UNIT 3

ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is an area whose environment is unique and recognizable. Natural

ecosystems include forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands such as ponds, rivers,
lakes, and the sea. Man-modified ecosystems include agricultural patterns, and
patterns of urban or industrial land use. The ecosystem's existence is based on its
geographical features, such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, coastal areas or
islands. Climatic conditions such as the amount of sunshine, temperature, and
rainfall also influence it.

The living portion of the ecosystem is called its biotic component and abiotic
component is its non-living portion. All the living organisms in an area live in
communities of plants and animals. They interact with their abiotic environment and
with each other. Living organisms cannot survive without their non-living
environment as this provides food and energy for the former's survival, Thus, the
biotic population and its environment work to create a natural self-sufficient unit
known as an ecosystem. Ecosystems are the very base of life itself.

Definition of an ecosystem: A natural functional ecological unit comprising of

living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio
chemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system.

All of the earth's habitats are connected to each other. For example, an ecosystem of
the river is linked to the ocean ecosystem and a small ecosystem of dead logs is part
of a large forest ecosystem. A complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in
nature but situations can occur that approach self-sufficiency.

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems and aquatic

ecosystems. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living
organisms.

Stability of ecosystems

Many ecosystems are relatively stable and less influenced by some degree of human
perturbation. Some are weak and quickly destroyed by human activity. Eg: Mountain
ecosystems are extremely fragile, because degradation of forest cover contributes to
significant soil erosion and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are also

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easily affected by human activity which can contribute to the rapid extinction of
many of their unique plant and animal species. Some species may have a significant
impact on the environment if eliminated. These are called ‘keystone species’.
Extinction is caused by land-use changes and other geographical changes. Forests
are deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to create more agricultural land and
semi-arid grasslands are turned into irrigated fields. The pollution from industries
and the waste from urban settings can also lead to poisoning and extinction of several
species.

3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansely in 1935. Ecosystem is
an essential unit of ecology. It has both structure and function. The structure is
related to species diversity. The more complex the structure, the greater the species
diversity within the ecosystem. The functions of an ecosystem are related to energy
flow and materials cycling through structural components of the ecosystem.

Every ecosystem has two key components from the structural perspective: Abiotic
and Biotic.

3.2.1. Abiotic components

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form

the abiotic components. They have a significant impact on the structure, distribution,
behavior and inter-relationship of organisms. Abiotic components are primarily of
two types:

(a) Climate Factors which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and
living organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing
medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on topsoil is closely linked to
this component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for
respiration for the organisms found within ecosystems. The processes of

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evaporation, transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the
organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissues are composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
ex-ceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water
content drops below 10% of their saturation level and most are killed if it is less than
30-50% below the saturation level. Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients
enter and are trans-lo-cated in plants. It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf
turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals
receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original source of this
water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

3.2.2. Biotic Components

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and
Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. From nutrition
point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic components:

(i) Autotrophic components and (ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of
sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components
include non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem, the biotic components can be classified
into three main groups:

(A) Producers (B) Consumers (C) Decomposers or Reducers

(A) Producers:

Green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap energy and change
it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds,
namely, water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the
green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e.
auto=self, trophos= feeder). The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized
partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored
in the plant parts for their future use.

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(B) Consumers:

Animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food. Therefore,
they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros= other, trophos= feeder).

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called
herbivores.

Eg: rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carvivores. Eg: cat,
fox, snake etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. E.g. wolf.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not
eaten up by any other animal: Eg: lion and tiger.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic
materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release
to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-
products of their metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers
resulting in a cyclic exchange of ma-terials between the biotic community and the
abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs
(i.e., sapros=rotten, trophos=feeder).

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 Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of the structure of an ecosystem

Fig. 3.2 Relationship within an ecosystem

3.3. FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

In any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes) and

(iii)Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are
synthesized into organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through

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photo-synthesis and solar energy is utilized in the process. Green plants become the
source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which in turn become the source of
energy for the flesh eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow and add
organic matter to their body weight and their source of energy is a complex organic
compound taken as food. They are known as secondary producers.

