Module 2

GREECK POLITICAL THOUGHT

 Greece was the Centre of political philosophy in ancient Europe

 Origin of western literature, arts, science, philosophy including political thoughts
any trace back to ancient philosophy
 Greece is the southern most part of the Balkan Peninsula that dips into the
Mediterranean Sea in Southeast Europe.
 They spoke an Indo-European language
 Each group that came into the Aegean region had its own name
 Soon all began to call themselves “Hellenes”, which means Greek
 The early Greeks, like the Aryans in India, lived in tribes, each composed of a
number of families under a leader
 A group of tribes had a king.
 The main occupations were agriculture and herding, making Pottery, Swords and
Ornaments
 Trade was mainly by bartering
 The religious beliefs of the early Greeks were very simple
 They had many gods whom they imagined to be like human beings, though more
powerful and immortal.
 Around 800 B.C. groups of Greek villages began joining into larger units to form
city-states.
 Many such cities grew up all over Greece and on a number of Islands – Sparta,
Athens, Macedonia, Thebes etc.
 Many schools of Philosophy developed in Greece. The men famous Philosophers of
Greece were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

SOCRATES (469 B.C. -399 B.С.)

 Socrates believed that knowledge leads to right conduct and happiness, while
ignorance breeds evil. ( virtue of knowledge)
 He criticised the popular beliefs of the Athenians and believed that human nature
leads people to act correctly and in agreement with knowledge.
 He also felt that evil and wrong actions arise from ignorance and the failure to
investigate why people act as they do.
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 Socrates is credited with saying that “the unexamined life is not worth living” and
“no man knowingly does evil.”
 Socrates devoted himself completely to seeking truth and goodness.
 Socrates wrote nothing of his own.
 Most of our information about his life and teachings come from ‘Memorabilia’ and
‘Symposium’ by the historian Xenophon
 And dialogues by the Philosopher Plato and writings by Aristotle.
 Socrates was born and lived in Athens.
 He was known for his simple dress, moderation in eating and drinking.
 He was married to Xanthippe, and they had two children
 Socrates taught in the streets, market places and gymnasiums
 He taught by questioning his listeners, and showing them how inadequate their
answers were.
 He had a following of young men in Athens.
 Many people mistrusted him because of his unorthodox views on religion and his
disregard of public opinion.
 Naturally Socrates made enemies among influential Athenians.
 He was brought to trail, charged with corrupting the young and showing disrespect
for religious traditions.
 Socrates defended himself by stating that clear knowledge of the truth is essential
for the correct conduct of life
 The jury found Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death.
 He refused several opportunities to escape from prison, and carried out the sentence
by calmly drinking a cup of hemlock poison.

THE SOCRATIC METHOD

 Socrates introduced the idea of universal (standard) definitions.

 He believed that although individual people or things vary and are constructed
differently, the definitions of how they are similar or vary remain constant.
 For example, individual dogs differ in shape colour and size. Yet there are some
common characteristics by which we identify these animals as dogs, not as cat or
camels.
 These common characteristics are universal, to which people must turn when they
judge anything
 The Socratic method tended to expose people’s ignorance.
 It showed that many things they assumed to be true were false.
 Socrates also used irony to expose ignorance of key concepts – that is, he claimed to
differ from other people only in knowing that he was ignorant

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 Socrates’s insistence on his ignorance reminded others of their own ignorance.

PLATO (427 B.C. – 327B.C.)

 Plato was the first Greek Political Philosopher to have written systematic treatises
dealing with Political problems and evolved a set of ideals and principles
constituting an ideal state.
 He was born in 427 B.C. at Athens
 His forefathers were aristocrats and rulers.
 Quite understandably he had political ambitions in his early life but he gave it up
because of the political disturbances prevalent in Greece, particularly in Athens and
joined the Socratic circle and learnt philosophy
 He studied for eight years with Socrates and on, the he travelled for more than a
decade
 The tragic death of Socrates turned Plato anti-democratic because the so called
democrats were responsible, for the death of Socrates.
 Plato became a philosopher and remained a bachelor, dedicating his life for
establishing an ideal state which would bring peace and justice in political sphere of
Greece.
 On return from his travel abroad, Plato, in 388 B.C. founded his Academy in
Athens for the systematic pursuit of philosophy and scientific research.
 The Academy became a Centre of excellence and was visited by nearly all the
famous scholars of the time.
 The students included children of some of the most distinguished families in Greece
 Plato’s Academy was described as the first western university.
 Men and women were admitted to this academy.
 No fee was charged, but parents could give donations according their in capacity.
 The Academy became a training ground for the future Philosopher-Kings of
Greece.
 Major works of Plato
• The Republic
• The State man
• The law

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATO’S PHILOSOPHY

 The chief source of inspiration for Plato; was Socrates.

