General Chemistry

(Chem M1012)

Chapter – One
Essential Ideas in Chemistry

May, 2016 E.C

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 1
 Objectives of the Chapter

At the end of this chapter you will be able to:-

✓ Describe the scientific method

✓ Differentiate among hypotheses, theories, and laws

✓ Provide examples illustrating macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic domains

✓ Describe the basic properties of each physical state of matter: solid, liquid, and gas

✓ Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous

mixture with regard to its physical state and composition

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 2

 1.1. Chemistry in Context
1.1.1. Chemistry as the central science

Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes.

The science of chemistry deals with the makeup of the entire physical universe

Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central science” due to its

interconnectedness with a vast array of other STEM disciplines

STEM stands for areas of study in the science, technology, engineering,

Mathematics, and other fields

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 3

 Cont’d
Chemistry and the language of chemists play vital roles in biology, medicine,
materials science, forensics, environmental science, and many other fields

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 4

 1.1.2. The Scientific Method
The principles of chemistry have been modified over time and are still evolving.
At the dawn of human experience, knowledge acquired by trial and error

Example

❖ Types of stone were hard enough to shape others

❖ Plants were edible, and so forth.

Today, the science of chemistry helps us to understand the essential nature of materials to
make better use of them and create new ones:

❖ Specialized drugs
❖ Advanced composites
❖ Synthetic polymers and
❖ Countless other new materials
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 5
 Cont’d
The scientific method
A set of procedures used to develop explanations of natural phenomena and
possibly to predict additional phenomena
1. Observations is
❖ Basic to scientific thinking
❖ The most useful observations are quantitative

❖ Pieces of quantitative information, data

❖It is summarized, often in mathematical terms, and called a
natural law.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 6
 Cont’d
2. Hypothesis is
❖ Derived from actual observation
❖ A proposal made to explain an observation

A valid hypothesis need not be correct, but it must be testable. A hypothesis is often the reason
for performing an experiment

If the hypothesis is inconsistent with the experimental results, it must be revised or discarded

3. Experiment is

❖ A clear set of procedural steps that tests a hypothesis

❖ Hypotheses can be altered, but not the results of an exp’t
❖ A well-designed experiment is controlled in that it measures the effect of
one variable on another
❖ Both skill and creativity play a part in experimental design
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 7
 Cont’d
4. Model

Formulating conceptual models, or theories, based on experiments is what

distinguishes scientific thinking from speculation

A model gradually emerges that describes how the observed phenomenon

occurs

A model is not an exact representation of nature, but rather a simplified

version of it that can be used to make predictions about related phenomena

Further investigation refines a model by testing its predictions and altering it to

account for new facts
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 8
 Cont’d
In general terms, the scientific approach includes the following parts

The scientific approach to understanding nature

Note that hypotheses and models are mental pictures that are changed to match
observations and experimental results, not the other way around.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 9
 1.1.3. The Domains of Chemistry
Chemists study describe the behavior of matter and energy in three different
domains:
❖ Macroscopic
❖ Microscopic and
❖ Symbolic
These domains provide different ways of considering and describing chemical
behavior
Macro is a Greek word that means “large”

The macroscopic domain includes everyday and laboratory chemistry, where we

observe and measure physical and chemical properties, or changes such as
density , solubility , and flammability.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 10
 Cont’d
Micro also comes from Greek and means “small”
Most of the subjects in the microscopic domain of chemistry such as
❖ Atoms and
❖ Molecules
are too small to be seen even with standard microscopes and
often must be pictured in the mind
Other components of the microscopic domain include
❖ Ions and electrons
❖ Protons and neutrons
❖ Chemical bonds
each of which is far too small to see
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 11
 Cont’d
The symbolic domain contains the specialized language used to represent
components of
❖ The macroscopic and
❖ Microscopic domains
Chemical symbols, formulas, and equations are part of the symbolic domain,
as are graphs and drawings
Symbols play an important role in chemistry in interpreting the behavior of the
macroscopic domain in terms of the components of the microscopic domain

One of the challenges for students in chemistry is recognizing that the same
symbols can represent different things in the macroscopic and microscopic
domains
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 12
 Cont’d
One of the features that makes chemistry fascinating is the use of a domain that
must be imagined to explain behavior in a domain that can be observed
A helpful way to understand the three domains is via the essential and
ubiquitous substance of water