All the living organisms, whether plants or animals, in an ecosystem have a definite
life span after which they die. The dead remains of plants and animals provide food
for saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria, fungi and many other animals. The
saprobes ultimately decompose the organic structure and break the complex
molecules and liberate the inorganic components into their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition

of organic molecules, the energy which kept the organic components bound together
in the form of organic molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment
as heat energy. Thus, in an ecosystem, energy from the sun is fixed by plants and
transferred to animal components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and
animals, cycled from one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to
the soil, water and air, and then recycled. The ecosystems operating in different
habitats, such as deserts, forests, grasslands and seas are interdependent on one
another. The energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may find their way into another
so that ultimately, all parts of the earth are interrelated, each comprising a part of the
total system that keeps the biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun

(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers

(3) Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed

materials

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are
degraded and finally converted by decomposers and converters into such forms that
are suitable for reutilization by producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production,
growth and death of living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of
habitat. It is now clear that there is transfer of both energy and nutrients from
producers to consumers and finally to decomposers and transformers levels. In this

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transfer, there is a progressive decrease of energy but nutrient component is not
diminished and it shows cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.

The flow of energy is unidirectional. The two ecological processes, energy flow and
mineral cycling, which involve interaction between biotic and abiotic components
lie at the heart.

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of ecosystem dynamics. The principal steps and components of ecosystem are
illustrated in figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Different components of ecosystem

3.4 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

The biotic community of any ecosystem can be divided simply into producers,
consumers and decomposers.

Producers or autotrophs are organisms that make their own organic material from
simple inorganic substances. For most of the biospheres, the main producers are
photosynthet-ic plants and algae that synthesise glucose from carbon dioxide and
water. The glucose produced is an energy source and combines with other molecules
from the soil to build biomass. It is this biomass that provides the total theoretical
energy available to all non photosynthesizing organisms in the ecosystem.

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that obtain molecules by eating or

digesting other organisms. By eating other organisms, they gain both food as an
energy supply and nutrient molecules from within the biomass ingested. For
instance, to build new protein, consumers have to eat protein containing amino acids.
Consumers are of three types:

Herbivores – animals that eat only plants-primary consumers. Eg: hare, deer,
elephant and fish that live on algae

Carnivores – animals that eat only animals-secondary consumers. Eg: tigers,

leopards, jackals, foxes, carnivorous fish.

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Omnivores – animals that eat both animals and plants. Eg: humans

Decomposers are the waste managers of any ecosystem. They are small, like worms,
in-sets, bacteria and fungi. They are the final link in a foodweb and break down dead
organic material into smaller particles and finally into simpler substance that are
used by plants as nutrition. Thus, decomposition is a vital function in nature. Without
this, all the nutrients would be tied up in dead matter and no new life would be
produced. Decomposers can be divided into two groups based on their mode of
nutrition:

1.Detrivores are organisms that ingest non-living organic matter. These can include
earth-worms, beetles and many other invertebrates.

2.Saprotrophs are organisms that live on or in non-living organic matter, secreting

diges-tive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion. These include
fungi and bacteria.

Fig. 3.4 Relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers

3.5 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. All the
func-tions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration
of its plant and animal species. These interlinked processes can be depicted as
various cycles. All these processes depend on energy from sunlight. During
photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and oxygen is released into the
atmosphere. Animals depend on this oxygen for their respiration. The water cycle
depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy
cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our own lives are
closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If human activities
alter them, humanity cannot survive on earth.

3.5.1 Energy Cycle

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The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. The energy
from sunlight is converted by plants into growing new plant material like leaves,
flowers, fruits, branches, trunks and roots of plants. Since plants can grow by
converting the solar energy directly into their tissues, they are known as producers
in the ecosystem. The plants are consumed by herbivores as food, which gives them
energy. A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these
animals such as breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining
blood flow and body temperature. Energy is also used for activities like looking for
food, finding shelter, breeding and rearing the young ones. The carnivores, in turn,
depend on the herbivores on which they feed. Thus, the different plant and animal
species are linked to one another through food chains. Each food chain has three or
four links. However, as each plant or animal can be linked to several other plants or
animals through many different linkages, these interlinked chains can be depicted as
a complex food web. This is called the ‘web of life’ that shows that there are
thousands of interrelationships in nature.

The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding
groups, each known as trophic level (feeding level). In any ecosystem, producers
represent the first trophic level, herbivores represent the second trophic level,
primary carnivores represent the third trophic level and top carnivores represent the
last level.

