UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE CAJAMARCA [ construcciones ]

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF CAJAMARCA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONAL ACADEMIC SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Road construction

SUBJECT: buildings

TEACHER: Eng. Lucio Sifuentes.

CYCLE: VII – Group “C”

MEMBERS: MENDOZA LINARES, Cesar

PÉREZ TIRADO, Angel Johan
ALIAGA CARO Jhimmy
HUAMAN ORTIZ, Jhean

Cajamarca, May 2013

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CHAPTER 1 - ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Roads
1.3 Alignment and Obligatory Points
1.4 Project Speeds
1.5 Traffic Control Devices
CHAPTER 2 - PLANNING A ROAD
2.1 Geographic-Physical Considerations
2.2 Economic and Social Aspects
2.3 Analysis Method for the determination of Vital Zones
2.4 Road Economy
2.5 Volume and Type of Traffic
CHAPTER 3 - GEOMETRIC PROJECT
3.1 Topographic Reconnaissance
3.2 Preliminary Stroke
3.3 Definitive Line
3.4 Line of Horizontal Curves
3.5 Leveling
3.6 Reduced Profile
3.7 Subgrade Project
3.8 Line of Vertical Curves
3.9 Simultaneous Use of Vertical and Horizontal Curves
3.10 Construction Sections
3.11 Determination of Highway Sections
3.12 Determination of Land Volumes between Stations
3.13 Mass Diagram
3.14 Complementary Drainage Works
CHAPTER 4 - ASPHALT FOLDER
4.1 Pavement Thickness
4.2 Flexible Pavement Project
4.3 Flexible Pavement Design by the North American Asphalt Institute procedure
4.4 Flexible Pavement Design by the method of the National Autonomous University of Mexico

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CHAPTER 1.- ROADS AND ROADS

1.1. - INTRODUCTION.

Since the beginning of the existence of human beings, their need to communicate has been observed, which is
why they developed various methods for the construction of roads, from roads based on stone and binder to
our time with perfected methods based on the experience that They lead to large highways with flexible or rigid
pavement.

This is why the thesis presented will develop the topic on one of these methods, which refers to the layout and
construction of a folder based on a flexible pavement, this will describe the definitions of road and all those
most necessary to its understanding, its characteristics and construction method, as well as all those
specifications necessary to comply with the requirements of the Secretary of Communications and
Transportation, the physical, geographical, economic and social considerations involved in the design and
construction will also be described. which vary given the characteristics of the place, soil and climatological
conditions.

JUSTIFICATION.
The preparation of this thesis contemplates two main objectives, the first of them is to be able to give the
reader a broader knowledge of the characteristics, conditions and methods used in the construction of a road
based on flexible pavement, as well as each and every one of the regulations, laws and restrictions that must
be taken into account in order to design it.

The second objective is to be able to study and understand both the design and the construction in more depth
and thus be able to carry out more studies and tests that can give further development to the technology in the
construction of communication routes.

GOALS.

At the end of this work it is intended to expand the knowledge of the undersigned, as well as of anyone who
has contact with this work. The entire procedure of a good development for the elaboration of a route and
construction of roads must be understood in detail, as well as previously stated, obtaining results that can give
greater understanding and results that help in the analysis and design of a portfolio.

1.2. - ROAD CLASSIFICATION

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS.

Some people usually call rural roads ROADS, while the name ROADS is applied to roads with modern
characteristics intended for the movement of a large number of vehicles.

The road can be defined as the adaptation of a strip on the earth's surface that meets the conditions of width,
alignment and slope to allow the adequate rolling of the vehicles for which it has been adapted.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

Roads have been classified in different ways in different parts of the world, either according to the purpose
pursued or by their passability.

In Mexican road practice, several classifications given in other countries can be distinguished. They are:
classification by passability, Classification by its administrative aspect and official technical classification.

CLASSIFICATION BY ITS TRANSITABILITY.-

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The classification by its passability corresponds to the stages of road construction and is divided into:

1. Terraces: when a project section has been built up to its traversable subgrade level in dry
weather.

2. Coated: when one or several layers of granular material have already been placed on the
subgrade and it is passable at all times.

3. Paved: when the pavement has already been completely built on the subgrade.

The previous classification is almost universally used in cartography and is presented like this:

ADMINISTRATIVE CLASSIFICATION.-

Due to the administrative aspect, the roads are classified into:

 Federal: when they are fully funded by the federation and are therefore under its responsibility.

 State: when they are built by the cooperation system at a rate of 50% contributed by the state where it is
built and 50% by the federation. These roads are in charge of the formerly called local road boards.

 Neighborhood or rural: when they are built by the cooperation of the benefited neighbors, paying one third of
their value, another third is contributed by the federation and the remaining third by the state. Its construction
and conservation is done through the formerly called local road boards and now the road system.

 Quota: some of which are in charge of the decentralized official agency called Federal Roads and Bridges of
Income and Services and Related and others, such as highways or roads, concessioned to private initiative for
a certain period of time, with the investment recoverable through quotas. by the way.

OFFICIAL TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATION.-

This classification allows us to precisely distinguish the physical category of the road, since it takes into
account the traffic volumes on the road at the end of its economic period (20 years) and the geometric
specifications applied. In Mexico, the Ministry of Communications and Transportation (SCT) technically
classifies roads as follows:

a. Special type: for average annual daily traffic greater than 3,000 vehicles, equivalent to a maximum
annual hourly traffic of 360 vehicles or more (that is, 12% of TPD), these roads require a special
study, and may have a crown of two or four lanes in a single body, designating them A2 and A4,
respectively, or using four lanes in two different bodies, designating them as A4, S.

Type A:

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for an annual average daily traffic of 1,500 to 3,000 equivalent to a maximum annual hourly traffic of 180 to
360 vehicles (12% of the TPD).

Type B:

for an annual average daily traffic of 500 to 1,500 vehicles, equivalent to a maximum annual hourly traffic of 60
to 180 vehicles (12% of TPD)

Type C:

for an annual average daily traffic of 50 to 500 vehicles, equivalent to a maximum annual hourly traffic of 6 to
60 vehicles (12% of the TPD)

In the previous technical classification, which has undergone some modifications in its implementation, 50% of
heavy vehicles have been considered equal to three tons per axle. The number of vehicles is total in both
directions and without considering any transformation from commercial vehicles to light vehicles. (In Mexico,
due to the average composition of traffic on national highways, which is 50% commercial vehicles, of which
15% is made up of trailers, it has been considered appropriate that the transformation factors of commercial
vehicles to light vehicles on two-lane roads, whether two for flat terrain, four for hills and six for mountainous
terrain.)

1.3. - ALIGNMENT AND REQUIRED POINTS.

When constructing a road, the aim is always to ensure that the line is always housed on flat ground for the
greatest possible extent, but always keeping it within the general route. This is not always possible due to the
topography of the land and so when we reach the foot of a slope the slope of the land is greater than the
maximum allowed for that path and it is then necessary to develop the route. Due to these necessary
developments and the search for suitable steps, the paths are longer than the one marked on the straight line
between two points. However, it should always be ensured, to the extent possible, that the alignment between
two required points is as straight as possible in accordance with the topography of the region and also in
accordance with the current and future traffic of the road for this purpose. that the improvements that are
subsequently carried out in the alignment are not the cause of a heavy loss by having to abandon sections of
the road in which a lot of money has been invested. That is to say, you have to have a vision of the future with
respect to the road to avoid subsequent economic failures, but you must also keep in mind that straight
sections of more than ten kilometers produce eye fatigue and hypnosis in the driver that can cause accidents.
It should also be noted that in the modern highway project, passage through any of the streets of population
centers should be avoided, as far as economically possible, and it is preferable to build bypasses to said
centers.

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Based on the recognition, main obligatory points and intermediate obligatory points are located. When the type
of terrain does not have topographic problems, these points will only be located according to the geological or
hydrological characteristics and the benefit or economy of the place, otherwise a a location that allows slopes
to be established within the guidelines or technical specifications.

1.4. - PROJECT SPEEDS.

SPEED.

Speed is defined as the relationship between the space traveled and the time it takes to travel it, that is, a
relationship of movement that is expressed, for constant speed, by the formula: V = d/t.

Since the speed that a vehicle develops is affected by its own characteristics, by the characteristics of the
driver and the road, by the volume of traffic and by the prevailing atmospheric conditions, it means that the
speed at which a vehicle moves varies constantly. , a cause that forces us to work with average speed values.

A speed that is of utmost importance is the so-called Project Speed or Directive Speed, which is nothing other
than that speed that has been chosen to govern and correlate the characteristics and geometric project of a
road in its operational aspect. The design speed is a factor of primary importance that normally determines the
cost of the road and that is why it must be limited to obtain low costs. All elements of a road design must be
calculated based on the design speed. By doing this, you will have a harmonious whole that will not offer
surprises to the driver. The project speeds recommended by the Secretary of Public Works and now SCT are
the following:

PROJECT SPEEDS

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RECOMMENDED

TOPOGRAPHY

KIND OF Flat or with little With hills Mountainous, but Mountainous, but

PATH lomerío strong little steep Very steep

Special type 110km/h 110km/h 80km/h 80km/h

Type A 70km/h 60km/h 50km/h 40km/h

Type B 60km/h 50km/h 40km/h 35km/h

Type C 50km/h 40km/h 30km/h 25km/h

1.5. - DEVICES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL.

Traffic volume is understood to be a certain number of motor vehicles that travel along a road at a certain time
and in the same direction. The commonly used units are: vehicles per day or vehicles per hour. Average daily
traffic (TPD) is the average of the traffic volumes that circulate during 24 hours in a certain period. Normally
this period is one year, unless otherwise indicated. The TPD is normally used in economic studies, since it
represents the use of the road and serves to make background distributions, but it cannot be used to
determine the geometric characteristics of the road, since it is not a value sensitive to significant changes in
road conditions. the volumes and does not indicate the traffic variations that may occur in the hours, days and
months of the year.

Hourly volumes are those resulting from dividing the number of vehicles that pass through a certain point in a
period by the value of that period in hours. The maximum hourly volumes are those used to project the
geometric aspects of the roads and are called Directive Volume. This Guideline Volume is usually equivalent in
the USA. at 15% of TPD, as you will see below, in Mexico 12% of the TPD is used

CAPACITY OF A ROAD

The engineer needs to know what the practical work capacity of a road is, both for the new ones that are going
to be built and in which they can foresee the volumes of traffic that they will accommodate, and for the old
roads which can reach saturation and then they require the construction of another parallel road or the
improvement of the previous one. The practical working capacity of a road is the maximum volume it reaches
before becoming congested or before losing the stipulated speed. Like its structure, it is necessary that said
traffic be estimated in the best possible way, anticipating any increase.

The way to know the type of traffic on an already built road does not present any difficulty since it is reduced
from a series of hourly counts that indicate the volume of said traffic and its type. The same does not happen
when I barely know how to plan the path. In this case, it is necessary to carry out geographical – physical,
socioeconomic and political studies of the region in order to obtain data with which to project. For counting
vehicles, the most used method is the automatic one, which consists of a rubber tube closed at one end by a
membrane.

The tube is placed transversely to the track and as each axle of a vehicle passes over the tube, an air impulse
is produced on the membrane that establishes an electrical contact with a device that adds the number of
impulses received. Automatic counters have the disadvantage that vehicles cannot be classified by type, which

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is feasible when the counting is done manually, however manual counting is expensive since around one
person is needed for every thousand vehicles per hour in the track, while if an automatic counter is used the
work is made easier.

