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978-0-521-17723-8 — Learning the Art of Electronics

Thomas C. Hayes , Paul Horowitz
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Preface page xx
Overview, as the Course begins xxv

Part I Analog: Passive Devices 1

1N DC Circuits 3
1N.1 Overview 3
1N.2 Three laws 5
1N.3 First application: voltage divider 11
1N.4 Loading, and “output impedance” 14
1N.5 Readings in AoE 24

1L Lab: DC Circuits 25
1L.1 Ohm’s law 25
1L.2 Voltage divider 26
1L.3 Converting a meter movement into a voltmeter and ammeter 27
1L.4 The diode 29
1L.5 I versus V for some mystery boxes 30
1L.6 Oscilloscope and function generator 32

1S Supplementary Notes: Resistors, Voltage, Current 35

1S.1 Reading resistors 35
1S.2 Voltage versus current 38

1W Worked Examples: DC circuits 42

1W.1 Design a voltmeter, current meter 42
1W.2 Resistor power dissipation 44
1W.3 Working around imperfections of instruments 45
1W.4 Thevenin models 47
1W.5 “Looking through” a circuit fragment, and Rin , Rout 48
1W.6 Effects of loading 49

2N RC Circuits 51
2N.1 Capacitors 51
2N.2 Time-domain view of RCs 53
2N.3 Frequency domain view of RCs 58
2N.4 Blocking and decoupling 74

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2N.5 A somewhat mathy view of RC filters 76

2N.6 Readings in AoE 77

2L Labs: Capacitors 78
2L.1 Time-domain view 78
2L.2 Frequency domain view 81

2S Supplementary Notes: RC Circuits 85

2S.1 Reading capacitors 85
2S.2 C notes: trying for an intuitive grip on capacitors’ behavior 90
2S.3 Sweeping frequencies 93

2W Worked Examples: RC Circuits 100

2W.1 RC filters 100
2W.2 RC step response 105

3N Diode Circuits 108

3N.1 Overloaded filter: another reason to follow our 10× loading rule 108
3N.2 Scope probe 109
3N.3 Inductors 112
3N.4 LC resonant circuit 113
3N.5 Diode Circuits 118
3N.6 The most important diode application: DC from AC 119
3N.7 The most important diode application: (unregulated-) power supply 123
3N.8 Radio! 126
3N.9 Readings in AoE 130

3L Lab: Diode Circuits 131

3L.1 LC resonant circuit 131
3L.2 Half-wave rectifier 133
3L.3 Full-wave bridge rectifier 134
3L.4 Design exercise: AM radio receiver (fun!) 135
3L.5 Signal diodes 136

3S Supplementary Notes and Jargon: Diode Circuits 138

3S.1 A puzzle: why LC’s ringing dies away despite Fourier 138
3S.2 Jargon: passive devices 139

3W Worked Examples: Diode Circuits 141

3W.1 Power supply design 141
3W.2 Z IN 144

Part II Analog: Discrete Transistors 149

4N Transistors I 151
4N.1 Overview of Days 4 and 5 151
4N.2 Preliminary: introductory sketch 154

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4N.3 The simplest view: forgetting beta 155

4N.4 Add quantitative detail: use beta explicitly 158
4N.5 A strikingly different transistor circuit: the switch 166
4N.6 Recapitulation: the important transistor circuits at a glance 167
4N.7 AoE Reading 168

4L Lab: Transistors I 169

4L.1 Transistor preliminaries: look at devices out of circuit 169
4L.2 Emitter follower 170
4L.3 Current source 172
4L.4 Common-emitter amplifier 172
4L.5 Transistor switch 174
4L.6 A note on power supply noise 176

4W Worked Examples: Transistors I 178

4W.1 Emitter follower 178
4W.2 Phase splitter: input and output impedances of a transistor circuit 181
4W.3 Transistor switch 185

5N Transistors II 188
5N.1 Some novelty, but the earlier view of transistors still holds 188
5N.2 Reviewish: phase splitter 189
5N.3 Another view of transistor behavior: Ebers–Moll 190
5N.4 Complication: distortion in a high-gain amplifier 194
5N.5 Complications: temperature instability 196
5N.6 Reconciling the two views: Ebers–Moll meets I C = β ×IB 201
5N.7 “Difference” or “differential” amplifier 201
5N.8 Postscript: deriving re 207
5N.9 AoE Reading 208

