www.tntextbooks.

in

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Basic Automobile
Engineering
THEORY & PRACTICAL

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 1 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020,2022
(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise
possess all

State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2019

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

  ii

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 2 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Preface

We take immense pleasure in presenting the text book on “Basic Automobile Engineering”
theory for the second year students of Higher Secondary course. The authors express
their deepest gratitude to the teachers and the SCERT for their support and help to
write, compose and publish this book in time.

This book is divided into ten chapters, each covers the major sub-system of
Automotive System. A range of examples for components and lay out for assembled
systems are given and discussed for easy understanding by the students. Most of the
drawings of the components are simplified and presented for easy explanation and
the pictorial photographs are also added for better understanding.

“Do you know” box items are included to highlight the facts and figures of the
recent developments. The practical part includes dismantling, inspection and assembly
in each chapter to enable the student to appericiate the construction and working
principles. We are sure that this book would help the students acquire theoretical
knowledge, analytical ability and practical skill.

To facilitate further learning and higher order thinking reference books, videos,
websites have been incorporated for each chapter. Suggestions, innovative ideas and
constructive criticisms are welcome for due consideration and inclusion in the future
edition.

  Preface iii

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 3 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

How to use the book?

Higher Studies List of professions related to the subject.

Learning objectives are brief statements that describe

Learning
what students will be expected to learn by the end of
Objectives
school year, course, unit, lesson or class period.
Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students
Do You Know?
to Automobile inquiry
To download QR code scanner from the google play
store
To open the QR code
The camera will open after scanner button is pressed.
QR Code To focus the camera to scan the QR code
The URL link will be displayed on the screen after QR
code is read by the camera.
Get the information related to the lesson through the
website
Directions are provided to students to conduct
Student Activity
activities in order to explore, enrich the concept.

Assess students to pause, think and check their

Evaluation
understanding

The details of practicals realated to the lessons are

Practical
given in detail
To encourage you, the role model students who
studied in this group and achieved in various fields
Case Study
such as employment, self-employment and higher
studies are mentioned in this case study.
To motivate the students to further explore the
Web Reference
content digitally and take them in to virtual world

Book References List of related books for further details of the topic

  How to use the book? iv

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 4 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Career Guidance

Vertical Mobility
Engineering
1. Directly to Join 2nd year Diploma Engineering in Government Aided and private polytechnics
and select any other major Engineering course.
2. 10% of the Seats are allotted to Government and Government Aided and Private Engineering
colleges to Join Ist year graduate engineering.
3. Distance Education Directly under go the course AMIE which is equal to Government
Engineering Courses. Maximum Duration Six years.

Arts
1. +2 Vocational Groups Student are eligible to Join Ist year Diploma Teacher Training Course.
2. Directly Join B.A. Arts Group Except – Physic Chemistry, Biology major all other science group.
3. Directly Join B.Sc Math’s group.
Horizontal Mobility
Employments
1. Directly Join to Reputed Industries as Apprentice Training/Factory Training like
a) Ashok Leyland. (Chennai and Hosur)
b) TVS Groups. (Chennai, Hosur, Madurai, etc.)
c) ABT Maruti. (Chennai, Coimbatore, Pollachi, etc.)
d) Hyundai Car Company. (Sriperumbudar, Irrangatukdtai, Chennai)
e) Ford India Ltd. (Maraimalai Nagar)
f) All Reputed Service centers like TVS, VST and Hyundai, Ford etc.
g) All Automobile leading manufacturing, repairing and servicing centers.

Self-Employment
1. Vocational Students after getting Apprentice Training Industry Training are eligible to get
small scale Industry Loan from Hudco, TIDCO, SIDCO etc.
2. After Adequate required experience in the field getting they are eligible to minimum loans
under the scheme of
a) NRY (Nehru Rozhar Yogana)
b) PMRY (Prime Minister Rozhar Yogana)
c) TRYSEM (Training for Rural Youth and Self Employment)
d) PMKVY (Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana)

  Career Guidance v

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 5 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Contents

Basic Automobile Engineering

Unit Page
No. Chapter Title Month
No.
1. Transmission System 1-14 June
2. Clutch Unit 15-29 June
3. Gear Box 30-54 July
4. Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 55-73 August
5. Wheels and Tyres 74-90 September
6. Braking System 91-122 October
7. Suspension System 123-144 October
8. Steering System 145-166 November
9. Chassis and Body 167-183 November
10. Electrical System 184-219 Nov-Dec
Model Question Paper 220-222
Basic Automobile Engineering Practical 223-261
Case Studies 262-268
References 269-270
Common Glossary 271-273

E-book Assessment

  Contents vi

BAE_ENG_FM_Option.indd 6 01/11/2022 12:33:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

1 Transmission System

Contents

1.0 Introduction 1.8 Chassis and its

1.1 Transmission system components in
1.1.1 Parts of Transmission automobile system
system 1.8.1 Application
1.2 Needs of Transmission system of chassis in
1.3 Types of Transmission system automobiles
1.3.1 Front Engine Rear Wheel 1.8.2 Frame
Drive 1.8.3 Engine
1.3.2 Front Engine Front Wheel 1.8.4 Clutch
Drive 1.8.5 Gear box
1.3.3 Front Engine Four Wheel 1.8.6 Propeller shaft and Universal
Drive Joint
1.3.4 Rear Engine Rear Wheel 1.8.7 Front axle
Drive 1.8.8 Rear axle and Differential
1.4 Air resistance 1.8.9 Suspension system
1.5 Rolling resistance 1.8.10 Steering system
1.6 Gradient resistance 1.8.11 Braking system
1.7 Tractive effort 1.8.12 Wheel and tyre
1.7.1 Traction 1.8.13 Electrical system

Learning objectives

1. To study how the power derived from engine is transferred to rear axle.
2. To study various types of drives used to power the rear axle for its functioning.
3. To identify the obstacles faced by automobiles when goes on the road.
4. To study the various components in automobile transmission system and
its uses.

1 - Transmission System 1

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 1 01/11/2022 11:38:12 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

1.0 Introduction Engine

Rear axle shaft
In an automobile, engine is the
Transmission
main source for developing the power Differential
and the power produced from it must be
transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle
to move it from one place to another. The Propeller shaft

system which is developed for transmitting Clutch

Rear axle
the power from the engine to the wheels housing

of the vehicle is called as the automobile Figure 1.1.1 Important components of a

transmission system or vehicle power transmission system of an automobile
transmission system. For basic needs of
the vehicle and for space requirements,
1.2 Needs of
the manufacturers place the engines in
transmission
appropriate locations and transmit the
system
energy from the engine to the wheels by
various ways. Let us discuss some of the • For transmitting and stopping torque
ways how the power is transmitted to the developed from the engine to the rear
wheels with suitable diagrams. axle of the vehicle.
• For transmitting power to wheels without
any noise during the engine is running.
1.1 Transmission • For avoiding vibrational effects during
system the transmission of power from engine
In automobiles the rotary power to the rear wheels.
(or torque) is obtained from the engine. • For operating the vehicle wheels at the
The developed power is transmitted to required speed.
the rotating wheels on the road. The unit • For balancing the speed of the wheels
which has various components connected during vehicle is in running.
in between the engine and the rear wheels
of the vehicle is called as the automobile 1.3 Types of
power transmission system. Let us see transmission
the important parts of an automobile system
transmission system. 1. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
2. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
1.1.1 Parts of Transmission 3. Front Engine Four Wheel Drive
System 4. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
1. Clutch
2. Gear box 1.3.1 Front engine rear
3. Propeller shaft wheel drive
4. Universal joint Generally front engine rear wheel
5. Differential drive is commonly used in most of the
6. Rear axle vehicles. The power from the engine to

1 - Transmission System 2

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 2 01/11/2022 11:38:13 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Clutch Propeller
shaft

Differential
Engine Universal
Gear box joints

Figure 1.3.1 Front engine rear wheel drive

the running wheels is transmitted through The first one is located near the differential
the clutch, gearbox, universal joint and and another one is kept near the stub axle.
the differential unit. The front engine To Transfer power with required angle
rear wheel drive is shown in figure 1.3.1. and to transmit the steering power to the
wheel these joints are being used. This
Advantages type of drive is used in modern vehicles.
• Engine cooling is good Its construction is shown in figure 1.3.2.
• Vehicle’s weight is evenly distributed
• It is easy to connect the components Advantages
with the engine • Simple in design
• It is easy to control the vehicle • Have high stability
• Good road grip
Disadvantages
• High engine cooling
• Lengthy propeller shaft is needed • Good control over the vehicle
• Vehicle’s ground clearance is high • There is no need of a separate propeller
• Vehicle’s stability is low. shaft

1.3.2 Front engine front Disadvantages

wheel drive • Maintenance cost is high
In front engine front wheel drive, • Road grip is less when the vehicle is
the clutch, gearbox and the differential driven in slope or slanting regions
unit are made as an integral part. The • Due to the engine’s exhaust, passengers
engine’s power is transmitted to the front gets affected
wheels by means of the clutch, gearbox,
differential and small shaft. Propeller 1.3.3 Front engine four
shaft is not necessary in such drives for wheel drive
transmitting the power. Four wheel drive is the one in
Two pairs of constant velocity which the engine’s power is transmitted
universal joints are used in front axle. to all the four wheels at a time. The four
1 - Transmission System 3

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 3 01/11/2022 11:38:13 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

The first modern automobile was built in 1886 by German inventor

Carl Benz.

Weight: 265 kilograms

Maximum speed : 16 kilometers per hour

Engine type – Four-stroke, carburetor

Water-cooled engine

Number of cylinders : 1

Engine volume : 954 cm3

Power –0.9 horsepower (at 400 revolutions per minute)

1906, Kari Benz donates his car to the German Museum in Munich,
Germany 1936. Three copies of the Karl Benz car are built for the
Mercedes-Benz Museum, the Museum of Technology in Vienna and
the Transport Museum in Dresden.

1 - Transmission System 4

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 4 01/11/2022 11:38:13 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Engine

Rear axle
Transaxle

Clutch

Figure 1.3.2 Front engine front wheel drive

Clutch Gear box Propeller

shaft
Engine

Differential
Differential

Universal
joints

Transfer box

Figure 1.3.3 (a) Front engine four wheel drive

wheel drive consists of two differential in military vehicles, Jeep, special vehicles
units, four universal joints, one constant and foreign vehicles
velocity universal joint, a propeller shaft
and a transfer case.
In four wheel drive the engine’s
power is transmitted to the transfer case
by clutch, gearbox and a small shaft. F R
From the transfer case the power is being R
O
E
A
transferred through two propeller shafts N R
T
to front and rear axle differentials, from
that the power is finally transmitted to
all the four wheels. In such operation
high power is obtained hence four wheel
drives are more suitable for mud and wet Figure 1.3.3 (b) Front engine four
roads. Mostly four wheel drives are used wheel drive
1 - Transmission System 5

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 5 01/11/2022 11:38:13 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Advantages Advantages
• Pulling power is more • Simple in design
• Can operate vehicles in water, mud, • Separate propeller shaft is not
clay and slime areas also needed
• Sometimes if one wheel fails to • Brake power is high
function, vehicles can operate using • No problem to passengers because of
other three wheels exhaust
• No need for lengthy propeller shaft
Disadvantages
• Initial cost is high Disadvantages
• Maintenance is high • Stability is less
• Complicated design • Long linkages are needed
• Create more noise • Maintenance is high
• Vibration is more • Engine cooling is less.

1.3.4 Rear engine rear

wheel drive 1.4 Air resistance
In the rear engine rear wheel drive On the road the blowing wind
clutch, gearbox and differential unit are against the direction of the vehicle and
made as a single unit. The engine power the opposing force due to the vehicle
is transferred to rear wheel by means of speed oppose the vehicle to move front.
the clutch, gearbox, differential and a This opposing force is called as the air
small shaft. Propeller Shaft is not used. resistance.
In this type of drive placing the engine’s To find the air resistance of a vehicle,
exhaust system is easy. As the driver is the following formula can be used.
sitting in the front it is difficult to control
clutch and gearbox. The drive needs long
Air resistance (R a) = K a A.V 2
linkages in this type of drive

Engine
Front axle

Transaxle

Clutch

Figure 1.3.4 Rear engine Rear wheel drive

1 - Transmission System 6

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 6 01/11/2022 11:38:13 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Traffic congestion wastes three billion gallons of gas each year.

• Car facts tell us that as of 2010, over 1 billion cars were being driven all
over the world. The number of cars in 1986 was just half of this figure. India
and China saw the greatest increase in the number of cars on their roads
between these two years.

where, A = frontal area of the vehicle, in m2 1.5 Rolling resistance

V=V
 elocity of the vehicle in W h e n t h e v e h i c l e’s w h e e l i s
km/hr rolling on the road, due to the mud,
K a = C o-efficient of air resistance, sand, pits, ups and down conditions
of t h e ro a d c au s e s a re s i s t an c e on
= 0.0032 (car) the vehicle from its movement. This
= 0.0046 (truck and lorry) opposing force is called as the rolling
resistance.
1 - Transmission System 7

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 7 01/11/2022 11:38:15 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

The Rolling resistance of a vehicle 1.8 Basic components

can be calculated by using the formula of Automobile
1. Frame
Rolling resistance (R r) = K.W 2. Engine
3. Clutch
Where, W = Weight of the vehicle, Kg 4. Gear box
K = Rolling Constant 5. Propeller shaft
6. Rear axle
= 0.005 for good road.
7. Front axle
= 0.18 for mud road. 8. Suspension system
9. Steering system
10. Braking system
1.6 Gradient
11. Wheel and tyre and
resistance
12. The electrical system
When a vehicle claims on the mountains
or high bridges, the complete weight of the
vehicle is dragged backwards because of the 1.8.1 Important components
gravitational force which causes opposing of the automobile
force acting on the vehicle. This opposing chassis
force is called as gradient resistance The vehicle without the body is
The gradient Resistance can be called as the Chassis. It is the under part
calculated by using the following formula of an automobile on which the body is
mounted. The Chassis is called as the
Gradient Resistance (R G) = W sin θ back bone of the vehicle. The structure
of the chassis is shown in the above
Figure 1.8.1.
Where, W = Weight of vehicle, Kg
θ=A
 ngle between straight and
inclined Road 1.8.2 Frame
It is a lengthy component which
1.7 Tractive effort has cross frames joined rigidly by rivets.
When the vehicle is rolling on the It is the foundation for carr ying the
road the frictional force between the top engine, transmission system, steering
of the road and the tyre surface which system. This frame is made of stainless
is in contact on the road is called as the steel which is able to carry the whole
tractive effort. weight of the vehicle. It is back bone of
the vehicle.

1.7.1 Traction
Traction is defined as the action 1.8.3 Engine
which maintains or transfers the tractive The necessar y power can be
effort as same. produced from the engine for running
1 - Transmission System 8

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 8 01/11/2022 11:38:15 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Frame

Universal joints
Clutch
Wheels
Gear box
Front axle

Rear axle
Engine
Propeller shaft

Figure 1.8.1 Important components of the Chassis

the vehicle. Petrol and Diesel are used

as fuels to run the engine. It is located
at the front of the vehicle. It converts
the heat energy by burning the fuel into
mechanical energy. Hence it is called as
the heart of the vehicle.

Figure 1.8.4 Clutch

1.8.5 Gear box

The box with set of gears inside
the casing is called as gear box. It is
used to change (increase and reduce) the
speed and torque of vehicle according to
different road and load conditions of the
vehicle. It is shown Figure 1.8.5.

Figure 1.8.3 Engine

1.8.4 Clutch
Clutch is a mechanical device
which is used to transfer and cut the
engine’s power transmitted to the driveline.
It is located in between engine and
gear box. Figure 1.8.5 Gear box
1 - Transmission System 9

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 9 01/11/2022 11:38:15 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

1.8.6 Propeller Shaft 1.8.9 Suspension system

It is a type of long hollow shaft. This The Spring Shock absorber has been
is located in between the gear box and connected to the front and back axles and
differential. It transmits power from gear helps to drive the vehicle smooth and
box to differential. It is shown Figure 1.8.6. slower from the vibrations in the road.
It is shown Figure 1.8.9.

Figure 1.8.6 Propeller shaft

1.8.7 Front axle

Front wheels are coupled with front
axle. Front axle carries the weight of the
Figure 1.8.9 Suspension system
front part of the vehicle as well as facilitates
steering and absorbs shocks due to road
surface variations. It is shown Figure 1.8.7. 1.8.10 Steering system
The steering system operates on
a very simple mechanism that directly
transforms steering wheel rotation into
straight line movement and helps in turn
Figure 1.8.7 Front axle the vehicle as per the road. It is shown
Figure 1.8.10.

1.8.8 Rear axle and

Differential
Rear wheels are attached to the
two ends of rear axle. The rear axle helps
to turn the vehicle into the curved road.
The differential gear in the center is cut
by the speed of the cycle through the
propeller shaft and then transported to
Figure 1.8.10 Steering system
90 o by wheels. It is shown Figure 1.8.8.

1.8.11 Braking system

Brakes are installed on the four
wheels of the vehicle and work through
Figure 1.8.8 Rear Axle and Differential m e ch an i c a l c on n e c t i ons , hyd r au l i c
1 - Transmission System 10

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 10 01/11/2022 11:38:16 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Lining Spring Wheel Cylinder

Brake drum

Bleed Nipple

Shoe

Shoe adjuster

Spring
Shoe
Pin

Figure 1.8.11 Braking system

and air. The very important part of an the road and help to keep the tyres soft
automobile is the braking system that and smooth.
helps to drive and control the speed of
the vehicle within safe speed. It is shown
1.8.13 Electrical system
Figure 1.8.11.
Electrical system supplies electrical
energ y which is used to produce the
1.8.12 Wheels and tyres spark for igniting the air fuel mixture in
T he w he el s help to c ar r y t h e petrol engines, to provide light for the
vehicle’s entire weight and to drive the vehicle during night ride, to operate the
vehicle. The wheels are connected to the wiper motor, to light inside the vehicle,
front and rear axles of a vehicle. They to play music and for dashboard lights.
absorb the vibrations produced from It is shown Figure 1.8.13.

Wiper/washer Accessories
Ignition PCM
Power windows
A/C clutch BCM
Suspension
Fuel injection

Cooling fan Lights

Lights

ABS
Cruise control
Starting and
Transmission
charging systems
Power seats

Sound system Door locks

Figure 1.8.13 Basic overview of the electrical system of a modern car

1 - Transmission System 11

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 11 01/11/2022 11:38:16 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Student Activity

1. Submit a report about the transmitting system by sending the students to the workshop
near the school.
2. Each student have to submit a layout of the transmission system.
3. Submit a report about the front engine drive and rear engine drive in the workshops.

G Glossary

1. Transmission – கடத்தல்
2. Gear box – பற்சக்கரப்பெட்டி
3. Universal Joint – யுனிவர்சல்இணைப்பு
4. Air Resistance – காற்று எதிர்ப்புத்தடை
5. Rolling Resistance – உருளும்எதிர்ப்புத்தடை
6. Gradient Resistance – ஏற்றத்தடை
7. Wind Velocity – காற்றின்திசைவேகம்
8. Traction – இழுத்தல்

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company,

New Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor,
ISBN – 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage
Learning (2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing,
New Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

1 - Transmission System 12

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 12 01/11/2022 11:38:16 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. http://usciencecompendium.blogspot.com/2014/12/automobile-transmission-system-part-1.
html
2. https://www.aeroautoparts.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-a-manual-
transmission
3. http://what-when-how.com/automobile/traction-and-tractive-effort-automobile/
4. http://www.tezu.ernet.in/sae/Download/transmission.pdf

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer c) 4
d) 7
1. Power produced from the engine
transmits to the rotating wheels by 4. Which engine drive provides
a) Gear system high mountain traction and
b) Steering system road grip?
c) Braking system a) High speed drive
d) Transmission system b) Medium speed drive
c) Four wheel drive
2. Power is transmitted from engine d) Rear engine rear
to the rear axle? wheel drive
a) Front engine front wheel drive
b) Rear engine rear wheel drive 5. Which engine drive provides
c) Four wheel drive highest road grip?
d) Front engine rear wheel drive a) Four wheel drive
b) Rear engine rear
3. How many types of vehicles can wheel drive
be divided according to the way c) Front engine front
in which the engine is located and wheel drive
power transmitting directions to d) Front engine rear
the wheel? wheel drive
a) 8
b) 3

1 - Transmission System 13

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 13 01/11/2022 11:38:16 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

PART - B

Three mark questions

1. Write the important parts of the 4. What is mean by Rolling
transmission system. resistance?
2. Write about the types of 5. What is meant by Gradient
transmission system. resistance?
3. What is mean by Air resistance?

PART - C

Five mark questions

1. Write the types of transmission 2. Explain automobile vehicle

system with its significance and chassis
explain any one with neat diagram.

PART - D

Ten mark questions

1. Explain any one type transmission 2. State the parts of chassis and
system with sketch. explain any two parts with sketch.

1 - Transmission System 14

BAE_ENG_Chapter_01.indd 14 01/11/2022 11:38:16 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

2 Clutch Unit

Contents

2.0 Introduction 2.5.1 Single Plate

2.1 Functions of the Clutch Clutch
2.2 Principle of the Clutch 2.5.2 Multi Plate
2.3 Qualities of Good Clutch Clutch
2.4 Components of Clutch 2.5.3 Diaphragm
2.4.1 Clutch Plate Clutch
2.4.2 Clutch Lining 2.5.4 Fluid Flywheel
2.4.3 Pressure Plate 2.5.5 Centrifugal Clutch
2.4.4 Clutch Spring 2.6 Maintenance Methods of Clutch
2.4.5 Release Bearing 2.7 Troubleshooting Methods in
2.4.6 Clutch Linkage Clutch
2.5 Types of Clutch

Learning objectives

1. Uses of clutch in automobiles, structure, applications, operating methods,

maintenance and troubleshooting methods can know.
2. Find out how the clutch transmits the power from engine to the gear box.

2.0 Introduction 2.1 Functions of

Clutch is the f irst par t of the the Clutch
transmission system. It is mounted between • When the power from the engine is
the engine and the gear box. Clutch is needed, it will connect and disconnect
a mechanism that helps to rotate the the gear box.
rotation from a shaft to another shaft on • When the Engine is not working, it will
the same axis. help to start the vehicle by pushing.

2 - Clutch Unit 15

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 15 01/11/2022 11:40:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Used to change gears softly, to stop the 1. Clutch Plate

vehicle and for Engine idle. 2. Clutch Lining
3. Pressure Plate
2.2 Principle of the 4. Coil Spring
Clutch 5. Release bearing
Clutch works on the principle of 6. Clutch linkage
friction. When the rotating disk C connects
with disk D, both will start to rotate. This 2.4.1 Clutch Plate
is the basic principle in Clutch. Clutch plate should be made of
steel. Hub is situated in centre of the
clutch plate. Hub consists of splines.
Clutch plate has moving capacity. Hub is
attached with disk. Disk is surrounded
by many cushion springs. Above this,
friction lining is attached with rivet or
glue. Helical spring is attached in centre
2.3 Qualities of of the plate to bear torque. This is called
Good Clutch as torsional or damper spring.
1. Should have high torque transmission.
Rivet
2. Should join in step-by-step.
Hub
3. Should be a good transfer of heat.
4. Operating balance is required.
5. Should be able to bear the shocks.
6. Should have free pedal play. Spring
7. Should be easy to operate.
8. Should be in simple construction,
cheap in cost and high working life. Clutch Lining

9. Low space should be adequate.

10. Should have high co-efficient of friction.

2.4 Components of 2.4.2 Clutch Lining

Clutch The two ends of the clutch lining
and clutch plate are attached with the
help of rivets or some special glue. The
clutch lining is made up of following
materials.
1. Asbestos
2. Reybestos
3. Fibre
4. Leather
5. Cork
2 - Clutch Unit 16

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 16 01/11/2022 11:40:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Types material which will have the heat resistance

• Solid Woven Lining types capacity.
• Moulded Lining types
2.4.4 Clutch Spring
Solid Woven lining type
Cushion or Torsion spring is used
In this type, Clothes are stitched to bear frictions produced from clutch
with the suitable thickness. engage and disengage.

Moulded lining types

2.4.5 Release Bearing
It is formed with the help of asbestos,
Clutch housing inside, without any
fibre, glass particles, cloth, metal powder
contact with clutch shaft it will move forward
and sticking component with particular
and backward. It will press the fingers
pressure.
equally so it is known as Release bearing.