The Department of Federal Highways of the United States of America indicates that the maximum total
practical capacity that a two-lane road can reach is 900 total vehicles per hour and on both lanes when said
road has ideal conditions, that is, two lanes. 3.66 m each, proper slope and alignment, etc.

The capacity of a road is generally measured in vehicles per hour per lane, or in vehicles per hour for both
lanes, in the case of two-lane roads.

The theoretical capacity of a road has been determined taking into account speeds averaging between 70 and
80 kilometers per hour and separations between vehicles of approximately 30 meters.

As a result of the above, a figure close to two thousand vehicles per hour has been obtained; applying the
formula:

Q = 1000 V/S

Where V is the average speed of the vehicles at that moment and S the average interval between them.

CHAPTER 2.- PLANNING A ROAD

Planning consists of grouping, within the technical analysis, in a harmonious and coordinated manner, all the
geographical - physical, economic, social and political factors that characterize a certain region.

The objective of the above is to clearly discover the variety of problems and deficiencies of all kinds, the areas
of greatest current human activity and those economically potential, to give, finally as a result, a prior study of
communications as an effective instrument for adjust, balance, coordinate and promote the most complete
advancement of the area considered, both in itself and in its regional, national and continental influences.

The conclusion reveals the broad guidelines of a road work to be executed, all based on the demand for roads
deduced from the prevailing socio-economic-political conditions.

2.1.- GEOGRAPHICAL – PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The geographical - physical considerations, as well as the economic - social aspects seen later, are of great
relevance and will provide us with the basis to be able to define the type of road necessary for a particular
area.

To carry out the geographical-physical considerations, each and every one of the geographical and physical
characteristics of the region where a highway project is going to be carried out must be taken into account.
Below we will try to mention the essential characteristics to take into account.

Once the total area of the region that will be allocated to our future highway has been located, the natural limits
will be located, such as: mountains, gulfs, seas, etc. Next, we proceed to delimit the political limits of the
states, that is, which and how many states are through which the path will be traced. All types of topography of
the terrain where the line was considered will also be mentioned, as well as the directions, latitudes, longitudes
and surfaces occupied by each of the different types of terrain.

The climatological, meteorological, soil, hydrological and natural vegetation conditions will be considered.

Once all this information has been collected and organized, different areas of land will be established
according to the similarity of their natural characteristics such as: type of terrain, climatic conditions, etc. This is

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to be able to have real knowledge of what activities we will carry out within our different areas, as well as to be
able to use resources with greater savings and efficiency.

2.2.- ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS.

From the point of view of the economic-social evaluation of highway projects and taking into account their
physical characteristics, financing and level of participation in development objectives, highway projects are
classified as follows.

ROADS OF SOCIAL FUNCTION.-

In this type of projects, the criterion of benefit to the community is used for evaluation. The costs per inhabitant
served must be considered, as well as the social elements that are achieved, such as medical care, education,
culture, etc.

The information required to evaluate roads for their social function consists of the number of potentially
benefited inhabitants located in the area of influence of the project. Let us understand the zone of influence as
the geographical, economic and social area affected and benefited directly or indirectly by the construction of
the road.

ROADS OF ECONOMIC PENETRATION.-

The criteria to be used in the evaluation of economic penetration highway projects can be evaluated from the
perspective of economic development. Taking into account the effects of current and potential use for the area
of influence.

The benefit for the project is obtained from the quantification of the production obtained and its increase due to
the highway that is registered in the study area; The benefit obtained for local society in terms of increased
income per inhabitant can also be incorporated to a certain extent.

It is recommended that to gather the necessary information, that the person in charge of the study receive the
collaboration of an expert in the agricultural sector, who knows the resources that are going to be obtained, for
this the area of influence must be limited, and the soil classified according to its use. and use, know the current
agricultural and livestock production, usable agricultural area, transportation costs, income per inhabitant,
minimum wage and length and cost of the project.

NEW OR IMPROVED ROADS.-

They are evaluated using the criterion of economic profitability. The main effects are savings in operating
costs, reduction in travel time, and increase in operating speed. In the same way, a shorter alternative route or
improvement in specifications reduces travel time.

Projects that improve communication are divided into two types:

A. THE IMPROVEMENT

of the current highway consists of an expansion of its lanes or the rectification of the horizontal and vertical
alignments.

B. IMPROVEMENT THROUGH A NEW ROUTE

It consists of generating an option that unites two population centers by improving the geometric characteristics
that contribute to obtaining savings in travel time, operation costs, reduction of accidents, etc.

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The information to be collected includes the annual average daily traffic, its annual growth rate, its vehicle
composition, average driving speed, average travel speed with and without the project to determine the time
savings for users. Operating costs are obtained for each type of vehicle (car, bus and truck), and for the
current and project terrain and road surface types and for each travel speed. The cost and construction time
must be defined through a budget.

For alternative routes, the same data is required, including the TDPA for the new route, its growth rate, its
composition obtained through origin and destination studies, quantification of diverted traffic, etc.

2.3.- ANALYSIS METHOD FOR DETERMINING VITAL ZONES

The planning method adopted for each of the subzones combines an analytical subprocedure with another
graphic. The first, a socioeconomic study, had the purpose of discovering and assessing the characteristics of
the population, the degree of use of natural resources, the performance obtained from the different productive
activities and the levels of consumption; In summary, the objective of the research was to find, by comparing
certain coefficients, the categories of each area, according to the greater or lesser human activity they carry
out, and then assign them priorities in the construction of roads.

As far as the population is concerned, it was necessary to know its general growth trends, its distribution in
urban, suburban or rural centers, its occupational structure and its distribution over the considered surface;
The total table thus obtained was completed by treating the health and care aspects, mortality from endemic
diseases, literacy, education and housing characteristics.

The economic analysis, on the other hand, included the main factors of production, distribution and
consumption, namely:

AGRICULTURE.-

Production amount; yield of each crop per hectare and per agricultural worker; land productivity or efficiency
index; irrigation; soil problems; harvested area and area susceptible to opening to cultivation; internal and
external market for agricultural products; earth trend; problems, deficiencies and possibilities.

CATTLE RAISING.-

Production value; type of livestock operation, quality and quantity of livestock; abundance, scarcity and type of
pastures; possibilities to form a comprehensive livestock industry; property size; the meat market; yields
obtained and productivity of livestock; problems and perspectives.

FORESTRY.-

Value of forestry production; exploited species; efficient use of forests; markets and means of transportation;
possibilities of the processing industry; convenience and performance of current exploitation; problems and
perspectives.

FISHING.-

Production value; calculation of marine resources; current yields based on the procedures applied; prospects
for the industrialization of fishery products; problems and possibilities.

MINING.-

Production value; main minerals being exploited; the problem of their markets; mineral deposits; transportation,
possibilities of establishing companies that transform certain minerals into metallic manufactures; problems
and perspectives.

TRANSFORMATION INDUSTRY.-

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Production value; existing industries; facilities for convenient location; efficiency and performance of
established industries; market and transportation; problems and perspectives.

COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES.-

Current status and development possibilities.

CREDIT AND FINANCE.-

Dissemination and outreach; credit for the various branches of production, agricultural and livestock spare
parts credit; qualification credit and avio; agricultural insurance; municipal treasury resources; taxes;
possibilities and perspectives.

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORTATION.-

Actual state; number of vehicles; established lines; possibilities and perspectives. Possible induced and
generated transit.

The analytical procedure described so far is complemented by the graphic system, which was carried out at
the same time and using the same statistical data; The latter consists of capturing and locating the economic
and social reality on regional geographic maps.

The induced traffic is obtained from the analysis of the origin and destination of existing roads, and the
generated traffic is obtained from the probable development of the region when the road is built.

VITAL AREAS.-

Considering together all the factors briefly exposed so far, which are reduced to the analysis of population,
resources, production and consumption, we arrive at knowledge of vital areas, such as those that support
great human and economic activity.

2.4.- ROAD ECONOMY.

Governments dedicate public funds to improving roads because they benefit society, whether in whole or in
part. Good transportation systems raise the level of the entire economy by providing expeditious transportation
of goods; They greatly help the problems of national defense, they make the provision of community services
such as police and fire protection, medical care, school services and mail delivery easier; They open up
greater opportunities for fun and recreation.

Roads benefit the landowner because easy access makes his property more valuable. On the other hand,
improving roads absorbs money that could be used for other productive purposes by individuals or by the
government. They can be justified only if, on balance, the consequences are favorable; that is, if the cost
reductions to road users and other beneficiaries of the improvement exceed the costs, including some margin
for recovery of the money invested.

The economics of highways was under discussion more than a century ago. Civil engineering professor W. M.
Gillespie stated that "A minimum expenditure is, of course, desired" but the road that is really the most
economical is not the one that has cost the least, but rather the one that provides the greatest benefits due to
the money that was invested to make it."

FRAMEWORK FOR ECONOMIC STUDIES ON ROADS.

Economic studies are related to the prediction of future events; that is, the anticipated monetary
consequences of different courses of action. In the case of isolated individuals or businesses, the point of view
is narrow, the object of the study is to determine only the most advantageous courses of action from the point

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of view of the individuals or businesses. However, in the field of public works, access must be broad and
include everything; must assess the consequences for all those affected by the proposed improvements.

The Flood Control Act of 1936, which stipulated that the benefits, no matter who or who are affected, must
exceed the costs, expresses this view. Economic studies for highways must equally consider the
consequences not only for highway agencies and highway users, but also for all citizens.

ROAD COSTS.

Cost elements.

The first total cost in improving a stretch of highway includes design and engineering expenses, expenses to
acquire rights-of-way, and construction costs of the road, structures, and pavements. Selecting which types of
costs are included or excluded from economic studies requires direct and careful analysis. A detailed treatise
cannot be presented in this thesis. However, four of the most important considerations are the following:

1. In general, fixed costs, used for accounting purposes, should be omitted from economic
studies. To illustrate, a certain percentage can be added to the estimated costs for
administration, planning, and engineering charges. These costs will likely be incurred
depending on whether a specific project is undertaken or not; If so, they are not relevant
compared to possible courses of action. Otherwise, only added or increased costs are
applicable.

2. Expenses made before the economic study should not be considered. These are called lost
or discounted costs, in which there can be no recovery due to a present or future action. For
example, the base and pavement of a highway may be in good condition and have a
substantial "book value" in the highway agency's records. However, for some proposed
alternative the path is abandoned, it would be a mistake to charge a value for this against
any alternative in the economic study.

3. All applicable costs must be included and all inappropriate charges excluded. In this case,
passed-through costs can cause problems. For example, where one of the proposed plans
for a road repair requires a private company to do its installations on its own. For a fixed
budget, this cost cannot be charged against the project. However, from an economic study of
public works, it can be charged: economic resources are consumed, even if they are paid for
by private funds.

4. In a certain type of economic study, it is appropriate to make a credit for the salvage value of
a machine or structure at the end of its estimated useful life. As a general rule, salvage value
should be ignored in economic studies for highways. It is conjectural at best to assume that
an investment in a highway will have great value, 20 or 30 years into the future. An exception
could be assigning salvage value to the land occupied by the road. Even in that situation,
only the gross value of the land in its determined future use, after deducting the cost of
converting it to that use, will be included. Other costs associated with acquiring the land in
the first place, such as legal fees and the cost of cleaning buildings, cannot be recovered
and will not be part of the salvage value.