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 Socratic doctrine that ‘virtue is knowledge’ became the corner stone’ of Plato’s
Philosophy and led to the concept of philosopher-king.
 Plato’ believed in science and scientific studies
 He believed that the problems of the state could be solved as scientifically
 Plato was the first philosopher to lay the foundation of a scientific study of the state
 Plato has an equal passion for morality.
 He insisted that morality could not be divorced from the life of the state.
 The chief aim of Plato was to promote justice and virtue.
 He though good citizen always made a good state.
 He was more interested in discussing the state as it should be that, as an ideal state a
state which could reform the existing conditions and bring about political stability
and peace in Greece

THE REPUBLIC

 The Republic (386 B.C.) is Plato’s greatest work which deals with ethics,
education and political philosophy of ideal state.
 The Republic is a treatise on human nature and human soul and deals with the
important question of how to live best.
 He attempted to establish the philosophic conception of justice.
 His point of view is primarily ethical and idealistic.
 The essential theme of the Republic is the construction of the ideal state.
 He considers the state to be a means to an end and the end being the fullest
development of human personality.
 He argues against democracy as he was convinced that democracy is a government
of the mob and the rule of the ignorant
 Plato believed that social organisation should operate on the principle of justice
 Plato outlined the scheme of education which is divisible into two parts;
a) Elementary education
b) Higher education
o He visualises the division of society into three classes
a) Rulers
b) Soldier
c) Workers

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THE IDEAL STATE

 The essential theme of the Republic is the realisation of good

 Plato believed that social organisation should operate on the principle of justice.
 He believed that the permanent character of anything is idea
 It is an absolute reality
 It is eternal
 Therefore, it must be different from the object in which it appears
 The object of ideal state is good life
 There are three important stages in the construction of the ideal state
a) Men and women should have the same education
b) The guardian class are deprived of family and property
c) There is the government by philosopher ruler.

 Plato’s ideal state is hierarchical in composition and functions.

 At the head of the ideal state is a philosopher-king who is above passion and
prejudice.
 He represents virtue and his rule is unrestrained by law.
 In order to train the persons to be philosopher rulers, Plato suggests a scheme of
education under state control
 Plato divides the guardian class into,
a) Perfect guardian
b) auxiliaries or administrators.

 Guardian class consist of men of superior intellect, capable of realising complete

virtue.
 Plato’s ideal state is a class state as he believed in the inequality of men.

 The important features of the ideal state are:

1) Organisation of the society on the basis of vocational specialization
2) Abolition of family and private property for the guardians
3) Men and women should have the same education, and emancipation of women
based on equality of status.
4) State controlled education system
5) Control of arts and literature

Criticism of platonic ideal state are ;

1) Totalitarian states

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2) Under development of human personality
3) Utopian State
4) No education for every class

o He divides the society into three classes on the basis of vocational specialisation.
o The philosopher-king occupies the highest position in the social hierarchy.
o As the philosopher-king is an embodiment of reason and perfection,
o Plato abolishes law and constitution which are concessions to human weakness
o It was a deliberate attempt on his part to create a superman,

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JUSTICE

 Justice is the part of State

 Plato used the term ‘justice’ in a very wide sense
 It means morality or goodness
 justice is the excellence of the soul, and injustice the defect of the soul.”
 To Plato, justice means almost the whole of virtue as shown in our
dealings with others.
 Human soul, according to Plato contains three elements
1) Reason
2) Spirit
3) Apitite

 Corresponding to these three elements in human nature, there are three

classes in social organism-philosopher class is the representative of
reason, a class of warriors, the defenders of the country, and producers
who consist of farmers and artisans at the lowest rung of the ladder.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PLATO’S THEORY OF JUSTICE

 Plato’s, theory of justice is universal in character.