2.4.3 Pressure Plate 2.4.6 Clutch linkage

Above clutch plate to form good Operates release bearing from the
and equal pressure, true is done at its clutch pedal with the help of fork is
surface. It will produce friction pressure known as clutch linkage. In car it works
plate is made with some special type of with the cables and in heavy vehicles, it

2 - Clutch Unit 17

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 17 01/11/2022 11:40:43 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

works with the steel rods. It is designed 1. Fly wheel

in such a way that it can able to change 2. Clutch plate
its length. 3. Clutch lining
4. Pressure plate
2.5 Types of Clutch 5. Coil spring
6. Release lever
1. Single plate clutch
7. Clutch shaft
2. Multi plate clutch
8. Release lever bearing
3. Diaphragm clutch
4. Centrifugal clutch • Clutch plate is placed in between fly
5. Hydraulic clutch wheel and pressure plate.
6. Fluid flywheel clutch • Centre of clutch plate is attached with
7. Electric clutch clutch shaft.
• Coil spring is placed in between
2.5.1 Single Disc or Plate pressure plate and clutch cover.
Clutch • Release lever is attached with pressure
Construction plate.
• Main components of single plate clutch • Clutch cover is attached with fly wheel
are listed below: with the help of bolt and nuts.

Release Strut
finger Eye bolt
Antirattle spring Fulcrum pin
Fly wheel clip
Clutch
cover

Throw out
Hub bearing

Release
fork
Coil
springs
Clutch disc
Spring

Figure 2.5.1 (a) Single plate clutch

2 - Clutch Unit 18

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 18 01/11/2022 11:40:43 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Clutch plate with friction lining

Body
Spring
Flywheel

Crank
shaft

Pressure plate
Hub Thrust
bearing

Driven shaft
Driving
shaft Release lever
(withdrawl finger)

Knife edge

Figure 2.5.1 (b) Single plate clutch

• Single plate clutch is used in heavy • So pressure plate connects

vehicles. t he clutch plate wit h t he f ly
wheel.
Working principle
• Now, power from the engine is
When clutch pedal is pressed transmitted to gear box with the help
• When clutch pedal is pressed, release of clutch shaft.
bearing will push the release lever. • Therefore, this is called as clutch
• So pressure plate will move backward engaged.
in opposite to spring force.
• In this stage, a gap will form in between 2.5.2 Multi plate clutch
clutch plate and pressure plate.
Construction
• Therefore, power from the engine is
not transmitted to gear box. • It consists of two or more clutch plates
• This is called as clutch disengaged. and pressure plates. So, it can able to
transmit more power when there is a
When clutch pedal is released low space.
• Pressure plate is pressed by coil spring • It is used in motor cycles and race
force. cars.
2 - Clutch Unit 19

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 19 01/11/2022 11:40:44 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Fly wheel

Clutch pedal

Fulcrum pin

Crank Bearing
shaft Clutch shaft

Pressure plate
Clutch plate
Friction lining
Clutch spring

Figure 2.5.1 (c) Single plate clutch

• The centre of clutch plate is attached Working principle

with clutch shaft. When clutch pedal is pressed
• Coil spring is placed in between • Release lever is pressed by release
pressure plate and clutch cover. bearing.

Outside discs

Inside discs Spring

Feather key

Driving Driven shaft

shaft

Figure 2.5.2 (a) Multiplate clutch

2 - Clutch Unit 20

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 20 01/11/2022 11:40:44 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 2.5.2 (b) Multiplate clutch

• S o pre s s u re p l at e i s m ov i n g • Now, engine power is transmitted to

backward opposite to coil spring gear box.
pressure. • This is called as clutch engaged.
• At this stage, a gap will form in between
clutch plate and pressure plate. Advantages
• So the power from engine is not 1. Transmits more torque.
transmitted to gear box. 2. Smooth joining
• This is called as clutch disengaged. 3. Less noise
4. More life.
When clutch pedal released
• Pressure plate is pressed by coil spring Disadvantages
force. 1. Not used in heavy vehicles.
• So pressure plate connects the clutch 2. Difficult in maintenance
plate with fly wheel. 3. High initial cost

2 - Clutch Unit 21

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 21 01/11/2022 11:40:44 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

2.5.3 Diaphragm clutch 6. Clutch shaft

7. Pivot ring
Clutch cover
Flywheel
Construction
Diaphragm
• Here instead of coil spring, diaphragm
Clutch plate
spring spring is used.
to transmission • Clutch plate is placed in between fly
Throw-out
wheel and pressure plate.
bearing • The centre of clutch plate is attached
Pressure plate
with clutch shaft.
• Outside end of the diaphragm spring
is attached with with pressure plate by
Figure 2.5.3 Diaphragm clutch clamp, screw, and clutch cover with
two pivot rings.
Components
1. Flywheel
Working principle
2. Clutch plate
3. Pressure plate When clutch pedal is pressed
4. Diaphragm spring • Thrust bearing is moving forward and
5. Clutch lining presses the centre of diaphragm spring.

2 - Clutch Unit 22

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 22 01/11/2022 11:40:44 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• So outside end of the diaphragm 3. Pump

spring pulls pressure plate in backward 4. Turbine
direction. 5. Vanes
• Now, a gap is formed in between 6. Oil seal
pressure plate and clutch plate. 7. Oil
• Therefore, a engine power is not
transmitted to gear box. Construction
• This is called as Clutch disengaged.
• Pump is attached with fly wheel,
When clutch pedal is released which operates by a component called
• Outside end of the diaphragm spring Driving member.
pushes the pressure plate. • Turbine is attached with gear box shaft.
• So clutch plate joins with fly wheel. This is called as Driven member.
• Therefore, engine power is transmitted • Inside of pump and turbines, vanes
to gear box. are there. Vanes are filled with oil at a
particular level.
Advantages
• Oil seal is attached to stop the oil
1. Transmits more torque. leakage.
2. Low maintenance is required.
3. Low space is required.
Operating method
4. More life.
5. Works smoothly with less noise. At Idle speed
• When engine rotates with this speed,
2.5.4 Fluid fly wheel pump attached with crank shaft
Components operates easily.
1. Crank shaft • Now due to less centrifugal force, oil
2. Gear box shaft will not move fast towards turbine.

Turbine runner
Turbine wheel

Casing

Input shaft
Input shaft
Output shaft

Fulid flow direction Output shaft

Pump wheel Pump

impeller

Figure 2.5.4 Fluid fly wheel clutch

2 - Clutch Unit 23

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 23 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Therefore, turbine will not rotate and 2. Clutch will not work properly when
engine power is not transmitted to leakage of oil.
gear box. 3. It is suitable for only automatic gear
At High speed box.

• When engine rotates with this speed,

pump rotates fastly. 2.5.5 Centrifugal clutch
• Now due to high centrifugal force, oil Construction
will move fast towards turbine blade. • It works under centrifugal force. So it
• Therefore, turbine rotates fastly and is known as centrifugal clutch.
engine power is transmitted to gear box.
• Here, pressure plate is attached with
Advantages Ball weights and Bell crank lever.
1. Engine power transmission takes place • Pressure spring is placed in between
without vibration. clutch plate and pressure plate.
2. Easy maintenance. Pressure release springs are placed in
3. No need of adjustment. between fly wheel and clutch plate.
4. No need of clutch pedal to operate this. • In this type, there is no clutch pedal.
5. Simple construction.
6. Works smoothly without noise. Working priciple
7. More life. At Idle speed
8. Gears cane be changed easily.
• When engine works at idle speed,
Disadvantages centrifugal force will not act on ball
1. In all speed, up to 2% power loss will weights.
be there.

Ferrodo lining
Cover
plate Shoes

Spider
Spider

Driving Driving
shaft shaft
Spring

Figure 2.5.5 (a) Centrifugal clutch

2 - Clutch Unit 24

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 24 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Clutch plate Pressure plate

Stopper

Bell crank lever

Weight
Fly wheel

Engine shaft Clutch Shaft

Figure 2.5.5 (b) Centrifugal clutch

• So, bell crank lever with weights will 2.6 Maintenance

not push pressure plate. Therefore, a methods of clutch
gap will form in between pressure plate 1. Clutch pedal free-play should be
and clutch plate. checked and changed periodically.
• Now, engine power is not transmitted 2. Should check and adjust the gap in
to gear box. between clutch plate and pressure
plate. (Note: gap should be 0.3 mm to
At high speed 0.5 mm)
• Due to centrifugal force, ball weight 3. Clutch lining should be checked in
moves and pushes pressure plate periodically. If any problem finds, it
with the help of bell crank lever in should be cured.
opposite to pressure spring force. 4. Should not operate the clutch by
• Now pressure plate pushes clutch plate keeping legs continuously.
with fly wheel. So engine power is 5. Clutch surfaces should be free from oil
transmitted to gear box. This is called and grease.
as clutch engaged. 6. Clutch adjustment should be done
periodically.
7. Clutch linkages should be checked
Note: when engine speed is more than periodically.
1000rpm, clutch will not be disengaged.

2 - Clutch Unit 25

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 25 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

2.7 Troubleshooting 3. Clutch noise

methods in clutch S. No Troubles Troubleshooting
1. Clutch slip methods
S. No Troubles Troubleshooting 1 Bearing Should change
methods broken
1 Oil or grease Clean it 2 Lining broken Should change
in clutch plate to new
2 Clutch lining Should change to 3 Clutch shaft Should change
damage new broken to new
3 Pressure spring Should change 4 Release Should replace
weakness bearing
4 Pressure plate Should change damage
broken 5 Springs Should change
5 Release lever Should change broken to new
broken
4. Clutch plate rapid wear
2. Clutch dragging S. No Troubles Troubleshooting
S. No Troubles Troubleshooting methods
methods 1 Over weight Should maintain
1 High free-play Should repair in vehicle weight up to
in clutch pedal maximum limit
2 Wrong clutch Adjust properly 2 Always Should ignore
adjustment keeping legs in
3 No proper Adjust properly clutch pedal
release lever 3 Low quality Should use good
adjustment clutch lining quality clutch
4 Clutch plate Should change lining
broken to new 4 No proper Adjust properly
5 Spring Should change clutch
weakness adjustment

Student Activity

1. To submit the report about the type, construction and working of clutch used in any
two types of two wheelers which are used in daily life.
2. To collect the vehicle owners manual for any two types of two wheelers and four
wheelers and also collect the types of clutch used, construction, working, maintenance
and submit the report with neat sketches.
3. Ask the students to visit the nearby heavy vehicle work shop and collect the report
about the construction, maintenance and adjustments of clutch used in any two types
of heavy vehicles.

2 - Clutch Unit 26

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 26 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

G Glossary

1. Friction – உராய்வு
2. Single Plate Clutch – ஒரு தட்டு கிளட்ச்
3. Centrifugal Clutch – மைய விலக்கு கிளட்ச்
4. Engaged – இணைந்த நிலை
5. Disengaged – இணையாத நிலை
6. Fibre – நார்
7. Driving Member – இயக்கும் பாகம்
8. Driven Member – இயக்கப்படும் பாகம்
9. Multiplate Clutch – பலதட்டு கிளட்ச்
10. Automatic Clutch – தானியங்கி கிளட்ச்
11. Co – Efficient of Friction – உராய்வு குணகம்
12. Metal Powders – உல�ோகத் துகள்கள்
13. Linkages – இணைப்புகள்
14. Fluid Flywheel – திரவபிளைவீல்
15. Pressure Plate – அழுத்தும் தட்டு
16. Diaphragm Clutch – இடைத்திரை கிளட்ச்
17. Oil Seal – எண்ணெய்க் கசிவு நீக்கி
18. Splines – வரிப்பள்ளங்கள்

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage
Learning (2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

2 - Clutch Unit 27

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 27 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. http://learnmech.com/introduction-to-clutch-clutch-types/
2. http://www.industrialfriction.com/clutch-lining/
3. http://auto-hubs.blogspot.com/2015/10/types-of-friction-material-used-for-making-
clutch-plate-friction-lining.html
4. https://haynes.com/en-us/tips-tutorials/troubleshooting-common-clutch-issues-and-causes
5. https://www.yourmechanic.com/article/how-to-test-your-clutch-by-eduardo-ruelas

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer 5. The clutch works on the principle of.
a) Lever Principle
1. In transmission system, the clutch b) Pascal’s Law
is placed in. c) Friction
a) Second Place d) Faraday’s law
b) First Place
c) Fourth Place 6. In this clutch, there is no clutch pedal?
d) Sixth Place a) Single Plate Clutch
b) Centrifugal Clutch
2. How many types of multiplate c) Multiplate Clutch
clutch? d) Diaphragm Clutch
a) 1 b) 2
c) 3 d) 4 7. Name the part which is static part
in fluid flywheel?
3. Where the clutch lining is fixed? a) Driving Member
a) Both Edges Of The Clutch Plate b) Driven Member
b) Fly Wheel c) Flywheel
c) Pressure Plate d) None of the Above
d) Both B And C
8. When the clutch cover assembly
4. In which speed the disengagement rotates, all clutch parts are.
is impossible in centrifugal clutch? a) Rotates With Assembly
a) 600 rpm b) Static Position
b) 800 rpm c) Rotates Separately
c) 900 rpm d) None Of The Above
d) 1000 rpm

2 - Clutch Unit 28

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 28 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

9. Under the following, which type of 10) Multi plate clutch is used in.
clutch works smoothly. a) Two Wheeled Vehicles
a) Cone Clutch b) Four Wheeled Vehicles
b) Multiplate Clutch c) Six Wheeled Vehicles
c) Single Plate Clutch d) Three Wheeled Vehicles
d) Fluid Fly Wheel

PART - B

Three mark questions

1. What are the functions of clutch? 6. How many types of multiplate

2. What are the materials used to cluth? Give the types.
make clutch linings ? 7. Write the reasons for clutch slip.
3. What are the merits of diaphragm 8. Write any three types of clutch.
clutch? 9. What are the troubles in clutch?
4. What are the reasons for clutch noise? 10. Give the location of clutch.
5. What is clutch plate?

PART - C
Five mark questions

1. Draw and explain about working 4. List out the merits and demerits of
principle of clutch. fluid flywheel.
2. Draw and mark the parts of 5. Draw and mark the parts of clutch
diaphragm clutch. plate.
3. Tabulate the trouble shooting of
clutch.

PART - D
Ten mark questions

1. Draw and explain about single plate 3. Draw and explain about centrifugal
clutch. clutch.

2. Explain the construction and 4. Tabulate the common trouble

working of multiplate clutch. shooting of clutch.

2 - Clutch Unit 29

BAE_ENG_Chapter_02.indd 29 01/11/2022 11:40:45 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

3 Gear Box

Contents

3.0 Introduction 3.7 Gear Ratio

3.1 Gear Box Location 3.8 Overdrive
3.2 Gears 3.9 Parts Of The Gear Box
3.2.1 Types Of Gears 3.9.1 Gear Box Casing
3.3 Needs of the Gear Box 3.9.2 Gear Box Input Shaft
3.4 Gear Box Operating Principle 3.9.3 Lay Shaft
3.5 Types Of Gear Boxes 3.9.4 Gear Box Output Shaft
3.5.1 Sliding Mesh Gear Box 3.9.5 Reverse Gear Shaft
3.5.2 Constant Mesh Gear Box 3.9.6 Speedometer Drive
3.5.3 Synchromesh Gear Box 3.9.7 Gear Selector Mechanism
3.5.4 Synchronizing Unit 3.10 Gear Box Maintenance
3.6 Properties Of Gear Box 3.11 Transfer Case

Learning objectives

1. Understanding different types of gear boxes used in the automobile vehicle.

2. Understanding different gear teeths are used in gear boxes.
3. Understanding the problems occurred in gear boxes and methods to rectify
those problems.

3 - Gear Box 30

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 30 01/11/2022 11:43:24 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3.0 Introduction 3.2.1 Types of gears

The road conditions are not uniform Gears are of many different types.
whenever we are in travel in the vehicle. The following are some of the important
Moreover we do not drive the vehicle gears
always at the same speed. The vehicle
1. Spur gear
must be operated at lower speed when it
2. Helical gear
needs more pulling power. Moreover based
3. Double helical gear
on the operating conditions, the vehicle
4. Bevel gear
requires different speed and torque. To
5. Rack and pinion gear
perform this, a box containing different
6. Worm and worm gear
gears, shafts and bearings is required. This
7. Internal gear
box is called as the gear box. It can be
8. Sprocket wheel
also called as teeth wheel box. By using
this box, the driver can achieve different 3.2.1.1 Spur gear
speeds and torques for a vehicle. Gear
It is like a circular shaped one made
box is the one which comprises of various
on a cylindrical metal having teeth cut
teethed gears for different vehicle speed
in parallel to the axis of the cylinder. It
conditions.
is called as spur gear.

3.1 Gear box location

Gear box is located at the second
place of the vehicle’s transmission system.
In the vehicle after the engine, clutch
is located. After the clutch gear box is
located. It is located in between the clutch
and the propeller shaft.

3.2 Gears
The commonly used gears and
their arrangements can be seen in this
section. With a help of teethed wheels
we can transmit the energy in rotational,
Figure 3.2.1.1 Spur gear
parallel and in perpendicular directions.
In machines gears are used in places This gear is used to transmit the
wherever the transmission of rotational rotary power only between two parallel
force is taking place. Moreover the gears shafts. It is capable of transmitting
are used to transmit the rotational force moderate force and speed. A smaller
without any slip. It is used in places where gear is called as pinion. Normally in gear
there is a small distance for transmitting box this type of gear is used for first and
the rotational force (torque). reverse gear speed operations.

3 - Gear Box 31

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 31 01/11/2022 11:43:24 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3.2.1.2 Helical gear gear is used in differential, pinion, crown,

It is also a circular shaped metal wheel, planet and sun gears.
made on a cylindrical metal having the
teeth cut not parallel to the axis but in
helical shaped cut at certain angle inclined
to the cylinder’s axis. This type of gear
is called as the helical gear.

Figure 3.2.1.3 Bevel gear

3.2.1.4 Rack and pinion gear

In this arrangement teeth are cut
on a long flat metal bar called as rack. A
small wheel called as pinion is in mesh
with rack. In this way the rotating power
of the pinion is transformed into a straight
Figure 3.2.1.2 Helical gear
line or reciprocating motion. This type
We can transmit the rotational of gears are used in the gear boxes in the
power to two shafts which are either steering system and in many mechanical
parallel or non parallel through the helical machines.
gear. Compared to straight spur gears
more power can be transmitted through
helical gears. This type of gear is used
in synchromesh gear box and constant
mesh gear box.

3.2.1.3 Bevel gear

In this gear the teeth are cut on the
top surface of the shaft in tapper. This
type of gear is generally used to connect Figure 3.2.1.4 Rack and pinion gear
the shafts which are perpendicular to
each other and transmit the power in the
perpendicular i.e. at 90 o angle direction. 3.2.1.5 Worm and worm gear
Bevel gear is capable of withstanding It is used to transmit the rotational
more power than other gears. The bevel power by connecting two shafts that are

3 - Gear Box 32

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 32 01/11/2022 11:43:25 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

perpendicular to each other. The gear 3.2.1.7 Internal gear

which looks like a spur gear is called The internal gear is the one in
as the worm. The small shaft with the which the teeth are cut internally on the
single start thread or multi start thread inner circular metal pipe. This is called
cut made on it is called the worm shaft. as the internal gear. This gear could
This type of gear is used in places where transmit more power in short places.
high speed reduction and high power They are strong in structure. They are
transmission are obtained. It is used in used in a small mechanisms and tractor
steering gear box in automobiles. mechanism.

Figure 3.2.1.5 Worm and worm gear

Figure 3.2.1.7 Internal gear
3.2.1.6 Double helical gear or
herringbone gear
3.2.1.8 Sprocket wheel
On the circular periphery of the
On a rounded metal wheel plate
cylindrical metal teeth are cut in the
teeth are cut outside. This wheel is not
shape of the English letter “V”. This
in direct contact with the other wheel. In
gear is called as double helical gear or
between the two wheels a chain is placed
herringbone gear. This type of gear is used
and the rotational power is transmitted
where more rotational power (torques)
through the chain. It is used in timing
is transmitted.
gears. Moreover it is also used in motor
cycles.

Figure 3.2.1.6 Double helical gear of

herringbone gear Figure 3.2.1.8 Sprocket wheel
3 - Gear Box 33

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 33 01/11/2022 11:43:27 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3.3 Needs of gear box 1. Sliding mesh gear box

1. For reducing the engine speed and 2. Constant mesh gear box
increasing the torque. 3. Synchromesh gear box
2. For reducing the engine torque and 4. Epicyclic gear box
increasing speed. 5. Automatic gear box
3. For the selection of speed levels There are many types of gear boxes
according to the driver’s requirement. available. The important gear boxes are
4. For pushing the vehicle in the discussed below.
backward direction.
5. For neutralizing the vehicles when there
3.5.1 Sliding mesh gear box
is no need to transmit the engine power.
Sliding mesh gear box was used
3.4 P
 rinciple of gear box in earlier day’s vehicles. Figure 3.5.1
mechanism presents the details of the sliding mesh
gear box. In this gear box spur gears are
Gear box works on the principle
present. This box is suitable for heavy
of lever mechanism.
vehicles. By sliding the gears this type
of gearboxes move the gears and mesh
3.5 Types of gear box them and hence it is called as sliding
The following are the gear boxes mesh gear box.
used in automobiles,

Gear shift
Clutch fork
gear
Clutch
Output
shaft

Input
shaft

Idle gear

Counter shaft

Figure 3.5.1 Sliding mesh gear box

3 - Gear Box 34

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 34 01/11/2022 11:43:27 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

An exciting car fact is that cars that do not require drivers should
be on the roads by 2020. Google has already developed a driverless
car, and many other prototypes are in the works. It is believed that
these driverless cars will reduce the frequency of accidents, and will
reduce the number of vehicles needed on the road.

3 - Gear Box 35

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 35 01/11/2022 11:43:29 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Construction
In the gear box, lay shaft or counter
shaft is present. This shaft is supported
by the bearings in the gearbox. The gear
teeth are fixed as stationary in this lay
shaft. In the main shaft, splines are made
in such a way that the gears are free to
move on the slots. The gear teethed wheel
(1) in the clutch shaft is always in mesh
with the gear in the lay shaft wheel (2). Figure 3.5.1.1 First gear power
The gear (7) in the lay shaft is always transmission
in mesh with the idler gear (8). A three
speed sliding mesh gear box is shown in c) Second gear
Figure 3.5.1.
During second gear, the gear shift
fork is moved right as shown in Figure
Working principle 3.5.1.2 to mesh the gear 6 in the output
a) Neutral position shaft with gear 3 in the lay shaft gear 1, 2,
The gear teeth (1) in the input 3 and 6 will get contact and rotate. Now
(clutch) shaft is in mesh with the counter the power is transmitted from the gear
shaft gear 2. Hence the counter shaft 1-2-3-6. Now the speed becomes more
rotates. However the gears (3 or 4) are than the first gear and the gear ratio of
not in mesh with the output shaft gears 2:1 is achieved.
(5 or 6) as shown in Figure 3.5.1.1. Hence
the power will not be transmitted to the
output shaft. This condition is called as
neutral position.

b) First gear
The gear (1) in the clutch shaft is
in mesh with the gear in the counter shaft
(2). As the gears 3 and 4 are in the counter
shaft they also rotate. When the gear shift Figure 3.5.1.2 Second gear power
fork is moved towards left as shown in transmission
Figure 3.5.1.1 to engage the gear 5 in the
output shaft with the gear 4 in the lay shaft,
then the output shaft rotates. The rotary d) Third gear
power is now transmitted to the output Dog Clutch is located on the gear
shaft from gear 1-2-4-5. Now we can get 1 in the input (clutch) shaft and the
first gear ratio 3:1. gear 6 in the output shaft as shown in

3 - Gear Box 36

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 36 01/11/2022 11:43:31 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 3.5.1.3. Now by moving the gear Advantages of sliding mesh

shift fork on the left as shown in Figure gearbox
the dog clutch is allowed to mesh with 1. Simple in construction
the dog clutch in the clutch shaft. 2. Simple in maintenance
3. Suitable for heavy vehicles
4. Low cost
5. Higher mechanical efficiency
6. Production cost is low

Disadvantages
1. Gear changing is difficult
2. Noisy in operation
3. Experience is required for changing
Figure 3.5.1.3 Third gear power gear
transmission 4. The edges of teeth wear rapidly.
Now the output shaft rotates at the
speed same as the clutch (main) shaft. This 3.5.2 Constant mesh
is the maximum speed and the gear ratio gear box
in this condition is 1:1. The rotational In constant mesh gear box the
power is now directly transmitted from teeth in the main shaft and lay shaft are
the clutch shaft to the output shaft. always in constant mesh with each other.
Hence it is called as constant mesh gear
e) Reverse gear box. Helical gears are used in this type
For reverse gear, the gear shift fork of gear box. The gear arrangements in
is moved towards the right direction as the constant mesh gear box can be seen
shown in the Figure 3.5.1.4. Hence the in Figure 3.5.2.
gear 5 in the output shaft is in mesh with
the gear 8 in the lay shaft which is the Construction
idler gear. Now the power transmission is In the constant mesh gear box the
from gear 1-2-7-8-5 to the output shaft. gears 6, 7 and 8 in the output shaft are
always in mesh with the gears 5, 4 and 3
in the lay shaft. In the clutch shaft and
in the lay shaft there are gears 1 and 2
respectively which are always in mesh
with each other. The gears in the main
shaft are supported by bushes. Gear 5 in
the lay shaft is in mesh with an idler gear.
After the clutch gear in the clutch shaft
and before the reverse gear in the main
Figure 3.5.1.4 Reverse gear power shaft there are dog clutches (D 2 and D 1
transmission respectively) present. These dog clutches
3 - Gear Box 37

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 37 01/11/2022 11:43:31 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Second gear
First gear
Reverse gear
Sliding dog
Clutch clutch
gear Output
shaft

Clutch
shaft
Idler gear

Lay
shaft

Figure 3.5.2 (a) Gear arrangements in the constant mesh gear box

Figure 3.5.2 (b) Constant mesh gear box

are allowed to move on the slots made All gears in the shafts 1,2 & 3,4 & 5,6 &
on the main output shaft. All the shafts 7,8,9 rotate. However the main output
in the gear box are supported by the shaft does not rotate as the dog clutches
bearings in the housing. are not in engagement with any of the
gears. Hence rotational power is not
Working principle transmitted.
Neutral position
During neutral condition both First gear
the dog clutches (D 1 and D 2) are not in By actuating the gear shift lever,
mesh with any gears as shown in Figure. the dog clutch D 1 is moved towards left
3 - Gear Box 38

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 38 01/11/2022 11:43:31 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

side to engage gear 7 in the main shaft Third gear

as shown in Figure. Now the rotational To achieve the third gear the dog
power is transmitted to the main shaft clutch D 2 is moved left to engage with
through the dog clutch. Now the speed the clutch shaft gear directly. Now the
is low. The power transmission from output shaft rotates at the speed same
the clutch shaft to the output shaft is as the clutch shaft speed. The rotational
by gear1-2 is means rotational power is power is transmitted to the main shaft
transmitted to main shaft by 1-2-4-7-D 1. directly through the gear1-D 2.