2.5.- VOLUME AND TYPE OF TRANSIT.

ELEMENTS OF TRANSIT.

The appearance of traffic dates back to the very origins of man, when to move from one place to another he
formed paths, by domesticating the beasts of burden he widened the paths into gaps, with the passage of time
the wheel appeared and with it the carts. and carriages, the transportation capacity is ample and the gaps give

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way to rudimentary roads. From these times the effects of traffic begin to manifest themselves as a product of
the interaction of the road itself and the users and pedestrians.

Automotive vehicles and the first roads make their appearance, vehicles evolve rapidly, become more
powerful, faster and appear explosively all over the world. As a consequence of the latter, traffic problems are
accentuated and the first investigations are carried out. Initially, the human element was involved as the main
person responsible for traffic conflicts; Currently, the following have been established as elements of transit.

1. Users.

The pedestrian

The passenger

Driver

2. The vehicle.

3. The way.

TYPES OF TRANSIT.

When the replacement of a highway S with another C in better condition is carried out, both serving the same
population centers, there is the existence of vehicle traffic, prior to the construction of the new highway or the
modernization of the existing, called normal transit . If Highway C is not built, traffic on the current highway
will increase according to a given growth rate, the value of which would be completely different if the project
were carried out. From these observations, the existence of three types of traffic related to any project has
been determined.

A. NORMAL TRANSIT.

It is the one that normally circulates on the road. Normal traffic growth is the increase in volume due to the
increase in the number and use of motor vehicles. The growth of traffic due to the normal development of
traffic.

B. INDUCED TRANSIT.

It is that transition that would not have occurred without the project; They appear thanks to the decrease in
vehicle operating costs and due to the improvement in the use of land adjacent to the road.

C. DIVERTED TRANSIT.

It corresponds to that existing in other transportation routes such as alternative routes, rivers, railways and
airplanes, which, given the reduction in operating costs on the new highway, is transferred to this one.

VARIATIONS IN TRANSIT VOLUMES.

The traffic that circulates through a road infrastructure is not uniform over time or with respect to space, since
there are variations from one month to the next, daily variations, hourly variations, variations in time intervals
less than the hour and variations in the distribution of traffic in the lanes. These variations are the reflection of
the social and economic activities of the area under study.

It is extremely important to consider these fluctuations in traffic demand if road infrastructure is to be able to
accommodate maximum vehicular demands.

 Variations over time

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 Seasonal and monthly

 Daily

 Hours

 Intervals less than the hour

 Variations in space

 Distribution by senses

 Lane distribution

 Variation in composition

 Cars and pickup

 recreational vehicles

 Trucks

 Buses

TRANSIT FORECASTS.

One of the most important factors that must be considered in the analysis of the cross section of a road and in
general in a project of all types of road work is to estimate the volume of traffic that circulates and will circulate
along it.

Permanent monitoring of road infrastructure provides basic information for decision-making regarding its
maintenance and expansion.

There are two basic gauging methods, the mechanical one , which is the one that carries out the gauging
automatically, and the manual one.

The previous methods allow us to know the degree of occupancy and the conditions under which the roads
operate; Just as the analysis of the historical evolution of demand makes it possible to define growth trends
and the moment from which certain segments will stop providing an adequate service, becoming bottlenecks
that lead to the stagnation of development instead of promoting it.

In order to update and detail the traffic characteristics, short-term gauging should be carried out on a section
of road under the observation of important local aspects such as the agricultural environment, in which case
gauging should be attempted during planting times. and harvest; or if the area is influenced by tourism, study
the normal periods and those with the greatest influx of tourism.

A standard duration has not been established to carry out a traffic capacity, this implies a certain freedom to
choose it. The criteria that must be followed in the selection must consider the degree of precision desired and
the variability of the volumes throughout the week; in general, periods of three hours and five or seven days
are recommended. The three-hour gauges are carried out within the period of greatest demand and serve to
determine the volume of the hour of maximum demand, as well as to estimate the vehicle composition. The 15-
hour capacity is carried out from seven in the morning to ten at night in places with great variability in traffic
during the course of the day. The 48-hour gauging is carried out by mechanical means and must be carried out

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on business days. Gauges of five or seven days are also carried out with mechanical means and must also
cover Saturday and Sunday.

The measurement points or gauging stations must correspond to important and representative points of the
section. A road between two population centers can have two feeder roads. In this case, it is recommended to
have three measurement points. With this system, the average traffic levels in both directions can be reliably
determined.

The demand for transportation is a product of the interaction in the space of socioeconomic activities and the
forecast of its magnitude is decisive to predict the volumes of traffic that will manifest in any transportation
facility.

The study of the evolution of transport demand can be carried out from two perspectives: disaggregated and
aggregated. The first, which is based on the analysis of individual behavior to estimate the magnitude of the
total demand of a system, constitutes a recently emerging approach that is not yet widely applied in developing
countries. Due to their lower information requirements, in these countries the disaggregated approach is used,
which directly forecasts future demand based on the known values of variables of interest.

In the field of roads, some frequently used models are the following:

A. Linear growth models

It is a method that assumes demand based on a simple interest rate. It is the method currently used by the
Secretary of Communications and Transportation, its mathematical expression is:

Tn = To (1 + r / 100 * n)

Where:

Tn: transit in the year

To: transit in the year or

r: annual traffic growth rate in percentage

 Exponential growth models

They are the models that were previously used, and they are of the form:

Tn = To (1 + r / 100)^n

Where:

Tn: transit in year n

To: transit in the year or

r: annual traffic growth rate in percentage

 Logistics models

Its analytical expression is the following:

Tn = Tmax / (1 + e + Bn)

Where:

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Tn: transit in year n

Tmax: maximum traffic that the analyzed facility can handle

B: statistical parameters

e: 2.71828

According to this model, regardless of the value of n, Tn can never exceed the value of Tmax.

 Growth models by analogy

The evolution of demand in a given facility is applied based on the growth already recorded in some other
facility or specific country, with conditions analogous to those of the facility under study but in a more advanced
state of development.

 Growth models based on variables.

Higher hierarchy variables, such as gross domestic product (GDP), population (P), employment, etc. In these
cases, the traffic growth is written as:

Tn = f (GDP, P, etc)

And the problem consists, on the one hand, of predicting the evolution of the aggregate variables, and on the
other hand, determining the mathematical expression that serves to predict transits reliably, which is generally
carried out with the help of statistical techniques.

CHAPTER 3.- GEOMETRIC PROJECT.

3.1. - TOPOGRAPHICAL RECOGNITION.

Before actually starting the topographic studies, a preliminary recognition is required in which, first, an
interview or meeting will be held with the beneficiaries to collect data that is very useful in the project, such as
those related to impacts, characteristics of rivers, names of intermediate places. , location of low or flood-prone
areas, rising water levels and, if possible, one of these people will assist as a guide in the technical recognition
of the path.

Once this is done, a direct reconnaissance of the road will be carried out to determine general characteristics:

o Geological

o Hydrological

o Topographical and complementary

This way I will know the type of soil on which the road will be built, its composition and general characteristics,
location of benches for coatings and aggregates for drainage works, appropriate crossings for the road over
rivers or streams, existence of surface or underground runoff. that come to the surface and affect the path,
type of vegetation and density, as well as approximate slopes and route to follow on the terrain.

This recognition requires the time necessary to know the characteristics of the terrain where the road will be
built, and to carry it out, simple measurement instruments are used such as compasses to determine
directions, clisimeter to determine slopes, vehicle odometer and other simple instruments.

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Through recognition, topographic ports are determined, which are obligatory points according to the
topography and ports determined by obligatory places of passage, whether for social, political or production of
goods and services benefit.

With all the data collected, highlighting the most important ones, a tentative route for the project will be
established.

There are modern procedures for recognition such as electronic photogrammetric, but it is too expensive, often
for the budget that a road may have, it is also important to say that the type of vegetation and climate of some
regions does not allow the use of this procedure, so it is You have to resort to direct recognition that can be
assisted by topographic maps.

Topographical recognition.

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3.2. - PRELIMINARY STROKE.

When the required points have been located, they are linked using a procedure that requires:

1. The outline of a support polygonal as close as possible to the established points, with
astronomical orientation, referenced PIS and accurately marked deflections as it will be the
basis of the final outline.

2. The support traverse is an open traverse starting from a vertex or starting point by driving
stakes every 20 meters, and intermediate places until reaching the next vertex. To locate
these, the clisimeter or the vertical traffic circle is used, using the desired slope.

3. The slope will be four units below the maximum specified where possible so that the office
worker has more possibilities to project the subgrade, increasing the slope to the maximum if
necessary to economize volumes.

4. Leveling of the traverse, generally every 20 meters, which will be useful to define elevations
of closed contour lines every 2 meters.

5. Obtaining contour lines in a strip of 80 or 100 meters. On each side of the road axis at every
20 meters or important intermediate stations.

6. Line drawing and contour lines with relevant details such as crosses, constructions, visible
geological faults, etc.

As the drawing of the outline and the contour lines can be projected in plan the theoretical line of the dirt road,
to project it a compass is used with an opening calculated according to the slope with which it is intended to be
projected.

The separation of contour lines divided by the slope to be projected is the opening of the compass with which
the points of the line will be located bare ground using the same scale of the plane.

tentative line

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3.3. - DEFINITIVE LINE.

The final project of the line will be established on the drawing of the preliminary line, by means of tangents
joined together, through their PIS or points of intersection that will be used to link the tangents through
horizontal curves; The longer the tangents are drawn, the better horizontal alignment will be obtained, with the
consequence that marking them longer implies a greater movement of volumes, so we will try to compensate
this line on the left and right side where possible and load the line towards the firm side. where strong cross
sections are present every time the project line crosses the preliminary line on the plane, this point L and its
chain will be marked, and the angle X of crossing will be determined with a protractor. In the event that these
lines do not cross, the distance that separates one and the other will be measured every 500 meters or every
1000 meters to determine the league points with which the final line on the field will begin.

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When the final outline is drawn in plan, we can, before drawing it in the field, draw a deduced profile, according
to the data we have from the support polygonal and the contour lines.

The procedure for drawing it is different from that used with a normal profile since each station located on the
theoretical line of the road is assigned the elevation of the contour at this point. With this profile we have a
clearer idea of how the volumes will be compensated according to the proposed outline and even have some
sections deduced to assume a volume.

Once the final line has been drawn, we proceed to draw it in the field to correct any errors or improve what
was projected.

Having the line drawn on the ground requires the use of references in the PI, PC, PT, and PST, to be able to
locate them again when for some reason the tops or stakes that indicate their location are lost, either due to a
delay or construction. of the road.

To reference a point, accurately measured angles and distances are used, ensuring that the references are
outside the right of way.

The points that define the line will be referenced as PI, PC, PT and PST, which are no more than 500 meters
apart.

The angles will be measured in quadrants, taking the axis of the road as the origin and in the PIS the origin
will be the tangent of the back side and the numbering of the reference points will be done in a clockwise
direction from inside to outside and Starting ahead and to the right of the road, there will be at least two visuals
with two Ps. R. Each one, notable trees, edges of buildings, fixed posts, etc. may be used as visuals. If none of
these are found, tops with tacks will be placed at each point and a stake will be attached with the reference
number of the point and its distance from the axis of the path.

Once the preliminary layout is located on the topographic plans, and the type of road that will need to be built
has also been decided, it is necessary to define some of the important characteristics of the road such as:
Design speed, Maximum degree of curvature, Lengths, Overelevation, and many others of great importance.