 Plato’s justice tries to bring an organic unity in social life, and through
systematic education regulates the common interests
 It endows the state with a will and personality of its own having its
independent existence apart from its members
 His conception of justice make a revolt, against political selfishness and
ignorance which were the dominant features of Athenian Society.
 Through justice, he established a new concept of virtue which consisted
in the discharge of duty by every individual.
 To Plato’s conception of justice is moral and not in legal terms.
 His justice is closely related to morality and it takes place in an ideal or
perfect state.
 Plato’s Republic, therefore, is a treatise concerning justice.
 Following characteristic can be elucidated from the Plato’s theory of
Justice.
1) Plato’s Justice is universal and is based on duty.
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2) 2) Justice has more a moral content than legal.
3) Justice is the sense of the citizen’s duty
4) The justice of the individual demands that each of the three elements
in the individual-reason, spirit and appetite-keep within their proper
bounds.
5) Justice is the principle of specialisation.
6) Justice demands that each individual should, perform his duty with
single minded devotion.

 CRITICISM OF PLATONIC THEORY OF JUSTICE

1) The individual is sacrificed at the alter of the state

2) The guardian cannot have Property, family life and home to perform
their duties selflessly
3) His theory of justice destroys the liberty of the individual
4) Plato is not interested in the happiness of the individual
5) This principle is against the all around development of human
personality
6) Plato’s theory of justice gives monopoly of power to the Philosopher
king
7) He does not provide any constitutional safeguard in the republic
against the abuse of power

THEORY OF EDUCATION

 Education in Plato’s scheme of ideal state is an essential instrument to

realize justice.
 Plato, should be under the direct control of the state.
 His, system of courage, self control education was more disciplinarian
and it applied to both men and women.
 According to Plato the purpose of education is the development of
virtue, character and knowledge of the ultimate truth
Education culminates in the realisation of the idea of God.
 Who is virtuous will always follow the right path and does not need any
law to tell him what is right and what is wrong.
 education serves two purpose, of enabling the individual to realize
himself and of adjusting himself usefully to society.

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FEATURES OF PLATO’S SCHEME OF EDUCATION

1) Plato visualises state controlled system of compulsory

education
2) The aim of platonic education is mental and physical
development.
3) He also visualise the emancipation of women by providing education
which was denied to them
4) To maintain moral standard among youth.
5) Education, for Plato is an experience and should begin at an early age
end continue into old age
6) Education is a means of training the individual to adjust himself to
sacrificed society and fulfil his duties.
7) Education was divided into two parts
• primary education
• Secondary education

SCHEME OF EDUCATION

Plato’s system of education is divisible into two parts

Elementary Education :-

o The curriculum of study was planned by Plato as to brings out individual

ability.
o During the first ten years, round education should predominantly be
physical
o Every school should have a gymnasium and playground
o The entire curriculum of s not education Would consist of play and sports,
so that the health of the children will be properly taken care of.
o To develop the fine senses of children, music should also be taught
o Thus up to the age of seventeen or eighteen general education in music,
gymnastics and also elements of science, Mathematics, History should be
taught
o From eighteen to twenty there should be exclusive training in gymnastics,
including military exercises calculated- to develop and courage, self
control, character and discipline.

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Higher Education :-

o At the age of twenty, Plato conducts the . Elimination test which is the
basis for admission to higher education
o Those who fail in the elimination test would be assigned the economic
o Work of the community like those of businessmen, clerks, factory
workers and farmers.
o Those who pass the elimination test would receive another ten years of
education to train the body and mind.
o The subject of study include natural and Mathematical Science of
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and dialectics
o At the age of thirty, they would face the second elimination test
o Those who fail in this test would become soldiers of state
o Those who get through the second elimination test, would be given
advance education in mathematics, astronomy and logic.
o Emphasis would be laid on dialectics.
o Higher education would be in effect professional
o Those who would say in the course would be assigned administrative and
governmental jobs and would be fit to govern their country at the age of
fifty.
o Plato’s emphasis is on arts in the first stage,
o on science in the second stage
o And on philosophy in the third stage.
o The system of education depicted above, was calculated to create the
ruling class.
o The fundamental political idea in the Republic is the doctrine that
governing authority must be associated with th broadest knowledge and
culture that the philosopher should be the statesman.
o A guardian must be properly trained so that he united sh himself
philosophy, swiftness and strength.
o Thus, the system of higher education was designed to produce the
Philosopher-kings

CRITICISM OF SCHEME OF EDUCATION

• He gives no place for vocational and technical education

• He does not extend the right of citizenship to th producing class of
society
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• There is no importance attached literature and exaggerates the
importance of mathematics.
• Therefor it is argued that Plato’s scheme, of education is unjust and
arbitrary so far as the producing class is concerned
• Platonic education may produce an ideal philosopher, but certainly
not an ideal man of action
• The system of education condemns the guardians to a life of
military monasticism.