Figure 3.5.2.1 Power transmission in Figure 3.5.2.3 Power transmission in

first gear third gear
Second gear Reverse speed
For obtaining the second gear, by To obtain the reverse gear, the dog
actuating the gear shift lever, the dog clutch clutch D1 is actuated to move right towards
D 2 is moved towards right as shown in the reverse gear 6 to engage as shown in
Figure to engage the gear 8 in the output Figure 3.5.2.4. As the idler gear is placed
main shaft. Now the rotational power is between the gears 5 in the lay shaft and 6
transmitted to the main shaft through in the main shaft the idler gear changes the
the dog clutch D 2. Now the speed of the direction of rotation of the gear 6 in the
main shaft is higher than the speed of main shaft. Now the vehicle moves in the
the first gear. The power transmission reverse direction. The power transmitted
from the clutch shaft to the output shaft from the cluth shaft to the main shaft is
is through the gears1-2-3-8-D 2. through gears 1-2-5-Idler-6-D 1.

Figure 3.5.2.2 Power transmission in Figure 3.5.2.4 Power transmission in

second gear reverse gear
3 - Gear Box 39

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 39 01/11/2022 11:43:32 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Advantages of constant mesh box but differs slightly. Instead of dog

gear box clutch used in constant mesh gear box, a
1. Gear changing is simple synchronizing unit is used in synchromesh
2. Less noise gear box. In the synchromesh mesh gear
3. Less chance for the teeth of the gears box the gears 6, 7 and 8 in the output
to break up. shaft are always in mesh with the gears
4. Smoothness in operation 5, 4 and 3 in the lay shaft. In the clutch
5. Low maintenance shaft and in the lay shaft there are gears
1 and 2 respectively which are always
Disadvantages in mesh with each other. The gears in
1. For changing gears from one speed to the main shaft are supported by bushes.
other speed, double de clutching has Gear 5 in the lay shaft is in mesh with
to be done. an idler gear. After the clutch gear in the
2. More wear clutch shaft and before the reverse gear
3. Possibility of wear in dog clutch. in the main shaft there are synchronizers
(S 2 and S 1 respectively) present. These
3.5.3 Synchromesh gear synchronizers are allowed to move on the
box slots made on the main output shaft. All
Synchromesh gear box is similar the shafts in the gear box are supported
in construction as constant mesh gear by the bearings in the housing.

3-4 synchronizer

Third gear
Input (clutch) gear
Second gear (fourth gear)

1-2 synchronizer

First gear
Fifth gear

Countershaft

Fifth gear
synchronizer

Third gear
Fifth gear
Input (clutch) gear
Second gear
First gear
Reverse
idler gear
Reverse gear

Figure 3.5.3 (a) A view of gear arrangements of a 5 speed synchromesh gear box
3 - Gear Box 40

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 40 01/11/2022 11:43:32 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 3.5.3 (b) The photographic view of a synchromesh gear box

Female cone Ball lock

Synchronizing
Inner sleeve
unit

Main shaft

Helical
gears
Outer sleeve

Male cone

Figure 3.5.3 (c) Layout of a synchromesh gear box

The photographic view of a the synchromesh gear box for different

synchromesh gear box can be seen in vehicle speed is explained below.
Figure.
Neutral position
Working principle During neutral condition both
The layout of the synchromesh gear the synchronizers (S 2 and S 1) are not in
box is shown in Figure. The operation of mesh with any gears as shown in Figure.
3 - Gear Box 41

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 41 01/11/2022 11:43:32 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

All gears in the shafts 1,2& 3,4 clutches are not in engagement with any
& 5,6 & 7,8,9 rotate. However the main of the gears. Hence rotational power is
output shaft does not rotate as the dog not transmitted.

Figure 3.5.3.1 Neutral condition S1 and S2 are held stationary

First gear No w t h e r o t at i o n a l p o w e r i s
By actuating the gear shift lever, transmitted to the main shaft through
the synchronizer S 1 is moved towards left the dog clutch. Now the speed is low.
side as shown in Figure 3.5.3.2 to engage The power transmission from the clutch
gear 7 in the main shaft. shaft to the output shaft is by gear 1-2 is

Figure 3.5.3.2 First gear condition

3 - Gear Box 42

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 42 01/11/2022 11:43:32 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

means rotational power is transmitted to gear 8 in the output main shaft. Now the
main shaft by 1-2-4-7-S 1. rotational power is transmitted to the
main shaft through the synchronizer S 2.
Second gear Now the speed of the main shaft is higher
For obtaining the second gear, by than the speed of the first gear. The power
actuating the gear shift lever, the synchronizer transmission from the clutch shaft to the
S 2 is moved towards right to engage the output shaft is through the gears 1-2-3-8-S2.

Figure 3.5.3.3 Second gear condition

Third gear the output shaft rotates at the speed same

To achie ve t he t hird ge ar t he as the clutch shaft speed. The rotational
synchronizer S 2 is moved left to engage power is transmitted to the main shaft
with the clutch shaft gear directly. Now directly through the gear 1-S 2.

Figure 3.5.3.4 Third gear condition

3 - Gear Box 43

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 43 01/11/2022 11:43:33 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Reverse Speed in the main shaft the idler gear changes the
To obtain the reverse gear, the direction of rotation of the gear 6 in the
synchronizer S1 is actuated to move right main shaft. Now the vehicle moves in the
towards the reverse gear 6 to engage as shown reverse direction. The power transmitted
in Figure 3.5.3.5. As the idler gear is placed from the clutch shaft to the main shaft is
between the gears 5 in the lay shaft and 6 through gears 1-2-5-Idler-6-S1.

Figure 3.5.3.5 Reversed gear condition

3.5.4 Synchronizing unit power to the main shaft. The cone 2 is

In synchronizing unit two cone locked under different states by the ball
shaped parts are present. One cone is a and spring in the cone 1. It is connected
part of the collar and the second cone is to the gear changing fork in the slot which
a part of the gear. Both the cones rotate is located in the outer sliding sleeve.
at different speeds. An exploded view of
the synchronizer unit is shown in Figure. Uses of synchromesh unit
When the cone 2 is rotated, cone 1. For operating the gears smoothly by
1 start to rotate and move towards the synchronizing two different speeds of
cone 2 and be in contact with the cone 2. the gears.
Because of this action friction occurs in 2. For changing gears easily
the contact area of the cones and hence it 3. No need of double de clutching
increases the speed of gear. Now the both 4. For transmitting power efficiently
cone speeds come to the same. Further 5. Gears will not wear rapidly
moving the collar makes the outer drum 6. Less noise in operation
to contact with the dog clutch in the gear.
Now the rotational power is transmitted De merits of synchromesh unit
to the main shaft. By the same way it 1. Low cost
moves on left hand side and contacts 2. Maintenance is difficult
with the another gear and transmits the 3. Difficult repair
3 - Gear Box 44

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 44 01/11/2022 11:43:33 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Ring Synchronizer
Key spring
grooves sleeve Speed gear

Synchronizer Clutch hub Synchronizer

ring ring

Figure 3.5.4 Exploded view of a synchronizer unit

3.6. P
 roperties of gear N 2 = speed of the Driven gear
box T 1 = No of teeth’s in driver gear
1. Gear box should have long life. T 2 = No of teeth’s in driven gear
2. Noise should be lower in the gear box. 12 Teeth

3. Fitting the gears in the gear box should

be simple. 8 Teeth
4. Replacing the worn out and broken
parts should be easy in the gear box.
5. It should transmit the torque and
speed according to the requirement.
Drive
gear
3.7 Gear Ratio Driven
gear

The ratio between the speed of the Figure 3.7 Gear ratio
driver gear to the speed of the driven
gear is called as the gear ratio or it is a
3.8 Over drive
ratio between number of gear teeth in the
The method of increasing the speed of
driver gear to the number of gear teeth
propeller shaft more than that of the engine
in the driven gear.
speed is called as the over drive. A view of
N2 T
rG = or 2 the overdrive can be seen in Figure 3.8 (a).
N1 T1

Gear ratio = c lutch shaft speed / main Outer ring gear

shaft speed
speed of the driven gear
Gear ratio = or Orbiting planetary gears
speed of the driven gear
No of teeth’s in driven gear
No of teeth’s in driven gear Center sun gear

Where,
r G = Gear Ratio Figure 3.8 (a) A view of automobile
N 1 = speed of the Driver gear overdrive
3 - Gear Box 45

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 45 01/11/2022 11:43:34 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

One two-wheeler comes out of the production line every two seconds
in India

The part which performs this action to the gear box. It is placed in between
is called as the overdrive unit. If the main the gear box and the propeller shaft.
shaft in the gear box rotates at higher
speed than the clutch shaft, then the Construction
transmission system is said to be with the In over drive two shafts are present.
over drive. Over drive unit is fixed next They are input shaft and output shaft.
3 - Gear Box 46

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 46 01/11/2022 11:43:34 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Input shaft is the main shaft of gear box. train, a sun gear, three planet gears, a
Output shaft is the propeller shaft. The planet carrier and a ring gear are present.
parts of the overdrive can be seen in This can be seen in the above Figure.
Figure 3.8 (b).
Working Principle
The casing is stationary when the
sun gear is locked with casing. Now the
overdrive unit starts functioning and the
speed of the output shaft is increased.
When the sun gear is locked with the
planet carrier, the usual input shaft speed
is given to the output shaft.

Advantages of overdrive
1. Engine life is increased
2. Achieves reduction in fuel consumption.
3. Less vibration
4. Low noise
Figure 3.8 (b) Parts of overdrive
5. Excess gear ratio can be achieved
An epicyclic gear train is mounted 6. Wear of engine is lower.
on the input shaft. In this epicyclic gear 7. Connecting over drive unit is easy.

Trouble shooting of gear box

1. Gear box noise
Causes Remedies
1. Bearing may get damaged Need to change bearing
2. Lubricating oil level may be low Fill the required amount of lubricating oil
3. Teeth’s may be broken in the gear Need to change the gear
4. Misalignments between gearbox and Need to correct it
engine

2. Hard Gear Shift

Causes Remedies
1. Improper clutch adjustments Need to correct it
2. The spring in the gear changing arrangement may Need to change with a new
not working spring
3. There may be sticking or jamming in the main shaft Should correct the shaft
4. There may be a sticking of fork in the gear shifting Need to clean and lubricate.
system

3 - Gear Box 47

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 47 01/11/2022 11:43:34 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3. Gear slip
Causes Remedies
1. Fork in the gear shifting mechanism may Have to correct it
not be working
2. Dog clutch in the gearbox or synchronizer Need to change with a new one
may have worn out
3. Spring in the gear shifting mechanism Have to change the spring
may have loosened
4. Gears in the main shaft may have Need to change the gear with a new one
worn out

4. Lubricating oil leakages in the gear box

Causes Remedies
1. Fault in the oil seal in the gear box Have to change with a new oil seal
2. Lubricating oil level may be higher than Need to discharge the excess oil
the required amount
3. Oil leakage seal may be broken Need to change with a new one
4. There may be loosen in bolts on the Gear Need to tighten it
box cap

3.9 Parts of the gear box 3.9.2 Gear box input or clutch

3.9.1 Gear box housing shaft
The Box like arrangement where It is connected with the clutch plate
the bearings (which support the shafts) at one end supported by the flywheel and
are mounted, filler plug with air vent hole, a gear fitted at the other end. The view
oil drain plug are present is called as the of input shaft can be seen in Figure 3.9.2.
gear box housing. This box is generally
made of cast iron as shown in Figure 3.9.1.

Figure 3.9.1 Gear box housing Figure 3.9.2. Gear box input shaft
3 - Gear Box 48

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 48 01/11/2022 11:43:34 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3.9.3 Lay shaft The picture of a speedometer drive can

It is mounted at the bottom of be seen in Figure 3.9.6.
the gear box casing. Different gears are
mounted on the lay shaft depending on
the speed of the gear box. The picture
of lay shaft can be seen in Figure 3.9.3.

Figure 3.9.3 The picture of a lay shaft of Figure 3.9.6 A picture of a speedometer
an automobile gear box drive

3.9.4 Gear box output shaft or 3.9.7 Gear selector mechanism

main shaft On the top of the gear box, an
It is located at the top of the gear box arrangement with a lever with a gear
casing at straight line with the input shaft. knob, selector rod and shifting fork are
Slots are present in this shaft. Through connected. This arrangement is called as
this shaft the power is transmitted to the the gear (shifting) selecting mechanism.
propeller shaft. Gear selector mechanism is used for
selecting the required gear for the required
3.9.5 Reverse gear shaft speed of the vehicle. The picture of a
gear selector mechanism can be seen in
The smallest shaft in the gear box
Figure 3.9.7.
is the reverse gear shaft which has only
one gear called as the idler gear. It is
fitted on the gear box casing. This shaft
is used for transmitting the power from
the lay shaft to the main shaft.

3.9.6 Speedometer drive

Skew gear is connected with the
main shaft. With the skew gear a cable
with a small gear is connected at one end
and the other end of the cable is fitted at
the dashboard of the driver. This drive is
used for knowing the speed of the vehicle. Figure 3.9.7 Gear selector mechanism
3 - Gear Box 49

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 49 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Types of gear shift mechanisms The transfer case is fitted on the

1. Floor gear shifting Mechanism vehicles with four wheel drive. This
2. Steering Gear Shifting Mechanism arrangement is generally used in military
vehicles and jeeps. A photographic view
Floor gear shifting mechanism of an automobile transfer case can be seen
If the gear shifting mechanism is located in Figure 3.11.1.
at the top of the gearbox, then it is called
as the floor gear shifting mechanism
Steering gear shifting mechanism
If the gear shifting mechanism is located
at the sideway of the steering column, then
it is called as the steering gear shifting
mechanism

3.10 G
 ear box lubrication
1. In the gear box, lubricating oil of SAE Figure 3.11.1 Photographic vie of an
90 has to be filled. automobile transfer case
2. The lubricating oil must be filled until
Construction
the lay shaft is (dipped) covered by the
oil. The lubricating oil must be highly In the main shaft of the gear box
viscous. two gears are present. Between the two
3. When the gears are rotating, the gears a sliding gear is present. The gear
lubricating oils is sprayed on all the in the main shaft is in mesh with the
parts of the gear box and lubricated. idler gear. With this front axle drive gear
4. After 1000 kilo meters of the vehicles and rear axle drive gear are connected. A
run lubricating oil top up must be done. clutch is fitted with the front axle drive
5. After 10000 kilometers of the vehicle gear. The important parts of the transfer
the lubricating oil must be completely case can be seen in Figure 3.11.2.
replaced by the new lubricant.
6. To pour the oil filler cap is provide on Operation
the top of the gear box. An air vent is With the help of the gear shift
also provide to allow the atmospheric mechanism when the sliding gear in the
air to enter. main shaft is shifted to right or left, through
7. A drain plug is provided at the bottom the idler gear the power is transmitted
of the gear box to drain the lubricating to the front or rear wheels with low or
oil. high speeds. In addition to this, when
there is no need for drive power to the
3.11 Transfer case front wheels, with the help of the clutch
The arrangement used for arrangement the drive power can be
transmitting the engine’s power to all the disengaged. If necessary the four wheel
four wheels is called as the transfer case. drive can be also obtained.
3 - Gear Box 50

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 50 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 3.11.2 Important parts of a transfer case

Student Activity

1. To collect news papers, owners manual and service manual and submit the information
regarding the gear box.
2. Ask the students to visit nearby workshop to collect and submit the trouble shooting
procedure of the gear box used in two wheelers.
3. Ask the students to visit nearby heavy vehicle workshop to collect and submit the gear
ratio, number of speed and type of gear box used in the heavy vehicles.

G Glossary

1. Gear – பற்சக்கரம்
2. Gear box – பற்சக்கர பெட்டி
3. Lever – சுண்டி
4. Shaft – தண்டு
5. Axis – அச்சு
6. Idle Gear – பயனற்ற பற்சக்கரம்
7. Main Shaft – முக்கிய தண்டு
8. Link – இணைப்பு
9. Cable – வடம்
10. Gear Ratio – பற்சக்கர விகிதம்
11. Counter Shaft – இடைச் சுழல் அச்சு
12. Spur Gear – நேர் பற்சக்கரம்

3 - Gear Box 51

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 51 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi.
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

Webliography

1. https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/17345-lubricant-
properties-for-a-gearbox-part-two/
2. https://www.anaheimautomation.com/manuals/forms/gearbox-guide.php
3. http://noengwks.org/3-most-common-gearbox-problems/
4. http://noengwks.org/5-types-of-industrial-gearboxes-their-strengths-and-applications/
5. http://knowhow.eriks.co.uk/top-10-tips-for-industrial-gearbox-inspection-and-
maintenance
6. https://khkgears.net/new/gear_knowledge/gear_technical_reference/gear_materials.
html
7. https://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-manual-gearboxes-work
8. http://www.mech4study.com/2014/03/what-is-gear-box-what-are-main-components-
of-gear-box.html
9. http://mechanicalmania.blogspot.com/2011/07/types-of-gear.html

3 - Gear Box 52

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 52 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Evaluation

PART - A

One mark questions

Choose the correct answer 6. The second component of the
transmission system is.
1. The basic principle involved in gear a) Clutch
box operation is. b) Gear Box
a) Friction c) Propeller shaft
b) Faraday’s Lay d) Universal Joint
c) Pascal’s Law
7. Reducing the rotational speed and
d) Lever
increasing the torque is done by.
2. The type of gear used in sliding a) Clutch
mesh gear box is. b) Gear Box
a) Bevel Gear c) Propeller shaft
b) Spur Gear d) Universal Joint
c) Worm Gear
d) Helical Gear 8. The gear oil must be replaced for
every ______ kilometers.
3. Top Gear Ratio is. a) 1000
a) 2:1 b) 2000
b) 1:2 c) 5000
c) 1:1 d) 10000
d) 1.5:1
9. The gear Box which
4. The method of increasing the transfers the power through the
vehicle speed than the engine speed dog clutch is.
is called as. a) A Sliding mesh Gear Box
a) Power change method b) Constant Mesh Gear Box
b) Overdrive c) Synchromesh Gear Box
c) Gear Ratio d) Epicyclic Gear Box
d) Synchronizing
10. The part in between the clutch and
5. The lubricating oil used in gear propeller shaft.
box is. a) Engine
a) SAE 50 b) Gear box
b) SAE 60 c) Differential
c) SAE 90 d) Real axle
d) SAE 120

3 - Gear Box 53

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 53 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

PART – B

Three mark questions

1. List out the types of gears used in 6. What are all the types of gear
gear boxes. boxes?

2. What is the need of gear box? 7. What is meant by gear ratio?

3. Where is the location of gear box? 8. What is meant by over drive?

4. Explain the advantages of sliding 9. What is called gear box?

mesh gear box.
10. What are the disadvantages of
5. What are all the general types of sliding mesh gear box?
gears?

Part - C

Five mark questions

1. Describe about spur gear. 3. Describe about synchromesh Unit.

2. Explain the advantages and 4. What are the advantages and

disadvantages of constant mesh disadvantages of synchromesh gear
gear box. box?
5. Write about Bevel gear?

Part - D

Ten mark questions

1. Explain the sliding mesh gear box 3. Explain the synchromesh gear box
construction and working principle construction and working principle
with neat diagram. with neat diagram.
2. Explain the Constant mesh
gear box construction
and working principle with neat
diagram.

3 - Gear Box 54

BAE_ENG_Chapter_03.indd 54 01/11/2022 11:43:35 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

4 Propeller Shaft and

Rear Axle

Contents

4.0 Introduction 4.10.1 Straight Bevel

4.0.1 Propeller shaft Gear
4.1 Material for the Propeller Shaft 4.10.2 Spiral Bevel Gear
4.2 Functions of Propeller Shaft 4.10.3 Hypoid Gear
4.3 Types of Propeller Shaft Drives 4.10.4 Worm And
4.3.1 Hotchkiss Drive Worm Wheel
4.3.2 Torque Tube Drive 4.11 Differential Housing
4.4 Parts of Propeller Shaft 4.11.1 Banjo Type
4.5 Universal Joint 4.11.2 Split Type
4.6 Slip Joint 4.12 Rear Axle
4.7 Functions of Universal Joint 4.13 Types Of Rear Axles
4.8 Types of universal joint 4.13.1 Semi Floating Axle
4.8.1 Hooke’s Type 4.13.2 Full Floating Axle
4.8.2 Pot Type 4.13.3 Three Quarter Floating Axle
4.8.3 Rubber Coupling Type 4.14 Propeller shaft trouble shooting
4.8.4 Ball Type 4.15 Maintenance of the Propeller Shaft
4.9 Differential Unit
4.10 Connecting Methods of Bevel
Gears

Learning objectives

1. To learn how the energy is transmitted to the rear wheel.

2. To learn how the engine energy is changed according to the rear wheel
rotation.

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 55

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 55 01/11/2022 11:45:36 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4.0 Introduction shaft. The propeller shaft withstands the

full accelerating power comes from the
Propeller shaft is the most important
gear box.
part of transmission system of a vehicle. It
is located in between the gear box and the
4.0.1 Propeller shaft
differential unit. One end of the propeller
shaft is connected to the gear box and the It is made of hardened steel and
other end is connected with the differential in tubular form. Two propeller shafts
unit, and transmits the engine power to the are used if the vehicle length is more.
rear wheels. The two ends of propeller shaft Bearing is fitted between the centre of
are connected by the universal joints and two propeller shafts.
hence the engine’s power is transmitted to
the rear wheels without any losses even with 4.1 Material for the
the difference in distances. For operating propeller shaft
the propeller shaft based on various load Propeller shaft is generally made
conditions of vehicle, sliding joint is fitted up of alloy steel. Moreover it is made up
in between the universal joint and propeller of spring steel material.

Universal joint
Universal joint
Hollow shaft
Slip joint

Propeller shaft

Universal Sliding
joint joint
Figure 4.0.1 Propeller shaft
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 56

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 56 01/11/2022 11:45:37 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4.2 Functions of front end is attached to the chassis frame

propeller shaft with anchor pin (fixed). The two universal
• It transmits the engine’s power from joints and a sliding joint were connected
gear box to the differential unit to the Propeller Shaft. The first universal
smoothly. joint is connected to the gear box shaft and
• It transmits the rotational power from second universal joint is attached with the
the gear box at different angles as per bevel pinion shaft of the differential unit.
requirement. The construction of the Hotchkiss Drive
• According to the load of the vehicle, is shown in Figure 4.3.1.
the length of the propeller shaft varies
and transmits the power through slip Working Principle
joints. When the vehicle goes forward with
• When the vehicle is running, it more loads, the front end of the propeller
completely withstands the vibration shaft elongates and the rear end of the leaf
occurring in the transmission system. spring is pressed and the front part of the
spring is elongated. This happens due to
4.3 Types of propeller the front and backward movements of the
shaft drive universal joint and sliding joint located at
The operation of propeller shaft is the front end of the propeller shaft. Due to
classified in to two types. They are this the vehicle moves easily on the road.

1. Hotchkiss Drive This Hotchkiss drive is used in

2. Torque tube Drive most of the vehicles. This type of drive
makes the vehicle to move smoothly even
4.3.1 Hotchkiss drive on the roads with ups and down.

Construction
In this drive, the leaf springs are Advantages
tightly fixed at the center of the axis of 1. Weight is less
rear axle. The back end of the spring is 2. Simple in construction
attached with Shackle (movable). The 3. It does not make more noise.