It is necessary to check that at all times the slope of our final line is never greater than the maximum permitted
slope.

With the following classification and characteristics table made by the Secretary of Communications and
Transportation, it is easy to locate each and every one of these characteristics.

In order to more easily explain some of the points mentioned in this thesis, some of the possible solutions will
be exemplified in the following pages.

A type "C" road has been chosen to carry out some examples, with the following road characteristics.

o TDPA from 500 to 1500 units

o Terrain type: flat

o Design speed of 70 km/h

o 95 mt stopping visibility distance

o Passing visibility distance of 315 m

o Maximum degree of curvature of 7.5

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o Percentage of slope on vertical curves on a crest of 20

o Percentage of slope in vertical curves in a swing of 20

o Minimum length in vertical curves of 40 m

o Governor slope of 5%

o Maximum slope of 7%

definitive line

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CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ROADS

3.4. - TRACE OF HORIZONTAL CURVES .

As the link between one tangent and another requires the use of horizontal curves, it is necessary to study the
procedure for their realization, these are calculated and projected according to the road specifications and
topography requirements.

CIRCULAR CURVE ELEMENTS

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The technical services standards of the SCT (Secretary of Communications and Transportation, Mexico) ,
in the geometric highway project section, indicate the following calculation standards for horizontal curves:

Tangents.-

The horizontal tangents will be defined by their length and their azimuth

a.- Minimum length

1. Between two inverse circular curves with a mixed transition, it must be equal to the half-sum
of the lengths of said transitions.

2. Between two inverse circular curves with transition spirals, it may be equal to zero

3. Between two inverse circular curves when one of them has a transition spiral and the other
has a mixed transition, it must be equal to half the length of the mixed transition.

4. Between two circular curves of the same direction, the minimum tangent length has no
specified value.

b.- Maximum length.-

The maximum length of tangents has no specified limit.

c.- Azimuth.- the azimuth will define the direction of the tangents.

Circular curves.- The circular curves of the horizontal alignment will be defined by their degree of curvature
and by their length, the elements that characterize it are

defined in the previous figure.

a.- Maximum degree of curvature

.- the maximum value of the degree of curvature corresponding to each design speed will be given by the
expression:

Where:

Gmax = Maximum degree of curvature

<img src="/images/tesis/4/Image9.gif" height="17" width="29"/> Lateral friction coefficient

Smax = Maximum elevation of the curve in m/m

V = Project speed in Km/h

The following table indicates the maximum curvature values for each design speed.

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Calculated Maximum degree

Project speed Maximum overlift maximum degree of curvature for
Lateral friction
of curvature project
coefficient
km/h m/m
degrees Degrees

30 0.280 0.10 61.6444 60

40 0.230 0.10 30.1125 30

50 0.190 0.10 16.9360 17

60 0.165 0.10 10.7472 11

70 0.150 0.10 7.4489 7.5

80 0.140 0.10 5.4750 5.5

90 0.135 0.10 4.2358 4.25

100 0.130 0.10 3.3580 3.25

110 0.125 0.10 2.7149 2.75

b.- Minimum length:

The minimum length of a circular curve with mixed transitions must be equal to the half-sum of the lengths of
those transitions.

The minimum length of a circular curve with transition spirals may be equal to zero.

c.- Maximum length

.- The maximum length of a circular curve will have no specified limit.

Spiral transition curves.-

Spiral transition curves are used to join the

tangents with circular curves forming a curve

composed of an entrance transition, a circular curve

center and an exit transition of length equal to that of

entrance.

a.- To carry out the transitions, the clothoid or Euler spiral will be used, whose expression is:

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Where:

Rc = Radius of the circular curve in meters

Le = Length of the transition spiral in meters
K = Spiral parameters in meters.

b.- The minimum length of the spiral for type A roads with two lanes and four lanes in separate bodies, B and
C, will be given by the expression:

Where:

Le min = Minimum length of the spiral in meters

V = Project speed in Km/h

S = Elevation of the circular curve in m/m

For type A roads with four lanes in a single body, the minimum length of the spiral calculated with this formula
must be multiplied by one point seven (1.7).

c.- Transition spiral curves will be used exclusively for type A, B and C roads, and only when the elevation of
the circular curves is seven percent (7%) or greater.

d.- The following figure shows the elements that characterize circular curves with a transition spiral.

Visibility.- Every horizontal curve must satisfy the stopping visibility distance for a given design speed and
curvature, for this when there is an obstacle on the inside side of the curve, the minimum distance "m" that
must exist between it and The axis of the interior lane of the curve will be given by the expression and the
graph that we will mention later.

Stop visibility distance.- The stop visibility distance is obtained with the expression:

Dp = Vt = V^2

254f

Where:

Dp = Stop visibility distance in meters

V = Walking speed, in km/h
t = Reaction time, in seconds
f = Longitudinal friction coefficient

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The following table shows the design values of the stopping visibility distance that correspond to design
speeds of thirty to one hundred and ten km/h.

Reaction Visibility distance

walking
Project Longitudinal
speed Braking
speed friction
Distance distance m Calculated For project
Km/h Time sec coefficient
km/h mt m
m

30 28 2.5 19.44 0.400 7.72 27.16 30

40 37 2.5 25.69 0.380 14.18 39.87 40

50 46 2.5 31.94 0.360 23.14 55.08 55

60 55 2.5 38.19 0.340 35.03 73.22 75

70 63 2.5 43.75 0.325 48.08 91.83 95

80 71 2.5 49.30 0.310 64.02 113.32 115

90 79 2.5 54.86 0.305 80.56 135.42 135

100 86 2.5 59.72 0.300 97.06 156.78 155

110 92 2.5 63.89 0.295 112.96 176.85 175

Passing visibility distance.-

The passing visibility distance is obtained with the expression

Dr = 4.5v

Where:

Dr = passing sight distance, in meters

V = design speed, in km/h

The project values of the passing sight distance are indicated in the road classification and characteristics
table.

Encounter visibility distance.-

The meeting visibility distance is obtained with the expression:

De = 2 Dp

Where:

De = Encounter visibility distance, in meters

Dp = Stop visibility distance, in meters

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Horizontal curve stroke:

As seen in our final outline, we have to calculate a simple circular curve, with the data obtained from the
classification table and road types, we will proceed to calculate the curve.

<

To calculate a horizontal curve, it is necessary to draw the tangents to the curve and determine the angle of
deflection of the tangent (D) , which in this case is 20°. The value of the degree of curvature of the curve is
also necessary. circular curve (Gc ), which in this case is proposed to be 10°, the degree of curvature of the
circular curve is proposed taking care that the point where the curve begins and the point where the curve
ends do not overlap with any other existing curve, also taking care that it does not exceed the maximum
degree of curvature according to the classification table and road types.

To obtain the central angle of the circular curve, it is necessary to draw two lines perpendicular to the tangents
that join at a point, from which D c can be obtained, which in this case is 20°.

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° Deflection
Chaining Curve meters Def/meter Cumulative deflection ° ´ ´´
(decimals)

394.74

400 5.26 0.25000 1.315 1.315 1°27’18’’

420 20 0.25000 5.000 6.315 6°18’54’’

434.18 14.18 0.25000 3.545 9.860 9°51’36’’

434.18 0 0.25000 0.000 9.860 9°51’36’’

With the calculated data it is possible to draw the circular curve, as shown below.

3.5. - LEVELING.

Just as the preliminary line was leveled, now with the final outline the profile must be leveled, obtaining the
elevations of the stations every 20 meters or those where important details are presented such as intermediate
variable heights, river crossings, location of canals. , etc. The level benches will be placed approximately every
500 meters and the execution will be reviewed with round trip differential leveling, double league point or
double height of the device.

In the leveling record, the elevations of the benches should be noted to the nearest millimeter and the
elevations of the stations to the nearest centimeter.

3.6. - DEDUCTED PROFILE.

The profile of the road is a representation of the vertical projection of the axis of the path, it is drawn at least 5
kilometers in length to facilitate the handling of the plans.

The most commonly used scale is 1:200 vertical and 1:2000 horizontal.

It is composed, like the plan and section plan, of an identification box, the drawing and its text.

At the beginning of the plan, an identification table will be placed that will include general data, specifically the
project and work quantities.

The rest of the content of the plan will be:

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1. Table of: a) chaining, b) terrain elevations, c) grade elevations, d) cut thicknesses, e)

embankment thicknesses, f) cut volumes, g) embankment volumes, h) mass curve
ordinates.

2. Terrain profile with: a) level banks, b) subgrade with data on vertical curves and slopes, c)
drainage works.

3. Mass curve with the same horizontal scale of the profile and vertical scale 1: 20000, with: a)
earth movements (on hauls, loans, compensated cut and embankment volumes), b) mass
curve equalities, c) classification of cuts.

4. Horizontal alignment data: a) tangent data (orientation, psts location), b) curve data
(inflection points, deflections, degrees, radii, subtangent, curve lengths and PC, PT and PSC
stations).

Deduced profile

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3.7. - SUBGRADE PROJECT.

The subgrade is a succession of straight lines that are the slopes joined by vertical curves, trying to
compensate for the cuts with the embankments. The slopes are projected to the tenth with the exception of
those in which a height is set in advance at a certain PI.

Ascending slopes are marked positive and descending slopes with the inverse sign, taking into account the
slope specifications for their magnitude, avoiding excessive vertical deflections that detract from the safety and
comfort of the road or the exaggerated use of tangents that would be uneconomical.

The topographic, geotechnical, hydraulic conditions and the cost of the dirt roads define the subgrade project,
which is why it is required to carry out several tests to determine the most convenient one. Once the vertical
tangents have been projected, they are joined using parabolic curves.

Economic determination of the subgrade.

After the subgrade project, the thickness is calculated, which is the difference between the natural terrain level
and the project level. With the thickness, the construction sections are drawn to calculate their area and with
this the cut and embankment volumes, thus beginning the procedure of economic determination of the
subgrade, which consists of establishing proportion for the vertical alignment project, taking care of the costs
and quality of the materials as appropriate for the movement of dirt roads.

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CUT AND EMBANKMENT AREAS.

The following cut and embankment areas were derived from the calculation of the most economical
subgrade. This procedure can be simple if the profile and subgrade are drawn in the auto cad program,
since it is only necessary to move the subgrade and ask to the computer that calculates the area, this
in order to compare the cut and embankment areas until reaching the most economical point.

EMBANKMENT AREA

Area = 2697.1719 meters

CUTTING AREA

Area = 2568.1483 meters

3.8. - TRACE OF VERTICAL CURVES.

A vertical curve is a parabola arc with a vertical axis that joins two tangents of the vertical alignment; The
vertical curve can be a swing or a crest, the vertical swing curve is a vertical curve whose concavity is
upward, and the vertical crest curve is one whose concavity is downward.

VERTICAL CURVE ELEMENTS.