The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or energy
pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of plants called producers. The pyramid
has a narrower middle section that depicts the number and biomass of herbivorous
animals, which are called first order consumers. The apex depicts the small biomass
of carnivorous animals called second order consumers. Man is one of the animals at
the apex of the pyra-mid. Thus, to support mankind, there must be a large base of
herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity of plant material.

When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being broken
down into simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and
fungi; so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots. Animals excrete
waste products after digesting food, which goes back to the soil. This links the
energy cycle to the nitrogen cycle.

On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed
on to the next level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic
levels include respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and nonpredatory

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death (organisms that die but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of
material that is consumed also influences how efficiently energy is transferred,
because consumers can convert high-quality food sources into new living tissue
more efficiently than low-quality food sources.

The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally
more important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large
amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form,
which is then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during
decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat. The Figure 3.5 shows the flow
of energy (dark arrows) and nutrients (light arrows) through ecosystems.

Fig. 3.5 Energy and nutrient transfer through an ecosystem

Fig. 3.6 Energy pyramid

3.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological Succession is the process by which the ecosystem tend to

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change over a period of time. There are several developmental stages in the
ecosystem. Developmental stages in the ecosystem consist of a pioneer stage,
a series of changes known as serial stages and finally a climax stage. The
successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the
biological system. Succession usually produces a stable state at the end. For
example, an open area will gradually be converted into grassland, a shrub
land and finally, a woodland and a forest.
There are two different types of succession- primary and secondary.
Primary succession occurs in regions in which the soil is incapable of
sustaining life. This may occur due to factors like lava flows, newly formed
sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession
occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed.
It is characterized by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life
and nutrients from the environment.

The most frequent example of successional changes occur in a pond

ecosystem. The different stages may be: dry terrestrial habitat, an early
colonization stage by small aquatic species after the monsoon, a mature
aquatic ecosystem. It may go back to its dry stage in summer when its aquatic
life remains dormant.
Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes, which create
changes in the community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem.
Other successional events may take much longer periods of time, extending
to several decades. If a forest is cleared, initially only a small number of
species from surrounding habitats are capable of thriving in this disturbed
habitat. As new plant species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering
things like the amount of shade on the ground or the mineral composition of
the soil. These changes allow other species that are better suited to this
modified habitat to succeed the old species. These newer species are
superseded, in turn by still newer species. A similar succession of animal
species occurs, and interactions between plants, animals, and environment
influence the pattern and rate of successional change.

Fig. 3.7 Ecological Succession

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3.7 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

In the ecosystem, green plants alone are able to trap solar energy and convert it into chemical energy.
The chemical energy is locked up in the various organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, fats and
proteins, that are present in the green plants. Since virtually all other living organisms depend upon
green plants for their energy, the efficiency of plants in any given area in capturing solar energy sets
the upper limit to long-term energy flow and biological activity in the community.

The food manufactured by the green plants is utilized by themselves and also by herbivores. Herbivores
fall prey to some carnivorous animals. In this way, one form of life supports the other form. Thus, food
from one trophic level reaches the other trophic level and in this way a chain is established. This is
known as the food chain.

Definition of food chain: A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nu-trients through
a succession of organisms through repeated process of eating and being eaten. In a food chain, the initial
link is a green plant or producer which produces chemical energy available to consumers. For example,
marsh grass is consumed by a grasshopper, the grasshopper is consumed by a bird and that bird is
consumed by hawk.

Food chains are of three types:

Grazing food chain, Parasitic food chain, Saprophytic or detritus food chain

1.\ Grazing food chain

The grazing food chain starts from green plants (autotrophs) and from them, it goes to herbivores
(primary consumers) to primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores
(tertiary consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an ecosystem may be utilized
in three ways – it may be oxidized in respiration, it may be eaten by herbivorous animals and after the
death and decay of producers it may be utilized by decomposers and finally released into the
environment. In herbivores, the assimilated food can be stored as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and
transformed into much more complex organic molecules.

As in autotrophs, the energy in herbivores also meets three routes-respiration, decay of or-ganic matter
by microbes and consumption by the carnivores Likewise, when the secondary carnivores or tertiary
consumers eat primary carnivores, the total energy assimilated by primary carnivores or gross tertiary
production follows the same course and its disposition into respiration, decay and further consumption
by other carnivores is entirely similar to that of herbivores.