Shackle

Frame

Lever
Prope spring
ller sh
aft
Gear box Sliding joint
shaft
Wheel
Universal joint
Rear axle casing

Figure 4.3.1 Hotchkiss drive

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 57

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 57 01/11/2022 11:45:37 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Disadvantages roller bearing, the propeller shafts rotates

1. Not protected well as the arrangement easily. This torque tube drive is mostly
is in open outdoors. used in cars and in heavy commercial
2. Universal joints get damaged easily. vehicles.

4.3.2 Torque tube drive Advantages

Construction 1. It’s very safe to use.
2. It works for a long time.
The propeller shaft of the vehicle is
3. Universal joint in this drive will not
kept inside on another tube called as the
damage quickly
torque tube which looks like a pipe. The
construction of the Torque tube drive is Disadvantages
shown in Figure 4.3.2.
1. Overweight.
The bearing which is connected to 2. It is not very strong.
this allows the propeller shaft to rotate 3. It is not suitable for transmitting more
easily. Only one universal joint is fitted power.
in this drive. The front part of the torque
tube is like a cone and is connected at
4.4 Parts of the
the back side of the gear box casing by
propeller shaft
using a ball and socket joint.
1. Universal joint
2. Sliding joint
Working Principle
When the vehicle moves on the To transmission

road, the torque and the drive thrust are

transmitted to the chassis frame through
Universal joint
axle casing. Since the ball and socket joint Propeller shaft To rear axle
in the torque tube is supported by the

Frame
Cross member
Shackles

பின் axle
Rear அச்சு
Gear box
Gear shaft or
transmission output Differential Leaf spring
shaft housing
Wheel Differential housing

Figure 4.3.2 Torque tube drive

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 58

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 58 01/11/2022 11:45:37 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4.5 Universal joint 3. Rubber coupling type

This is connected at both ends of the 4. Ball type
propeller shaft. Since the propeller shaft is
connected by the universal joint, it transmits 4.8.1 Hooke’s type
the engine’s power at different angles.
Spider
Driving yoke

4.6 Slip joint Driven yoke

It is connected with the propeller
shaft after the universal joint. It moves
smoothly according to the movement of
rear axle. Figure 4.6 shows the view of a
slip joint used in automobiles.
Transmission
Universal extension
joint yoke housing O ring
Transmission
Figure 4.8.1 Hooke type universal joint
output shaft
In this type of joint the spider is
fixed in between the two yokes. In the
External splines
spider, needle like bearings are present.
on transmission These bearings are set at the bottom of
output shaft
the yoke on the slots made on the yoke
Figure 4.6 Slip joint used in automobile for placing the b earings. Hence the
bearings cannot come out of the yoke.
One yoke is connected with the gear
4.7 Functions of box and another one is connected with
universal joint the propeller shaft. The spider rotates
• It transmits the power from the gear along with the driving yoke which is
box shaft to the propeller shaft through connected to the gear box. Thereby the
inclined direction. drive yoke which is connected to the
• It helps to transmit the power without other side of the spider starts to rotate
any loss when the vehicle is going on and transmits the power from gear box
ups and downs of the roads. to propeller shaft smoothly. Figure 4.7
• It withstands the vibrations occurring shows the hooke’s join.
on the roads.
• It helps in varying the length of the
Advantages
propeller shaft.
1. It has high mechanical advantage.
2. It is simple in construction.
4.8 Types of universal
3. It transmits the power more effectively.
joint
4. It works according to the weight of the
1. Hooke’s type vehicle.
2. Pot type 5. It has long life.

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 59

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 59 01/11/2022 11:45:38 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

6. It is mostly used in present day In a round shaped rubber coupling

vehicles. there are six holes at an equal distance.
7. According to the up and down motion (18o) This rubber coupling is placed between
of propeller shaft the power is transmitted two spiders and fixed with bolt and nut.
without any loss and vibrations. This rubber coupling is a flexible one to
be with shaft. This can scope with only
4.8.2 Pot type universal joint a small angle shake. It is also called as
flexible ring type universal joint.

4.8.4 Ball type universal joint

Pin
(Constant velocity type
Pot
universal joint)

Spherical block Driving

Shaft Shaft

Figure 4.8.2 Pot type universal joint

One end of the shaft has T shape

structure. Both the ends are joined with
semi spheres using a pin. Cylinder like Casing
structure in the opposite is called pot type.
Semi spheres in the T shaft are designed Ball
Inner casing
Cage
like moving part in the cylinder. So T
shaft in the cylinder moves front and It is used to transmit the power
back and also in angles. approximately at 30 o without vibration.
Mostly used in front axle drive vehicles.
It has input half shaft. One end of the
4.8.3 Rubber coupling type
shaft has splines in which inner spherical
universal joint
socket is fitted. Outer spherical socket is
connected with the outer shaft. Grooves
Flexible are cut between two sockets in which balls
ring
will move. When the input shaft rotates
Spider
Bolt
balls between the sockets will move and
transmit the power smoothly.

4.9 Differential unit

Bolt When the vehicle moves straight on
Spider the road, the rear wheels run in the same
way as the front wheels. The propeller
Figure 4.8.3 Rubber coupling type shaft is connected to follow this. However,
universal joint when the vehicle is negotiating a turn,
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 60

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 60 01/11/2022 11:45:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

the outer wheels cover larger radius than rotation of the differential cage, sun gears,
the inner wheels. The outer wheels rotate planet gears, rear axle and rear wheels all
more than the inner wheels. Hence the rotate at the same speed. When the vehicle
inner wheels have intermittent wear, takes a turn on the road, the planet gear
less grip on the road and withstanding rotates and tends to rotate the outer wheel
steering issues than outer wheels. The at high speed and hence the vehicle turns
function of the differential unit is to easily on the road.
provide different speeds for the inner Axle shaft
Differential case
and outer wheels whenever the vehicle Differential
pinion gear
is negotiating a turn. Differential
side gear
Differential drive
Construction Axle shaft
ring gear
Pinion shaft
Inside the differential casing sun
gears are connected with the rear wheel
axle. At the left side of the rear axle
Pinion gear
differential cage is fixed. For connecting
two sun gears planets gears are used. At
Figure 4.9 (a) Pictorial view of a
the end of the rear axle road wheels are
Differential Unit
connected. The construction of differential
unit can be seen in Figure 4.9 and the When the vehicle goes straight
pictorial view of a differential unit can
The power passing from the engine
be seen in Figure 4.9 (a).
through the clutch, gear box and propeller
shaft rotates the pinion shaft of the differential
unit. At that time the crown wheel which
is connected to the pinion shaft also rotate
along with the cage unit. In this condition
the planet and sun gears in the differential
unit rotate in the opposite direction which
creates the brake and the entire unit rotates
with full force. Hence the rear axle shaft
which is connected to the sun gear rotates
Figure 4.9 Construction of a differential at high speed and transmits the power to
unit rear wheels. In this condition the power
is transferred at 90o angle and directs the
Working principle vehicle in a straight direction.
When the differential cage rotates,
the planet gears inside the differential casing
When the vehicle is negotiating
also rotate along with it. Hence due to the
a turn
rotation of planet gear, the sun gear which
is connected to it also rotates and rotates When the vehicle is in a position
the right side rear axle. Now due to the to take a turn on either right side or

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 61

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 61 01/11/2022 11:45:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

left side, the driver rotates the steering

wheel according to the turning direction,
at that time the load is acting on the
axle shaft of the wheel which is going
to turn. Hence the sun gear which is
connected to it is also subjected to the
load and reduces the rotation. At the
same time the planet gears which are
connected on the top and bottom of it
rotate at high speed and rotate the sun
gear which is located on other side. Figure 4.10.1
Hence the outside wheel rotates at higher
speed than the inner wheel and turns 4.10.2 Spiral bevel gears
the vehicle for certain distance easily. In this type of gears the teeth are cut
In this case the speed lost by the inner in the inclined position. Hence the teeth
wheel is gained by the outer wheel and are very well in mesh with the other teeth
hence the vehicle turns easily on either and the energy is transferred very softly
left or right side. and uniformly. In this type the axis of the
crown wheel and the pinion are arranged
in the same axis. This gear works without
 onnecting
4.10 C any noise and lasts for a long time. Figure
methods of bevel 4.10.2 shows the view of spiral bevel gear
gears arrangement.
Based on the arrangement of the
teeth in the pinion gear, the connecting
methods with crown wheel are classified
in to four different types.
1. Straight bevel gears
2. Spiral bevel gears
3. Hypoid gears
4. Worm and worm wheel

4.10.1 Straight bevel gears

In this type the gear teeth are
cut in straight and connected at the
center of the pinion. To operate this Figure 4.10.2 Spiral bevel gear
more amount of energ y is required.
In addition, when it is in operation, Advantages
it produces more noise and it wears 1. It has a strong arrangement.
quickly. Figure 4.10.1 shows the view 2. It is more efficient.
of straight bevel gear. 3. Silent and smooth in operation.
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 62

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 62 01/11/2022 11:45:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Disadvantages 3. It requires lubricating oil which must

1. Arranging the parts is very difficult. withstand high pressure.
2. It is more expensive.
Application

4.10.3 Hypoid gears 1. It is used mostly in the vehicles which

are used for aged persons and patients.
In this type of gears the teeth are
2. It is used mostly in foreign cars.
cut in spiral shape. In this arrangement the
pinion gear is placed just below the center
4.10.4 Worm and worm wheel
of the crown gear and hence the height of
the chassis is reduced. Figure 4.10.3 shows In this type of gear in worm and
the view of a hypoid gear arrangement. worm wheel are used instead of pinion and
crown wheel as shown in Figure 4.10.4.
The worm in this arrangement is located
as per the design either above or below
the Worm Wheel. It is used mainly in
heavy vehicles. It gives a smooth, superior
and stable motion of operation. Worm
is made of nickel and stabilized steel.
Worm wheel is made up off phosphorous
bronze material.

Figure 4.10.3 Hypoid bevel gear

This type is mostly used in heavy

vehicles. During its operation more heat
is generated in it. Hence for reducing the
heat generated, more amount of lubricating
oil is required. It functions smoothly and
works for long time.

Advantages
1. Safe to operate and it is less noisy in
operation. Figure 4.10.4 Worm and worm wheel
2. The height of chassis is less. arrangement
3. It can withstand maximum amount of
rotational torque. Advantages
1. Reduces the speed very quickly.
Disadvantages
2. Transmission power is high.
1. It has low ground clearance. 3. Noiseless in operation.
2. Assembling and dismantling the parts is 4. By placing the worm at the upper side
difficult. Repairing the parts is difficult. the ground clearance is increased.
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 63

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 63 01/11/2022 11:45:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Disadvantages instrument, it is named as banjo type.

1. Assembling and repairing of parts is Vacuum pipes are connected at both
difficult. ends of it. At the middle the differential
2. It needs special lubricating oil. unit is placed. This type is generally
3. It has very less ground clearance. used in all types of vehicles i.e. light
4. High cost and heavy weight. and heavy vehicles. Figure 4.11.1 shows
5. It is suitable only for heavy vehicles. the view of the Banjo type differential
housing
4.11 D
 ifferential
housing Advantages
Rear axle casing or housing is the 1. Less weight
one which has the differential unit and the 2. It withstands more weight.
half shaft within it. It helps in preventing 3. Any repairs in this system can be done
formation of dust particles inside the without dismantling in rear axle.
axles. At the same time it provides the
way for supplying the lubricating oil. The 4.11.2 Split type
differential housing is generally classified In this type, two vacuum tubes
in to two different types. They are, are connected with both sides of the
1. Banjo type differential casing by using bolts. In this
2. Split type type, if any fault occurs, the parts can be
removed separately and repaired. Hence
4.11.1 Banjo type this type of housing is used in very few
As t h e c o mp l e t e s t r u c t u re o f vehicles only. Figure 4.11.2 shows the
this casing looks like a banjo musical split type differential housing

Figure 4.11.1 Banjo type differential housing

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 64

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 64 01/11/2022 11:45:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

axle’s inner edge is connected with the

sun gear by the splines and outer edge
is connected to the wheel hub. This axle
withstands the weight, vibrations and
torque of the vehicles.

Purpose
1. To withstand rear side weight of the
Figure 4.11.2 Split type differential vehicle.
housing 2. To transmit the engine power to rear
wheels.
3. To act as axle needle for the wheels.
• In 1892, Rudolf Diesel 4. It acts as housing for the final drive,
a German engineer differential and half shafts.
invented a "New Rational Combustion
Forces acting on the rear axle
Engine" which lead him to building
the first Diesel Engine in 1897. The following forces act on the
rear axle
1. Torque reaction
2. Driving torque or driving thrust
3. Side thrust
4. Weight of the body

1. Torque reaction
When the torque is transmitted from
the propeller shaft through the differential,
the bevel pinion is started to rotate over
the crown wheel, at the time an opposite
force is developed against the direction of
differential housing. This force is equal
to driving torque and operates in the
opposite direction. This force produces a
bending moment on the propeller shaft.

2. Driving torque
4.12 Rear axle It is the torque transferred from
The engine’s power comes from the engine to the axle casing. The force
the differential is transmitted through created due to this on the rear axle is
the rigid shaft called as the rear axle. It transferred to the body through chassis
is made as two parts such as left side and frame. Radius rods in the chassis are used
right side in the vehicle and used. The to transmit this drive torque to the body.
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 65

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 65 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3. Side thrust the key. The axle shaft withstands the

This refers to the thrust developed vehicle weight, driving thrust and transmits
between the axles in the longitudinal the power to the wheels. It is simple and
direction. This thrust is caused by the force cheaper compared to other types. This
of air acting on sideways. By connecting type is used in vehicles such as fiat 100
panhard rods on the chassis frame the and standard-20. Figure 4.13.1 shows the
side thrust could be minimized. view of a semi floating rear axle.

4. Weight of the body 4.13.2 Full floating axle

The total weight of the goods and In this type, one bearing is placed
passengers of the vehicle acting on the at the differential housing and the two
axle are called as unsprung mass. They tapper roller bearings are placed between
act on the axle through the springs. The the axle housing and wheel hub. Moreover
total weight of the vehicle develops a the axle shaft is kept inside the axle housing
shear force and bending moment on the and at its other end wheel hub is fitted by
axle. For reducing these forces powerful using a flange. The axle casing bears the
springs must be used. whole weight of the vehicle and axle shaft
transmits only the driving torque to the
wheels. This type of axle is used in Ashok
4.13 Types of rear axle
Leyland tarus, Tata 1612, 1312, Eicher
The rear axle can be classified in 10.80, 10.90 Mondraj vehicles. Figure
to three different types according to the 4.13.2 shows the full floating rear axle.
construction of rear axle shaft and wheel
hub connections, They are Bearing lock nuts

1. Semi-floating axle
Axle casing
2. Full-floating axle
3. Three quarter floating axle Axle shaft

4.13.1 Semi- floating axle

Axle casing Wheel hub

Wheel hub

Axial shaft
Figure 4.13.2 Full floating axle

Advantages
1. As the axle shaft transmits the power only
Figure 4.13.1 Semi-floating axle
to wheels the power output is higher.
In this type of axle a bearing is 2. Without removing the wheel and hub
placed in-between the axle shaft and the the axle can be removed.
axle casing. The outer axle shaft is coupled 3. If the axle shaft is broken, the power
with the wheel hub by using locknut and transmission only will be stopped.
4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 66

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 66 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4.13.3 Three quarter floating It is mostly used in the ambassador and

axle Jeep like vehicles.
In this type, one bearing is at the Wheel housing

differential side and another bearing is Axle casing

placed in between the axle housing and
wheel hub. The axle shaft is connected Axle shaft
tightly with lock nut and key with the
wheel hub. The axle shaft receives both
driving torque and end thrust completely
and bears one fourth of the vehicle’s
weight. The remaining weight of the
vehicle is carried out by the axle housing. Figure 4.13.3 Three quarter floating axle

In 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot of France arguably invented the first

full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile. It was a
steam-powered tricycle.

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 67

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 67 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4.14 Propeller shaft-Trouble shooting

Improper rotation of the propeller shaft

S.No Causes Remedies
1. There will be bend or twist on the shaft. Need to rectify the run out by
using the dial tester.
2. The Propeller shaft may be unbalanced. Need to inspect the shaft to
bring it to its correct position.
3. Wear occurred in splines, bearings and slip Inspect and replace the worn
joints. out parts.

More noise from propeller shaft assembly

S.No Causes Remedies
1. The shaft might be bent or twisted Inspect the shaft and fix it.
2. Absence of lubricating oil in the propeller shaft Lubricate the shaft unit
unit . using the lubricating oil.
3. Deposition of dust particles inside the bearings. Need to clean it.
4. Worn out of the splines. Inspect and replace with a
new one.

Over noise coming from differential unit

S.No Causes Remedies
1. Insufficient amount of lubricating oil in Need to pour required amount of
the differential casing. lubricating oil in casing.
2. Because of the usage of low grade Need to use good quality lubricating
lubricating oil. oil.
3. There may be broken teeth in Find and replace with a new one.
the pinion and bevel gears in the
differential unit.
4. Insufficient gap between the gear Need to correct with sufficient gap
mating points. between the gear mating points
5. Bearings might be broken in the Replace with new bearings.
differential unit.
6. Cage unit might be slightly loosened Connect them tightly.
with the crown wheel.
7. Washers might be broken or worn out Need to change with new washers.
in the differential unit.
8. The spider or gears may have worn out Need to change with a new one.
or broken in the differential unit.
9. The gears teeth may not be connected With the help of marking point make the
properly in the differential unit. connection between gear teeth and fix it.

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 68

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 68 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Comparisons between Hotchkiss drive and

Torque tube drive
S.No Hotchkiss Torque tube drive
1 Two universal joints are used. Only one universal joint is used.
2 Slip joint is required. No slip joint is present.
3 Propeller shaft is mounted in open Propeller shaft is closed and placed in
space. the torque tube.
4 Propeller shaft will bend and change its No such changes occur.
length.
5 The power and brake force are on both The force will be acting on only one
sides. side.

4.15 Maintenance of the • After cleaning the bearings they must

Propeller shaft be lubricated with grease.
• Lubr ic at ion must b e prov ide d • Bearing cup, spider, circlip and seal
periodically at the slip joints in the must be tested and lubricated
propeller shaft by using the grease
• Lubrication must be provided for the
universal joins by using grease

Student Activity

1. Visit any automobile depot nearby you and study the repair work of the heavy vehicles,
working of propeller shaft and its types and submit a detailed report of your visit.
2. Visit nearby depot and study the construction of the heavy vehicle differential unit and
its working and submit the report
3. Study the faults occurring in the differential unit by visiting a nearby depot and submit
your inspection report.

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 69

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 69 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

G Glossary

1. Propeller Shaft – சுழல் தண்டு

2. Rear Axle – பின் இருசு
3. Bearing – உருளைத் தாங்கி
4. Universal Joint – பலக�ோண (அச்சு) இணைப்பு
5. Differential Unit – மாறபட்ட வேக வழங்கி
6. Synchromesh – ஒத்து இயங்கு
7. Driving Gear – இயக்கும் பற்சக்கரம்
8. Driven Gear – இயக்கப்படும் பற்சக்கரம்
9. Half Shaft – அரைத் தண்டு
10. Sliding Mesh – நகர்ந்து இணைதல்

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage
Learning (2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 70

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 70 01/11/2022 11:45:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. http://www.mech4study.com/2014/04/what-is-differential-gear-used-in-automobile.
html
2. http://www.pacificmarine.net/engineering/propeller-and-propeller-shaft/propeller-
shaft.htm
3. https://www.instructables.com/id/Basic-Gear-Mechanisms/
4. https://www.showa1.com/en/product/automobile/propeller_shaft.html
5. http://www.klein-gelenkwellen.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=
63&Itemid=85&lang=en
6. http://www.mech4study.com/2014/04/what-is-rear-axle-what-are-main-types-of-rear-
axle.html
7. http://constructionloader.tpub.com/TM-5-3805-255-14/TM-5-3805-255-1400221.html
8. https://www.matfoundrygroup.com/News%20and%20Blog/Types_of_Differential_and_
How_They_Work

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer 3. The component which corrects the
length of the propeller shaft is
1. The front end of the propeller shaft a) Clutch
is connected with b) Gear Box
a) Engine c) Slip Joint
b) Clutch d) Universal Joint
c) Gear Box
d) Differential 4. The component which transfers the
rotational power from the gear box
2. The component which transmits at certain angle is
the engine’s power from the gear a) Clutch
box to the differential is called as b) Propeller shaft
a) Clutch c) Differential
b) Rear Axle d) Rear Axle
c) Clutch shaft
d) Propeller shaft 5. In a vehicle the part which protects
the leaf spring is

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 71

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 71 01/11/2022 11:45:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

a) Differential 8. The part which transmits the

b) Shackle rotational power from the propeller
c) Bolt shaft to the rear axle is called as
d) Gage a) Propeller shaft
b) Engine
6. In the universal joint the part
c) Differential
which connects the two yokes is
d) Clutch
a) Spider
b) Driving yoke 9. In the power transmission system
c) Driven Yoke the part which transmits the power
d) Engine shaft at 900 angle is called as
a) Engine
7. When the vehicle is taking a turn
b) Differential
on the road, the component which
c) Gear Box
helps to rotate the inner wheel at
d) Wheel
lower speed than the outer wheel is
called as 10. The type of rear axle which bears
a) Differential the whole weight of the vehicle is
b) Universal Joint called as
c) Propeller shaft a) Semi floating axle
d) Rear Axle b) Full floating axle
c) Quarter floating axle
d) Three quarter floating axle

PART - B

Three mark questions

1. What are the functions of the 5. Write the functions of the differential
propeller shaft?
6. Write the classification of the
2. What are the types of universal differential
joint?
7. What are the types of differential
3. How does the shackle work? casing?

4. What are the types of propeller 8. Write the classification of the rear
shaft? axles?

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 72

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 72 01/11/2022 11:45:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

PART - C
Five mark questions

1. Write advantages and drawbacks of 3. Explain the construction and

the Hotchkiss Drive working of any one universal joint
with a suitable diagram
2. Describe the faults and rectification
methods of the Differential

PART - D
Ten mark questions

1. Explain the construction and and rectification methods in

working of a differential Unit with detail.
a suitable diagram
3. Explain the construction of any one
2. Describe the common faults rear axle with a suitable sketch
occurring in the propeller shaft

4 - Propeller Shaft and Rear Axle 73

BAE_ENG_Chapter_04.indd 73 01/11/2022 11:45:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

5 Wheels and Tyres

Contents

5.0 Introduction 5.11 Types of Carcass

5.1 Requirements of the Wheel 5.11.1 Radial Ply Tyre
5.2 The Properties of the Wheel 5.11.2 Cross Ply Tyre
5.3 Types of Wheel 5.11.3 Bias Ply Tyre
5.3.1 Disc Wheel 5.12 Load Rating
5.3.2 Wired Wheel 5.13 Tyre Pressure
5.3.3 Cast Wheel 5.14 Selection of Tyre
5.4 Wheel Dimension 5.15 Tyre Wear
5.5 Tyre 5.16 Maintenance of Tyre
5.5.1 Types of Tyre 5.17 Tyre Damages And Repairing
5.6 Properties of The Tyre Methods
5.7 Functions of Tyre 5.18 Tube
5.8 Tyre Construction 5.19 Uses of Tubes
5.8.1 Bead 5.20 Puncture
5.8.2 Side Wall Region 5.21 Puncture Recovering
5.8.3 Shoulder Region 5.21.1 Hot Patch Method
5.8.4 Tread Region 5.21.2 Cold Patch Method
5.9 Tread Types 5.21.3 Vulcanizing
5.9.1 Stud Type Tread 5.22 Tube Damages And Repairing
5.9.2 Symmetrical Type Tread Methods
5.9.3 winter Type Tread 5.23 Tyre Rotation
5.10 Ply Rating 5.24 Wheel Balancing
5.10.1 Tyre Size Marking

Learning objectives

1. Understanding of different tyres used in vehicles.

2. Understanding the stability of manufactured tubes and tyres.
3. Understanding how wheels are produced with stability and its suitability for
use in the vehicle.
4. Understanding how the wheels and tyres withstand the weight of the vehicle
on the road and stability of rolling on the road.