Water is

❖ Liquid at moderate temperatures

❖ Solid at lower temperatures are macroscopic observations
❖ A gas at higher temperatures

The formula H2O, which can describe water at either the macroscopic or
microscopic levels, is an example of the symbolic domain
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 13
 Cont’d

(a) Moisture in the air, icebergs, and the ocean represent water in the macroscopic domain
(b) At the molecular level (microscopic domain), gas molecules are far apart and
disorganized, Solid water molecules are close together and organized, and liquid
molecules are close together and disorganized
(c) H2O symbolizes water, and (g), (s), and (l) symbolize its phases.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 14
 1.2. State and classification of matter
1.2.1. State of matter
The science of chemistry deals with the makeup of the entire physical universe
The Properties of Matter
Matter is the “stuff ” of the universe: air, glass, planets, students-anything that
has mass and volume

Chemists are particularly interested in the composition of matter, the types and
amounts of simpler substances that make it up
A substance is a type of matter that has a defined, and fixed composition.
Properties:- the characteristics that give each substance its unique identity.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 15

 Cont’d
Matter occurs commonly in three physical forms called states: solid, liquid, and gas
A solid has a fixed shape that does not conform to the container shape
The particles in the solid lie next to each other in a regular, three-dimensional array
with a definite pattern
A liquid conforms to the container shape but fills the container only to the extent of the
liquid’s volume; thus, a liquid forms a surface
Particles in the liquid also lie together but are jumbled and move randomly around one
another
A gas conforms to the container shape also, but it fills the entire container, and thus, does
not form a surface

Particles in the gas usually have great distances between them, as they move randomly
throughout the entire container
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 16
 Cont’d

The physical states of matter. The magnified (blow-up) views show the atomic-scale
arrangement of the particles in the three states of matter.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 17
 Cont’d
Plasma
• A fourth state of matter, plasma occurs naturally in the interiors of stars. Plasma is a
gaseous state of matter that contains appreciable numbers of electrically charged particles

A plasma torch can be used to cut metal.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 18
 1.2.2. Classification of Matter
• Matter can be classified into several categories. Two broad categories are mixtures and
pure substances.

• A pure substance has a constant composition.

• Pure substance have exactly the same makeup and properties. Any sample of sucrose
(table sugar) consists of 42.1% carbon, 6.5% hydrogen, and 51.4% oxygen by mass. Any
sample of sucrose also has the same physical properties, such as melting point, color, and
sweetness

• Pure substances may be divided into two classes: elements and compounds.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 19

 Cont’d
• Pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes are called
elements. Iron, silver, gold, aluminum, sulfur, oxygen, and copper

• Pure substances that can be broken down by chemical changes are called compounds.

• This breakdown may produce either elements or other compounds, or both. Mercury (II) oxide, an orange,
crystalline solid, can be broken down by heat into the elements mercury and oxygen.
Mixtures
➢ It is a material composed (consists) of more than one substance in variable composition and it is formed by
physical mixing without changing the identity of the components that made the mixture.

➢ The substance that make the mixture are called the components of the mixture

➢ Usually the mixtures are separated by physical means into two or more substances depending on their
physical difference in terms of color, texture, size, boiling point difference, solubility and shape etc.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 20

 Cont’d
Mixtures are two kinds: homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture

1. Homogeneous mixture

 It is the mixture having only one phase and the components that makes this mixture shows the
same properties throughout the sample or the mixture is uniform in its properties throughout
given samples.

 The component of this type of mixture is not identified in our naked eye rather it needs a

powerful microscope. Example : metal alloy, brine solution (NaCl in water) etc

 A homogeneous mixture also called solution, when the one component present in abundant
amount (called solvent) and the other present in smaller amount (called solute).

 To separate the components in this type of mixture, we use melting point difference, density,
refractive index, specific heat capacity.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 21
 Cont’d
2. Heterogeneous mixture
 A mixture having more than one phase system and don’t show the same properties
throughout the sample and the components of the mixture can be identified based on
their physical difference like color, size, shape, magnetic property, etc

 A heterogeneous mixture consists of physically distinct parts, each with different

properties. Example: heterogeneous mixture of potassium dichromate and iron filings.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 22

 Cont’d

• Figure 1.7: Depending on its properties, a given substance can be classified as a

homogeneous mixture, a heterogeneous mixture, a compound, or an element.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 23

 Properties of substance
In general substances have two types of properties

1. Chemical properties: is the property which is measured by changing the chemical

identity of the substance (transformed into a new kind of matter), that is due to chemical
change.

