Pottery can
be divided into earthenware, porcelain, and stoneware) and plumbing fixtures.
(a) Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They
can also provide thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.
(b) Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut, grind, and wear away other
softer materials. Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear resistance,
and temperature resistance. Abrasives can either be bonded to a surface (e.g., grinding
wheels and sandpaper), or can be used as loose grains (e.g., sand blasting). Common
abrasives include cemented carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide,
and silica sand. Diamond is also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.
References
(Callister, William D., "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction," 9th Edition)