5 - Wheels and Tyres 74

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 74 01/11/2022 11:47:36 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.0 Introduction 5.3 Types of wheels

It is well known that how important Generally there are three types of
are the wheels and tyres in automobiles. wheel. They are
The vehicle can be pulled even with no 1. Disc wheel
engine. However, without the wheels 2. Wired wheel
the vehicle cannot b e moved at all. 3. Cast wheel
Furthermore, the wheels and tyres also
carry the full load of the vehicle and
5.3.1 Disc wheel
g ive s mo ot h r i d e. B e s i d e s t h at t he
wheels and tyres help in operating the This type of wheel is commonly
vehicle in control with the help of the used in all automobiles. The Figure 5.3.1
steering. shows the photographic view of disc wheels.
Because its structure is very simple and
the construction is very strong and cost
5.1 Requirements of the effective.
wheel
1. Wheel must to bear the full load acting
on the vehicle.
2. It must to make the vehicle weight
easy to move and steer easy.
3. It must to help to move the vehicle
without the engine.
4. It must to withstand vibrations of the Figure 5.3.1 Shows the Photographic view
road. of Disc Wheels
5. It must to withstand the braking force The disc wheel is made of two
when the brake is applied. parts. They are
1. Rim
5.2 Properties of the 2. Disc
wheel The structure of the disc wheel can
1. It must be able to withstand the full be seen in Figure 5.3.1. The top part of
load of the vehicle. the rim has the provision for fixing the
2. The wheels must be at equal in position tyre correctly. The disc is connected with
while driving the vehicle and at rest as the rim by welding. Depending on the
well. size of the wheel and the disc the disc
3. The weight of the wheels should be can be made as an integral part of the
less. rim or separate ones. The part of the tyre
4. The w he els must b e e asy to which is used for place it on the rim is
remove from the axle and fix in the called as the tyre bead. The tyre cannot
axle. be removed or fitted if there is no pit in
5. The wheels must be easy to control by the rim. The tyre fitting area in the rim is
steering mechanism. generally in tilting angle between 5° and
5 - Wheels and Tyres 75

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 75 01/11/2022 11:47:36 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

15°. Therefore, when air is filled in the as spokes. The structure of the wired wheel
tyre, the bead makes a tight fit with the can be seen in Figure 5.3.2. We can find
rim. In tubeless tyres this tilt structure this type of wheels used in two wheelers
acts as a tight seal. such as bicycles and motor cycles. The
The disc in the disc wheel does the spokes in the two wheels withstand the
work of the spoke. The wheel is fitted on the vehicle weight, pulling force and braking
axle by the bolts. There are holes provided force. For withstanding these forces the
on the wheel disc as shown in the picture. spokes are connected between the wheel
Through these holes air is allowed to enter hub and the rim. There are splines made
inside the brake drum and the air cools in the hub for fixing it on the hub axle.
the brake drum. There is a gap provided The weight of wired wheel is comparatively
for the wheel disc and a hole is made on lower than the disc wheel and has high
the rim for placing the tube valve. cooling efficiency and hence it is used
in racing cars.

Figure 5.3.2 Structure of a Spoke / Wired

Wheel
Figure 5.3.1.1 Rim and Disc

Advantages of wired wheel

Advantages
1. It is lower in weight and has more
1. The construction of the disc wheel is durability than a disc wheel.
simple, durable and cheap. 2. It allows the brake drum to cool very
2. Its maintenance is low. quickly and easily.
3. It is suitable for all light and heavy 3. It can be fixed and dismantled easily
vehicles. whenever necessary.
4. No curves or bends occur on the
wheel. Disadvantages
1. Maintenance cost is high.
5.3.2 Wired wheel 2. There are possibilities for bends to
Unlike the disc wheel, the hub is occur in the wheel.
located at the center of the wheel and the 3. Tubeless tyres cannot be used because
rim is at the top separately. The rim and of the holes present in the rim for the
the hub are connected by the wires called spoke wires.
5 - Wheels and Tyres 76

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 76 01/11/2022 11:47:37 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.3.3 Cast wheel 5.4. The wheel dimension has the following
letters represented as
The modern automotive wheels
are generally made up of aluminum or
magnesium alloy materials. Figure 5.3.3
shows the photographic view of a cast
wheel. Cast wheels are mostly used in
cars. The simple structure of this wheel
can be seen in figure. Forged wheels are
mostly used in heavy vehicles. These
types of wheels are less in weight. The
wheels made of magnesium alloy are
50% less than the weight of the steel
wheel, and the aluminum alloy wheels
are 70% less than the weight of the steel
wheel. Even though the weight is lower
than that of steel wheels these wheels
have the strength which is equal to the
steel wheels. These metal alloys have the
ability to transfer heat and reduce the heat
generated in the tyres or brakes. Moreover
these materials are used for manufacture
the wide rims. This gives more vehicle
stability. Magnesium alloy material has
the ability to withstand heavy loads. It
could also withstand more vibrations and Figure 5.4 Wheel Dimensions
shocks occurred in vehicles.
‘W’ - Width of the wheel.
‘D’ - Diameter of wheel.
‘C’ - Type of rim.
Wheels are shown by code number.
For example, if the code number of the
wheel is given as 5.50 B-13 and 4 ½ J-14
then, it indicates the terms as below.

Figure 5.3.3 A view of Cast Wheel Wheel Dimensions

Width (W) Rim type Diameter (D)
5.4 Wheel Dimension (C)
The measurement of wheel 5.50’’ B 13’’
dimensions could be seen in the Figure 4 ½’’ J 14’’

5 - Wheels and Tyres 77

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 77 01/11/2022 11:47:39 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.5 Tyre
Tyre is fixed on the rim of wheel in
the vehicle. The tube in the tyre is filled
with air. The tyre carries the weight of
the vehicle and gives smooth ride to the
vehicle.

5.5.1 Types of tyre

The tyre are classified into the
following types, Figure Photographic view of a Pneumatic
Tyre
1. Solid tyre
2. Pneumatic tyre
3. Bullet proof tyre The pneumatic tyre can be classified
4. Liquid filled tyre into two types. They are
1. Tyre with tube
Solid tyre 2. Tubeless tyre
This type of tyre is a hard one made
up of special type of rubber. There is no Tyre with tube or conventional
tube in it. As it is a solid one it does not tyre
withstand vibrations. Hence this type of The tube assisted tyre is called as
tyre is mostly not used in automobiles. the tube tyre. The photographic view of
a tube tyre. The cross sectional view of
the tube tyre can be seen in the Figure.

Figure View of a Solid Tyre

Pneumatic tyre
This type of tyre is used commonly
in all automobiles. The air is filled in
the tube of the tyre and hence the tyre is
called as pneumatic tyre. The photographic
view of a pneumatic tyre can be seen in
Figure. Figure Construction of a Tube Tyre
5 - Wheels and Tyres 78

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 78 01/11/2022 11:47:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Tubeless tyre inside the tyre does not decrease and the
This tyre does not have any tube puncture is automatically corrected by
inside it. In this type of tyre, the tyre the tyre itself. This type of tyre is used
is directly fitted on the rim. The cross in military vehicles.
sectional view of the tubeless tyre can
be seen in the Figure. Liquid filled tyre
In this type of tyre the mixture of
15% of calcium chloride 85% of water
is used to fill the tyre for about 75% of
the total capacity of the tyre. This type
of tyre is used in some heavy vehicles
and tractors.

5.6 Properties of tyre

The following are the important
properties of the tyres
Figure Construction of a tubeless tyre
1. It should be more comfort for
traveling.
Advantages 2. It should be able to withstand
1. Simple in structure. vibrations of the road sides.
2. In case of puncture, the tyre can be 3. The tyre should give stability to the
repaired without removing from the rim. vehicle when the vehicle is negotiating
3. The tyre needs no tube. a turn.
4. Maintenance is low. 4. Vehicle should stop immediately by
creating the friction without any slip
Bullet proof tyre when applying the brake.
In this type of tyres even if the tyre 5. It should be able to give very less
is punctured by the bullet, the air pressure rolling resistance.
6. The tyre must provide safety to the
vehicle when the vehicle moving on
the road.
7. The tyre must work for a long period.

5.7 Functions of the

tyres
1. It withstands the whole weight of the
vehicle.
2. It creates the friction on the road and
Figure Photographic view of the bullet helps to roll the wheel on the road.
proof tyre 3. It gives road stability for the vehicles.
5 - Wheels and Tyres 79

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 79 01/11/2022 11:47:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. It withstands the vibrations of the region is called as the side wall region.
vehicle when the vehicle is going on Wheel tube is fitted inside this region.
the bumps and pot holes. The tyre marks are made in this side wall
area only.
5.8 Tyre construction
It consists of the following four 5.8.3 Shoulder region
parts. They are, The hor izont al are a of region
1. The bead region connecting the side walls and the tread
2. The side wall region is called as the shoulder region. This
3. The shoulder region shoulder region creates a slightly curved
4. The tread region look for the tyre area.

5.8.1 Bead 5.8.4 Tread region

Bead is a part of the tyre which The top area on the periphery of
is used to fit the tyre on the wheel rim. the wheel that is in contact on the road
Bead is made of a circular metal wire surface is called as the tread region. For
placed on both sides of the tyre. In the giving good grip on the road, there are
tyre beads one or more metal wires are different shapes of cross grooves available
covered strongly by the thick nylon or on this region.
rayon threads around the metal wires.
Tyre beads help to keep the tyre shape
unchanged.

5.8.2 Side wall region

The side wall of the tyre is
constructed to be very flexible. The vertical
area between the tyre bead and tyre tread

Figure 5.8.4 Tread pattern of a typical tyre

5.9 Tread types

The tread region present in the
tyres is of three types. They are
1. Stud type tread
2. Symmetrical type tread
Figure 5.8 Tyre construction 3. Winter type tread
5 - Wheels and Tyres 80

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 80 01/11/2022 11:47:40 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.9.1 Stud type tread tractors and earth movers. The buttons
of the tread in this tyre are very large
T h i s t y p e of t re a d i s u s e d i n
and very height.
the front tyres of the normal Jeep and
tractor. The tyre has small button shapes
to be present on the circular area of tyre. 5.10 Ply rating
The part of the tyre which is made of
5.9.2 Symmetrical type tread cotton or nylon or rayon threads threaded
to the tyre is called as the ply of the tyre.
This type of tread is used in the
As all the plies are wound tightly on the
wheels of light duty vehicles and cars. The
round bead wires which are made of steel
cross section of the tread in this tyre is
the shape of the tyre is not changed. It is
bent over the surface on the circumferential
always circular in shape.
surface of the wheel.
The strength and thickness of the
tyre depend on the number of plies present
5.9.3 Winter type tread
in the tyre. Increasing the plies increases
This type of tread is made on the the strength of the tyre. Scooter, motorcycle
rear wheels of special vehicles such as and bikes have the tyres with less plies

5 - Wheels and Tyres 81

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 81 01/11/2022 11:47:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

and the cars have the tyres with more 5.11 Types of tyres
plies. In heavy vehicles the ply rating is based on carcass
more than to that of the car tyres. The
air pressure and the tyre size are defined 1. Radial ply tyre
based on the tyre plies. Ply rating is 2. Cross ply tyre
the number which generally indicates 3. Bias ply tyre
the strength and the stability of the
tyres. 5.11.1 Radial ply tyre

5.10.1 Tyre size marking

For example at the sideway
of the tyre if the tyre is marked as 3.5” x
10” x 4 PR, which represents the tyre
size marking. The tyre size is marked as
indicated below.

Width of Diameter of Strength of

the Rim the Rim the tyre
3.5” 10” 4 PR

Figure 5.11.1 View of a radial ply tyre

Note: PR – Ply Rating

Speed rating
Load rating
Radial
Cross sectional Aspect ratio construction Rim diameter
width

Cross sectional width

Cross sectional height inflated tyre Ratio

Cross sectional height (H)
Cross sectional width (W)

Figure 5.10.1 The tyre specifications.

5 - Wheels and Tyres 82

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 82 01/11/2022 11:47:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

The nylon or rayon layers 5.11.2 Cross ply tyre

which connect the beads on both sides
Ny lon or rayon layers t hat
of the tyre are arranged in the same
connect the beads on both sides of the
direction. This type of tyre is called as
tyre are arranged in the opposite (at the
radial ply tyre. In this type of tyres the
angle of 40 o to 45 o) direction. This type
stability and comfort are more. However,
of tyre is called as cross ply type tyre.
while negotiating a turn on the bends of
As the tyre is made the plies with cross
the road the stability of the tyre is less.
winding the tyre gets more strength. A
Figure 5.11.1 shows the view of a radial
view of the cross ply tyre can be seen in
ply tyre.
Figure 5.11.2.

Cross ply

Inner cover

Filler

Bead cover Rubber wall

Chamber
Bead wires Laminated cover

Figure 5.11.2 View of the cross ply tyre

5.11.3 Bias ply tyre tyre. This type of tyre is very strong and
T h e c o m b i n at i o n o f t h e t y r e has more stability. Figure 5.11.3 shows
construction with radial ply tyre and the concept of bias ply tyre.
cross ply tyre is said to be the bias ply
5.12 Load rating
The tyre’s strength, tyre dimensions
and it’s load carrying capacity are represented
by the term called as the load rating.

5.13 Tyre pressure

The air stored at high pressure
Figure 5.11.3 Bias Ply concept inside the tyre withstands all the loads
5 - Wheels and Tyres 83

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 83 01/11/2022 11:47:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

acting on the vehicle. If the air pressure 5.16 Maintenance of Tyre

is high or low from its specified pressure
then there will be negative effects which The long life of the tyre could be
will be caused by the tyre to the vehicle. possible by proper maintenance of the
Hence, based on the ply rating, vehicle tyres. The following are the points to be
speed and the load of the vehicle, the air followed for good tyre maintenance.
pressure is mentioned or recommended 1. The required amount of air should be
by the vehicle manufacturer. filled and maintained correctly.
2. The air pressure has to be checked by
5.14 Selection of the using the pressure gauge at least once
tyre in a week.
3. If there is any grease or oil present in
The tyre selection for any vehicle
tyre, it must be cleaned.
is based on the following considerations
4. The tyre should not be overloaded.
1. It should work for a long time. 5. Of ten bra king t he vehicle or
2. The price of the tyre should be low unnecessarily braking during high
and should have good quality. speeds of the vehicle have to be avoided.
3. The tyre must have the required tread 6. The vehicle should not be turned
pattern and ply rating for the specific quickly when running on bends.
application. 7. The tyre must be checked for its
4. The tyre must have the good quality position on the axle whether it is
rubber mixture. placed on the rim with straight and
stable condition or not.
5.15 Tyre wear
The tyre wear occurs due to the 5.17 Tyre repairs
following reasons, and rectification
1. Due to the pressure of the air filled methods
in the tyre is lower or higher than its Repairs Repairing methods
specified pressure Tyre wear on one Correct the wheel
2. Due to the reasons of suddenly and side alignment
frequently applying the brake. Tyre wear at the Maintain the tyre
3. If the wheel is not fixed properly on center pressure.
the axle. The tyre pressure Valve in the
4. If there are wear on the bearings of the reduced often tube should be
wheels. corrected
5. If the vehicle carry’s more loads. Explosion or Should carry
6. The wheel alignment angles such as scratches occurring specified load
caster and camber are not set correctly in tyre.
as per the recommendations. Tyre wear Correct the wheel
7. If the load on the vehicle is not occurring soon alignment
balanced.

5 - Wheels and Tyres 84

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 84 01/11/2022 11:47:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

In 1888, John Dunlop invented the air-filled or pneumatic tyres.

5.18 Tube 5.20 Puncture

A blanket cover like part which is If any shar p objects or things
used for storing the air inside the tyre is like nails stab the tyre and make the
called as the tube. It is made up of natural ai r t o l e a k , t h e n we c a l l it a s t y re
or synthetic rubbers. For injecting and puncture.
releasing air in the tube, tube valve is
used. It is a one way valve which helps
to send air to the tube but not allows the 5.21 puncture
air to release or return from the tube. recovering
The method of repairing or
rectifying the effects caused by the holes
5.19 Uses of tubes
in the tube or any cut injury in the tube
1. They store the required amount of air. is called as puncture repair. The tube
2. They provide smooth travel for the puncture is repaired by three different
vehicles. ways. They are
3. They withstand the weight of vehicle.
4. They withstand the vibrations 1. Hot patch method
occurred in between the road and 2. Cold patch method
vehicles. 3. Vulcanizing
5 - Wheels and Tyres 85

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 85 01/11/2022 11:47:41 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.21.1 Hot patch method 5.21.3 Vulcanizing

For this method a vulcanizing If there is a small hole in tube, it
machine is required. This type of method can be repaired by using any one method
is often used for repairing large size as discussed above. However, if the hole
punctures, tube bursts, and in replacing is very large, or more air is leaked from
the mouth in the tube. To repair the tube valve, we have to go for vulcanizing
puncture, the punctured area on the method for repairing the puncture. To
tube is first noted. The punctured area perform this, initially the both damaged
was rubbed with the help of an emery / area on the tube and rubber to be pasted
file sheet for some and a rubber solution are rubbed well. Then the vulcanizing paste
is pasted on it. Based on the size of the is applied on both the rough areas of the
puncture hole a small piece of rubber tube and the sticker and left for some time
tube was cut and pasted on the punctured to dry. The dried rubber sticker is now
area. The pasted area is then placed on pasted on the rubbed area of the tube and
the vulcanizing machine and clamped. By pressed well. The pasted tube is now kept
supplying the power to the vulcanizing on the vulcanizing machine and tightened.
machine by switching on the machine Now the vulcanizing machine is switched
the heating element in the vulcanizing on and left it for heating the tube area until
machine heats the punctured area under the indicator light starts to lighten. Then
pressure and makes the hole closed. the machine is switched off and the tube is
removed from vulcanizing machine. Figure
5.21.2 Cold patch method 5.21.3 shows the method of vulcanizing.

Using an emery sheet or file the

punctured area is rubbed on the tube.
The rubber paste is applied on the rubbed
area and dried for some time. Based on
the size of the punctured hole a small
piece of rubber tube is binding sticker is
pasted on the hole. Nowadays the binding
stickers are available for specified sizes
also. Mostly small sizes of punctures are
repaired by this method. Figure 5.21.3 The method of vulcanizing.

5.22 Tube damages and repairing methods

Causes Remedies
Air leaks in the tube automatically Correct the tube valve or puncture in the tube.
Oftenly tube puncture Change new tube.
Tube wear quickly Fix the flab in between tube and tyre.
Tube bursts Load the vehicle according to the
recommended weight.

5 - Wheels and Tyres 86

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 86 01/11/2022 11:47:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5.23 Tyre rotation front tyre is changed to right front tyre.

The right front wheel is kept as a spare
wheel. The other wheel is changed to right
rear wheels. This method of changing
the wheels is called as tyre rotation. The
figure 5.19 indicates the method of tyre
rotation.

5.24 Wheel balancing

If the wheels are allowed to rotate
then must rotate uniformly and smoothly
without any vibrations. If there is no
proper rotation of the wheels the weight
of the rim must be balanced for uniform
rotation of the wheels and this is method is
called as wheel balancing. The rim weight
is adjusted by moving different lead metal
weights on the rim. Figure 5.24 shows the
balance weight placed on the rim

Figure 5.23 Wheel Rotation procedure

In general the tyres in the vehicle

are subjected to wear but the amount of
wear on the four wheels is not uniform.
The tyres in the rear wheels of the vehicle
wear more quickly than the front wheels
due to the power transmission to the rear
Figure 5.24 Wheel balancing
axle. Right side wheels generally wear twice
in amount than the left wheels. Hence,
based on the manufacturers’ guidelines Advantages of wheel balancing
tyres are rotated and fitted in the vehicles
1. It reduces the tyre wear.
after the vehicle is travelled to certain
2. It helps in steering the vehicle
kilometers. In cars and commercial
easily.
vehicles for about 8000 km of the vehicle’s
3. It reduces wobbling of the vehicle.
travel the tyre is changed bas ed on
rotational mode. Types
The right side of the rear wheel 1. Static balancing
tyre is changed to left front tyre. Left side 2. Dynamic balancing
5 - Wheels and Tyres 87

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 87 01/11/2022 11:47:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Student Activity

1. Send the students to vulcanizing workshops for observing puncture repairing methods
and ask to submit the report.
2. Send the student to workshop for finding the wheel rotation and ask to draw cross
sectional view.

G Glossary

1. Wheel – சக்கரம்
2. Hot patch – வெப்பப்படுத்தி ஒட்டுதல்
3. Cold patch – குளிரவைத்து ஒட்டுதல்
4. Vulcanizing – வல்கனைசிங்
5. Wheel balancing – சக்கரங்களை சமநிலைப்படுத்துதல்
6. Spokes wheel – கம்பி சக்கரம்
7. Tyre ply – டயரின் அடுக்கு
8. Cast wheel – உருக்குச் சக்கரம்
9. Disc wheel – தட்டுச் சக்கரம்
10. Dynamic balancing – இயக்க நிலை சமன்படுத்துதல்

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

5 - Wheels and Tyres 88

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 88 01/11/2022 11:47:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. https://www.carthrottle.com/post/different-wheel-types-and-how-theyre-
manufactured/
2. https://www.zigwheels.com/guide/four-wheeler-tyre-guide/different-types-of-
tyres/18816/
3. https://pmctire.com/en/info/tire-specifications/tire-load-range-ply-rating.tire
4. http://www.abrasiontesting.com/understanding-wear-abrasion/types-wear/
5. https://www.michelin.co.uk/tyres/learn-share/care-guide/three-main-causes-of-tyre-
problems
6. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-what-why-and-how-of-wheel-balancing-3234378
7. http://rapcoasphalt.com/asphalt-patching-and-pothole-filling-hot-or-cold-patches/

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer
c) Wear On Bearings
1. Which one of the following d) None Of These
indicate the solidity of the 4. If there is an occurrence of
tyre leakages in tubes then it is called
a) Carcass as
b) bead a) Vulcanizing
c) tread b) hot batch
d) ply c) puncture
2. Specify the type of tyre which d) tread
uses the tube 5. The basic construction of tyre is
a) Solid Tyre said to be
b) Tubeless Tyre a) Ply Rating
c) Tubed Tyre b) Tread
d) Liquid Filled Tyre c) Bead
3. The cause of wear in the center d) Carcass
portion of tyre is due to the 6. Types of tyres is.
a) Low Air a) 2 b) 3
b) High Air c) 4 d) 5

5 - Wheels and Tyres 89

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 89 01/11/2022 11:47:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7. It is connects the rim with hub. 9. Tyre ply rating means

a) Wheel a) wheel dimension
b) Spokes b) tyre dimension
c) Tyre c) tube dimension
d) Tube d) tyre strength

8. How many types of treads? 10. It is placed at both edges of the tyre.
a) 2 a) Bead
b) 3 b) Car cass
c) 5 c) Ply rating
d) 4 d) Tread

Part - B

Three mark questions

1. What is the working of wheel? 4. What is meant by carcass?

2. What is the working of tyre? 5. What will happen if the air pressure
is low in tyre?
3. Answer any two maintenance of the
tube.

Part - C

Five mark questions

1. Draw the disc wheel diagram and 2. Give any five reasons for wear
mention its parts. occurrence in tyres.

3. Describe the tyre rotation?

Part - D

Ten mark questions

1. What are all the methods of 2. Tabulate the faults occurred in

repairing puncture of wheels? tyres and repairing methods.
Explain any one method in detail.