5L Lab: Transistors II 209

5L.1 Difference or differential amplifier 209

5S Supplementary Notes and Jargon: Transistors II 220

5S.1 Two surprises, perhaps, in behavior of differential amp 220
5S.2 Current mirrors; Early effect 222
5S.3 Transistor summary 230
5S.4 Important circuits 232
5S.5 Jargon: bipolar transistors 235

5W Worked Examples: Transistors II 237

5W.1 High-gain amplifiers 237
5W.2 Differential amplifier 238
5W.3 Op-amp innards: diff-amp within an IC operational amplifier 239

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Part III Analog: Operational Amplifiers and their Applications 243

6N Op-amps I 245
6N.1 Overview of feedback 245
6N.2 Preliminary: negative feedback as a general notion 248
6N.3 Feedback in electronics 249
6N.4 The op-amp golden rules 251
6N.5 Applications 252
6N.6 Two amplifiers 252
6N.7 Inverting amplifier 254
6N.8 When do the Golden Rules apply? 256
6N.9 Strange things can be put into feedback loop 259
6N.10 AoE Reading 261

6L Lab: Op-Amps I 262

6L.1 A few preliminaries 262
6L.2 Open-loop test circuit 263
6L.3 Close the loop: follower 263
6L.4 Non-inverting amplifier 265
6L.5 Inverting amplifier 265
6L.6 Summing amplifier 266
6L.7 Design exercise: unity-gain phase shifter 266
6L.8 Push–pull buffer 268
6L.9 Current to voltage converter 269
6L.10 Current source 271

6W Worked Examples: Op-Amps I 273

6W.1 Basic difference amp made with an op-amp 273
6W.2 A more exotic difference amp 276
6W.3 Problem: odd summing circuit 277

7N Op-amps II: Departures from Ideal 280

7N.1 Old: subtler cases, for analysis 281
7N.2 Op-amp departures from ideal 284
7N.3 Four more applications 294
7N.4 Differentiator 300
7N.5 Op-amp Difference Amplifier 301
7N.6 AC amplifier: an elegant way to minimize effects of op-amp DC errors 301
7N.7 AoE Reading 302

7L Labs: Op-Amps II 303

7L.1 Integrator 303
7L.2 Differentiator 306
7L.3 Slew rate 308
7L.4 AC amplifier: microphone amplifier 308

7S Supplementary Notes: Op-Amp Jargon 310

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7W Worked Examples: Op-Amps II 311

7W.1 The problem 311
7W.2 Op-amp millivoltmeter 314

8N Op-Amps III: Nice Positive Feedback 319

8N.1 Useful positive feedback 319
8N.2 Comparators 320
8N.3 RC relaxation oscillator 327
8N.4 Sine oscillator: Wien bridge 331
8N.5 AoE Reading 335

8L Lab. Op-Amps III 336

8L.1 Two comparators 336
8L.2 Op-amp RC relaxation oscillator 338
8L.3 Easiest RC oscillator, using IC Schmitt trigger 339
8L.4 Apply the sawtooth: PWM motor drive 340
8L.5 IC RC relaxation oscillator: ’555 341
8L.6 ’555 for low-frequency frequency modulation (“FM”) 342
8L.7 Sinewave oscillator: Wien bridge 343

8W Worked Examples: Op-Amp III 345

8W.1 Schmitt trigger design tips 345
8W.2 Problem: heater controller 348

9N Op-Amps IV: Parasitic Oscillations; Active Filter 353

9N.1 Introduction 353
9N.2 Active filters 354
9N.3 Nasty “parasitic” oscillations: the problem, generally 356
9N.4 Parasitic oscillations in op-amp circuits 356
9N.5 Op-amp remedies for keeping loops stable 361
9N.6 A general criterion for stability 365
9N.7 Parasitic oscillation without op-amps 367
9N.8 Remedies for parasitic oscillation 370
9N.9 Recapitulation: to keep circuits quiet. . . 372
9N.10 AoE Reading 372

9L Labs. Op-Amps IV 373

9L.1 VCVS active filter 373
9L.2 Discrete transistor follower 374
9L.3 Op-amp instability: phase shift can make an op-amp oscillate 377
9L.4 Op-amp with buffer in feedback loop 378

9S Supplementary Notes. Op-Amps IV 380

9S.1 Op-amp frequency compensation 380
9S.2 Active filters: how to improve a simple RC filter 384
9S.3 Noise: diagnosing fuzz 389
9S.4 Annotated LF411 op-amp schematic 395
9S.5 Quantitative effects of feedback 396