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PIV

Point of intersection of vertical tangents

PCV Point where the vertical curve begins

PTV Point where the vertical curve ends

PSV Any point on the vertical curve

p1 Slope of the entrance tangent, in m/m

p2 Slope of the exit tangent, in m/m

Algebraic
difference of slopes

L Length of the vertical curve, in meters

K Variation in length per unit of slope (parameter)

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x Distance from the PCV to a PSV, in meters

p Slope in a PSV, in m/m

p´ Slope of a chord, in m/m

E External, in meters

F Arrow, in meters

T Deviation of a PSV to the entrance tangent, in meters

Zo PCV elevation, in meters

Zx Elevation of a PSV, in meters

Note: If X and L are expressed in 20 m stations, the elevation of a PSV can be calculated with any of the
expressions:

Zx = Zo + (20 p1 – (10AX/L))X

Zx = Zx – 1 + 20 p1 – (10A/L)(2X – 1)

A = P1 – (-P2)

K = L/A

P = P1 – A (X/L)

P´ = ½ (P1 + P)

E = (AL)/8

F=E

T = 4E(X/L)^2

Zx = Zo + [P1 – (AX/2L)]

The technical services standards of the Ministry of Communications and Transportation , in the geometric
highway project section, indicate the following calculation standards for vertical curves:

Tangents.- Vertical tangents will be defined by their slope and length.

a.- Pending governor.-

The maximum values determined for the governing slope are indicated in the following table of maximum
values of the governing slopes and the maximum slopes for the different types of roads and terrain.

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b.- Maximum slope.-

The values determined for maximum slope are indicated in the following table of maximum values of the
governing slopes and the maximum slopes for the different types of roads and terrain.

c.- Minimum slope.-

The minimum slope in areas with a cut and/or embankment section must not be less than zero point five
percent (0.5%) and in areas with an embankment section the slope may be zero.

d.- Critical length.-

The values of the critical length of the vertical tangents with slopes with slopes greater than the governor will
be obtained from the graph of the critical length of vertical tangents with slopes greater than the governor.

Maximum values of the governor slopes and the maximum slopes

GOVERNOR PENDING (%) MAXIMUM SLOPE (%)

TYPE ROAD TYPE OF TERRAIN TYPE OF TERRAIN

MOUNTAIN LOMERIO PLAN MOUNTAIN LOMERIO PLAN

AND -- 7 9 7 10 13

d -- 6 8 6 9 12

c -- 5 6 578

b -- 4 5 467

TO -- 3 4 456

CRITICAL LENGTH OF VERTICAL TANGENTS WITH SLOPE GREATER THAN THE GOVERNOR

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Visibility

a.- Vertical curves in chalk.-

In order for the vertical crest curves to meet the necessary visibility distance, their length must be calculated
from the parameter K, which is obtained with the expression:

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Where:

D = visibility distance, in meters

H = height at the driver's eye (1.14m)

h = height of the object (0.15 m)

b.- Vertical swing curves.-

In order for the vertical swing curves to comply with the necessary visibility distance, their length must be
calculated from the parameter K, which is obtained with the expression:

Where:

D = visibility distance, in meters

T = slope of the headlight beam (0.0175)
H = height of headlights (0.64 m)

c.- Visibility requirements.-

1. The stopping visibility distance must be provided on all vertical curves, this requirement is taken into
account in the value of parameter K, specified in the following table "Minimum values of parameter K
and the minimum acceptable length of vertical curves"

2. The meeting sight distance shall be provided on vertical ridge curves on type "E" roads, as specified
in the following table, "Minimum values of parameter K and minimum acceptable length of vertical
curves"

MINIMUM VALUES OF THE PARAMETER k AND THE MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE LENGTH OF THE
VERTICAL CURVES

K parameter values (m/%)

Ridge curves Swing curves

Design speed Minimum acceptable
(km/h) length (m)
type road type road

ED,C,B,A E,D,C,B,A

30 4 3 4 20

40 7 4 7 30

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50 12 8 10 30

60 23 12 15 40

70 36 20 20 40

80 - 31 25 50

90 - 43 31 50

100 - 57 37 60

110 - 72 43 60

The overtaking visibility distance will only be provided when indicated in the project specifications and/or
ordered by the secretary, the values of parameter K to satisfy are:

Project speed in km/h 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Parameter K for
18 32 50 73 99 130 164 203 245
overflow in m/%

Vertical curves.-

The vertical curves will be parabolas with a vertical axis and are defined by their length and by the algebraic
difference of the slopes of the vertical tangents that they join.

a.- Minimum length:

 The minimum length of the vertical curves will be calculated with the expression:

L = KA

Where:

L = Minimum length of the vertical curve, in meters

K = Curve parameter whose minimum value is specified

In the table of minimum values of the parameter K and the minimum acceptable length of vertical curves

A = Algebraic difference of the slopes of the vertical tangents.

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 The minimum length of the vertical curves should in no case be less than those shown in the following two
tables: "Minimum length of the vertical curves in crest" and "Minimum length of the vertical curves in swing"

b).- Maximum length.-

There will be no maximum length limit for vertical curves. In the case of vertical crest curves with entrance and
exit slopes of opposite signs, the drainage must be reviewed when the length of the projected curve
corresponds to a value of parameter K greater than 43.

MINIMUM LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVES IN CREST

MINIMUM LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVES IN SWING

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Calculation of vertical curves

To calculate and draw the vertical curves, it is necessary to have a profile of the terrain, as well as the lengths
and slopes of each segment of the road. It is necessary to check that the slope in these segments of the road
is never greater than the maximum slope given by the table of road types and characteristics.

It is also necessary to respect the minimum length conditions for vertical crest and swing curves. The formulas
for drawing vertical curves are comparatively simpler than those for vertical curves, as shown below.

Po = input slope

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Pi = output slope

L = total number of stations

Terrain profile

Calculation of vertical curve in swing

L = (-0.50)-(0.8) = 1.3 = 2 stations of 20 meters = 40 meters

K = (1.3) / (10)(2) = 0.065

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E = (1.3)(40)/8 = 6.5

F = 6.5

0.50-------------100

x-----------------20

X = 0.1

0.8-------------100

x-----------------20

X = 0.16

PIV = 512.48

PCV = 512.48 – 0.1 = 512.38

PTV = 512.48 + 0.16 = 512.64

Spot Elevation X^2 K AND Dimension

0 512.38 0 0.065 0 512.38

1 512.48 1 0.065 0.0315 512.4485

0 512.64 0 0.065 0 512.64

Maximum values of the governor slopes and the maximum slopes

TYPE ROAD GOVERNOR PENDING (%) MAXIMUM SLOPE (%)

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TYPE OF TERRAIN TYPE OF TERRAIN

MOUNTAIN LOMERIO PLAN MOUNTAIN LOMERIO PLAN

AND -- 7 9 7 10 13

d -- 6 8 6 9 12

c -- 5 6 578

b -- 4 5 467

TO -- 3 4 456

3.9.- SIMULTANEOUS USE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL CURVES.

In relation to the combination of horizontal and vertical alignment, the following should be observed:

a. In vertical alignments that create high and long embankments, they are desirable.

Straight or very gently curved horizontal alignments.

b. Horizontal and vertical alignments must be balanced. Tangents or gentle horizontal curves in
combination with steep slopes and short vertical curves, or excessive curvature with gentle slopes,
correspond to poor designs. An appropriate design is one that combines both alignments, offering
maximum safety, capacity, ease and uniformity in operation, as well as a pleasing appearance within
the restrictions imposed by the topography.

c. When the horizontal alignment is made up of curves with degrees less than the maximum, it is
recommended to project vertical curves with lengths greater than the minimum specified; provided
that the cost of construction of the road is not considerably increased.

d. It is advisable to avoid the coincidence of the top of a vertical crest curve with the beginning or end of
a horizontal curve.

e. Projecting the bottom of a vertical swing curve on or near a horizontal curve should be avoided.

f. In general, when vertical and horizontal curves are combined, or one is very close to the other, care
should be taken that the vertical curve is outside the horizontal curve or completely included in it, with
the aforementioned exceptions.

g. The alignments must be combined to achieve the greatest number of sections with passing sight
distances.

h. Where an interchange project is planned, the alignments should be as smooth as possible.

3.10. - CONSTRUCTION SECTIONS.

From the cross section.

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The cross section is defined by the crown, the ditches, the slopes, the counter ditches, the complementary
parts and the land included within the right of way, as shown in the following figures, "Tangent cross section of
the horizontal alignment for roads types E, D, C, B and A2" and "Tangent cross section of the horizontal
alignment for roads types A4"

Crown.-

The crown is defined by the road and the shoulders with their transverse slope, and, where applicable, the
central separating strip.

In tangents of the horizontal alignment, the width of the crown for each type of road and terrain must be that
specified in the table "Widths of the crown, road, shoulders and central separator strip" shown below.

Widths of

Road type
Central separating
Crown (m) Road (m) Dimensions (m)
strip (m)

AND 4.00 4.00 -- --

d 6.00 6.00 -- --

c 7.00 6.00 0.50 --

b 9.00 7.00 1.00 --

(A2) 12.00 7.00 2.50 --

EXT INT
TO (A4) 22.00 minimum 2 x 7.00 1.00 minimum
3.00 0.50

(A4S) 2 x 11.00 2 x 7.00 3.00 1.00 8.00 minimum

Given the above data, we can deduce the following measurements based on our road type " C ".

Road type "D"

Crown = 6.0 meters

Road = 6.0 meters.

Dimensions = 0.0 m

Central separating strip = 0.0 m

In horizontally aligned curves and transitions, the width of the crown must be the sum of the widths of the
roadway, the shoulders, and, where appropriate, the central separating strip.

Roadway.- the width of the roadway must be:

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a. In tangent of the horizontal alignment, that specified in the previous table "Widths of crown, road,
shoulders and central separating strip"

b. In circular curves of the horizontal alignment, the width in tangent plus an extension on the inner side
of the circular curve, whose value is specified in the following four tables "Extensions, on elevations
and transitions for roads"

c. In transition spiral curves and in mixed transitions.

The tangent width plus a variable extension on the inner side of the spiral curve or on the mixed transition,
whose value is given by the expression:

Where:

A = Extension of the width of the road at a point of the spiral curve or mixed transition, in meters.
L = Distance from the origin of the transition to the point whose magnification you want to determine, in meters
Le = Length of the spiral curve or mixed transition, in meters.
Ac = Total extension of the width of the road corresponding to the circular curve, in meters.

On tangents and horizontal curves for type E roads.

1. The width of the road on type "E" roads will not require widening due to horizontal curvature.

2. Due to operational requirements, it will be necessary to widen the width of the road, forming parking
lots, to allow the simultaneous passage of two vehicles. The width of the road in the parking lot area
will be that of the type "D" road.

3. The length of the runways will be twenty meters plus two transitions of five meters each.

4. The piers will be spaced at a distance of two hundred and fifty meters or less, if visibility between
them requires it.

Dimensions.-

The width of the shoulders must be for each type of road and type of terrain, as indicated in the table "Widths
of crown, road, shoulders and central separator strip"

Transverse slope.-

In horizontal alignment tangents the crown bulge should be:

a. Of minus two percent on paved type A, B, C, and D roads

b. Less than three percent on type D and E coated roads.

c. 3.11. - DETERMINATION OF ROAD SECTIONS.

d. Determining the road sections is a simple but laborious procedure, since every twenty meters
of our road line, the intersection of the contour lines will have to be determined twenty meters
to the left and twenty meters to the right. The reason that twenty meters have to be determined

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towards the sides is due to the fact that by federal provision, all federal highway roads include
twenty meters to the left and right of the center of the road.

e. The determination of the road sections of any two hundred meter section is illustrated below.

Road layout sections.