5 - Wheels and Tyres 90

BAE_ENG_Chapter_05.indd 90 01/11/2022 11:47:42 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

6 Braking System

Contents

6.0 Introduction 6.8 Common Components of Braking

6.1 Functions of Braking System System
6.2 Requirements of Braking 6.8.1 Brake Drum
System 6.8.2 Brake Shoes
6.3 Types of Brake 6.8.3 Brake Linings
6.3.1 Mechanical Brake 6.9 Brake Adjustments
6.4 Types of Power Brake 6.9.1 Minor Adjustment
6.4.1 Hydraulic Brake 6.9.2 Major Adjustment
6.4.2 Air Brake 6.10 Brake Pedal Free Play
6.4.3 Servo Brake 6.11 Brake Efficiency
6.4.4 Engine Exhaust Brake 6.12 Stopping Distance
6.5 Disc Type Brake 6.13 Brake Testing
6.6 Antilock Braking System 6.13.1 Stopwatch Test
6.7 Hand Brake 6.14 Trouble Shooting

6 - Braking System 91

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 91 01/11/2022 11:50:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Learning objectives

1. To understand the need and types of braking system.

2. To understand the parts of all types of braking system and their working principle.

6.0 Introduction 6.1 Functions of braking

system
For the safe and accident free travel
The important functions of the
the vehicle must be driven under control.
braking system are
we have to drive the vehicle with control.
All the mechanical devices invented by 1. To reduce the speed of the vehicle in a
human beings must be controlled by controlled level by using the braking
the human. As compared to the earlier system.
automobile vehicles, the modern automobile 2. To stop the vehicle within the
vehicles are faster in speed. Such vehicles specified distance or suddenly as per
are controlled by the controlled system the condition of the road.
provided in the vehicles. Braking System 3. To control the speed of the vehicle
is one among the important systems in while climbing down from the hill
controlling these fastest vehicles. The station roads and bends.
driver (for him and for the passengers) 4. To park the vehicle permanently in
can stop the vehicle whenever he needs to particular place.
stop it without causing any disturbances
to the person inside the vehicle and 6.2 Requirements of
for the vehicle coming in the opposite braking system
direction by using the system called as 1. It should be easy to operate, powerful,
braking system. and reliable.
6 - Braking System 92

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 92 01/11/2022 11:50:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

2. Vehicle must stop immediately after 1. Internal Expanding Brake

applying the brake. 2. External Contracting Brake
3. Brake shoes and brake linings should
have better anti-wear property. Internally Expanding Brake
4. It should not be over sensitive. In this braking system the brake
5. It must be durable and have less shoes are mounted inside of brake drum
maintenance. and the lower ends of brake shoes are
6. The operation of the braking system connected with help of anchor pins and
should not interfere the operation of brake carrier plate. Based on this the
the other systems of the vehicle. movement of brake shoe is positioned. In
7. Braking system should not be noisy between the upper ends of brake shoes
during its operating condition. one brake cam is mounted. Brake pedal
is located at the right side corner of the
driver’s leg. When the brake pedal is
6.3 Types of brake
pressed, a long rod which is connected with
The brakes are classified into a the brake cams in the four brake carrier
number of types. They are, plate simultaneously are expanded inside
the brake drum which causes friction
i. According to the application that stops the rotating wheel. When the
brake pedal is released, the brake cam
1. Normal brake or foot brake
is brought to its original position. The
2. Hand brake or parking brake
brake shoes are also brought to their
original positions at the same time without
ii. According to application of
touching the brake drum due to the spring’s
brake shoe
compressive force. Hence the wheels on
a. Drum type brake the brake drum rotate immediately without
1. Internally expanding type brake any friction.
2. Externally contracting type brake
b. Disc type or caliper type brake
Externally contracting type brake
iii. According to the power This type of braking system is mostly
1. Mechanical brake used in cars as hand brake. In this system
2. Hydraulic brake the outer layer of the brake drum has a
3. Air brake brake lining which is contact with the
4. Vacuum brake and brake band. The brake band is operated
5. Electric brake by brake lever and the linkages to stop
the rotating brake drum. By pulling the
hand brake lever, the brake band is forced
6.3.1 Mechanical brake to press the brake drum tightly. Hence
Mechanical brakes are classified the rotation of brake drum is stopped
into two different types, they are shown and the vehicle is stopped. When the
as follow hand lever is released, the brake band
6 - Braking System 93

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 93 01/11/2022 11:50:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Brake drum
Cam
Brake lining
Spring
Brake shoe

Axle casing
Heeis
Brake plate

Anchor pin

Spring Cam
Brake lining

Figure 6.3.1.1 View of the Internal expanding shoe brake and the forces acting on it

Brake drum

Lever

Brake lining

Actuating
linkage

drum
Post

Shoe

Lining

Actuating
force

Figure 6.3.1.2 View of the externally contracting type brake

6 - Braking System 94

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 94 01/11/2022 11:50:55 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

is loosened and the force acting on the Wheel

cylinder
brake drum is released. Due to this action
Spring Brake
the wheels connected with the brake pedal
drums are started to rotate without any
difficulties. Figure 6.2 shows the view Front
Master
cylinder Rear
wheels wheels
of an externally contracting type brake
used in cars.

6.4 Power brake Master

cylinder
Pedal
In mechanical braking system,
when the braking force is applied by the
driver by pressing the brake pedal due Piston
to the mechanical advantage combined
with braking force the vehicle is stopped.
However, when the vehicle’s weight and
speed are increased, the mechanical
braking system will be no longer capable
Drum brake
of providing sufficient braking force Disc brake
to stop the vehicle immediately. Hence Figure 6.4.1 The schematic view of the
for providing sufficient power to the hydraulic braking system
mechanical braking system and to increase
the braking force we use any one of the
following support as a supplemental force. force evenly to all the wheels at a time,
This type of brake is called as power brake. smoothly and consistently for all the
This power brake is classified according wheels. Therefore most of the cars and
to the following categories as some of the two wheelers are employed
1. Hydraulic brake with hydraulic braking system.
2. Air brake
3. Vacuum brake Construction and working principle
4. Electric brake of hydraulic brake system
5. Servo brake
The construction of the hydraulic
brake system could refered from the Figure
6.4.1 Hydraulic brake system
6.3. The hydraulic brake system consists
The schematic view of the hydraulic of a master cylinder and wheel cylinders
braking system can be seen in Figure 6.4.1. which are the two important components
The hydraulic braking system of the system. The master cylinder is
works based on the principle of Pascal’s used to store the brake fluid. One side
law. It is simple in construction and can of the master cylinder is connected with
provide more braking force. The hydraulic brake pedal and on the other side there
brake is capable of delivering the braking is a pipe line which connects the wheel

6 - Braking System 95

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 95 01/11/2022 11:50:55 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

cylinders that are kept separately on the 3. Parts of this system are self-lubricated.
back plates. 4. It occupies less space.
When the brake pedal is pressed, the 5. More braking efficiency could be
brake fluid inside the master cylinder is achieved.
pressurized and sent to the wheel cylinders 6. The braking force is equally shared for
through four pipe lines and pushes the all the four wheels.
pistons inside the cylinder in outward 7. Even for small force of the driver on
direction. At that time the brake shoes the brake pedal, the master cylinder
which are connected to the pistons get multiplies the pressure and gives
expanded and force the rotating brake increased mechanical advantage.
drum to stop which stops the rotation 8. Due to the possibility in varying the
of the wheel. diameter of the brake pipe lines from
the wheel cylinders, variable braking
When the brake pedal is released efficiency could be achieved.
the pressure of the brake fluid in the
master cylinder is reduced. This causes Demerits
the piston in the master cylinder to come 1. Even a small leakage in the brake lines
back to its original position due to the makes the entire system failure.
spring’s action. Thus, pressure in the brake 2. The air entering into the system
lines is reduced completely. Due to the reduces the braking efficiency.
drop in pressure of the brake fluid, the 3. There is a chance of oil leakage
piston inside the wheel cylinder is move from wheel cylinder. Due to this the
inward. Due to this action, the brake shoes frictional force and braking force get
get contracted by the return spring and reduced in between brake drum and
moved away from the brake drum. Thus, brake shoe.
the wheels are allowed to rotate freely. By
this way, returning action of piston in the Quality of the brake fluid
wheel cylinder makes the brake fluid to
The brake fluid is an important part
return back to the master cylinder.
which acts as a brake force transmitter
in the hydraulic braking system. The
Merits and demerits of hydraulic
compression of the brake fluid increases
brake system
the pressure in the system. However the
The following are the merits and volumetric capacity of the fluid does not
demerits of the hydraulic braking system change. The pressure applied at one point
used in automobiles. on the fluid is equally distributed in all
directions, based on the scientific law
Merits Pascal by that way the hydraulic braking
1. Unlike the mechanical brakes it system works. The brake fluid is generally
is simple in construction with no made up of glycol with different alcoholic
mechanical lever and linkage. additives. In addition, the brake fluid can
2. The braking force in this system is also be prepared by good quality silicon
uniformly distributed to all the wheels. based fluids.
6 - Braking System 96

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 96 01/11/2022 11:50:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

1. Brake pedal
2. Master cylinder
3. Brake Fluid pipelines
4. Hose pipes
5. Wheel cylinder
6. Brake shoes
7. Brake linings
8. Return springs
The parts listed above are discussed
Figure 6.4.1.1 Quality of the brake fluid in the following paragraphs.

In general the quality brake fluids

Master cylinder and its type
such as DOT3, DOT4, DOT5, DOT5.1
are commonly used in modern vehicles. Master cylinder acts as the heart
These brake fluids are certified by the of the hydraulic braking system. By
Society of Automotive Engineers (S.A.E). pressing brake pedal, master cylinder
The DOT3 type brake fluid is widely used supplies the required amount of the
in both cars and heavy vehicles. pressurized brake fluid to the wheel
cylinders for expanding the brake shoes
Requirements of a brake fluid of the wheel cylinder. There are three
different types of master cylinders used
The following are the important
in automobiles. They are
requirements of a brake fluid to be used
in automobiles. 1. Simple master cylinder
2. Tandem master cylinder
1. It should withstand high temperature.
3. Center valve type master cylinder
The boiling point of the brake fluid
should be approximately 300oC. Among the above types, the first
2. Even at high temperatures the brake two are mostly used in automobiles.
fluid should not lose it’s viscosity and The details of construction and working
lubricity. principle of the above two cylinders are
3. It should lubricate the various parts of discussed below.
the braking system.
4. It should not react and corrode with Simple type master cylinder
the rubber and metal parts of the
Construction
braking system.
5. It should not lose its properties when The master cylinder is generally
it is stored for very long time (upto the made up of cast iron material. The master
maximum of 3 years). cylinder consists of a reservoir tank for
storing brake fluid and a compressor unit
Parts of the hydraulic braking system for operating the braking system. In these
The hydraulic braking system of an two parts are completely filled with brake
automobile consists of the following parts fluid. In the top of the reservoir unit there

6 - Braking System 97

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 97 01/11/2022 11:50:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

is a filler cap fitted for pouring the brake as inlet port and bypass port located
oil and it is closed tightly. In the filler on the wall which separates reservoir
cap a small air vent hole is provided for tank and compressor unit. The inlet port
maintaining the atmospheric air pressure is made as slightly larger, whereas the
in the reservoir. The sectional view of bypass port is smaller in their construction.
the master cylinder can be seen in Figure In the front face of the piston small
6.4.1.3. The piston travels front and back feed holes are provided. In front of the
inside the reservoir chamber. The push feed holes a primary rubber cup is also
rod and brake pedal are connected with present.
each other. These feed holes allow the brake
As the return or helical spring is fluid to move from backside of the piston
placed in front of the piston, the piston to the front. A check valve and a return
always stays in the direction where the spring are provided in front of the primary
push rod stays. With this arrangement a rubber cup. A secondary rubber cup is
check valve is also connected with four also located at the back side of the piston
wheel adapter for transferring brake for avoiding brake fluid leakages. In
fluid to four wheels. In addition to this this arrangement, the check valve and
operating system a brake light switch is primary rubber cup arrangement act as
also connected. There are two ports called one way valve.

Air vent hole

Cap

Body
RESERVOIR
Washer

Piston holes Circlip

Primary rubber cap
Inlet port
Compression Bypass port
Push rod
chamber

Piston

Fluid check Return spring Rubber cap

valve Rubber cap

Secondary rubber cap

Figure 6.4.1.2 (a) Sectional view of a master cylinder

6 - Braking System 98

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 98 01/11/2022 11:50:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Working of master cylinder the piston. Hence the required fluid for
When the brake pedal is pressed the next piston operation is made available
at the front side of piston.
Normally, the piston inside the
master cylinder is positioned in the
Tandem master cylinder
backward position due to the action of the
tensile force of the return spring. Hence In normal master cylinders only one
due to the opening of inlet and bypass ports outlet is generally provided. Moreover,
the brake oil is filled at the front and back from the location point of view, the master
side of the piston. When the brake pedal cylinder is located very near to the front
is pressed by the driver, the piston rod wheels and the rear wheels are far away
connected to the brake pedal pushes the from the master cylinders. Hence, while
piston in the forward direction. Because braking the time taken by the brake fluid
of this action, the two holes are sealed to travel from the master cylinder to reach
and fluid is pressed well. The compressed the rear wheel cylinder becomes long.
fluid is then passed through the one way Hence the applied braking force is varied
valve to the wheel cylinder through the for both the front and rear wheels. Hence,
pipe lines connected with it. Now the Tandem master cylinder was designed to
two pistons inside the wheel cylinder are overcome the above said problem. The
pushed outward. Because of this action photographic view of the tandem master
the brake shoes are expanded with help cylinder can be seen in Figure.
of the piston’s push rod which forces the In this cylinder there are separate
brake drum to stop from rotation and outlets available for front and rear wheels.
stops the wheel from the rotation. The brake fluid is passed to the wheel
cylinders through separate pipelines
When the brake pedal is released and the braking action is performed. In
The pressure inside the master this type of master cylinders, initially
cylinder is reduced. At the same time due the brake fluid is sent to the rear wheels
to the tensile force of return spring brake and then to the front wheels. By that way
shoes are relieved from the brake drum equal amount of braking force is applied
and pulled towards in. Hence the pistons at a time for both the wheels. Hence the
inside the wheel cylinders are moved chance for the faulty operation or faulty
inward. Hence the brake fluid which is situation during braking is eliminated. In
staying in the pipes is forced backwards the modern vehicles mostly tandem type
and sent to the master cylinder through master cylinder is used. The construction
the test valve. and working principle of the Tandem
master cylinder can be seen in Figure.
In the master cylinder when the
piston moving in backward direction, the
While pressing brake pedal
brake fluid is initially sent to the reservoir
through bypass port. At the same time Si m i l ar to t he nor ma l maste r
through the feed holes in the piston the cylinder, tandem master cylinder also
brake fluid is moved to the front side of has pistons, primary rubber cap, return
6 - Braking System 99

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 99 01/11/2022 11:50:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Air vent hole

Reservoir

Inlet port

Bypass port

First piston Return spring

To front brake

Push rod
Second piston
To rear brake

Figure 6.4.1.4 (a) Photographic view of the tandem master cylinder

spring with test valves - all are in two sets, of pistons and comes back to the master
therefore when the driver press the brake cylinders.
pedal, the piston inside the cylinder is
Through the pipelines the brake
moved by means of the push rod and hence
fluid reaches the inlet port and pushes the
the brake fluid is discharged initially to
pistons out there. Hence the both brake
the rear wheels. In addition, while pressing
the brake pedal the second piston is also shoes are expanded against tensile force
finely moved and through another way the caused by the return spring and mate with
brake fluid is passed to the wheel cylinder brake drum which create friction and tend
of the front wheels and the brakes are to stop the wheels. Also by releasing brake
activated. When the legs are removed from pedal the fluid pressure is got reduced.
the brake pedal, the brake fluid pressure is Furthermore, by means of return spring
reduced. Hence the brake fluid in the wheel the brake shoes are pulled and the pistons
cylinders is pushed backward by means get back to its original positions.
6 - Braking System 100

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 100 01/11/2022 11:50:58 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Fulid
reservior
Fuild intake Equalisation
Equalisation and return port
port port
Circuit 2 Circuit 1
Snap
ring
Fulid intake
and return
Pushrod port

Circuit 1
return
spring

Master
cylinder
Spacer body

Plunger Rear Bore Circuit 2 Circuit 2 Circuit 2 Circuit 1

dust seal hydraulic rear return front rear
seal seal spring seal seal

Figure 6.4.1.4 (b) Sectional view of the Tandem master cylinder

Wheel cylinder and its types

T here are t wo t yp es of w he el
cylinders are used. They are
1. One piston type
2. Two piston type

Wheel cylinder
It is located on the brake carrier Direction of wheel
rotation
plate in between the two brake shoes. This Wheel cylinder
Pressure
applied
Inlet port
Piston Trailing
Cylinder Self-servo shoe
action

Leading Return
shoe spring

Return spring
Figure 6.4.1.5 (a) Arrangement of the
Rubber
Dust cover cup wheel cylinder
6 - Braking System 101

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 101 01/11/2022 11:50:59 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

end part of the hydraulic brake system which is connected to the pistons pushes
is called as slave cylinder. It is made up brake shoes in the outward direction
of cast iron. In wheel cylinder only the and allows the shoes to press the brake
hydraulic pressure is converted in to drum. By this way the brake is actuated
mechanical work of brake shoes. and reduces the speed of wheels.
When the brake pedal is released,
Construction pressure in the wheel cylinder is reduced.
There are two movable pistons Due to the action of the spring force both
located inside the wheel cylinder. At the the pistons are moved towards the inward
center position of these pistons inlet port direction. Hence the brake fluid is returned
is located. Nearer to this an bleeder screw back to the compression chamber of the
is located. For avoiding oil leakages on master cylinder from the wheel cylinder
the surroundings of the pistons, a rubber through the same pipelines. The working
seal is fitted on it. For avoiding sticking principle of the hydraulic brake can be
of the pistons a return spring is fitted in seen in Figure.
between them. Moreover, to avoid entering
of dust particles inside the cylinder a dust Bleeding system in hydraulic
cover is fitted on both the sides. brake
In the hydraulic brake system if
Working principle there is any air enters into any part of
When the brake pedal is pressed by the braking system then the braking
the driver, the brake fluid in the master system will not functioning properly or
cylinder is pressurized and enters in to the totally. Thus the air must be removed.
center of the wheel cylinders through the The process of removing the air present
pipelines. This pressurized fluid pushes in the braking system is called as the
the pistons inside the cylinder in the bleeding system in hydraulic brakes. To
opposite direction and hence the push rod release the air, the filler cap is opened

Expander or wheel Air or

cylinder hydraulic pressure

!!
eak
Squ
Brake lining

Brake shoe

Brake drum

Space Produces friction

When driving When braking

Figure 6.4.1.5 (b) Arrangement of the wheel cylinder

6 - Braking System 102

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 102 01/11/2022 11:50:59 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

on the top of the master cylinder and a removing the air bubbles from all the
bottle (which contains the brake fluid) is wheels the brake fluid must be poured
kept at certain height as shown in Figure into the reservoir and the tank must be
and connected it through the pipe lines filled.
with master cylinder.
The Bleeder valve in wheel cylinder 6.4.2 Air Brake
must be connected with one end of the Introduction
bleeder pipe and other end dipped in the
G enera l ly t he p er for mance of
brake fluid in the bottle which is filled
hydraulic brake is based on the amount
by one third of brake fluid inside the
force applied on the brake pedal by the
container. Now by pressing the brake
driver. Hence for obtaining high braking
pedal randomly, the air bubbles presents
force the driver has to press the brake
inside the master cylinders and pipe lines
pedal at high force. This causes the driver
are purged out by the brake fluid to the
more tiresome. To eliminate this difficulty
container placed in the floor through the
and obtaining maximum braking force by
bleeder valve and bleeder pipe.
less pressing, other brake systems such as
After purging the air bubbles by air type, vacuum type and electric type
repeatedly pressing the brake pedal, brakes are used. The air brake is discussed
the pipe line which is connected to the in the following section. Absorbing the
bleeder valve has to be removed and the ambient air, compressing it to a very high
tube connected to the filler cap must be pressure and operating the braking system
closed. The same procedure should be is called as air brake which is used mostly
followed for all the four wheels. Initially in all vehicles. The construction of the
the air bubbles must be purged from the normal air brake is shown in Figure. The
wheels which are far away from the master brake cam ‘S’ placed on the brake carrier
cylinder. by the following air bleeding plate is actuated by the pressurized air
procedure for the wheels which are far obtained from the air compressor operated
away from the wheel cylinders. After by the engine. Hence the brake shoes are

Liquid
supplying
bottle
Bleeder valve
Brake pedal Filler
cap
Master
cylinder Tube

Fluid jar

Figure 6.4.1.6 Bleeding system in hydraulic brake

6 - Braking System 103

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 103 01/11/2022 11:50:59 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

1. Brake System:
Modern braking components need exceptional wear resistance, heat
resistance and of course exceptional stopping capabilities because, under
extreme conditions, their operating temperatures can average over 350 Celsius
and peak at up to 700º Celsius.In race use, 400 to 600º C is common on smaller
cars. In touring cars and larger race cars temperatures shoot up to 800 - 900º C
where the discs will glow red or orange.

expanded and the wheels are stopped While releasing brake pedal
from rotation. Brake chambers are located While releasing the brake pedal,
nearer to each wheel of the vehicle. exhaust valve in the brake valve is opened.
Each chamber is connected to the Hence the pressurized air in the brake
reservoir tank through pipelines. When chamber is forced through exhaust valve
the brake pedal is pressed the brake from the same way as the air enters to
valve is started to operate. Through the the chamber. At that time, the diaphragm
brake valve the pressurized air from the inside the brake chamber is pushed in
reservoir tank is sent to the brake chamber. backward direction with the help of
In the brake chamber a slack adjuster is the spring force. At the same time slack
operated with help of diaphragm lever adjuster and “S” cam are moved back to
which is connected to it. By pressing the their original position. Thus brake shoes
top end of the slack adjuster the bottom are pulled inward and released from the
end turns the “S” cam and rotates the brake drum.
lever. Hence the brake shoes which are
connected with the S cam get expanded Parts of air brake
and the brake drum is stopped from 1. Air cleaner
rotation. 2. Air compressor
6 - Braking System 104

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 104 01/11/2022 11:51:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Air compressor

Air
Air Air tank To Accessories
fillter

One way valve

Brake Brake Brake

chamber valve chamber

Brake Brake
chamber chamber

Figure 6.4.2 (a) Air Brake

Delivery line Delivery line

Supply
line
Foot value

Safety
value

Front brake Governor Reservoir Rear brake

Compressor

Figure 6.4.2 (b) Working Principle of an Air brake system

3. Unloader valve the cylinder, the suction port is opened

4. Air tank and through this way the atmospheric
5. Pressure gauge air enteres in to the cylinder. When the
6. Relief valve piston moves upward, exhaust valve is
7. Brake valve and brake pedal opened and through the exhaust port the
8. Brake light switch compressed air is sent to the reservoir
9. Brake chamber and tank.
10. Slack adjuster
Governor or unloader valve
Air compressor This valve controls the compressed
The device used to produce air being stored in excess pressure in the
compressed air which is required air storage tank. Normally the air pressure
for operating the air brake is the air should be maintained at 7.5 kg/cm 2 in
compressor. It is a reciprocating type air the reservoir tank. When the pressure
compressor. It works on the principle that exceeds above this limit, the unloader
when the piston moves downwards inside valve opens automatically and releases the
6 - Braking System 105

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 105 01/11/2022 11:51:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

compressed air to the atmosphere. When Slack adjuster

the pressure of the air in the reservoir The slack adjuster is attached at the
reaches to 6.5 kg/cm 2, the governor valve end of the diaphragm lever coming out
automatically closes. from the brake chamber. The bottom edge
of the slake adjuster is attached to the S
Reservoir tank cam which is used to operate the brake
Reservoir tank is used for storing system. Therefore due to the compressed
amount of air required for operating the air diaphragm is moved for ward and
brake system. It is made up of steel plate. allowed to rotate the S cam that expands
There are provision given for air inlet the brake shoes which actuate the brake.
and draining the impurities from the
tank. In addition to these arrangement Advantages of air brake system
a safety valve is also located at the top of 1. As compared to mechanical and
the tank for maintaining the air pressure. hydraulic brakes it has more power
and efficiency. Hence it is mostly used
Brake valve in heavy vehicles.
This valve is fitted below the brake 2. The parts of the brake system can be
pedal. When the driver presses the brake fitted to anywhere in the vehicle. So
pedal, the piston in the brake valve is moved the chassis structure becomes simpler.
downward. It connects the compressed 3. Compressed air in the reservoir tank
air with the brake chambers. Therefore can be also used to operate air horn,
the compressed air is sent to the brake screen wiper and to fill air for tyres.
chamber located at the four wheels. 4. The driver does not feel tiresome by
operating the air brake because of its
Brake chamber simpler actuation.
5. It has low maintenance cost.
Near to the each wheels, one brake
6. The air brake system is widely used
chamber is located and connected with
in heavy vehicle because it response
the wheels. The brake chamber is made
is faster than any other systems and it
up of steel plate. The brake chambers
works accurately.
are separated by the diaphragm made
up of rubber. One chamber is connected
to the pressurized air coming from the 6.4.3 Servo brake
brake valve and the another chamber is For stopping the heavy vehicles,
attached to the brake cam that operates higher amount of braking force is required.
the brake through the diaphragm. The Hence for increasing the braking force
diaphragm element is compressed by a the driver has to apply more force on
spring and the spring is located in the the brake pedal. During long distance
brake chamber. While pressing the brake travels the driver becomes tired due to
pedal, the compressed air against the the above problem. To avoid this difficulty
spring force moves the diaphragm and and help the drivers any one type of
tends to expand the brake shoes. brake is chosen and the brake system
6 - Braking System 106

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 106 01/11/2022 11:51:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

is coupled with the other brake system be applied by the servo braking system.
that enhances and converts the small The schematic of this brake is shown in
power of the driver in to multiple times Figure 6.4.3.1.
of the power for braking the vehicle. For operating the brake system
This type of brake system is called as there are two air compressors and control
the ser vo brake. Generally, by using valves used in this system. Apart from
less amount of force getting more amount these, connecting pipes are present to
of power is called as servo action. In connect the servo unit with the master
this way, using additional power from cylinder to combine the air pressure with
the high pressure air or from vacuum hydro power. When driver presses the
the hydraulic brakes are operated. This brake pedal, the piston lever inside the
type of brake is called as servo brake or servo unit is moved forward. At that time
energized brake. the inlet valve in the master cylinder is
opened and the compressed air is allowed
Air servo brake or air assisted to enter into the cylinder for increasing
hydraulic brake the pressure. Hence the brake fluid is
In this type of brakes for increasing sent out with high pressure to the wheel
the force on a piston of the master cylinder, cylinder and operates the brakes. When
compressed air is used. In this type of the driver releases the brake pedal, the
braking system half of the pressure applied outlet valve is opened and the compressed
to the pedal from the simple hydraulic air is sent out through this valve. Hence
braking is sufficient to operate the system. the brake shoes are released from the
Moreover, even in case of any leakage in brake drum and the drum is allowed to
the compressed air path, the brakes can rotate which rotates the wheels.

