UNITE 20: ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

20.1 The Concept of a Limit

Consider the functions
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
The function is undefined at 𝑥 = 2
Let us examine the behavior of the function at 𝑥 = 2

𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 𝑥−2
1.9 3.9 2.1 4.1
1.99 3.99 2.01 4.01
1.999 3.999 2.001 4.001
1.9999 3.9999 2.0001 4.0001

Notice that as you move down the first column of the table, the 𝑥 −values get closer to 2
but are less than 2. We use the notation
𝑥 → 2− to indicate 𝑥 approaches 2 from the left.
𝑥 → 2+ to indicate 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right.
We call lim 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) one sided limit.
𝑥 → 2− 𝑥 → 2+

Theorem 20.1.1
A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one sided limits exists and are equal,
that is
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 for some number 𝐿 if and only if
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 → a− 𝑥 → a+

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Examples 20.1.1
Determine if the limit exists for the following
𝑥 2 −4
a) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

𝑥
b) lim |𝑥|
𝑥→0

Solution
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
a) lim− = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2−

and
𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
lim+ = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2+

∴ lim f(x) = 4 = lim+𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→2− 𝑥→2

Hence the limit exists.

𝑥
b) lim |𝑥|
𝑥→0

Solution
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

𝑥
lim+𝑓(𝑥) = lim+
=1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥
lim−𝑓(𝑥) = lim− = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 −𝑥

Since
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥) the limit does not exist.
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

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 y
1
𝑓(𝑥)
0+ ← 𝑥
𝑥 → 0−
𝑓(𝑥)

-1

Theorem 20. 1.2

sin 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

Examples
Evaluate the following
sin2 𝑥 tan3 𝑥
a) lim b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
a) lim = 2 lim =2
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥

tan3 𝑥 sin3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 1

b) lim = lim3 (𝑥.𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥) = 3lim . 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 = 3lim . lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 = 3.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

20.2 computation of limits

For any constant 𝑐 and any real number 𝑎,
lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 (1)
𝑥→𝑎

For any real number 𝑎,

lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 (2)
𝑥→𝑎

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Theorem 20. 2.1
Suppose that lim 𝑓( 𝑥) and lim 𝑔( 𝑥) both exists, and let 𝑐 be any constant. The
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
following then apply;
i) lim [𝑐. 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
ii) lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
iii) lim [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = [lim𝑓(𝑥)][lim 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
iv) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Examples 20.2.1
Apply the rule of limits to evaluate
a) lim(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→2

𝑥 3 −5𝑥+4
b) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −2

𝑥 2 −1
c) lim
𝑥→1 1−𝑥

√𝑥+2−√2
d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
a) lim(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4) = lim3𝑥 2 − lim5𝑥 + lim4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 3lim𝑥 2 − 5lim𝑥 + lim4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 12 − 10 + 4
=6

𝑥 3 −5𝑥+4 (3)3 −5(3)+4 16

b) lim = =
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −2 (3)2 −2 7

𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
c) lim = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = −2
𝑥→1 1−𝑥 𝑥→1 −(𝑥−1)

√𝑥+2−√2
d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

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 (√𝑥 + 2 − √2)(√𝑥 + 2 + √2)
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥 + 2 + √2)
𝑥+2−2
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥 + 2 + √2)
𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥 + 2 + √2)
1
lim
𝑥→0 (√𝑥+2+√2)

1 1
=
√2 + √2 2√2

Theorem 20. 2.2

For any polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) and any real number 𝑎,
lim 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem 20.2.3
Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑛 is any positive integer, Then
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Where for 𝑛 even, we assume that 𝐿 > 0

Theorem 20. 2.4

For any real number 𝑎, we have;
i) lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
ii) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
iii) lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
iv) lim ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑎 for 𝑎 > 0
𝑥→𝑎
v) lim sin−1 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑎 for −1 < 𝑎 < 1
𝑥→𝑎
vi) lim cos−1 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑎 for −1 < 𝑎 < 1
𝑥→𝑎
vii) lim tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑎 for −∞ < 𝑎 < ∞
𝑥→𝑎

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and

If P is a polynomial and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑓(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Examples 20.2.2
5
a) Evaluate lim √3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑥→2

𝑥+1
b) Evaluate lim sin−1 ( )
𝑥→0 2

c) Evaluate lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)
𝑥→0

Solution
5 5
a) lim √3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 5√lim3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = √8
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑥+1 1 𝜋
b) lim sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 (2) =
𝑥→0 2 6

c) lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = (lim 𝑥) (lim𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = 0.0 ?

𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

cos 𝑥 𝑥
∴ lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = lim (𝑥. ) = lim ( ) (cos 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑥
(lim ) (limcos 𝑥)
sin 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑥→0
1
lim ( sin 𝑥 ) (lim cos 𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

Theorem 20. 2.5 squeez theorem

Suppose that
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)
for all 𝑥 in some interval (𝑐, 𝑑), except possibly at the point 𝑎 ∈ (𝑐, 𝑑) and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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for some number 𝐿. Then it follows that
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 also.
𝑥→𝑎

Example 20.2.3
1
Evaluate the lim [𝑥 2 cos (𝑥)]
𝑥→0

Solution
1
lim [𝑥 2 cos ( )]
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
(−1 ≤ cos ( ) ≤ 1) 𝑥 2
𝑥
1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 cos ( ) ≤ 𝑥 2
𝑥
𝑥≠0
lim−𝑥 2 = 0 = lim𝑥 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

∴ from the squeeze theorem, it follows that

1
lim𝑥 2 cos ( ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
20.3 A limit for a piecewise function
Example 20.3.1
Evaluate lim𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by
𝑥→0

𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0,

𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑒 𝑥 − 4, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
Solution
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− (𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

and also
lim (𝑒 𝑥 − 4) = 𝑒 0 − 4 = 1 − 4 = −3
𝑥→0+

Since the one sided limit are different, therefore

lim𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→0

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20.4. limits involving infinity; asymptotes

Example 20.4.1
1
Examine lim 𝑥
𝑥→0

solution

𝑓(𝑥)

0
𝑓(𝑥)

1
lim+ =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
lim− = −∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
The limit does not exist
1
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 approaches the vertical line 𝑥 = 0, as 𝑥 → 0 as shown above

When this occurs, we say that the line 𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

Example
1
Evaluate lim 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0

solution
0
1
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
1
lim− 2 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
The limit does not exist.

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20.5 limits at infinity
1 1
Returning to (𝑥) = 𝑥 , we can see that as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥 → 0. In view of this, we write

1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

1
lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

The graph appears to approach the horizontal line 𝑦 = 0, as 𝑥 → ∞ and as 𝑥 → −∞.

In this case, we call 𝑦 = 0 a horizontal asymptote.
20.6 Alimit of a quotient that is not the quotient of a limit
Example 20.6.1
5𝑥−7
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥+3

Solution
lim (5𝑥 − 7) ∞
5𝑥 − 7 𝑥→∞
lim = = ?
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 + 3 lim (4𝑥 + 3) ∞
𝑥→∞

NOTE:
∞
i) indeterminate form
∞
∞
ii) 0
iii) ∞. ∞
iv) 0.0
Rule of thumbs
∞
When faced with the indeterminate form ∞ in calculating the limits of a rational function,
divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x appearing in the
denominator.
Here we have
5𝑥 7 7
5𝑥 − 7 −𝑥 5−𝑥 5
lim = 𝑥 = lim =
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 3 4
+ 4 +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Example 20.6.2
4𝑥 3 +5
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ −6𝑥 2 −7𝑥

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Solution
4𝑥 3 5
3
4𝑥 + 5 + 2
lim = lim 𝑥2 𝑥
𝑥→∞ −6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 2 7𝑥
− 2 − 2
𝑥 𝑥
5
4𝑥 + 2
lim 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→∞ 7
−6 − 𝑥

20.7 Two limits of an inverse trigonometric function

Examples 20.7.1
a) Evaluate lim tan−1 𝑥 and lim tan−1 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

𝜋
2
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥

𝜋
−2

𝜋
lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 =
𝑥→∞ 2
𝜋
lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = −
𝑥→−∞ 2

b) Evaluate lim (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)

𝑥→∞

Solution
(√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)
lim (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)
𝑥→∞ (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)

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 𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛
lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
𝑛+1
√𝑛 √ 𝑛 + √𝑛

1
lim
𝑥→∞
√𝑛 √ 1
( 1 + 𝑛 + 1)
√𝑛
1
√𝑛 0
lim = =0
𝑥→∞
√𝑛 √ 1 2
( 1 + 𝑛 + 1)
√𝑛

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