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9W Worked Examples: Op-Amps IV 401

9W.1 What all that op-amp gain does for us 401
9W.2 Stability questions 402

10N Op-Amps V: PID Motor Control Loop 407

10N.1 Examples of real problems that call for this remedy 408
10N.2 The PID motor control loop 408
10N.3 Designing the controller (custom op-amp) 410
10N.4 Proportional-only circuit: predicting how much gain the loop can tolerate 412
10N.5 Derivative, D 415
10N.6 AoE Reading 420

10L Lab. Op-Amps V 421

10L.1 Introduction: why bother with the PID loop? 421
10L.2 PID motor control 422
10L.3 Add derivative of the error 428
10L.4 Add integral 430
10L.5 Scope images: effect of increasing gain, in P-only loop 432

11N Voltage Regulators 433

11N.1 Evolving a regulated power supply 434
11N.2 Easier: 3-terminal IC regulators 439
11N.3 Thermal design 441
11N.4 Current sources 443
11N.5 Crowbar overvoltage protection 444
11N.6 A different scheme: switching regulators 445
11N.7 AoE Readings 450

11L Lab: Voltage Regulators 451

11L.1 Linear voltage regulators 451
11L.2 A switching voltage regulator 457

11W Worked Examples: Voltage Regulators 462

11W.1 Choosing a heat sink 462
11W.2 Applying a current-source IC 463

12N MOSFET Switches 465

12N.1 Why we treat FETs as we do 465
12N.2 Power switching: turning something ON or OFF 469
12N.3 A power switch application: audio amplifier 471
12N.4 Logic gates 473
12N.5 Analog switches 474
12N.6 Applications 475
12N.7 Testing a sample-and-hold circuit 480
12N.8 AoE Reading 485

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12L Lab: MOSFET Switches 486

12L.1 Power MOSFET 486
12L.2 Analog switches 489
12L.3 Switching audio amplifier 495

12S Supplementary Notes: MOSFET Switches 497

12S.1 A physical picture 497

13N Group Audio Project 503

13N.1 Overview: a day of group effort 503
13N.2 One concern for everyone: stability 506
13N.3 Sketchy datasheets for LED and phototransistor 507

13L Lab: Group Audio Project 508

13L.1 Typical waveforms 508
13L.2 Debugging strategies 509

Part IV Digital: Gates, Flip-Flops, Counters, PLD, Memory 511

14N Logic Gates 513

14N.1 Analog versus digital 513
14N.2 Number codes: Two’s-complement 518
14N.3 Combinational logic 520
14N.4 The usual way to do digital logic: programmable arrays 526
14N.5 Gate types: TTL and CMOS 528
14N.6 Noise immunity 530
14N.7 More on gate types 533
14N.8 AoE Reading 535

14L Lab: Logic Gates 537

14L.1 Preliminary 537
14L.2 Input and output characteristics of integrated gates: TTL and CMOS 540
14L.3 Pathologies 541
14L.4 Applying IC gates to generate particular logic functions 543
14L.5 Gate innards; looking within the black box of CMOS logic 544

14S Supplementary Notes: Digital Jargon 548

14W Worked Examples: Logic Gates 550

14W.1 Multiplexing: generic 550
14W.2 Binary arithmetic 554

15N Flip-Flops 567

15N.1 Implementing a combinational function 568
15N.2 Active-low, again 569
15N.3 Considering gates as “Do this/do that” functions 573
15N.4 XOR as Invert/Pass* function 574

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15N.5 OR as Set/Pass* function 575

15N.6 Sequential circuits generally, and flip-flops 575
15N.7 Applications: more debouncers 582
15N.8 Counters 583
15N.9 Synchronous counters 584
15N.10 Another flop application: shift-register 586
15N.11 AoE Reading 587

15L Lab: Flip-Flops 588

15L.1 A primitive flip-flop: SR latch 588
15L.2 D type 588
15L.3 Counters: ripple and synchronous 591
15L.4 Switch bounce, and three debouncers 592
15L.5 Shift register 594

15S Supplementary Note: Flip-Flops 597

15S.1 Programmable logic devices 597
15S.2 Flip-flop tricks 599

16N Counters 603

16N.1 Old topics 603
16N.2 Circuit dangers and anomalies 607
16N.3 Designing a larger, more versatile counter 610
16N.4 A recapitulation of useful counter functions 614
16N.5 Lab 16L’s divide-by-N counter 615
16N.6 Counting as a digital design strategy 616