PLATO’S THEORY OF COMMUNISM

➢ The most controversial doctrine of Plato in the Republic is the

doctrine of communism of Property and family
➢ His theory communism is a supplementary to give effect to re-
inforce that which education is to create
➢ Plato’s communism was a handmade of justice
➢ Plato’s Communism takes two main forms
1) Abolition of private property which includes, house, land and
money
2) Abolition of family
➢ But these stipulations were applied only to the guardian class-the
rulers and soldiers.

COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY :-

➢ Plato’s communist theory is known to be very different from the

modern socialist communist theory
➢ There no mention in the Republic of socialisation of means of
production and distribution.
➢ He advocated that the members of ruling class should not possess
any private property either individually collectively
➢ The land and the products should remain with the farm and
cultivators.
➢ The guardian should have no house of their o and should not
possess gold or silver.
➢ For the reason that the guardian class possessed political power.
➢ An absolute dedication and devotion as their part to the service of
the State would demand that they should not suffer from any

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temptation, distraction or affection either of wealth or wives and
children.
➢ They shall receive from state a fixed rate of pay just enough to
meet the necessary expenses of the year.
➢ The communism of the guardian class in the Republic based on
renunciation.
➢ The members of the ruling class are aske give up wealth and
possession in the interest of their supreme to the State.

COMMUNISM OF FAMILY

➢ The guardian class are deprived of family with a view to realising justice
in an ideal state.
➢ Plato recommends communism of wives so that the feelings and
attachment arising from individual wives do not interfere in the proper
functioning of the ruling class.
➢ Plato believed that family introduces the element of mine and thine’.
➢ It will destroy that corporate feeling which is the very basis of the state
➢ Plato wants “that the wives of our guardians are to be common and their
children are to be common and no parent is to know his own child, nor
any child his parent.”
➢ But by the abolition of family, Plato does not deny his guardian me a
normal sexual life.
➢ In order, to encourage mating between those best fitted to produce
children of the desired quality, the rulers will arrange periodic festivals
for the purpose of cohabitation.
➢ The children born out of such unions will be the property of the state
should undertake the responsibility of bringing them up
➢ This system, Plato believed, removes the conflict between persona be
interests and the objectives of the state
➢ Aristotle, a disciple of Plato took strong objection to the theory of
Communism of Plato an levelled his criticism against it

ARISTOTLE ( 384 BC –

➢ Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Greece.

➢ Macedon was governed by a monarch and that it was not a
Democracy.
➢ His father was a physician to the King of Macedon.
➢ He had first-hand knowledge about the activities of the royal government.
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➢ He known as the father of political science
➢ He was a disciple of Plato
➢ ‘The Politics ‘is his great work
➢ He joined Plato’s Academy at the age of 17. He was very impressed by
his Master Plato
➢ He studied there for twenty long years.
➢ He was to become the head of the Academy after the death of Plato.
➢ But he left Athens soon.
➢ For thirteen years, he travelled all over the world and studied different
political systems.
➢ He came back to Macedon to teach the young Alexander (the Great)
➢ Later, Aristotle established his own academy called Lyceum with the
help of Alexander.
➢ Basic ideas of Aristotle
• Origin, nature and purpose of state
• Best form of government
• Best form of state
• Revolution
• Slavery

ARISTOTLE ON STATE AND GOVERNMENT

Evolutionary Theory of State:

➢ According to Aristotle, man is a social and political animal.