2. Physical properties: is the property measured without changing the chemical identity of
the substance.

 Depending on the amount of the substance present, the physical properties of the
substance are two types
1. Intensive properties
2. Extensive properties
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 24
 Cont’d
1. Intensive properties

Are physical properties which are independent of the amount of the substance present and it
is often used for characterization of the substance since it is constant variable. Meaning
as the amount of the substance changed, the properties are still constant (not affected by
the quantity).

Example: temperature, density, color, specific heat capacity, refractive index etc

2. Extensive properties

Are physical properties that depend on the amount of the substance present. Meaning as the
amount of the substance changed, the properties are also changed.

Example: mass, volume, length, energy etc…

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 25
 1.3. Physical change and Chemical change
In physical change some of the physical properties of a sample may change, but its
composition remains unchanged.
E.g. Liquid water and ice (solid water) certainly different in many way but water remains
11.9% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.
N.B: Physical change (same substance before and after):
Water (solid form) → water (liquid form)
In a chemical change (or chemical reaction), one of more kinds of matter are converted to
new kinds with different compositions. E.g. The rust that occurs when a bicycle is left out
in the rain is due to the chemical combination of oxygen with iron to give the new substance
iron oxide. N.B: Chemical change (different substances before and after):

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 26

 1.4. Measurement and units
 Many observation of physical properties of substance are described quantitatively,
because of uncertainty of different measuring system, scientists develop an international
metric system to solve the biasity as the result of lack of homogeneity.

 The metric system develop as the result of the convention is called SI unit (international
system of unit) and there are two types:

1. Basic unit

 Are the original unit like mass (kilogram, kg), length (meter, m), time (second, s),
temperature (Kelvin, K), amount of substance (mole, mol), electric current (ampere, A)
and luminous intensity (candela, cd)

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 27

 Cont’d
2. Derived units

 Are units derived / obtained from basic units by either multiplying or dividing the
original units. Example : volume (cm3), density (g/cm3).

Conversion of units

 The conversion-factor method can be used to convert any unit to another unit, provided a
conversion equation exists between the two units and it is a factor equal to 1.

 To convert a quantity expressed in a particular unit in to another unit, multiply by

conversion factor

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 28

 Cont’d
 Procedure to convert units in to required one
1. Write the quantity and put vertical slash
2. Write the conversion factor
3. Multiply by factor
4. Old units gets cancelled and new units is obtained
Example
𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝒇𝒕
1 mile = 5280 ft ⇔ =
𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆
So, 150 mile Distance in ft
𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝒇𝒕
Distance (ft) = 150 mil x = 792, 000 ft
𝒎𝒊𝒍

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 29

 1.5.Measurement Uncertainty
1.5.1. Significant Figures in Measurement
• Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of
measurement - i.e., with a fixed standard of measurement

• But when we measures quantities, the last significant digit in a measurement is somewhat
uncertain (not sure), i.e. the last digits in measurement shows the extent of error or
uncertainty.

• The uncertainty of the measurement is expressed by significant figures.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 30

 Rules for counting significant figures
There are six rules used to determine number of significant figures in certain measured
value.

Rule 1. All non-zero digits are always significant (1-9)

Example: 523.7 has 4 significant figures

Rule 2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant

Example : 2034 has 4 significant digits, 3.0005 has 5 significant digits

Rule 3. Any zeroes to the left of the first non-zero digit are NOT significant (called leading
zeroes).

Example : 0.005 has 1 significant digit 0.036 has 2 significant digits

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 31
 Cont’d
Rule 4. Any zeroes at the end of a number that contains a decimal point ARE significant
(called trailing zeroes). Examples : 3.0 has 2 significant digits, 0.0250 has 3
significant digits. 800.0 has 4 significant digits.

Rule 5. Zeroes at the end of a whole number that does not contain a decimal point Are not
significant.

Example : 800 has 1 significant digit, 10,200 has 3 significant digits.

Rule 6. When numbers are in scientific notation, disregard the power of ten and use the
above rules on the decimal number only.