16L Lab: Counters 617

16L.1 A fork in the road: two paths into microcontrollers 617
16L.2 Counter lab 619
16L.3 16-bit counter 621
16L.4 Make horrible music 629
16L.5 Counter applications: stopwatch 631

16W Worked Examples: Applications of Counters 634

16W.1 Modifying count length: strange-modulus counters 634
16W.2 Using a counter to measure period, thus many possible input quantities 636
16W.3 Bullet timer 642

17N Memory 648

17N.1 Buses 648
17N.2 Memory 651
17N.3 State machine: new name for old notion 655

17L Lab: Memory 661

17L.1 RAM 661
17L.2 State machines 663
17L.3 State machine using a PAL programmed in Verilog 669

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17S Supplementary Notes: Digital Debugging and Address Decoding 671

17S.1 Digital debugging tips 671
17S.2 Address decoding 675

17W Worked Examples: Memory 678

17W.1 A sequential digital lock 678
17W.2 Solutions 681

Part V Digital: Analog–Digital, PLL, Digital Project Lab 687

18N Analog ↔ Digital; PLL 689

18N.1 Interfacing among logic families 689
18N.2 Digital ⇔ analog conversion, generally 693
18N.3 Digital to analog (DAC) methods 697
18N.4 Analog-to-digital conversion 701
18N.5 Sampling artifacts 712
18N.6 Dither 714
18N.7 Phase-locked loop 716
18N.8 AoE Reading 723

18L Lab: Analog ↔ Digital; PLL 724

18L.1 Analog-to-digital converter 724
18L.2 Phase-locked loop: frequency multiplier 729

18S Supplementary Notes: Sampling Rules; Sampling Artifacts 734

18S.1 What’s in this chapter? 734
18S.2 General notion: sampling produces predictable artifacts in the sampled data 734
18S.3 Examples: sampling artifacts in time- and frequency-domains 735
18S.4 Explanation? The images, intuitively 739

18W Worked Examples: Analog ↔ Digital 745

18W.1 ADC 745
18W.2 Level translator 748

19L Digital Project Lab 749

19L.1 A digital project 749

Part VI Microcontrollers 755

20N Microprocessors 1 757

20N.1 Microcomputer basics 757
20N.2 Elements of a minimal machine 760
20N.3 Which controller to use? 762
20N.4 Some possible justifications for the hard work of the big-board path 764
20N.5 Rediscover the micro’s control signals. . . 765
20N.6 Some specifics of our lab computer: big-board branch 771
20N.7 The first day on the SiLab branch 773
20N.8 AoE Reading 778

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20L Lab: Microprocessors 1 780

20L.1 Big-board Dallas microcomputer 780
20L.2 Install the GLUEPAL; wire it partially 781
20L.3 SiLabs 1: startup 792

20S Supplementary Notes: Microprocessors 1 803

20S.1 PAL for microcomputers 803
20S.2 Note on SiLabs IDE 805

20W Worked Examples: A Garden of Bugs 809

21N Microprocessors 2. I/O, First Assembly Language 813

21N.1 What is assembly language? Why bother with it? 813
21N.2 Decoding, again 818
21N.3 Code to use the I/O hardware (big-board branch) 821
21N.4 Comparing assembly language with C code: keypad-to-display 824
21N.5 Subroutines: CALL 826
21N.6 Stretching operations to 16 bits 830
21N.7 AoE Reading 831

21L Lab: Microprocessors 2 832

21L.1 Big-board: I/O. Introduction 832
21L.2 SiLabs 2: input; byte operations 844

21S Supplementary Notes: 8051 Addressing Modes 857

21S.1 Getting familiar with the 8051’s addressing modes 857
21S.2 Some 8051 addressing modes illustrated 867

22N Micro 3: Bit Operations 869

22N.1 BIT operations 869
22N.2 Digression on conditional branching 874

22L Lab Micro 3. Bit Operations; Timers 881

22L.1 Big-board lab. Bit operations; interrupt 881
22L.2 SiLabs 3: Timers; PWM; Comparator 886

22W Worked Examples. Bit Operations: An Orgy of Error 901

22W.1 The problem 901
22W.2 Lots of poor, and one good, solutions 901
22W.3 Another way to implement this “Ready” key 904