2.\ Parasitic food chain

It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in the case of predator.

3.\ Detritus food chains:

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The dead organic remains including metabolic wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain
are generally termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in ecosystem as a whole; rather
it serves as a source of energy for a group of organisms called detritivores that are separate from the
grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain.

3.8 FOOD WEB

Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, and they are not independent. In an ecosystem, one organism
does not depend wholly on another. The resources are shared specially at the beginning of the chain.
The marsh plants are eaten by variety of insects, birds, mammals and fishes and some of the animals
are eaten by several predators. Similarly, in the food chain eg: grass→mouse → snakes→owls.
Sometimes mice are not eaten by snakes but directly by owls. This type of interrelationship interlinks
the individuals of the whole community. In this way, food chains become interlinked. A complex of
interrelated food chains makes up a food web. Food web maintains the stability of the ecosystem. The
greater the number of alternative pathways, the more stable is the community of living things.

Fig 3.8 Food web in an ecosystem

3.8.1 Ecological Pyramids

The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by C.E. Eltron (1927). The trophic structure of an
ecosystem can be indicated by means of ecological pyramid. At each step in the food chain, a
considerable fraction of the potential energy is lost as heat. As a result, organisms in each trophic level
pass on lesser energy to the next trophic level than they actually receive. This limits the number of steps
in any food chain to 4 or 5. The longer the food chain, the lesser is the energy available for the final
members on the chain. Because of this taper-ing off of available energy in the food chain, a pyramid is
formed and this is known as the ecological pyramid. The higher the steps in the ecological pyramid,
the lower will be the number of individuals and the larger their size.

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There are different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, the producer level forms
the base and successive levels make up the apex. Three types of pyramidal re-lations may be found
among the organisms at different levels in the ecosystem. They are:

1. Pyramid of numbers, 2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and 3.
Pyramid of energy.

3.8.1.1 Pyramid of Numbers

It depicts the numbers of individuals in producers and in different orders of consumers in an ecosystem.
The base of pyramid is represented by producers which are the most abun-dant. In the successive levels
of consumers, the number of organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there are a few carnivores.

The pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem indicates that the producers are ingested in large numbers by
smaller numbers of primary consumers. These primary consumers are eaten by relatively smaller
number of secondary consumers and these secondary consumers, in turn, are consumed by only a few
tertiary consumers. In a parasitic food chain starting from tree, the pyramid of numbers will be inverted.

Fig 3.9 Pyramid of numbers of a lake ecosystem

3.8.1.2 Pyramid of Biomass

The living weights of the members of the food chain present at any one time form the pyramid of
biomass of organisms. This indicates the total bulk of organisms or fixed energy present at one time.
Pyramid of biomass indicates the decrease of biomass in each trophic level from base to apex, e.g., total
biomass of producers is more than the total biomass of the herbivores.

Likewise, the total biomass of secondary consumers will be lesser than that of herbivores and so on.
Since some energy and material are lost in each successive link, the total mass stored at each level is
limited by the rate at which the energy is being stored below. This usually gives a sloping pyramid for
most of the communities in terrestrial and shallow water ecosystems. The pyramid of biomass in a pond
ecosystem will be inverted.

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 Fig 3.10 A pyramid of biomass

3.8.1.3 Pyramid of Energy

This depicts not only the amount of total energy utilized by the organisms at each trophic level of food
chain but more importantly, the actual role of various organisms in transfer of energy. At the producer
level, the total energy will be much greater than the energy at the successive higher trophic level. Some
producer organisms may have small biomass but the total energy they assimilate and pass on to
consumers may be greater than that of organisms with much larger biomass. Higher trophic levels are
more efficient in energy utilization, but much heat is lost in energy transfer. Energy loss by respiration
also progressively increases from lower to higher triophic states.

Fig 3.11 Pyramid of energy

In the energy flow process, two things become obvious. Firstly there is only one way along which
energy moves i.e unidirectional flow of energy. Energy comes in the ecosystem from an outside source
i.e. sun.The energy captured by autotrophs does not go back to the sun; the energy that passes from
autotrophs to herbivores also does not revert back. As the energy moves progressively through the
various trophic levels, it is no longer available to the previous levels. Thus, due to unidirectional flow
of energy, the system would collapse if the supply from primary source, the sun, is cut off. Secondly,
there occurs a progressive decrease in energy level at each trophic level which is accounted largely by
the energy dissipated as heat in metabolic activities.