Example : 3.8 x 10y has 2 significant digits, 3.080 x 10y has 4 significant digit,

3.08 x 10y has 3 significant digits.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 32
 Cont’d
 Determine the number of significant figure in the value given below
Number Significant figure Number Significant figure
0.0050 2.30 x 10-5
0.03040 96,000
7801.0 3.001

Significant Figures (sf) in Calculations

Rule of addition and subtraction
 Whenever we add or subtract significant figures the result should be the same as the smallest
number of decimal places (dp) in the data. The final answer can be no greater than the least
accurate measurement
Example : 3.1205 – 0.11 = 3.0105 ➔ 3.01

4 dp 2 dp 2 dp
150.0 + 0.507 = 150.507 ➔ 150.5
1 dp 3 dp 1 dp
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 33
 Short and Brief Description

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 34

 Rule of Multiplications and Division

Whenever we divide/multiply the significant figures, the result should be the same as the
smallest number of significant figures in the data.

The final answer can contain no more significant figures than the least accurate
measurement
4 sf

𝟐.𝟓𝟑𝟏
Example: = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟓 → 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟎 3 sf
𝟒𝟑.𝟔
3 sf
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟎 𝒙 𝟔𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟖𝟔 → 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕

Remark: during addition or subtraction decimal place are considered and during
multiplication or division significant figures are considered to write into final reports

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 35

 Rounding Off
• If you are asked to report the number in fixed number of significant figures we use the
rounding rule or when the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures,
it must be rounded off. In rounding number to the correct number of significant figure,
we use the following rules.

Rule 1. If the digit is smaller than 5 (0-4), drop this digit and leave the remaining number
unchanged.

Example : round of the following number to three significant figure

1.684 ➔ 1.68 1.242 ➔ 1.24

Rule 2. If the digit is larger than 5, drop this digit and add 1 to the preceding digit.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 36

 Cont’d
Example : round of the following number to three significant figure

1.247 ➔ 1.25 8.339 ➔ 8.34

Rule 3. if the digit to be removed is equal to 5 then we have two possibilities.

Case 1. if the digit before 5 is even, then drop this digit and leave the remaining number
unchanged.

Example : round of the following number to three significant figure

4.745 ➔ 4.74 7.365 ➔ 7.36

Case 2. if the digit before 5 is odd, drop this digit and add 1 to the preceding digit.

Example : round of the following number to three significant figure

4.575 ➔ 4.58 8.335 ➔ 8.34

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 37
 Cont’d
Example : Rounding Numbers

Round the following to the indicated number of significant figures:

a. 31.57 (to two significant figures) b. 8.1649 (to three significant figures)

c. 0.051065 (to four significant figures) d. 0.90275 (to four significant figures)

Example

Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures

a) Add 1.0023 g and 4.383 g.

b) Subtract 421.23 g from 486 g.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 38

 Cont’d
Solution

a) 1.0023 g + 4.383 g =5.3853 g

Answer is 5.385 g (round to the thousandths place; three decimal places)

b) 486 g−421.23 g = 64.77 g

Answer is 65 g (round to the ones place; no decimal places)

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 39

 Errors in measurement
 During measurement we are not sure about our measurement is exactly equal to true /
exact value due to experimental error.

 Therefore, based on the source of the error, there are two types of error:-

1. Random error: is type of error caused due to personal error (such as lack of skill of
the person or carelessness, sight problem etc) and it is an indicator of the precision of
the measurement.

2. Systematic error: are errors caused due to instability of the instrument like power
fluctuation, instability of the signal etc. (it is instrumental error) and results deviation
from the accurate value. Such type of error are removed by calibrating the instrument
and it is an indicator of accuracy of the measurement.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 40
 Accuracy and Precision
• Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a quantity to ensure the quality of
their findings and to evaluate both the precision and the accuracy of their results.

• Precision: refers to the reproducibility of the measurement and express the closeness of
the set of values obtained from identical measurements of a quantity.

• Precision measures the degree of random error.

➔Less precision implies there is more random error and vice versa

• Accuracy: is the agreement / closeness of the measured value to the true value and show
the degree of systematic error.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 41

 Cont’d
➔ Less accuracy implies there is more systematic error and vice versa

In graphs A and B: the random error is small (i.e precision is high:-are reproducible).
In A: the accuracy is high as well (all the values are close to 25.0 g). In B the accuracy is
low (i.e a systematic error). In graphs C and D, there is a large random error; that is, the
precision is low. Large random error is often called large scatter. In D there is also a
systematic error (all the values are high), whereas In C the average of the values is close to
the actual value.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 42
 Cont’d
Example :- Suppose a quality control chemist at a pharmaceutical company is tasked with checking the
accuracy and precision of three different machines that are meant to dispense 283.5g (296 mL) of cough
syrup into storage bottles. She/he proceeds to use each machine to fill five bottles and then carefully
determines the actual volume dispensed, obtaining the results tabulated in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Volume (mL) of Cough Medicine Delivered by 283.5g (296 mL) Dispensers

298

296

294

Values
292
Disp1
290
Disp2
Disp3
288

286

284

1 2 3 4 5
Trial
• Dispenser #1 is working well, both accurately and precision Dispenser #2 is worse accuracy and worse
precision Dispenser #3 is precise but not accurate

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 43

 Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis
• A ratio of two equivalent quantities expressed with different measurement units can be
used as a unit conversion factor.