➢ Man lives a political life.
➢ Politics cannot be separated from the life of man.
➢ Formation of the state was a gradual process.
➢ To meet his needs, he first formed the family.
➢ In the family, there are the master, slave, male, and the female members
➢ All of them come together in the family.
➢ However, the family cannot meet all his economic needs.
➢ Therefore, he forms a village. In the village, there are many Families.
But, the village cannot meet all his needs.
➢ Therefore, man formed the state.
➢ The state is a kind of community.
➢ But the state is the highest form of community.
➢ It is above all Communities.
➢ The aim of state is goodness

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➢ It aims at the highest good.
➢ It is the perfect form of organisation.
➢ It came into being for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good
life
➢ Man is a man only when he lives in a state.
➢ Without the state, man cannot realize his destiny.
➢ Thus it can be seen that Aristotle presented an Evolutionary Theory of
State.
➢ The state is the result of an evolution.
➢ Family and village have developed into the state.

Natural Formation of State

➢ Formation of State is natural.

➢ Family is based on human nature.
➢ Just as family is natural, the state also is natural
➢ State is the final development of the Family.
➢ State is the highest form of social organisation.
➢ State is the highest organisation because it aims at the highest Goodness.
➢ It is the supreme association.
➢ It is an association of associations.
➢ It covers all individuals and associations.
➢ Individuals and associations have meaning only when they are parts of
the state.

Organic Theory of State:

➢ The state is organic in nature

➢ The State is the result of a growth.
➢ Just like an organism, state consists of many parts.
➢ The parts form the state.
➢ The parts cannot separate from the whole.
➢ The parts have no meaning without the whole.
➢ Thus, the state embraces all the other human associations.
➢ Function of the state is the moral
➢ Perfection of the individual
➢ It is like an educational institution.
➢ State has the positive function of promoting good life.
➢ It is an instrument of training the citizen in intellectual, moral, and
physical goodness.
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End of the State :

➢ The state, according to Aristotle, does see a not exist merely to satisfy the
material requisites of its citizens.
➢ It exists to promote a life of virtue and morality among its citizens.
➢ Aristotle state as s the union of families and villages in a perfect and self-
sufficing life by which a happy and honourable life is achieved
➢ He observed “the state comes into existence for the sake of good life.”
➢ A good life, for Aristotle comprises of three attributes i.e..
• External
• Physical
• Spiritual good.
➢ In external good, Aristotle includes wealth, slaves and
leisure
➢ In physical good, he includes physical attainment and the
development of health
➢ in spiritual good, self-he includes the attainment of virtue
and the development of morality.

➢ The end of state is thus, to give perfect self-sufficing and is

full fully developed life to the individuals living in it.
➢ Man is better than a brute only if he lives in a state.
➢ By gift of speech and moral bindings man is distinguished from other
animals.
➢ According to Aristotle man, when perfected, is the best of animal but
when separated from law Man and justice, is the worst of all.

Division of Labour

➢ Division of labor is necessary to achieve the goal of a nation.

➢ By division of labor all individuals of a nation will benefit.
➢ Through the division of labor, each individual gets a chance to utilize his
talents.
➢ Responsibility for each person causes mutual identity, cooperation and
moral sense to be strengthened
➢ Division of labor causes individuals to respect their status.
➢ And also begin to recognize social interests in their social system.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STATE

➢ There are three kinds of governments.

➢ The classification is based on the number of people having power.
➢ The power may be vested in a single person, in a few people or many
people.
➢ Thus, there are
1. Monarchy
2. Aristocracy
3. Polity.

➢ If power is vested on a single person, it is called a Monarchy.

➢ If power is vested on few people, it is called an Aristocracy.
➢ Power is vested on many people, it is called a Polity.
➢ These are normal forms of government.

Cycle of Aristotle’s Political Change

➢ Aristotle was greatly influenced by Plato.

➢ Argued that the three modes of governance he devised to be like his guru
were subject to change.
➢ Political changes also begin with the monarchy
➢ Monarchy was the earliest form of government.
➢ When the king’s character and goals became corrupt, it gave way to
autocratic rule.
➢ But this kind of rule could not continue for long.
➢ This rule comes in the hands of a group of individuals with noble
thoughts, but later this also corrupts.
➢ Noble rule has degenerated into the evil aristocracy of power.
➢ The people could not endure long until the ruling class looked out for
their own interests
➢ Citizens join forces to organize revolutions and implement popular rule.
➢ When populist rule deteriorated, it shifted to democracy.
➢ There was no certainty or stability in this system.