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3.9 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

3.9.1 Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem is a population of organisms residing within a tree. In general, a forest is defined as
a large group of trees. Other important aspects of a forest, however, are the shrubs, the floor-leaf mulch
and the plants that live in conjunction with the trees. A forest ecosystem, however, isn't just about the
forest environment. It also deals with the animals that live in the forest.

3.9.1.1 Characteristic Features of Forest Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems are rich and diverse, and they have many exciting and fascinating features.

1.\ Seasonality: In countries that have seasonal climate, forest ecosystems will change with the
seasons.

2.\ Deciduous or evergreen: A forest may be deciduous (i.e. it sheds its leaves in winter) or evergreen
(i.e. its leaves stay green and intact all the time), or it may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen
trees.

3.\ Different levels: Some forest ecosystems such as rain forests, features several levels– such as the
forest floor, the lower canopy, the upper canopy and the tree tops.

4.\ Attractive to birds: Many bird species nest in tree tops and this makes forest ecosys-tems attractive
to birds.

5.\ Attractive to insects: Many insects live in tree barks, leaf mulch or flowers and as such they find
forest ecosystems very attractive places to make their homes.

3.9.1.2 Importance of Forest Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems are important not just for the community close to the forest, but for the whole world.
The following are the reasons for this.

1.\ The Amazon rainforest is described as a biotic pump-like a giant green lung that releases oxygen
into the atmosphere and locks away carbon.

2.\ Some of our forests are truly ancient, and much older than many human civilizations.

3.\ All our forest ecosystems are important for biodiversity. In fact, biologists very often claim that
they are still discovering new species in the Amazon rain forest on a regular basis.

4.\ Forest ecosystems are not just habitats for animals. Many human communities including indigenous
communities live in forests all over the world.

5.\ Forests keep the earth rich in minerals, protect it from desertification by providing a shield against
winds, and so on.

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3.9.1.3 Types of Forest Ecosystems

Taiga: This thin, sparse forest exists at the extreme north of the world, in countries such as Canada and
Finland and in the Arctic Circle. It is characterized by chilly conditions and the fact that the animals
and birds and other organisms that live there have adapted to the cold. The taiga is a very ancient forest.

Rain forests: Rain forests are huge, humid, highly bio-diverse swathes of forest that are usually found
within the global South. Due to the thick canopy created by their leaves, rain forests usually create their
own mini ecosystem that seals off heat and humidity.

Boreal forests: Boreal forests exist in the sub Arctic zones of the world (i.e. less far north than the
Taiga). Here, you can find a mix of deciduous and evergreen trees and plenty of different animals,
insects, birds and so on.

Forests of the temperate zone: Located between the freezing cold of the polar zone and the scorching
heat of the equator, the temperate zone is somewhere where forests can truly flourish. Some very ancient
forests, such as the New Forest in Britain are examples of how the temperate zone conditions are just
right for huge amounts of biodiversity to occur. Again, in this zone, forests can be made of a mix of
deciduous and evergreen trees or of mainly one or mainly the other type of tree.

3.9.1.4 Functions of Forest ecosystems

Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and their
surrounds. Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem. Some provide food for other
organisms, other provide shelter or control populations trough predation.

3.9.2 Grass Land Ecosystem

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grassland Ecosystems and other herbaceous
(non-woody) plants. Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface. They occur in regions too dry
for forests and too moist for deserts. The annual rainfall ranges between 25-75cm, usually seasonal.
The principal grasslands includes Prairies (Canada, USA), Pampas (South America), Steppes (Europe
and Asia), and Veldts (Africa). The highest abundance and greatest diversity of large mammals are
found in these ecosystems. The dominant animal species include wild horses, asses and antelope of
Eurasia, herds of Bison of America, and the antelope and other large herbivores of Africa. Grasslands
are found primarily on plains or rolling topography in the interiors of great land masses, and from sea
level to elevations of nearly 16,400 ft in the Andes. Because of their continental location, they
experience large differences in seasonal climate and wide ranges in diurnal conditions.

3.9.3 Desert Ecosystem

A desert ecosystem is a community of organisms that live together in an environment that seems to be
deserted wasteland. A desert ecosystem generally witnesses little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation

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than in more humid areas of the globe. Look closely at any seemingly deserted piece of land and you
will usually be able to see numerous insets living in communities, an abundance of plant life, mammals
and birds. In addition, micro organ-isms such as bacteria will also be present in this ecosystem, though
they are not visible to the naked human eye.