23N Micro 4: Interrupts; ADC and DAC 905

23N.1 Big ideas from last time 905
23N.2 Interrupts 906
23N.3 Interrupt handling in C 911
23N.4 Interfacing ADC and DAC to the micro 912

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23N.5 Some details of the ADC/DAC labs 917

23N.6 Some suggested lab exercises, playing with ADC and DAC 921

23L Lab Micro 4. Interrupts; ADC and DAC 926

23L.1 ADC → DAC 926
23L.2 SiLabs 4: Interrupt; DAC and ADC 931

23S Supplementary Notes: Micro 4 946

23S.1 Using the RIDE assembler/compiler and simulator 946
23S.2 Debugging 951
23S.3 Waveform processing 955

24N Micro 5. Moving Pointers, Serial Buses 959

24N.1 Moving pointers 959
24N.2 DPTR can be useful for SiLabs ’410, too: tables 964
24N.3 End tests in table operations 964
24N.4 Some serial buses 966
24N.5 Readings 974

24L Lab Micro 5. Moving Pointers, Serial Buses 975

24L.1 Data table; SPI bus; timers 976
24L.2 SiLabs 5: serial buses 982

24S Supplementary Note: Dallas Program Loader 993

24S.1 Dallas downloader 993
24S.2 Hardware required 993
24S.3 Procedure to try the loader: two versions 994
24S.4 Debugging: LOADER420, in case you can’t write to flash 999
24S.5 Debugging in case of trouble with COM port assignments 1000

24W Worked Example: Table Copy, Four Ways 1003

24W.1 Several ways to copy a table 1003

25N Micro 6: Data Tables 1006

25N.1 Input and output devices for a microcontroller 1006
25N.2 Task for big-board users: standalone micro 1008
25N.3 Task for SiLabs users: off-chip RAM 1009

25L Lab: Micro 6: Standalone Microcontroller 1012

25L.1 Hardware alternatives: two ways to program the flash ROM 1012
25L.2 SiLabs 6: SPI RAM 1018
25L.3 Appendix: Program Listings 1021

26N Project Possibilities: Toys in the Attic 1022

26N.1 One more microcontroller that may interest you 1023
26N.2 Projects: an invitation and a caution 1025
26N.3 Some pretty projects 1025

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26N.4 Some other memorable projects 1030

26N.5 Games 1041
26N.6 Sensors, actuators, gadgets 1043
26N.7 Stepper motor drive 1049
26N.8 Project ideas 1051
26N.9 Two programs that could be useful: LCD,Keypad 1052
26N.10 And many examples are shown in AoE 1052
26N.11 Now go forth 1052

A A Logic Compiler or HDL: Verilog 1053

A.1 The form of a Verilog file: design file 1053
A.2 Schematics can help one to debug 1054
A.3 The form of a Verilog file: simulation testbench 1055
A.4 Self-checking testbench 1058
A.5 Flip-flops in Verilog 1060
A.6 Behavioral versus structural design description: easy versus hard 1064
A.7 Verilog allows hierarchical designs 1065
A.8 A BCD counter 1068
A.9 Two alternative ways to instantiate a sub-module 1070
A.10 State machines 1071
A.11 An instance more appropriate to state form: a bus arbiter 1073
A.12 Xilinx ISE offers to lead you by the hand 1076
A.13 Blocking versus non-blocking assignments 1077

B Using the Xilinx Logic Compiler 1080

B.1 Xilinx, Verilog, and ABEL: an overview 1080

C Transmission Lines 1089

C.1 A topic we have dodged till now 1089
C.2 A new case: transmission line 1090
C.3 Reflections 1092
C.4 But why do we care about reflections? 1094
C.5 Transmission line effects for sinusoidal signals 1097

D Scope Advice 1099

D.1 What we don’t intend to tell you 1099
D.2 What we’d like to tell you 1099

E Parts List 1105

F The Big Picture 1113

G “Where Do I Go to Buy Electronic Goodies?” 1114

H Programs Available on Website 1116

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I Equipment 1119
I.1 Uses for This List 1119
I.2 Oscilloscope 1119
I.3 Function generator 1120
I.4 Powered breadboard 1120
I.5 Meters, VOM and DVM 1121
I.6 Power supply 1121
I.7 Logic probe 1121
I.8 Resistor substitution box 1121
I.9 PLD/FPGA programming pod 1122
I.10 Hand tools 1122
I.11 Wire 1122

J Pinouts 1123
J.1 Analog 1123
J.2 Digital 1125
Index 1128

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