Features of the Ideal State

➢ According to Aristotle a perfect state cannot exist without a proper supply

of the means of life.
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1) Population :- Aristotle believes that the greatness of a state should

not be judged by its size or population. The size of population should
be such that it should neither be too small nor too large but large
enough to be self-sufficing and small enough to be well governed. The
population should have harmonious representation of all professional
groups like soldiers, artisans, traders, legislators and agriculturists.

2) Territory:- The territory of the ideal state should be such that it

should lead to a life of self sufficiency. It should be productive of all
kinds of things. In size and extent it should be such that its citizen
should have self sufficiency and be able to live in the enjoyment of
leisure. The land and the people should be viewed together. It should
be easily protectable from any possible external aggression.

3) Location of the State:- The location of the state should be such

that it should have access to both sea and land for military and
commercial purposes. The state will practice trade and commerce but
only to the satisfaction of its requirements. It is necessary that only
those items should be imported which are not found in the state.
Similarly only those commodities should be exported which are in
excess. The state should build a naval base and maintain a strong
naval force.

4) The character of the citizens :- Aristotle holds the view that no

state can be great unless its citizens possess a sound national character.
He thinks that the climate of state influences an individual’s
personality. According to him, those people, who live in a cold climate
are full of vigour and spirit, and can maintain their freedom. On the
other hand people living in tropical climate lack in spirit and hence are
servile by nature.

5) Education:- Aristotle is very much convinced that the character of

the people and the tune of the society depend to a considerable extent
on the education which cultivates intellectual, moral and physical
excellence and enable a citizen to do his duties properly. He lays down
a system of uniform, compulsory and public education for the leisured
classes. The aim of education is to instruct the students in the spirit of

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the constitution of the state. Unlike Plato, Aristotle does not include
women in his system of education.

6) The functions of the State :- There are certain functions of the

state which are necessary for its maintenance. For the proper
maintenance of the life of the state, there must be food, arts for life.
Arms for maintaining law and order and defending the state, certain
amount of revenue for internal needs, a code of religion for worship,
a power for deciding what is good in public interests. All these are the
functions of the state or essential parts of the state.

➢ Aristotle’s ideal state is a judicious fusion of oligarchy and democratic

elements, combining quality with quantity.
➢ According to him the best state is one in which there is a strong middle
class with moderate and sufficient property.
➢ The larger the middle class, the greater is its stability and prosperity.
➢ However, he believed that th individual as well as the state should pursue
virtue in all its forms.

THEORY OF REVOLUTION

➢ Aristotle was of the firm opinion that the most important duty of any
government is to ensure internal stability.
➢ It is the function of the government to see that causes in not exist which
may affect or paralyse the machinery of government.
➢ Political life during the time of Plato and Aristotle was very corrupt.
➢ Instability was the most of characteristic feature of Greek constitutional
life.
➢ He studied a number of constitution and governments in and around
Greece and concluded that revolution was too frequent and they were the
main causes for political disintegration in Greece.
➢ Aristotle examined the various causes of revolution and on the basis of
his first hand survey of about 150 constitutions and political systems, he
put forward his theory of revolution.
➢ Before discussing the various causes of revolution and their remedies, let
us briefly discuss the different forms of revolution as analysed by
Aristotle.

Different from of Revolution:

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➢ According to Aristotle, a revolution is said to have taken place when four
kinds of changes arise in the existing system of government.
• when the change affect the constitution itself.
• In a manner it does not affect the constitution
• A change may take place so that it simply produces a difference of
degree
• A revolution may be directed against a portion of the constitution
only, for instance the establishment or overthrow of a particular
office

Meaning of Revolution:

➢ If there occurs a change in the existing constitution of the state, it is a

revolution for Aristotle.
➢ For example if the State constitution changes from monarchy to
democracy, it is a revolution.
➢ Secondly, even if the constitution remain duty the same but the ruling
authority has been transferred from one man to another, it is a revolution.
➢ In short, to Aristotle, any change in the constitution or in the ruling
power is a revolution.
➢ There are three main categories of causes of revolution
1) General Causes
2) Particular causes
3) Causes of revolution in particular kind of state.

1) General cause:-
➢ According to Aristotle the universal and chief s for cause of
revolutionary feeling is the desire for equality.
➢ Democracy is for instance, arises out of the belief that those who
are equals in any of respect are equal in all respects
➢ Oligarchy is based on the belief his that those who are unequal in
one respect are in all respects unequal
➢ For example, being Unequal in property, they suppose themselves
to be unequal absolutely
➢ All these forms of government have a kind of justice, and when
people think that their share in the government does not accord
with their preconceived ideas and notions, to revolutions take
place.