There are many different types of desert ecosystems. They are:

1. Hot deserts: Hot deserts can be found close to the equator. The Sahara is a good exam-ple. Hot deserts
tend to feature scorching hot ground which many plants may struggle to grow on, little shade, and a
shortage of water. The plants and animals that live here have evolved in order to adapt to these very hot
conditions. For example, cacti have grown a tough outer skin and interiors which can store any fluid
that they absorb so that they can stay hydrated during droughts.

2. Cold deserts: Desertification can exist at high altitudes too, and when this happens, the desert will be
cold. A good example is the deserted rocky peaks of a mountain. A cold desert may be sandy or rocky,
but it will be a harsh environment where organisms have adapted in strange and wonderful ways so that
they can survive. Eg: Gobi desert.

3. Ice deserts

Ice deserts are another type of cold desert. Here, instead of a sandy or rocky wasteland, we have a
seemingly uninhabited region that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be found towards the north and
south poles of the planet, though they may also be located high up on mountain peaks.

3.9.4 Aquatic Ecosystems

In the broadest sense, there are two major types of ecosystems-aquatic and terrestrial. Among which
aquatic ecosystems are further classified into freshwater, marine and estu-arine ecosystems based on
their salt content. Composing more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, aquatic ecosystems are not only
the dominant feature of earth but are also very diverse in species and complexity of interaction among
their physical, chemical and bio-logical components.

3.9.4.1 Fresh water ecosystems

Fresh water ecosystems cover about 2% of the earth’s surface, an area of about 2.5 million Km2. These
ecosystems are characterized by running water or still water. The running water ecosystems are also
known as lotic ecosystems and still water as lentic ecosystems.

Lotic ecosystems

Fresh water streams (Springs, rivulets, creeks, brooks etc.) and rivers can change over their course from
being narrow, shallow, and relatively rapid to become increasingly broad, deep and slow moving. A
river is a lotic ecosystem that is formed because of gravity and acts as a catchments delivery/removal
system. They are Mother Nature’s pipelines. The water in a lotic ecosystem, from source to mouth, will

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have atmospheric gases, turbidity, longitu-dinal temperature gradation and material dissolved in it.
Lotic ecosystems have two main zones:- rapids and pools. Rapids are the areas where the water is fast
enough to keep the bottom clear of materials, while pools are deeper areas of water where the currents
are slower and silt builds up. Temperature is a major abiotic factor for life in these systems. Water found
in these systems will freeze much quicker, and thaw much faster than the deep waters of lentic systems.
Lotic ecosystems depend on precipitation, snow melt, and springs to keep the water flowing. In time of
drought these shallow systems will dry up and many organisms will die.

Lentic ecosystems

Lentic water systems consist of still bodies of water, such as lakes, ponds and seas. During periods of
drought, these systems will often last longer than their smaller counterparts and organisms can continue
to live despite the shortened supplies. These bodies often experience many things that lotic water
systems do not. Lentic water systems are made up of multiple zones: littoral, limnetic, vertical, and
benthic.

The epilimnion, or surface water, is the area in which most life can be found. This zone is high in oxygen
content during the summers; the warmer waters that receive the most sun-light will hold the most
oxygen, thus allowing the greatest amount of life to flourish here.

The metalimnion, or middle mass of water is where the temperature of the water begins to decrease;
life is not as plentiful as in the surface waters but there are still many organisms that can be found here.
Very often, this is where the thermocline will begin. A thermocline is a point at which the water
temperature decreases approximately one degree Celsius per meter.

The hypolimnion is the warmest zone during the winter time and the coldest during the summer. It is
the bottom most part of the body, where sometimes light does not reach. This zone is where the least
amount of life will be found throughout most of the year.

Overturns occur when water is stratified in bodies; the water from the bottom of the mass is mixed with
the water close to the surface. This occurs during spring and fall.

3.9.4.2 Marine ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems. Examples include salt marshes,
intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be
contrasted with fresh water ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover two-
thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports
the animal life and vice versa.

Marine ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial en-vironments.
According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats account for about one-third of marine
biological productivity. Estuarine ecosystems, such as salt marshes, sea grass meadows and mangrove

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