114.15 115.2 116.0 115.85

20.0 0.00 15.5 20.0
114.0 115.1 116.0 115.9
20.0 20.0 16.0 20.0
113.75 114.0 115.0 116.0 115.92
20.0 17.0 40.0 18.0 20.0

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113.6 114.0 114.75 116.0

20.0 15.0 60.0 20.0
113.5 114.0 114.62 115.85
20.0 14.0 80.0 20.0
113.4 114.0 114.55 115.65
20.0 14.0 100.0 20.0
113.5 114.0 114.54 115.55
20.0 15.0 120.0 20.0
113.6 114.0 114.51 115.5
20.0 18.0 140.0 20.0
113.82 114.0 114.42 115.20
20.0 16.2 160.0 20.0
113.78 114.0 114.3 114.9
20.0 12.1 180.0 20.0
113.2 114.0 114.7 114.6
20.0 6.05 200.0 20.0

f. The previously determined sections are necessary for the calculation of the mass curve. Our
road will be located in these as shown below, with a typical section for roads D, C, B and A2.

g. Another aspect why the determination of construction sections is necessary is the fact that
these are the indicators of the amount of cutting and embankment necessary in the road.

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Calculation of section areas.

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3.12. - DETERMINATION OF LAND VOLUMES BETWEEN STATIONS.

Calculation of volumes.-

With the area of each of the sections, the volumes are integrated by the method of the average of extreme
areas, adding two contiguous section areas, averaging them and multiplying them by half the distance
between them.

Dirt road movement.-

It is based on the volumes to be moved in relation to the hauling distances, for which different concepts are
involved on which the economics of the project will depend.

a. Free carry.-

It is the distance at which the movement of a volume is carried out without requiring elaborate work or in the
case of contracts without reaching an additional payment, currently in Mexico it is set for a length no greater
than 20 meters.

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b. About hauling.-

It is the transportation of materials over a distance greater than that of free hauling and is obtained by
multiplying the volume to be moved by the distance from the center of gravity of the cut to the center of gravity
of the embankment; Depending on the distance that has to be moved, it can be done with a truck or
machinery.

c. Lateral loan.-

The difference needed to form an embankment by not compensating it with a cut will require an additional
volume, called a loan, that will be obtained from the side of the road.

d. Bank loan.-

It is presented in the same conditions as the previous one, except that due to the quality of the material or
because it cannot be found on the road, a special place will be used as appropriate; generally this
transportation is carried out with trucks.

3.13. - MASS DIAGRAM.

The mass curve seeks balance for the quality and economy of earthworks, and is also a method that indicates
the direction of movement of the excavated volumes, the quantity and location of each of them.

The ordinates of the curve result from algebraically adding to an initial arbitrary limit the value of the volume of
a cut with a positive sign and the value of the embankment with a negative sign; As apses, the same chaining
used in the profile is taken.

The volumes are corrected by applying an abundance coefficient to the cuts or by applying a reduction
coefficient to the embankment.

The procedure for designing the mass curve is as follows:

 The subgrade is projected onto the ground profile drawing.

 The thickness of the cut or embankment is determined at each station, or at the points that warrant it.

 topographic cross sections (construction sections) are drawn

 The template of the cut or embankment is drawn with the slopes chosen according to the type of material, on
the corresponding topographic section, thus leaving the cross sections of the road drawn.

 the areas of the cross sections of the road are calculated by any of the already known methods.

 The volumes are calculated by adding cuts or reducing the embankments, depending on the type of material
and method chosen.

 the curve is drawn with the previous values.

Drawing of the mass curve.

The mass curve is drawn with the ordinates in the vertical direction and the apses in the horizontal direction
using the same profile drawing.

When the curve is drawn, the compensator is drawn, which is a horizontal line that cuts the curve at several
points.

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Different compensating line alternatives can be drawn to improve movements, taking into account that the
volumes are compensated more when the same compensating line cuts the curve more times, but sometimes
wanting to compensate the volumes too much causes very long carries that are more costly. than other
alternatives.

The excess carry is expressed in:

M3 – Station when it does not exceed 100 meters, the distance from the center of gravity of the cut to the
center of gravity of the embankment with the subtraction of the haulage.

M3 – Hectometer from 100 meters, distance and less than 500 meters.

M3 – Additional hectometer, when the overhaul distance varies between 500 and 2000 meters.

M3 – Kilometer, when the distance between the centers of gravity exceeds 2000 meters.

Determination of waste:

When the compensating line cannot be continued and there is a need to start another one, there will be a
difference in ordinates.

If the mass curve is presented in the direction of the chaining in an ascending manner, the difference will
indicate the volume of material that will have to be wasted laterally at the time of construction.

Determination of loans:

This is the same case as before, except that the mass curve is presented in a descending manner. The
decision to consider it as a loan from a bank close to the road or a loan from the side of the road will depend
on the quality of the materials and the appearance. economical, since long hauls are usually very expensive.

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Determination of free carry:

The free carry distance of 20 meters is run horizontally, in such a way that it touches two points of the curve,
the difference in the ordinate of the horizontal to the highest or lowest point of the curve is the volume.

Determination of excess carry:

A line is drawn in the middle of the compensating horizontal line and the free carry horizontal line.

The difference of apses

The volume will be obtained by subtracting the ordinate of the compensating line A –B from that of the free
carry line ab.

Properties of the mass curve:

 The curve increases in the chain direction when it involves cuts and decreases when the embankment
predominates.

 In the stations where there is a change from ascending to descending or vice versa, a maximum and a
minimum will occur respectively.

 Any horizontal line that cuts the curve at two ends will mark two points with the same cut and fill ordinate,
thus indicating the compensation in this section, so the cut and fill volumes will be equal.

This line is called compensator and is the maximum distance to compensate an embankment with a cut.

 The difference in ordinate between two points will indicate the difference in volume between them.

 The area between the curve and any horizontal represents the volume times the average haul length

 When the curve is above the horizontal, the direction of material hauling is forward, and when the curve is
below the direction is backward, taking care that the slope of the road allows it.

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Mass Curve Ordinate.

Below we can see the way in which the calculation of the mass curve ordinate is carried out, in which the
calculation of the first two hundred meters of our path was carried out.

The fact of observing in the table that the quantities of the subgrade elevation, the vertical tangent levels and
the terrain elevation are the same, is due to the fact that at the beginning of our path, these three coincide at
the same point .

In the vertical curve correction box, the curve correction amounts are stored, as seen in the previous
calculation of the vertical curve, except that up to these two hundred meters no correction is found.

Like the vertical curve correction, the cut and embankment thicknesses are set to zero up to this point.

The cut and fill areas are obtained from the previous calculation of the section areas.

In the last box of OCM An arbitrary value is given and the cut or fill values are subtracted or added.

VOLUME Coef. Variab. Vol. Increase algebraic sum Orderly

Embank mass
D/2 Court ment volumetric or reduced Total Terra (+) (-) curve

embank embankm Embank

1 90% court ment court ent court plen Court ment CMO

10.00 95.70 105.00 1.35 0.95 129.20 99.75 129.20 99.75 29.45 0.00 3029.45

10.00 200.90 215.00 1.35 0.95 271.22 204.25 271.22 204.25 66.97 0.00 3066.97

10.00 214.50 235.00 1.35 0.95 289.58 223.25 289.58 223.25 66.33 0.00 3066.33

10.00 234.30 240.00 1.35 0.95 316.31 228.00 316.31 228.00 88.31 0.00 3088.31

10.00 248.00 211.00 1.35 0.95 334.80 200.45 334.80 200.45 134.35 0.00 3134.35

10.00 233.00 185.10 1.35 0.95 314.55 175.85 314.55 175.85 138.70 0.00 3138.70

10.00 211.00 169.70 1.35 0.95 284.85 161.22 284.85 161.22 123.63 0.00 3123.63

10.00 200.00 140.70 1.35 0.95 270.00 133.67 270.00 133.67 136.33 0.00 3136.33

10.00 177.00 131.60 1.35 0.95 238.95 125.02 238.95 125.02 113.93 0.00 3113.93

10.00 138.00 123.70 1.35 0.95 186.30 117.52 186.30 117.52 68.78 0.00 3068.78

10.00 245.30 52.20 1.35 0.95 331.16 49.59 331.16 49.59 281.57 0.00 3281.57

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TOTAL CUT = 1248.35 mts^3

TOTAL EMBANKMENT = 0.0 mts^3

It can be seen that the values of terrain elevation and subgrade elevation are equal, this is because in this
thesis only the first two hundred meters of road were taken for the calculation, in which these last two
mentioned values coincide.

Mass Curve Ordinate.

AREAS A1 + A2

Vertical Embank Embank

Its T. Elev. Vertical tangent curve Elevation Thicknesses Court ment Court ment

Dime
nsion Embank
land Earring s correction subgrade Court ment 1 90% 1 90%

0+00 115.2 0.5% 115.2 0.0 115.2 0.325 0.525 9.57 10.50 9.57 10.50

0+020 115.1 0.5% 115.1 0.0 115.1 0.400 0.550 10.52 11.00 20.09 21.50

0+040 115.0 0.5% 115.0 0.0 115.0 0.460 0.625 10.93 12.50 21.45 23.50

0+060 114.8 0.5% 114.8 0.0 114.8 0.625 0.575 12.50 11.50 23.43 24.00

0+080 114.6 0.5% 114.6 0.0 114.6 0.615 0.560 12.3 9.60 24.80 21.10

0+100 114.6 0.5% 114.6 0.0 114.6 0.550 0.575 11 8.91 23.30 18.51

0+120 114.5 0.5% 114.5 0.0 114.5 0.505 0.520 10.10 8.06 21.10 16.97

0+140 114.5 0.5% 114.5 0.0 114.5 0.495 0.455 9.90 6.01 20.00 14.07

0+160 114.4 0.5% 114.4 0.0 114.4 0.390 0.300 7.80 7.15 17.70 13.16

0+180 114.3 0.5% 114.3 0.0 114.3 0.300 0.260 6.00 5.22 13.80 12.37

0+200 114.7 0.5% 114.7 0.0 114.7 0.00 0.800 18.53 0.00 24.53 5.22

3.14. - COMPLEMENTARY DRAINAGE WORKS.

Drainage works are structural elements that eliminate the inaccessibility of a road, caused by water or
humidity.

The primary objectives of the drainage works are:

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a. Release any water that accumulates on the road.

b. Reduce or eliminate the amount of water directed onto the road.

c. Prevent water from causing structural damage.

The useful life, ease of access and useful life of the road will largely depend on the construction of the
drainage works.

Drainage types:

To carry out the aforementioned, surface drainage and underground drainage are used.

Surface drainage.-

It is built on the surface of the road or land, with functions of collection, exit, defense and crossing; some works
fulfill several functions at the same time.

In surface drainage we find: ditches, counter ditches, pumping, sinks, drains, and transversal drainage.

Ditches.- Ditches are ditches that are made on one or both sides of the road, with the purpose of directing
water from the crown and adjacent places to a certain place, where it does not cause damage. Their design is
based on the principles of open channels.

For uniform flow, Manning's formula is used, as shown below.

Where: V = average speed in meters per second

n = Manning roughness coefficient

R = hydraulic radius in meters (section area between the wetted perimeter)
S = channel slope in meters per meter.

Values of N for Manning's formula

TYPE OF MATTER VALUES OF "n"

Common, level and isolated ground 0.02

Smooth and uniform rock 0.03

Rocks with protrusions and sinuous 0.04

Stony beds and grassy banks 0.03

Earth template, rough slopes 0.03

Determination of hydraulic area:

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Where: Q = expenditure in m3/sec.