Brake Servo
pedal booster

To wheel
Air fillter Control Unit cylinder

Air inlet Master

cylinder

Air Air tank

compressor

Figure 6.4.3.1 Air servo brake or air assisted hydraulic brake

6 - Braking System 107

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 107 01/11/2022 11:51:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Bypass

Air valve
Vacuum
chamber

Air valve
diaphragm
Main
diaphragm

Air-valve
piston

To capliers
and slaves Return
spring
From master
Slave piston
Push rod

Vaccum from
inlet manifold

Figure 6.4.3.1 (a) Schematic of the Air assisted servo Brake system

Vacuum servo brake valves are arranged in a compressed state

The schematic view of the vacuum with the help of two springs. The valve
servo brake is shown in the figure. This type at the top of the control unit controls
of brake system utilizes the vacuum created the atmospheric pressure controls the
at the inlet manifold of engine and increases connections in the left side of the piston
the braking force. The vacuum reservoir in the servo cylinder. Similarly, valve at
is connected to the inlet manifold of the bottom of the control unit controls the
engine with a non-return valve. Moreover, connections between the vacuum reservoir
vacuum reservoir is connected on both sides which is located in the right side of the
of pistons inside the servo cylinder. In this control unit and ser vo cylinder. The
way the vacuum reservoir is attached to the piston inside the control unit is actuated
right side of the piston in the Servo cylinder by master cylinder. In the control unit
and the left side is attached with the control valve at the top is in closed position and
unit and the schematic of vacuum assisted bottom will be in opened position when
servo brake can be seen in Figure 6.4.3.2. there is no any force applied to the brake
pedal. Thus, the two sides of the piston
There is a piston in the control unit inside servo cylinder are equally contacted
that has two valves attached to it. These with the vacuum in the inlet manifold.
6 - Braking System 108

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 108 01/11/2022 11:51:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

To atmosphere

Servo
cylinder

Control
unit

To
brake

Brake
pedal

Non-return
valve
Brake
fuild

Vacuum
reservoir

To inlet
manifold

Master
cylinder

Figure 6.4.3.2 (b) Schematic of the Vacuum assisted servo Brake system

When pressing the brake pedal the the braking force got reducing while the
pressure developed on the brake fluid driver presses the brake pedal.
inside the master cylinder pushes the
piston inside the control unit in upward
direction. Hence the valve in the bottom 6.4.4 Engine exhaust brake
of the control unit gets closed and valve It is used as an assistant brake
at the top get opened. Therefore right side in heavy vehicles such as TATA .While
of the piston inside the servo cylinder traveling down continuously, in heavy
contacted with atmospheric air. Hence traffic roads and when travelling for a
the vacuum force completely spread over long distance safely and slowly by applying
the right side of the piston in the servo the brake this type of brake is helpful.
cylinder and moves the piston lever in This type of brake is more suitable for
the same direction. This transfer in place the vehicles travelling at less than 40 km
of piston actuates the braking system speed. However, this type of brake system
with the path of connections. By this way is not applicable for stopping the vehicle

6 - Braking System 109

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 109 01/11/2022 11:51:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

suddenly as the other brake systems which reduced. Hence the piston moves back
is the disadvantage of this brake system. and the friction pad is released from the
disc and releases the brake on the brake
disc. Similar to the drum brake, there is
6.5 Disc type brake
a bleeder screw provided in the caliper
In modern vehicles the disc assembly in a disc brake.
type brake is widely used apart from
drum type brake system. In this type Caliber
assembly
of brake system a circular brake disc
as shown in Figure 6.5 is used instead of
Wheel bearing
brake drum. Moreover instead of brake
shoe flat friction grip is used in this
system.
The disc brake system is shown
in Figure 6.12. When the brake pedal is
pressed by the driver, the simple hydraulic Disc pads

pressure actuates the compressed brake

fluid and moves the two pistons towards
Wheel studs Disc/rotor
the caliper assembly. Hence the friction
pad next to the pistons is moved inward
Figure 6.5 View of the Disc Brake system
and presses the revolving disc located in
between them. Therefore, the wheel hub
and wheel which is connected to the disc Advantages in disc brake
is stopped from rotation. When the driver 1. Lower weight in construction than
releases the brake pedal, the pressure on other brakes.
the pistons inside the caliper assembly is 2. Brake force is very high.

From master cylinder

Brake Caliper unit

applied

Brake not applied

Figure 6.5 Disc type Brake

6 - Braking System 110

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 110 01/11/2022 11:51:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3. It is sufficient to give low pressure on 2. It is essential to use servo unit because

a brake pedal by the driver. of more amount of hydraulic force is
4. Has less components and hence it can required to stop the vehicle.
be easily assembled and dismantled. 3. If the disc brake is fitted to the rear
5. The brake efficiency is not affected wheels, then hand brake system is
even if the vehicle goes in the water. essential as the additional requirement.
6. Testing and maintenance are simple. 4. This system cannot be efficient for
7. As the disc is exposed to the ventilated heavy vehicle applications.
air the heat can be immediately
transfer to the atmosphere. 6.6 Anti-lock brake
system
Disadvantages
Generally the purpose of the brake is
1. As compared to normal brake shoes and to reduce the speed of the vehicles within
linings the wear occurring in the brake a particular distance. The brake system
pad of the disc brake is very quick. which is presently used in automobiles

ABS Enable

Angular
velocity Angular
Wheel speed d/dt ABC Logic
sensor (in soft) control
Acceleration
ABS ECU

Axle or Solenoid
wheel signal
rotation

Hydraulic pressure
Brake application Modulation values

With ABS

Braking point

Without ABS

Figure 6.6 Effect of ABS on the Vehicle

6 - Braking System 111

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 111 01/11/2022 11:51:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

F1 Racing Car Disc Brake Pads for a Formula 1 car cost $250 a piece,
and during the course of racing and testing, a team will use around
1000 of them each season. That makes for an annual bill of $250,000
for pads alone. Then there are the rotors, callipers, fluids and other
components before you even start considering the things that make
a car go rather than stop.

6 - Braking System 112

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 112 01/11/2022 11:51:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

provides the required braking force for 6.7 Hand brake

controlling the speed of vehicle. However,
Release handle
suddenly or unexpectedly when the vehicle
is stopped, the vehicle is pulled away
from its normal braking due to the road Operating lever Catch rod
condition, condition of the tread and
vehicle load etc. This situation leads to
accidents.
Spring
To avoid this situation, before the Guide
Ratchet Pawl
vehicle is started to pull along one side,
the antilock braking system provides
braking force to stop the wheel by giving
Cable
and releasing the force intermittently. It is Bracket

a kind of special type of braking system

Figure 6.7 Hand Brake
called as ABS system. In this system a
hydraulic control unit and an electronic During normal operating conditions,
control unit are considered as important for stopping t he vehicle fo ot bra ke
components. ECU receives the signals based is commonly used. However, during
on the various programming situations emergency or dangerous situations when
from the wheels (input signals) under the foot operated brake loses its ability
various conditions and converts them to operate correctly, then hand brake is
into input control signals and then sends used to stop the vehicle. Moreover when
to the hydraulic control unit. the vehicle is climbing down on lower
Hence the system opens the brake roads and when the vehicle is under
fluid valve intermittently and prevent unbalanced condition of the load, the
the wheel to lock completely. The block hand brake is used to avoid movement of
diagram of the ABS can be seen in Figure vehicle automatically. As the hand brake
6.6 and the effect of ABS on the vehicle is use to stop the vehicle and bring it to
during braking can be seen in Figure. its balanced condition it is also called as
parking brake.
Advantages of A.B.S system Hand brake is totally separated from
1. It prevents the vehicle pulling from the foot brake system. Mostly mechanical
one side during braking. type brake is used in the hand brake system.
2. Reduces the stopping distance of the The hand brake is connected with the rear
vehicle wheels. wheels which receive the final drive. The
3. Brake lining and the parts of the brake hand operated brake lever is placed on
which withstand the vibration could the right side of the driver’s seat.
work for long time
4. It is possible to drive and steer the Working principle
vehicle under control even during Hand brake works based on the
risky suituations. ratchet and pawl mechanism. When the
6 - Braking System 113

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 113 01/11/2022 11:51:02 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

ratchet release lever is pressed at the top Brake drum

of the hand brake, the pawl is moved up Hub

and releases the ratchet. However while
pulling the lever in upward direction, cable
is also pulled towards the upward direction.
The cable actuates the mechanical brake
which is connected to it and stops the
rear wheel by applying force. Moreover
ratchet release lever releases and moves
the pawl towards downward direction
with a help of spring and again connects
the ratchet. By this way hand brake is
operated to stop the vehicle.

Figure 6.8.1 Brake drum

6.8 Common parts of
braking system 6.8.2 Brake shoes
The common parts of brake system
are listed below
1. Brake drum
2. Brake shoes
3. Brake linings

6.8.1 Brake drum

Brake drums are commonly opened
in the inner side and closed on the outer
side. The brake shoes present inside the
brake drum are expanded and operate the
brake. Due to the friction created while
operating the brake system the brake
drum is heated up and the temperature
of the drum is increased. To reduce this
temperature, fins are located at outside the
Figure 6.8.2 Brake shoes
brake drum. The brake drum should not
wear due to friction caused inside while In each brake carrier plate two
rotating and it must have high thermal brake shoes are provided. The brake shoes
conductivity to dissipate heat quickly. looks like in “T” shaped cross section.
Moreover it must be of less weight and it The right hand side of the brake shoe is
must have enough strength. Brake drums called as the primary brake shoe and the
are mostly made up of cast iron or nickel shoe in the left hand side is is called as
chromium steel alloy or Aluminium alloy the secondary brake shoe. The bottom
materials. edges of the two brake shoes are connected
6 - Braking System 114

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 114 01/11/2022 11:51:02 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

with carrier plate through anchor pins. In shape. Brake linings are classified in to
between the top edges of the brake shoe, two types, they are
brake cam or wheel cylinder is located. 1. Solid woven type
Both the brake shoes are in the 2. Molded type.
pulling position with help of the retracting
spring. Brake liners are fixed on the
outer face of the brake shoes by riveting
or by using the lining cement. The edge
of brake shoe which presses the brake
drum first is called as the leading shoe
and the edge which presses the brake
drum later is called as the trailing shoe.
Brake shoes are often made up of cast Figure 6.8.3 (b) Brake linings
iron or steel.

1. Solid woven type brake liner

6.8.3 Brake linings
It is made up of a non-metallic
Top of the twisted asbestos thread. The average
brake shoe
Toe compression coefficient of this liner is
0.4. This type of liner is easily tolerable
260°C up to 350°C. It is manufactured
by asbestos threaded fibers which are
combined with brass and zinc rods that
could not be easily subjected to wear.
These types of brake liners are used in
Adjusting
end Anchor end
cars and heavy vehicles. These brake
liners are attached to the brake shoes
Heel using riveting method.

Figure 6.8.3 (a) Brake linings 2. Moulded type brake liner

This type of brake liners are made
Brake linings are placed on the outer of natural asbestos fibers with resin-
face of the brake shoes. While pressing like synthetic paste by using moulding
the brake pedal the brake linings are technology. The average friction coefficient
only in contact with the brake drum and of this liner is 0.4. This liner could be
reduces the speed of wheels. Therefore operated at the temperature between
in brake linings the temperature reaches 400°C to 450°C without any wear.
to about 350°C more and wear occurs.
Hence the brake lining should be made
6.9 Brake adjustment
to withstand very high temperature and
wear resistant and should not change its Brake linings and brake joints get
worn out due to the continuous usage of
6 - Braking System 115

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 115 01/11/2022 11:51:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

the brakes. Hence the efficiency of the by a new one. If it is a hydraulic braking
brakes decreases or becomes inactive. system then the paths (through which
Therefore, at the particular interval of time the brake fluid is circulated) have to be
the brake system has to be checked and cleaned. Used parts of the wheel cylinder
adjusted for correct action if necessary. and master cylinder must be replaced
The adjustments in the brake system can by new parts. Required amount of brake
be done by the following two modes: fluid must be refilled.
1. Minor adjustment Anchor pin and brake shoes must
2. Major adjustment be corrected according to the requirement.
The movement of the brake pedal should
6.9.1 Minor Adjustment also be checked and adjusted as per the
In this method, without removing requirement. For more detailed procedures
the wheels, the adjustments are made in on working methods, the manual supplied
the brake shoes upto the extent till the by the vehicle manufacturers must be
wear occurs. Generally in the vehicles referred.
front wheel brake shoes wear faster than
the brake shoes in the rear wheels. Hence 6.10 Brake pedal free
the brake drum has to be removed from play
the wheels and checked. If there are no
When the brake pedal is pressed,
problems (as stated below) then a small
the parts of the brake will not respond
adjustment is enough.
to function. First, the brake pedal will
i) Wear occurred in brake drum or brake move to a certain distance. This distance
drum leaves the center position. is named as brake pedal free play. After
ii) Brake shoes are soaked in brake fluid this movement, further pressing of the
iii) The brake shoes get wearer and the brake pedal starts the parts of the brakes
top of the rivet is visible outside the to function and stops the wheel. The
brake shoes. “motionless movement” of the brake pedal
is generally less than 10 mm. Driving
6.9.2 Major Adjustment
and stopping the vehicles with control
In this method all the brake drum can be possible only by understanding
and brake shoes must be checked by this “motionless movement”.
removing all the brake drums. If there is
any wear found in the brake drum or if
the brake drum is shifted from the center 6.11 Brake Efficiency
position, then it has to be corrected by To stop the vehicle the maximum
using the brake drum lathe and used. braking force or retarding force (F) is
If the wear of the brake drum is more, applied on the wheel. This braking force
then the drum must be replaced by a depends on the m- called as the co efficient
new drum. If there is any wear occurred of friction between the tyre tread and the
in brake shoes for about 1 mm or above road and the total load (W) acting on the
that, then the brake shoe must be replaced vehicle. That is
6 - Braking System 116

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 116 01/11/2022 11:51:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

ii. Time taken for pressing brake pedal

F=μXW by the driver.
According to the above, the brake iii. The time taken for stopping the
efficiency is 100%. However, in practice, vehicle after the driver pressed the
100% of the brake efficiency is considered brake pedal.
as not safe and 50% is allowed in the foot
operated brake and 30% brake efficiency 6.13 Brake testing
for hand brakes. Different methods are used to calculate
the brake efficiency. The stop watch test is a
6.12 Stopping distance simple method among the testing methods.

Brakes after applying will not stop

the vehicles immediately. the vehicle 6.13.1 Stop watch test
moves certain distance and then only it For conducting this test the vehicle
stops. Normally if the vehicle is running at has to be operated at the speed of 40 km/
30 km/hour the vehicle will stop after hr to 50 km/hr. Any symbols in the road
4.5 m when the brake is actuated. This can be kept as a mark point. Once if the
distance is calculated with an approximation. vehicle is reached that symbol, then the
The vehicles stopping distance is varied brake pedal has to be pressed and the
according to the speed of the vehicle, surface time has to be noted using the stop watch.
of the road and the type of tread in the tire. The time taken for the vehicle from the
However, in case of emergencies and mark point and the stopping point of the
risky situations, the following factors should vehicle should be noted. Distance from
be taken into consideration. They are, the symbol to vehicle get stoped should be
noted. From this method we can identify
i. Time to think for pressing the brake
the stopping distance.
pedal by the driver.
6.14 Problems in brake systems, their causes and
remedies

Problem 1: Brakes not functioning

S.No Reasons Fixing methods

1 If brake shoes were broken or worn out. Have to be replaced.

2 Poor quality brake shoes Have to fix good quality brake
shoes
3 Oil leakages in the brake shoes Stop the leakage
4 If the fluid pressure is lower in the Check the fluid leak (or) need to
hydraulic brake system remove the air bubbles.
5 Brake actuating Cable (or) connections Have to be checked or removed
become loose
6 If the brake drum is unevenly worn out. Has to be corrected for the wear.

6 - Braking System 117

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 117 01/11/2022 11:51:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Problem 2: Lower braking efficiency

S.No. Reasons Fixing methods
1 Oil leakages from the brake drum and Have to change the brake shoes. Moreover
brake shoes the oil leakage must be stopped.
2 Connections and adjustments are away Have to be corrected Based on the
manufactures advice
3 Master cylinder damage in the Testing should be done to repair the
hydraulic brake system fault
4 Air bubbles present in the hydraulic Air bubbles have to be removed by
brake system using brake bleeding method. Required
quantity of brake oil has to be filled.
5 The cam used to move the brake is damaged New cam should be fixed

Problem 3: Brake binding

S.No. Reasons Fixing methods
1 If the return spring in the brake shoes or New springs should be affixed.
brake pedal losses its stiffness or have broken
2 Lack of lubrication in attachments Exactly, the attachments should
be properly lubricated
3 The size of the brake pedal free play in the Re-correct it
brake pedal is not correct
4 Any problems in wheel cylinder Have to repair by checking or
need to replace new one.
5 Bypass port in the master cylinder may get Need to clean the blockages
blocked using compressed air.

Problem 4: Noise is occurred when the is brake is operating

S.No. Reasons Fixing methods
1 If there is loose in Wheel bearing Need to remove the loose
connections and fix it.
2 If the brake drum and brake shoes were Two parts should be corrected and
released from its center. fixed in the same center.
3 If the wheel hub in a brake drum may be loose. Need to accelerate the brake drum well
4 There may be a chance of occurring Have to change the return spring
vibration in the brake shoes if the return
springs in the brake shoes are losses.
5 Brake shoes may be loosen in a brake disc Change the brake shoes and fix it
proper.

6 - Braking System 118

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 118 01/11/2022 11:51:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Student Activity

1. According to the curriculum, the students will be informed to go near by the two
wheelers service station for understanding the movement, parts and repairing methods
of drum type brake and need to submit a report to the organization.
2. Go to the nearest four-wheel drive workshop to know the parts, movement and
maintenance of the air brake and servo brake and have to submit a report.
3. Go to the nearest small four-wheel drive workshop and take a look at the parts of
hydraulic brake system and methods to removal of air from hydraulic brake system and
submit the report.

G Glossary
1 Brake – தடை
2. Brake pedal – தடை மிதி
3. Brake shoe – தடைக் கட்டை
4. Brake lining – தடைப் பட்டை
5. Brake drum – தடை உருளை
6. Drum type brake – உருளை வகை தடை
7. Disc type brake – தட்டு வகை தடை
8. Power brake – ஆற்றல் தடை
9. Hydraulic brake – திரவ தடை
10. Air brake – காற்று தடை
11. Vacuum brake – வெற்றிட தடை
12. Electric brake – மின்சார தடை
13. Brake cam – தடை கேம்
14. Brake band – தடைக் கட்டு
15. Lever – சுண்டி
16. Master cylinder – பிரதான சிலிண்டர்
17. Brake carrier plate – தடை தாங்கித் தட்டு
18. Wheel cylinder – சக்கர சிலிண்டர்
19. Brake oil – தடை எண்ணெய்
20. Return spring – திருப்புச் சுருள்
21. Braking force – தடை விசை
22. Mechanical advantage – இயந்திர லாபம்
23. Inlet port – உள்ளிழுக்கும் துவாரம்
24. Bypass port – புற வழித் துவாரம்
25. Check valve – ச�ோதனை
26. One way valve – திருப்பு வால்வு

6 - Braking System 119

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 119 01/11/2022 11:51:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

Webliography
1. https://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-the-braking-system-works
2. https://www.carparts.com/brakes.htm
3. https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/anti-lock-braking-system-abs-advantages-and-
disadvantages/
4. https://shop.advanceautoparts.com/r/advice/car-maintenance/brakes-basics-the-
components-in-the-braking-system
5. http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/06/types-of-braking-system.html
6. http://aermech.com/anti-lock-braking-system-abs-working/
7. https://www.holtsauto.com/holts/news/problem-solved-troubleshooting-brake-
problems/
8. https://www.autoanything.com/brakes/drums-vs-disc-brakes

6 - Braking System 120

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 120 01/11/2022 11:51:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer 5. What type of brake is mostly used
in cars?
1. What kind of energy is converted a) Mechanical brake
and how in the brake system. b) Hydraulic brake
a) Kinetic energy into static energy c) Air brake
b) Kinetic energy into electrical d) Vacuum brake
energy
c) Thermal energy in to kinetic 6. Which part in the wheel cylinder
energy is used to stop the leakage of brake
d) Frictional energy and heat energy fluid?
a) Piston
2. The frictional force between which b) Spring
two parts in the brake system is c) Dust cover
used to stop the vehicle? d) Cup
a) In between the brake drum and
wheel cylinder 7. Hand brake is driven by which
b) In between the brake drum and wheels?
brake shoes a) Rear wheels
c) In between the brake drum and b) Front wheels
wheel hub c) Left side wheels
d) In between the brake drum and d) Right side wheels
brake disc 8. Brake linings are generally made up
3. In which part the friction plate is of which material?
connected in the disc type brake a) Asbestos
system? b) Copper
a) Piston c) Cast iron
b) Caliper d) Aluminum alloy
c) Wheel hub 9. What is the name of the procedure
d) Axle casing for the removing of air from the
4. The actual percentage of braking hydraulic brake system?
efficiency of a new vehicle should be a) Cleaning
a) 40% b) Removing
b) 60% c) Bleeding
c) 80% d) Replacing oil
d) 100%

6 - Braking System 121

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 121 01/11/2022 11:51:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

10. Brake linings are affixed to which b) Brake drum

part? c) Wheel cylinder
a) Brake shoes d) Master cylinder

Part - B
Three mark questions

1. What is the need of brake system? 5. What are the additives mixed in the
brake fluid?
2. What are the advantages of disc
type brakes? 6. How the brake shoes are connected
to the brake linings?
3. What are the general types of
brakes? 7. What is meant by servo brake? And
its type?
4. What are the properties should be
there in brake fluid? 8. What are the advantages of antilock
brake system?

Part - C
Five mark questions

1. Describe the procedure of 4. Describe the manufacturing

removing air bubbles in the procedure of brake linings and the
hydraulic braking system. procedure for connecting brake
lining to the brake shoes.
2. Draw and name the parts of wheel
cylinder. 5. Distinguish between drum type
brake and disc type brake.
3. Describe the construction of brake
shoe with neat diagram. 6. Describe the disc type brake with
neat diagram.

Part - D
Ten mark questions

1. Draw the Line Diagram of air brake 3. Draw and explain the vacuum type
and describe it. servo brake system.

2. Explain the master cylinder in a hydraulic 4. Draw and explain about the tandem
brake system with neat diagram. master cylinder.

6 - Braking System 122

BAE_ENG_Chapter_06.indd 122 01/11/2022 11:51:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

7 Suspension System

Contents

7.0 Introduction 7.3.2.6 Rear

7.0.1 Functions of Suspension Independent
System Suspension
7.0.2. Properties of Suspension System
system 7.3.3 Air Supension
7.1 Springs System
7.1.1 Steel Spring Types 7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
7.1.2 Rubber Spring Types of Independent Suspension
7.1.3 Air Spring System
7.2 Helper Spring 7.5 Shock Absorber
7.3 Types of Suspension System 7.5.1 Friction Type
7.3.1 Conventional Suspension 7.5.2 Hydraulic Type
System 7.5.3 Air Type
7.3.2 Independent Suspension 7.6 Suspension System Trouble
System Shooting
7.3.2.1 Wish Bone Type 7.6.1 Noise In Suspension System
7.3.2.2 Vertical Guide Type 7.6.2 Frequent Failure in Leaf
7.3.2.3 Trailing Link Type Spring
7.3.2.4 MacPherson Strut Type 7.6.3 Uncomfortable Ride in
7.3.2.5 Swing Half Axle Type Vehicle

Learning objectives

1. Explain about the various types of Springs used in automobiles

2. Describe about the construction and working principle of various suspension
system used in automobiles
3. Explain about the purpose types and operations shock absorbers

7 - Suspension System 123

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 123 01/11/2022 11:53:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.0 Introduction 7.1 Spring

Many sub systems are assembled Spr i ng pl ay s a v it a l rol e i n a
t o f o r m a n au t o m o b i l e . Wi t h t h i s suspension system. Spring is located
automobile, the passenger and goods are between the wheel axle and the vehicle
transported from one location to another body or frame. When the vehicle runs
location. During travelling, if the road over a rough road, the spring absorb the
shocks are transmitted to the chassis road shock by compression and expansion.
without absorption, then it will provide Some part of the shocks are absorbed by
uncomfortable ride to the passengers as the tyres.
well as lead to failure of vehicle parts
and goods transported. To prevent this, 7.1 Spring Types
suspension systems are used and it is
7.1.1 Steel Springs
located between the axle housing and
the vehicle chassis. Thus, the suspension 7.1.2 Rubber Spring
system in automobile is a very important 7.1.3 Air Spring
in deciding vehicle drive comfort and the 7.1.4 Plastic Spring
stability of the vehicle.
7.1.1 Steel Springs types
7.0.1 Functions of suspension 1. Leaf spring
system 2. Coil Spring
1. To reduce the effect of the shock and 3. Stabilizer Bar
provide comfortable ride. 4. Torsion Bar
2. To prevent the damage of the vehicle
parts when the vehicle travel over a 7.1.1 Leaf Spring
rough road. Introduction
3. To prevent the steering system from This type of springs is widely used
road shocks in light and heavy commercial vehicles.
4. To prevent the occurrence of roll
over when the vehicle travel over an Construction
irregular road.
A leaf spring is built with number of
5. To connect the chassis and frame.
leaves. The leaves are placed one over the
other, and are held together by clamps and
7.0.2 Properties of Suspension a bolt at the center. The leaves are usually
system given an initial curvature or chambered,
1. The initial cost and the maintenance so that they will tend to straighten under
cost should be low load. The spring is clamped to the housing
2. Wear and tear of the parts should be by means of U – bolt. The longest leaf
low known as the main leaf or master leaf has
3. Weight should be less its ends formed in the shape of an eye.