• Dimensional analysis uses conversion factors to change the unit in an amount into an
equivalent quantity expressed with a different unit.

• For example, the lengths of 2.54 cm and 1 in. are equivalent (by definition), and so a
unit conversion factor may be derived from the ratio,

𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒄𝒎
𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏 𝒊𝒏. 𝒐𝒓 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒄𝒎Τ𝒊𝒏.
𝟏 𝒊𝒏.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 44

 Cont’d

Table 1.2: Common Conversion Factors

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 45

 Cont’d
▪ When a quantity (such as distance in inches) is multiplied by an appropriate unit
conversion factor, the quantity is converted to an equivalent value with different units
(such as distance in centimeters).

▪ For example, a basketball player’s vertical jump of 34 inches can be converted to

centimeters by:

▪ Beyond simple unit conversions, the factor-label method can be used to solve more
complex problems involving computations.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 46
 Cont’d
▪ Regardless of the details, the basic approach is the same-all the factors involved in the
calculation must be appropriately oriented to ensure that their labels (units) will
appropriately cancel and/or combine to yield the desired unit in the result.

▪ As your study of chemistry continues, you will encounter many opportunities to apply this
approach.

Example

Computing Quantities from Measurement Results and Known Mathematical Relations

• What is the density of common antifreeze in units of g/mL? A 4.00-qt sample of the
antifreeze weighs 9.26 lb.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 47

 Cont’d

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 48

 Cont’d

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 49

 Conversion of Temperature Units
▪ Temperature refer to the hotness or coldness of a substance

▪ Temperature scales are defined relative to selected reference temperatures:

1. 0C, the Celsius scale (part of the metric system, used in most countries)

2. 0F, the Fahrenheit scale (used in the US)

Both measures the same thing (temperature), but use different numbers :

▪ Boiling water (at normal pressure) measures 100 in celsius, but 212 in Fahrenheit
▪ Water freezes it measures 00 in Celsius, but 320 in Fahrenheit

▪ The scales start at a different number (0 vs 32), so we will need to add or subtract 32

▪ The scales rise at a different rate (100 vs 180), so we will need to multiply
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 50
 Cont’d
▪ The Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales, however, do not share a common zero
point, and so the relationship between these two scales is a linear one rather than a
proportional one

(y = mx + b)

A comparison of temperature scales

(a)The melting point (mp) of ice.

(a)The boiling point (bp) of water.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 51

 Cont’d

▪ Celsius temperature - x
▪ Fahrenheit temperature – y
▪ slope - m, is computed to be

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 52

 Cont’d

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 53

 Cont’d
▪ The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K)

▪ The freezing temperature of water on this scale is 273.15 K and its boiling temperature is
373.15 K. Notice the numerical difference in these two reference temperatures is 100, the
same as for the Celsius scale, and so the linear relation between these two temperature
scales will exhibit a slope of 1K°C.
• The equations for converting between the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales are derived
to be:

• The 273.15 in these equations has been determined experimentally, so it is not exact. Figure
1.9 shows the relationship among the three temperature scales.
5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 54
 Cont’d

Figure 1.9: The Fahrenheit, Celsius, and kelvin temperature scales are compared.

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 55

 Cont’d

Example : Conversion from Celsius

• Normal body temperature has been commonly accepted as 37.0 °C (although it varies
depending on time of day and method of measurement, as well as among individuals).
What is this temperature on the Kelvin scale and on the Fahrenheit scale?

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 56

 Cont’d
Example : Conversion from Fahrenheit

• Baking a ready-made pizza calls for an oven temperature of 450 °F. If you are in Europe,
and your oven thermometer uses the Celsius scale, what is the setting? What is the kelvin
temperature?

5/29/2024 General Chemistry-Chapter-One 57

Thank You !!!