A = Cross-sectional area of the flow in m2

Due to the uncertainty in determining the hydraulic area in practice, ditch sections are projected by comparison
with others in common circumstances.

There are various ways to build gutters, currently the most common are triangular, as shown below:

It will be avoided to give a great length to the ditches, through the use of relief works.

In some cases it will be necessary to protect the ditches by ditching, due to the speed caused by the slope.

The counter ditches are ditches that are built parallel to the road, commonly trapezoidal in shape, with a 50 cm
template and slopes appropriate to the nature of the terrain.

Against gutters.-

The function of ditches is to prevent excess water or humidity from reaching the road, although practice has
shown that in many cases it is not convenient to use them, because as they are built on the upstream part of
the slopes, they cause softening. and landslides.

If they are necessary, the geological nature of the place where they are going to be built must be studied very
well, moving them as far away as possible from the slopes and in some cases draining them to avoid leaks.

Pumping.-

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It is the inclination that occurs on both sides of the road, to drain its surface, preventing water from pooling
causing softening or running down the center of the road causing damage due to erosion.

Pumping depends on the road and type of surface, its inclination is measured in percentage and 2 to 4 percent
is usual on coated roads.

Zampado.-

It is a protection for the rolling surface or ditches, against erosion where steep slopes occur. It is enhanced with
stone, cyclopean concrete or simple concrete.

Laundries.-

They are small channels through concrete, sheet, stone with mortar or fitted stone covers that are placed at the
outlets of the sewers or erodible terrain, eliminating the damage caused by the speed of the water.

Transverse drainage.- Its purpose is to allow the transverse passage of water over a road, without
obstructing the passage.

In this type of drainage, it will sometimes be necessary to build large works or small works called major
drainage works and minor drainage works, respectively.

Major drainage works require special knowledge and studies, among them we can mention bridges , ford
bridges and vaults.

Although the structural studies of these works are different for each one, the first stage of selection and
integration of preliminary data is common.

Thus, by comparing several places in the same river or stream, we will choose the most suitable place based
on the width and height of the crossing, preferably not in places where the current has deflections and taking
advantage of the best geological and height characteristics where we are going. descending or ascending with
the stroke.

Semicircular vaults built with masonry are suitable when we need to bridge a clearing with a high height from
the ground level to the river floor.

Fords are structures very close to the natural terrain, generally slabs on the floor, they have advantages in
wide channels with small ties and torrential regime for a short time. The construction of fords is economical and
accessible to rural changes due to the use of local resources, since they can be built of masonry, simple
concrete, cyclopean and even sheet metal. Its design must avoid causing erosion upstream and downstream,
in addition to avoiding turbulent regimes that are also the cause of scour.

The bridge - ford is a structure in the shape of a bridge and with ford characteristics, which allows the
passage of water through lower clearings at ordinary levels, and through the upper part when floods with
extraordinary maximum waters occur.

The height of the work must allow that when floods occur in extraordinary maximum waters, the trees or
dragged objects do not damage the structure.

The bridges are structures with a span of more than six meters; they are distinguished from the culverts by
the mattress they raise on top.

The structure of a bridge is made up of the infrastructure, the substructure and the superstructure.

The infrastructure is manifested in concrete or masonry footings, foundation cylinders and piles. The
substructure is part of a bridge through central piers, abutments, metal columns on concrete pedestals,

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wooden trestles, etc. The superstructure integrates the upper part of a bridge by means of concrete or metal,
wooden beams and floors, concrete slabs, ribs reinforced with iron, wood, cable, etc.

Minor drainage works:

Culverts are structures transversal to the road that allow water to cross and are protected by a layer of
material on top. They can be rectangular, square, arched or tubular in shape. They are built of concrete, sheet
metal, stone or wood.

To channel water, they are complemented with walls or eaves at the entrance and exit. We can say that
currently on rural roads, the most common are laminar sewers.

Underground drainage.-

Underground drainage is a great aid to eliminate moisture that has inevitably reached the road and thus
prevent it from causing settlements or material slides.

Blind drains are common, consisting of ditches under the ditches filled with graded material with a firm base
that prevents leaks beyond where desired, directing the water to a place where it can be removed superficially
from the road. The dimensions vary. Depending on the hydrological characteristics of the place where they are
to be built, they are functional in various types of roads. The template of these is 45 cm. And from 80 to 100
cm. Depth, the material will be carefully graded into layers with uniform sizes.

Drains with perforated tubes that collect water from the lower part of the road under the ditches are also used
for the same purpose. Their construction consists of opening a trench to place a mud or concrete tube that
channels the water.

The care with which the tubes are placed, the determination of their diameter and resistance, will influence the
functionality and duration of the drain.

The diameter will not be less than fifteen centimeters with numerous perforations, filling with suitable material
to avoid blockages which, together with pipe breaks, are the main failures of this type of drainage.

Any type of underground drainage must allow easy drainage of water with an adequate slope of no less than
half a percent.

CHAPTER 4.- ASPHALT FOLDER

4.1. - PAVEMENT THICKNESS.

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The thickness of flexible pavements can be determined using different methods; however, in Mexico it is set
according to the modified relative support value (VRS) of the soil that forms the dirt roads already compacted
to the specified minimum.

To set this minimum compaction, it is necessary that the soils be studied very carefully using the Compaction
Ratio so that an adequate dry volumetric weight is given in the field.

The Compaction Ratio method is recommended because it allows us to qualify with sufficient precision the
degree of compaction of a soil structure and to specifically establish the requirements that embankments, sub-
bases and bases must meet in order to behave effectively.

It is necessary to remember that some materials, especially expansive clays, if compacted excessively,
present greater volumetric changes, and also, over time, lose some of their high compaction.

4.2. - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT PROJECT.

In order to start talking about a flexible pavement project, we need to understand and distinguish the main
characteristics that will determine our mat thickness design.

One of the main characteristics that will affect our path are the loads that will put pressure on it, below we will
learn how these loads are carried out.

Project loads.

The design loads considered for the calculation of the structures are: dead loads, live loads, impact, wind
pressure, etc. In the following we will study live loads, since they are of greater preponderance in our design.

According to the specifications of the American Association State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO), loads are known by the designation H and HS.

A two-axle truck is an H load. Following the letter is a number (10,15,20) that indicates the gross weight in
groin tons (2000 lb.) of the truck specified as cargo.

HS loads correspond to a two-axle tractor truck with a single-axle semi trailer. The numbers placed after the H
and S represent the gross weight, in English tons, of the tractor and the semi-trailer, respectively. 80% of the
gross weight of the truck or tractor truck falls on their respective rear axles. The axle of the semi trailer is
always assumed to have a load equal to that of the rear axle of the tractor truck.

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According to the above we have that an H 20 truck is a 40,000 lb truck. Of which 80%, or 32,000 lb.;
correspond to the rear axle and 20%, or 8,000 lb. They correspond to the front axle. Likewise, a load H 20 S
16 represents a 40,000 lb truck tractor; with a 32,000 lb. semi-trailer. In this case the axle distribution is 32,000
lb. For tractor rear axle, 32,000 lb. For the semi-trailer axle and 8,000 lb. For the front axle of the tractor.

The above loads are called standard loads and correspond to a separation of 14 feet from the truck's
wheelbase. The distance between the rear axle of the tractor truck and the axle of the semi-trailer varies
between 14 and 30 feet, always calculated in the most unfavorable conditions.

When a truck or trailer is loaded, the load is distributed between the axles in certain proportions that can be
calculated; For this it is necessary to know:

a. the empty truck's own weight on each axle

b. payload weight

c. distance between axles and between each axle and the center of the payload.

If A is the distance from the front axle to the center of the payload, B the distance from the rear axle to the
center of the payload and C the distance between the axles, we will have:

Payload on rear axle = A/C x payload

Payload on front axle = B/C x payload

The case of a truck with one and two rear axles will be resolved.

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Empty truck weight

Front axle = 1365 kg.

Rear axle = 2270 kg.

Payload = 2730 kg.

Distance A = 432 cm.

Distance B = 48 cm.

Distance C = 480 cm.

 Payload on the rear axle:

o Payload on front axle:

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 Total weight on the rear axle:

o Total weight on front axle:

We will now look at the case of a tractor truck with a semi trailer. In this case, before analyzing the load
distribution on the tractor, it is necessary to calculate the payload at the support point of the semi-trailer (fifth
wheel) since the payload at this support point is equal to the total payload on the tractor.

 Calculation of semi-trailer loads:

Axle weight of the empty semi trailer = 2730 kg.

Distance A = B = 280 cm.

Distance C = 560cm

Payload = 9100 jg

The useful load on the axle of the semi trailer is:

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The total weight on the axle of the semi trailer is:

Now, as A = B, the payload on the support point, that is, the payload on the tractor truck will be 4550 kg; since
the weight of the empty semi trailer on the support point is included in the empty weight of the rear axle of the
tractor truck.

 Calculation of loads on the tractor truck:

Empty tractor truck weight:

Front axle = 2270 kg

Rear axle = 3180 kg.

Calculated payload = 4550 kg.

Distance A = 355.6 cm

Distance B = 50.8 cm

Distance C = 406.4 cm

The useful load on the rear axle is:

The total weight on the rear axle of the tractor truck will be:

The useful load on the front axle is:

The total load on the front axle of the tractor truck is:

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Wheel load for design.

The depth at which the resulting stresses, given by dual wheels, are equal to those of a single wheel depends
on the separation between said dual wheels. Near the surface the dual wheels act independently as can be
seen in the following figure. However, at greater depths the stresses caused by them overlap, but they are
smaller as the depth increases, reaching a point where said stresses are negligible. Through theoretical
analysis and direct measurements of the efforts in pavements, the relationship between the depth and the
separation between the dual wheels has been established, with the result that at an approximate depth of d/2
the wheels leave to act independently and the forces under the pavement begin to combine their effects due to
the two wheels, this effect becoming negligible at the depth of 2S, as shown in the following figure.

Calculations to determine the equivalent wheel load may be based on either the equality of deformation
criterion or the equality of stress criterion. That is, if the maximum deflection that occurs under a set of dual
wheels is known, a deflection that occurs of the same amount under a single wheel indicates that that wheel is
equivalent to the dual wheels. The same can be said, approximately, about what happens with efforts. At small
depths, the maximum deflections occur under one wheel, while at greater depths the greatest deflections occur
under the center of the two wheels.

The deflection under a single wheel and the deflection under a set of dual wheels are given by the following
expressions, which come from the settlement equation given by Boussinesq for deflections at the center of a
flexible plate:

in which

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and it is worth 1.5 when the load is placed on the surface, that is, when Z = 0, since "F" depends on the Z/a
ratio.

According to the above equation, for a constant wheel pressure, the deflection under a single wheel is

and for dual wheels it is okay

In all these expressions:

P = tire pressure
to

1 = single wheel contact radius

a2 = contact radius for each rim of a set of dual wheels
F1 = settlement factor for single wheel
F'1 = settlement factor contributed by a dual tire
F'2 = settlement factor contributed by the other dual tire
E = modulus of elasticity of the soil

Using the double deflection criterion we have:

Replacing the values in the previous equation:

You have:

in which P1 = load on the single wheel, and P2 is the load on each of the dual wheels.

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If you want to convert a set of dual wheels to an equivalent single wheel load using the deflection criterion, you
must know the value P2 on each dual wheel, and look for the maximum values of F'1 and F' on a graph. 2 and

the values of P1 and F1 are determined in such a way that the product F1 be equal to

The US Army Corps of Engineers presents a graphical method for determining the equivalent load per wheel.