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➢ The inferiors revolt in order that they may be of equal, and equals
revolt so that they may become superiors.
➢ Aristotle place says that the motive for making revolution are the
desire for gain
➢ When and honour or the fear of dishonour and loss.

2) Particular causes:-
➢ The second category of causes relate to the operational defects or
blunders committed by those in authority
➢ People who are in Authority may misuse their authority.
➢ When this happens they create a cause for revolution.
➢ People in Authority may distribute the various political offices,
positions or posts in an unequal and unjust manner.
➢ The inequality and injustice resulting from such practices become a
serious cause for revolution
➢ Election intrigues, carelessness, neglect, irrational use of force,
dynastic quarrels, free immigration of outside races, corruption and
fraud of those in power tend to constitute powerful causes for
revolution.

3) Causes of revolutions in particular kind of states:-

➢ According to Aristotle, revolutions in democracy take place
because of the intemperance of leaders; who exploit any situation
to their advantage.
➢ Revolutions In oligarchy take place because of two reasons.
a. The oligarchies are overthrown because of their
oppressive rule
b. They are overthrown by the personal rivalry of the
oligarchs.
➢ In aristocracies revolutions take place when only a few persons share the
honours of the state.
➢ Revolutions in monarchies occur either because of tyrannical behaviour
of the monarch towards his people or the personal insult inflicted on some
notable persons which motivated him to conspire and rise against the
monarch.

Remedies for prevention of Revolution

➢ Aristotle indicates the measures for the prevention of revolution.

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• According to him the first essential for preventing revolution is to
guard against the beginning of a change.
• The essential is to check owed the developing feeling of political
injustice. Good relation must be to maintained between the rulers
and the ruled. The rulers should gain or this the confidence of the
people.
• education in the spirit of ted in constitution should be imparted to
the citizens. When citizens are middle properly educated, they can
handle their own affairs and will not take to revolution.
• the habit of obedience to law must be to the inculcated. The
stability of the state can easily be maintained by cultivating the
spirit of obedience to law.
• There should not be a this monopoly of an individual or class over
the political power. The different classes in the state should be
treated with proper y may consideration
• Honours and rewards should be distributed as equal wide as
possible. Political offices should be within the reach of any n such
one who is capable of assuming the office. Aristotle prefers short
term tenure for all office bearers to enable more people to have s,
fret opportunity to assume office.
• A government would gain power popularity and stability if the
administrative machinery, particularly financial administration is
made transparent.
• Aristotle suggests that the patriotism of the people should be kept
very high. The ruler of the who has concern for state should invent
terrors and bring distant dangers near so that the citizens can be
kept united.
• Lastly the people who occupy the high offices should have three
qualifications i.e.,-
1) Th loyalty to the established constitution,
2) the greatest administrative The capability
3) virtue and justice

ARISTOTLE ON SLAVERY

➢ Slavery was common in Greece during the Aristotelian period.g

➢ Aristotle argues that slavery is a necessary factor, justifying the system of
slavery
➢ Slaves can be used as tools to execute actions
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➢ Slaves are part of an owner’s property.
➢ Slaves can be used for domestic work
➢ Man is not equal in nature. Physical and intellectual things are different
at birth
➢ But some people believe that there will be a ruler in nature.
➢ Therefore, there will be two groups in the society, the rulers and the ruled.
➢ These two categories are essential for the survival of the society
➢ A classification is a natural where masters are selected on the basis of
intelligence and slaves on the basis of physical ability.

Economic Justice-:-

➢ Slaves were an indispensable element of Greece’s economic system

and political administration.
➢ The slavery system allows the citizens of Greece to maintain their
political and economic affairs in a proper and efficient manner

Moral Justice:-

➢ The increase in material wealth is caused by the attachment of

persons without material wealth to those who have it.
➢ Slaves would slowly become available after their owners.
➢ Slaves in Greece lived comfortably.
➢ Slaves were treated like family

legal justice :-

➢ Aristotle suggests that those who lose in battle should be treated as

slaves
➢ But the Greeks were born to rule the world, so Aristotle does not
approve of enslaving the Greeks by anyone other than the Greeks.

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