Assuming a linear relationship between the depths d/2 and 2S, a relationship can be derived to determine the
equivalence to dual wheels. The following figure indicates the method for determining the single load
equivalent to any set of dual wheels.

The pavement thickness is plotted on the horizontal scale and the coordinate point (P, d/2) is drawn. Similarly,
at a depth of 2S and with a wheel load of 2P the point represents the depth at which the effects of overlapping
stresses are negligible. A straight line from A to B marks the points where any given wheel load is equivalent to
a set of dual wheels.

This method also works to transform dual loads into tandem to a single wheel. The distance d is equal, in this
case, to the free space between the dual wheels, and the distance S is taken as the diagonal distance
between the centers of the dual tires of the tandem. The procedure followed to determine the value of the
equivalent load is as follows:

a. Assume approximate pavement thickness

b. Determine the equivalent simple load using the Corps of Engineers chart.

c. determine the thickness of the pavement using the determined value of the single wheel load

d. check the thickness with the assumed one. Repeat the process.

4.3. - DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY THE PROCEDURE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN ASPHALT
INSTITUTE.

The procedure proposed by the North American Asphalt Institute with flexible pavement design methodology
basically refers to roads, and consists of determining the thickness of the pavement structure, according to the
following data:

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o traffic volume to be forecast (NTD)

o parameter that represents the resistance and deformability of the support material or
earthenware (VRS and/or bearing value K)

o general quality of materials available

o procedures planned for construction

The planned transit refers to the so-called design transit number (NTD), which is the daily average of
equivalent loads of 8.2 Ton (18,000 lb), arranged on a single axle, that are expected during the design period
of the work. normally set at 20 years by the institution itself.

The basic mechanical properties of the earthen material, subgrade layer, subbase and base, are established
through the usual tests in current pavement technology.

The asphalt institute gives the necessary thickness of coverage, on a given material, in terms of a thickness of
asphalt concrete, which can be translated into various structuring alternatives, based on the usual layers, using
the equivalence factors, which more They are detailed below.

Once the index value of the material's resistance and the NTD applicable to the case have been determined,
the necessary coverage thickness is obtained with the asphalt layer thickness monogram (seen above).

Method procedure.

a) Evaluation of vehicle traffic

1.- calculation of the initial daily traffic (TDI)

For this purpose, it should begin by establishing, based on previous traffic studies, the average daily number of
vehicles that must be expected on the road, during the first year of its operation. This number is called Initial
Daily Traffic (TDI) and its value is the one corresponding to the annual average daily traffic (TDPA).

TDI = TDPA

2.- calculation of the average daily number of heavy vehicles in the design lane, in one direction (N).

Based on capacity data and vehicle classification of traffic valid for the case, the percentage of heavy vehicles
that will exist in that first year must also be determined, even defining how much of that percentage
corresponds to the design lane.

The asphalt institute itself indicates the distribution of heavy vehicles that should be considered in the design
lane, in different cases.

N = TDI x A/100 x B/100

Where:

A is the percentage of heavy trucks in two directions. The sum of the number of heavy vehicles (S VP) is
made, according to the corresponding vehicle classification and the percentage of heavy vehicles with respect
to the TDPA is calculated.

B = (S VP/TDPA) 100

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B is the percentage of heavy trucks in the design lane and its value is obtained from the following table.

Percentage of total heavy vehicle traffic in two directions that should be considered in the design lane

No. Total lanes on the highway % of trucks to consider in the design lane

2 50

4 45 (ranges between 35 and 48)

6 or more 40 (ranges between 25 and 48)

3.- calculation of the average weight of heavy vehicles (Ppc)

Ppc = S (No. Of vehicles (total vehicle weight)/S VP

4.- legal load limit per single axle, established by the authorities

In Mexico, a single axle is used as standard, supporting a total load of 8.2 Ton. (18000 lb), that is, 4.1 Ton. Per
wheel.

5.- calculation of the initial transit number (NTI)

With all the above information, the initial transit number (NTI) can be established, using the following
monogram.

The procedure to use the monogram is as follows:

Look on scale D at the average load weight of heavy trucks (Ppc). Join that point with the number of heavy
trucks in the design lane (N), on the axis (C) the previous line must be extended until it intersects the axis (B).
Now look at the axle (E) at the legal load limit for a single axle (8.2 Ton); That point should join with the
previous one on the axis (B), and that line should extend to the axis (A), on which the (NTI) could be read.

6.- calculation of the design transit number (NTD).

With the pavement design period considered, which will usually be 20 years, and the annual traffic growth rate,
the correction factor that should be applied to the NTI can be searched in the NTI Correction Factors table, so
that The product of the quantities is the design transit number (NTD) that appears on the total coverage
thickness monogram.

NTD = (NTI) (CORRECTION FACTOR)

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NTI CORRECTION FACTORS, TO OBTAIN THE NTD

DESIGN
ANNUAL GROWTH RATE OF TRANS.
PERIOD

YEARS 0 2 4 6 8 10

1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

2 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

4 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23

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6 0.30 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39

8 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.53 0.57

10 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.66 0.72 0.80

12 0.60 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.95 1.07

14 0.70 0.80 0.92 1.05 1.21 1.40

16 0.80 0.93 1.09 1.28 1.52 1.80

18 0.90 1.07 1.28 1.55 1.87 2.28

20 1.00 1.24 1.49 1.84 2.29 2.86

15 1.25 1.60 2.08 2.74 3.66 4.92

30 1.50 2.03 2.80 3.95 5.66 8.22

35 1.75 1.50 3.68 5.57 8.62 13.55

b) structural analysis of the pavement

1.- calculation of the necessary thickness of asphalt concrete coverage.

With VRS data and the NTD, applicable to the case, is entered in the monogram of the following figure, and the
total thickness of the pavement, given in asphalt concrete, is obtained.

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2.- calculation of the minimum thickness of asphalt layer (Em)

In the graph in the following figure, the minimum thickness of asphalt layer (Em) required for a certain type of
hydraulic base is obtained.

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TRANSIT NUMBER FOR DESIGN (NTD)

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HYDRAULIC BASE MATERIALS

TYPE OF TEST RULES

LOW QUALITY HIGH QUALITY

VRS MIN 20 100

LL max 25 25

max IP 6 NP

Sand equivalent 25 50

Fines (% max) 12 7

The Asphalt Institute specifies the minimum thicknesses of asphalt concrete that must be placed in the
pavement layer when asphalt bases are used. These values appear in the following table.

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MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR ASPHALT CONCRETE FOLDERS ON ASPHALT BASES

DESIGN TRANSIT NUMBER (NTD) MINIMUM THICKNESS (cm)

Less than 10 (light traffic) 5

Between 10 and 100 (average traffic) 7

Greater than 100 (heavy traffic) 10

3.- Calculation of the thickness of the granular base.

Esp. Granular base in asphalt concrete = Et – Em

The actual thickness of the base is obtained by multiplying the thickness of the granular base, given in asphalt
concrete, by an equivalence factor corresponding to a granular base, this factor is obtained by using the
following table.

EQUIVALENCE FACTORS BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL LAYERS AND ASPHALT CONCRETE LAYERS,

REGARDING THICKNESS

CONVENTIONAL LAYERS EQUIVALENCE FACTOR

Sand asphalt bases, mixed in plant 1.3

Asphalt bases made with liquid or emulsified asphalt 1.4

High quality granular bases (VRS > 100%) 2.0

Low quality granular bases (VRS > 20%) 2.7

The thickness of the subbase layer and the subgrade layer is obtained by specification.

Example:

Design the structural section of a flexible pavement using the previous method. The general data is as follows:

The materials that form the earthworks are generally of volcanic origin and are made up of inorganic silts of
medium plasticity and low to high compressibility. There are also some soil mixtures and small rock fragments,
whose characteristics are very variable.

o VRS subgrade = 20%

o VRS sub-base = 30%

o VRS base = 100%

o No. Of lanes = 2

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o r = 6%

o n = 20 years

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

VEHICLE TYPE APDT TOTAL WEIGHT OF THE

VEHICLE

A-2 1500 2.0 Ton.

A'2 150 5.5

B2 60 15.5

C2 95 15.5

C3 80 23.5

T2-S1 30 25.5

T2-S2 15 33.5

T3-S3 10 35.5

1940

a).- EVALUATION OF VEHICLE TRANSIT

1.- initial daily traffic = annual average daily traffic

TDI = TDPA = 1940 vehicles

2.- The number of heavy trucks in the design lane is calculated using the following formula.

N = TDI (A/100) (B/100)

A = (S VP / TDPA) 100

S VP = B2+C2+C3+T2-S1+T2-S2+T3-S3 =

60+95+80+30+15+10 = 290

A = (290/1940)100 = 14.95%

The value of B is calculated from the table of percentage of total traffic of heavy vehicles for a two-lane road.

B = 50%

N = 1940 (14.95/100) (50/100) = 145

3.- average weight of heavy vehicles (Ppc).

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4.- legal load limit = 8.2 Ton

5.- The NTI is calculated by entering the traffic analysis graph of the North American Asphalt Institute.

NTI = 130 vehicles (intense traffic)

6.- calculation of the NTD, the correction factor is obtained from the NTI correction factor graph, for n =
20 years and r = 6% the factor is 1.84

NTD = (NTI)(factor)

NTD = (130)(1.84) = 240 VEHICLES

b).- STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE PAVEMENT.

1.- for the design of the total thickness (Et), a subgrade VRS value of 20% and NTD = 240 is considered.

By using the total coverage thickness monogram, a total thickness of:

Et = 14 cm. (asphalt concrete)

2.- in the table of minimum thickness of asphalt layer it is possible to obtain the said (Em) required for a high
quality hydraulic base, which in this case gives the following result:

Em = 13.8 cm. (asphalt concrete)

3.- calculation of the thickness of the granular base.

Thickness of asphalt concrete granular base = Et – Em = 14 – 13.8 = 0.2 cm

The actual thickness of the base is:

Thickness of asphalt concrete granular base x equivalence factor.

We can obtain the equivalence factor from the table of equivalence factors between conventional layers and
asphalt concrete layers, which gives us a result of 2.0%.

Actual base thickness = (0.2) (2.0) = 0.40 cm

The specifications of the SCT (Secretariat of Communications and Transportation, Mexico), propose 15
cm of minimum base thickness when S VP < 1000 vehicles.

Therefore, the thickness of the hydraulic base is 15 cm.

CONCLUSION

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Highways are officially classified according to trunk, local, branch and sub-branch designation.

When a vehicle travels on a sloped road whose longitudinal profile has a significant curvature, it is subjected to
a vertical acceleration that can modify the stability conditions and considerably affect the comfort of the
passengers. To avoid discontinuities in the accelerations applied to the vehicle when driving on the vertical
curve, it is advisable to make the vertical acceleration appear gradually. This is achieved through a transition of
the longitudinal profile curvature, introducing a curve whose slope variation rate is constant.

Superelevation consists of raising the outer edge of the tracks by an amount in curves to allow a component of
the vehicle to oppose the centrifugal force, thus preventing the vehicle from deviating its trajectory radially
outwards and causing an overturn. . To avoid these accidents, it is necessary to assign and construct the
superelevation in every road construction project.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.construaprende.com/docs/tesis/297-trazo-construccion-carretera?start=28

http://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/peralte/peralte.shtml

http://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/Monografia-Carreteras/7242731.html

Ministry of Transport and Communications

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