7 - Suspension System 124

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 124 01/11/2022 11:53:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

O n e e n d of t h e l e af s pr i ng i s its original p osition. Thus the road

attached to the frame through shackle shocks are reduced and the ride comfort
as movable. Another end is attached is increased.
with anchor pin as non movable.
In light commercial vehicles spring
rubber or hard plastic bush are used.
Working Principle
Phosphor us bronze bushes are used
When the vehicle travel over a road i n h e av y c om m e rc i a l ve h i c l e s . T h e
undulation, the force from the road act lubricating oil with graphite is used in
on the leaf spring and the spring gets the bushes for lubrication.
straightened. This variation in length
is accommo dated by the os cillation
movement of the shackle. Thus, the Material
road force makes the deflection of the Chromium vanadium steel,
leaf spring and absorb the vibration. Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum steel,
During deflection, the energy is stored Silicon- manganese steel, are the typical
in the leaf spring and the stored energy materials that are used in the manufacturing
is dissipated when the leaf spring retains of leaf springs.

Shock absorber

Shackle

Rebound
clip

Differential
assembly

Leaf spring

Figure 7.1.1 Leaf Spring

7 - Suspension System 125

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 125 01/11/2022 11:53:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.1.1.1 Type of Leaf Spring arrangement is mostly

7.1.1.1 (a) Quarter Elliptic Leaf Spring used in automobile and
7.1.1.1 (b) Semi Elliptic Leaf Spring it resembles the semi
7.1.1.1   (c) Three Quarter Elliptic Leaf Spring ellipse in shape. The leaf
7.1.1.1   (d) Full Elliptic Leaf Spring spring is made-up of a
7.1.1.1 (e) Transverse Leaf Spring number of steel leaves.
Each leaf is of a different length, but
(a) Quarter Elliptic Leaf Spring with equal width and thickness. The
The figure 7.1.1.1 (a) shows the uppermost longest leaf having bushes
simple arrangement. The one end is fixed at its two ends, is called the master leaf.
on the side member of the frame by means The one end of the spring is rigidly fixed
of U Clamp or I Bolt while the other end to the vehicle frame while the other end
is freely connected to the front axle. In is attached with the help of shackle. The
such springs the camber is provided on shackle accommodates the variation in
the upward side so that the leaves tend the length while vehicle driving on rough
to straighten when the front axle beam terrains. This type of spring arrangement
is subjected to shock load. The cost and is requires less maintenance, easy to repair
the weight of this type spring is low. This and it has long life.
Frame side member
is also known as the cantilever type leaf
spring and it was used in olden days.
Frame side member Shackle

Front axle

Semi
elliptic Semi elliptical spring
Front axle
Quarter elliptical spring

Quarter-elliptic

Figure 7.1.1.1 (b) Semi-elliptical leaf

spring

Figure 7.1.1.1 (a) Quarter elliptic leaf (c) T

 hree quarter elliptic leaf
spring spring
The figure 7.1.1.1. (c) shows the
(b) Semi-elliptical leaf spring arrangement. The three quarter elliptical
The simple construction is shown spring is the combination of quarter
in the figure 7.1.1. (b). This type of elliptical spring and semi elliptical spring.
7 - Suspension System 126

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 126 01/11/2022 11:53:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

One end of the semi elliptical spring is

attached to the frame through shackle and
the other end of the semi elliptical spring
is attached to the quarter elliptical spring
by means of the shackle. The other end
is bolted to the frames and being rigidly
held by I – bolt. This type of arrangement
elliptic
was more popular in olden days and not
used now-a-days.

Three-quater-elliptic

Figure 7.1.1.1 (d) Full elliptic leaf spring

(e) T
 ransversely mounted semi-
elliptical inverted leaf spring
The figure 7.1.1.1 (e) shows the
arrangement. In this arrangement, a semi-
elliptical leaf spring is mounted transversely
along the width of the vehicle. The springs
are placed, so inverted that the longest leaf
Figure 7.1.1.1 (c) Three quarter elliptic is located at the bottom. The mid portion is
leaf spring fixed to the frame by means of U-bolt. The
specialty of this arrangement is the use of
(d) Full Elliptic Leaf Spring two shackles. The rolling tendency of this
type leads to its unsuitability for vehicles.
The simple construction of this
type is shown in figure 7.1.1.1 (d). In
Frame cross member
this type, two semi elliptical springs are
connected in opposite manner to form
Shackle Shackle
an elliptical shape. The full elliptical
spring is attached rigidly to both the
axle and the frame. Spring shackles are
not necessar y, since both the top and
bottom members will elongate by the Front axle
same amount when compressed. This Transverse spring

arrangement was used in olden cars Figure 7.1.1.1 (e) Transversely mounted
and not used now-a-days. semi-elliptical inverted leaf spring
7 - Suspension System 127

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 127 01/11/2022 11:53:05 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.1.1.2 Coil Spring and in Light Vehicles. It can be used

Its simple layout can be seen in the in b oth f ront and rear indep endent
figure 7.1.1.2. In this type one end of the suspension systems. It absorbs energy
spring is fixed with the frame, another twice than that of leaf spring. Coil spring
end is fixed with the lower control arm. can withstand shear stress and bending
When the vehicle rises over a bump the stress.
spring gets compressed and it will absorb
the energy. When the vehicle gets down Advantages
from the bump the spring expanded and 1. Less noise
release the energy. 2. Less weight
3. Less space is enough.
Spring 4. Simple in design.
diameter

Disadvantages
1. It can not withstand the torque and
lateral forces.

Spring length Number 7.1.1.3 Stabilizer bar

of coils

Lower Lower
wish wish
bone bone

Diameter of steel coil Connecting bush

into the frame Stablilizer bar

Figure 7.1.1.3 Stabilizer bar

Upper control arm Bushing

Upper ball joint The stabilizer bar is shown in figure

pivot shaft 7.1.1.3. The stabilizer bar is mounted in
between the two wheels. Stabilizer bars
are part of a car’s suspension system. They
Coil spring are sometimes also called anti-sway bars
Lower control arm Bushing or anti-roll bars. The main purpose is to
Lower ball joint try to keep the car’s body from “rolling”
Spindle
in a sharp turn. During turning, body
Figure 7.1.1.2 Coil spring roll occurs when more weight is placed
on the outside tires and less weight is
This type of suspension is commonly placed on the inside tires, which in turn
used in Independent Suspension Systems reduces traction and vehicle control. The
7 - Suspension System 128

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 128 01/11/2022 11:53:06 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

stabilizer bar is used to make the body of Crossmember

the vehicle will remain flat throughout a
turn so the weight stays evenly distributed
on all four tires. It is like a U shaped Torsion bar
adjuster nut
bar which used in front independent
suspension system.
Torsion bar

7.1.1.4 Torsion Bar

The simple layout of torsion bar is
shown in the figure 7.1.1.4. The torsion Lower
control arm
bar is made up of hardened steel alloys.
It works based on the torque principle.
It is used in the independent suspension Figure 7.1.1.4 (b) Torsion bar
system. The one end of the torsion bar
is fixed with frame and another end is
fixed with wheel arm. Wheel arm is 7.1.2 Rubber Spring
supported by bearing. Another end of The layout of rubber spring is
wheel arm is attached with the wheel shown in figure 7.1.2. Rubber springs
hub spindle. a re u s e d i n s u s p e n s i on s y s t e m s . It
While travelling in bumpy road, absorbs more vibrations than metal
the vibration absorption takes place by springs. There are different types of
twisting. To fix the torsion bar, a minimum rubber springs are used.
space is required. 1. Compression spring
2. Compression shear spring
3. Steel reinforced spring
Wheel hub
spindle
4. Progressive spring

Wheel arm
Frame

Axle
Torsion bar casing

Bearing

Figure 7.1.1.4 (a) Torsion bar Figure 7.1.2 Rubber Spring

7 - Suspension System 129

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 129 01/11/2022 11:53:07 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Advantages
1. It has the ability to store more energy
than steel and iron springs. Frame member
2. It will not break suddenly like metallic
springs. Air
3. The life of the spring is higher.
4. Rubber can withstand vibrations very Fexible bellows
well.
Lower wish-bone

7.1.3 Air Spring

Air spring
The layout of air spring is shown
in figure 7.1.3(1&2). Air spring gives Figure 7.1.3 (1) Bellow Type
more comfort and smooth ride to the
travellers. It provides more comfortable
ride when the vehicle is unloaded and 7.2 Helper Spring
loaded conditions. They are classified This system is widely used in heavy
into two types, namely, commercial vehicles, trucks. This helper
spring does not function during light
7.1.3 1. Bellow Type load condition. As the load increases,
2. Piston Type beyond a certain level, the spring will
start functioning. The helper spring is
integrated along with the Master leaf in
leaf spring. Due to the increased load, the
master leaf spring and helper leaf gets fully
expanded and the helper spring touches
the special bracket, makes the helper leaf
Air to function. This type of helper leaf is
Frame member
widely used in the rear axle.

Metal air contain

Piston 7.3 Types of
suspension system
Fexible diaphragm
1. Conventional suspension system
2. Front or Rear independent suspension
Lower wish-bone
system
3. Air suspension system
Figure 7.1.3 (2) Piston Type 4. Hydro elastic suspension system

7 - Suspension System 130

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 130 01/11/2022 11:53:08 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.3.1 Conventional suspension When a wheel climbs a bump, the other

system wheel will travel in its own path. Hence,
In this type, wheels are mounted on the vibration will not be transmitted
the two sides of the axle. Leaf spring or coil from one wheel to another which leads
spring is mounted in between the chassis to smooth ride to the passenger.
frame and axle. One end of the leaf spring
is attached rigidly usually the front, and the Types of Independent front
other end is attached through a shackle as suspension system
movable. The vibration is absorbed by the 1. Wishbone or Parallel link type.
compression and expansion of leaf spring 2. Vertical guide type
while travelling over a road with bump 3. Trailing link type
and pit. Two ends of the master leaf are 4. Macpherson strut type
connected with the kingpin and knuckle, so 5. Swing half axle type.
that vibration transferred from one side to
another. These types of suspension systems 7.3.2.1 Wishbone suspension
are mostly used in rear wheels alone. system

Advantages
Upper wishbone
1. Simple in design
2. Low cost
3. Less number of components
4. Less maintenance
Lower wishbone
Disadvantages
1. Road shocks from one wheel is Wishbone type independent suspension with coil spring

transmitted to another wheel. If the Figure 7.3.2.1 Wishbone suspension

road is irregular, the whole vehicle system
leans on one side.
2. As both the wheels do not get up or This system is shown in the figure
down simultaneously, so they will 7.3.2.1. This type of suspension system
rotate in different positions. is often used for front wheels. In this
system, two arms namely upper wishbone
Note arm and lower wishbone arm are used.
Due to the gyroscopic effect during The upper wishbone has a short arm
turning, wheel wobble or wheel shimmy and lower wishbone is a long arm and it
takes place in a wheel. This is a very is connected with the frame. Vibration
dangerous problem. damper and coil spring are fixed over the
rubber pad in between the lower wishbone
7.3.2 Independent Suspension arm and fixed cross member.
system Wishbone Arms keep the wheel
Independent Suspension systems in its position and transmit the load to
are commonly used in the front axle. the spring. Therefore, the tractive force,
7 - Suspension System 131

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 131 01/11/2022 11:53:08 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

brake force and lateral force get absorbed. When the wheel travel over the
Due to the shortened length of the upper bumpy road, spring compress or expands
arm the tire wear gets reduced. and this makes the stub axle to slide up
and down. In this type, caster angle,
Special Features camber angle and wheel direction are
1. Since length of upper wishbone is shorter remained unchanged as the wheel moves
than the lower wishbone, wheels are up and down. However, the disadvantage
slightly inclined. This leads to no slip in the is less strength.
tyre and the wheel track does not change
and hence the tyre wear is reduced. Notes
2. The two wishbone arms help in 1. While the vehicle running, the sliding
positioning the front wheels and they member is also moving up and down.
withstand the braking torque while Therefore, the spring gets compressed
braking. and elongated continuously.
3. There is no effect on one wheel while 2. When the specific wheel going through
other wheel travels through ups and up and down, the sliding member is
downs in the road. also moving up and down. However,
the castor and camber angle will not
7.3.2.2 Vertical guide suspension change.
system 3. This is system cannot be used because
The simple layout is shown in of its less strength.
figure 7.3.2.2. It is the first developed 4. The efficiency of the system is based
independent front suspension system. on the sliding member movement
In this suspension the kingpin is directly accuracy.
attached to the cross member of the frame 5. It is difficult to avoid the shock and
and spacing rod. The coil spring is fitted less holding that can occur.
as shown in the figure.
7.3.2.3 Trailing link types
Upper spacing
rod Construction
T h e f i g u re 7 . 3 . 2 . 3 s h ow s t h e
Kingpin construction of the trailing link type.
In this type of suspension system, coil
Wheel hub springs are positioned between cross
Coil spring
member and the trailing link. On the
other side of the trailing link, wheels are
fixed. In some vehicles, torsion bars are
used instead of horizontal coil spring.

Cross member
Working principle
Figure 7.3.2.2 Vertical guide suspension When the vehicle wheel passing over
system the bumps and pits, trailing arm oscillates
7 - Suspension System 132

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 132 01/11/2022 11:53:08 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

In Russia it’s considered a criminal offense to drive with a dirty car.

16% of people never wash their car.

like a springboard. The road disturbance is Introduction

absorbed by spring deflection. Multiplate It i s n a m e d a f t e r A m e r i c a n
shock absorber is used to dissipate the stored automotive engineer Earle S. Mac Pherson,
energy in spring. This type of suspension who originally invented and developed
system usage is very limited in vehicles, it the design. It is widely used in the front
is because of the maintenance and repair of suspension vehicles. The MacPherson
this suspension system are complex in nature. Strut type suspension system consists
of with a telescopic strut and a single
7.3.2.4 Mac Pherson Strut types arm along with a diagonal stay. Lower
Constructions are shown in the Wishbone arm is alone available in this
figure 7.3.2.4. system. Shock absorber and spring are
7 - Suspension System 133

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 133 01/11/2022 11:53:08 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Coil spring Shock absorber

Swag bar

Trailing arms

b er
m em
s ide
me
Fr a

Front wheel shaft

Horizontal Helical
Spring

Trailing link
Multi plate shock absorber

Figure 7.3.2.3 Trailing link suspension

acting as an integrated unit known as Hence, this is most widely used in front
strut. Stub axle support the strut and wheel drive vehicle like Maruthi 800,
stub axle hold the wheel. Hyundai.
When the vehicle wheel moves Advantages
over the bumps and pits, Camber angle
1. Simple in construction
remains unchanged. It provides more
2. Minimum number of parts
a m ou nt of s p a c e t o m ou nt e n g i n e .
3. Ease of maintenance
7 - Suspension System 134

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 134 01/11/2022 11:53:08 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 7.3.2.4 MacPherson Strut types

7.3.2.5 Swing half axle types

The simple construction is shown in
the figure 7.3.2.5. Wheels are firmly fixed
on one end of the half axle and the other
end of the half axle is fixed to the center
point of the chassis frame. Coil spring and
shock absorber are mounted as shown
in the figure. When the wheel passes the
bumps and pits, axle get oscillates. As the Figure 7.3.2.5 Swing half axle types
vehicle moves on the irregular roads, coil
spring and shock absorber are stretched 7.3.2.6 Rear axle independent
or compressed simultaneously to take the suspension system
road disturbances. Rear axle independent suspension
system const r uc t ion is g iven in t he
Shock absorber figure 7.3.2.6. In most of the vehicles,
the drive from the engine is given to
Coil spring
the rear wheels. Hence it is difficult
Swing half axle to d e s i g n , c ons t r u c t an d i ns t a l l i ng
an i n d e p e n d e nt s u s p e n s i on s y s t e m
in rear wheel drive vehicles. The
d i f fe re nt i a l u n it i s f i r m ly f i xe d on
the chassis cross frame member. Two
7 - Suspension System 135

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 135 01/11/2022 11:53:09 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

universal joints (A & B) are there in air spring through leveling valve and
between differential unit and wheel, lift control valve. The lift control valve
movable coupling (C) allows to move was operated by a manual lever which
up an d d ow n m ot i on of t h e w h e e l . is located in the panel board.
A shock absorber is incorporated to
t h e s y s t e m . Wit h t h e h e lp of t h e s e
Drier Air line
comp onents, t he system abs orb t he
ro a d d i s tu r b an c e w h e n t h e v e h i c l e
Air pump
passes over the bumps and pits.
Control module
Coil spring

Height sensor

Rear axle
Differential
unit
Wheel
Solenoid
Suspension
Figure 7.3.2.6 Rear axle independent air bag

suspension system

7.3.3 Air suspension system

Figure 7.3.3 (1) Air suspension system
These types of suspension systems
are commonly used in a long-distance
vehicle like buses. Due to the benefits Advantages
of the air suspension system, nowadays 1. It reduces noise, vibration, and
t his system is w idely us e d in many harshness due to which passenger and
vehicles. driver attain better ride comfort. It
Schematic representation of this reduces the journey tiredness of the
type of air suspension system is shown driver and the passenger.
in the figure 7.3.3(1&2). It consists of 2. Change of spring deflection is quite low
four air springs which may be a bellow when compared with a conventional
type or piston type. Air compressor suspension system for both loading
is used to pressurize the purified air and unloading condition. This helps to
(through filter) from the atmosphere and reduce the load transfer on the vehicle.
stored in the accumulator at a pressure 3. Headlamp alignment remains constant
maintained between 5.6 to 7 kg/cm 2. To though the vehicle is travelling over
release the excess air and to maintain irregular roads.
the pressure inside the accumulator, 4. With the help of automatic controlling
a safety relief valve is used. The high tools, this system will provide some
pressure compressed air enters into the space for required wheel movement.

7 - Suspension System 136

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 136 01/11/2022 11:53:09 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Air spring Front

Air spring
Levelling valve

Safety relief valve

Lift control valve
Air Accumulator

Air flow path

Compressor Air return path

Air fitter

Air

Levelling
valve
Rear
Air spring
Air spring

Figure 7.3.3 (2) Air suspension system

7.4 Independent 7. In front wheel steering vehicles, it

suspension system provides space to locate the engine.
advantages and 8. It reduces the unsprung weight.
disadvantages 9. It controls the effect of steering
Advantages geometry hence steering is easier.
1. When one side of the wheel is
subjected to road disturbance, then Disadvantages
this disturbance does not transmit to 1. It has more probable for tyre wear.
the other side of the wheel. 2. Comparatively, the cost is high.
2. During cornering, the rollover, the 3. Requires more maintenance and it is
skid, pull on one side etc will not complex.
occur. 4. Maintenance cost is high.
3. It provides good road holding property. 5. It requires good quality shock absorber
4. It promotes easy turning of the vehicle to enhance the ride comfort.
and have better control. 6. Construction is complex.
5. It ensures good ride quality. 7. More benefits when it is mounted in
6. It prevents the wheel from turning the front axle than rear axle.
towards the kingpin axis.

7 - Suspension System 137

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 137 01/11/2022 11:53:09 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.5 Shock absorber hole. This system is also called telescopic

The spring system prevents the shock absorber and because of use of
travelers and truckloads that do not hydraulic, it is also called as hydraulic
cause any shocks when climbing up the damper.
sudden disturbance on the road. However,
if the spring are stiffer than expected, Construction
it will not absorb the road shock. The Figure 7.5.2.2 shows the construction
spring will keep on oscillate even after details of this shock absorber. The head
crossing the disturbance till the energy is fixed inside the cylinder. The piston
is completely die out. Hence, to quickly and two way valve located on the top
dissipate the stored energy in springs, portion of the Cylinder is assembled
dampers are used. with piston rod for up and down motion.
According to the working principle The other end of the piston rod has eye
shock absorber are classified into three and it is attached to the chassis frame.
types they are, On the bottom portion of the cylinder
another two way valve named as foot
1. Friction type
valve is attached. In this two way valve,
2. Hydraulic type
one valve is used for fluid inlet and other
3. Air type
valve is used for fluid outlet. Cylinder is
filled with fluid.
7.5.1 Friction type
Chassis eye
When one body is allowed to slide
Protecting Cover
over the other, the surface of one body
offers some resistance to the movement of
Gland
the other body on it. This resisting force Head Drain From
is called friction force. In leaf spring, the Gland Packing
Piston rod
interleaf friction is act as a damper. It is Inner cylinder
not widely used with other types of springs.

7.5.2 Hydraulic type Reservoir

This type of damper is most widely
used in the suspension system. It works
Outer cylinder
based on Pascal’slaw. They are further
Piston and two
classified into two types. way valve

(i) Pistontype Foot valve

Compression
(ii) Telescopic type chamber
Axle eye

Telescopic type
It works on the basic principle
of Pascal’s law. Damping is obtained as Figure 7.5.2.2 Telescopic type shock
­high‑velocity fluid passing through a tiny absorber
7 - Suspension System 138

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 138 01/11/2022 11:53:10 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Inner portion of the cylinder is highly pressurized and hence the energy
called as tube and the gap between the due to road shock has been absorbed.
outer portion of the inside tube and
that of the inner portion of the outside
7.5.3 Air type
tube is used for fluid storage and it is
called as reservoir. A gland is fixed at Air suspension is nowadays the
the top portion of the cylinder. When most popular on commercial vehicles.
damper is in operation, Gland is used to It works on the principle of air so it is
scrap the excess oil in the piston rods to called as air type shock absorber.
the reservoir. When suspension works,
fluid from the glands has been sent it to 7.6 Troubles, Causes
reservoir through piston rods. and remedies of
The lower portion below the piston of the suspension
the inner cylinder, is called as compression system
chamber and the top portion above the piston 7.6.1 Noise in the suspension
is called as rebound chamber. Damping system
fluid is made up of with 60% transform Sl. No. Causes Remedies
oil blended with 40% turbine oil. 1 Loose, worn, Lubricate,
un lubricated tighten or
Working principle spring or repair
When the vehicle passes over the suspension parts
road disturbance, it piston moves down 2 Worn out Replace the
and this movement of piston pressurizes bushes bush
the fluid at the bottom portion. Then this 3 Weak / Broken Replace
fluid flows into the rebound chamber / Defective
from compression chamber through a spring
valve located on the top portion of the 4 Worn out Replace
piston and the remaining portion flows shackle pin
into the reservoir through foot valves.
Similarly, when the vehicle comes 7.6.2 Frequent failure in leaf
to normal road condition, the piston spring
moves from downward to the upward Sl. No. Causes Remedies
direction, so that the fluid at the top 1 Defective Replace
portion of the piston is compressed. shock absorber
This pressurized fluid is sent inside 2 Vehicle heavily Avoid
the compression chamber through the loaded overload
piston valve and the remaining amount
3 Tight spring Loosen, Rectify
of the fluid which again fed back from
shackle / Replace
the reservoir through the foot valves.
4 Sudden brake Apply brake
Because of this upward and downward
in high speed gradually
motion of the piston, the fluid becomes
7 - Suspension System 139

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 139 01/11/2022 11:53:10 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7.6.3 Uncomfortable ride in vehicle

Sl. No. Causes Remedies
1 Misalignment of suspension system Align the system

2 Defective shock absorber Rectify / replace

3 Loosened U-Bolt Tighten

4 Seized shackle pin Clean and lubricate / replace the

damaged parts

• Hong Kong is home to the most Rolls Royce’s in the world.

• Red cars are prohibited in Shanghai, China.

7 - Suspension System 140

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 140 01/11/2022 11:53:10 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• 1 out of every 4 cars produced in the world come from China.

• The world’s most profitable car manufacturer is Porsche.

7 - Suspension System 141

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 141 01/11/2022 11:53:11 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Student Activity

1. Students are advised to submit a report based on visit to nearest Automotive workshop
to study how suspension system is installed in a vehicle.
2. Students are advised to submit a report on construction and working principle of air
suspension system used in modern Automobiles with line sketches.

G Glossary

1. Plastic – நெகிழி
2. Leaf Spring – பட்டை வில் த�ொகுப்பு
3. Coil Spring – சுருள் வில்
4. Bellow type – மடிப்புரை வகை
5. Shackle – அசைவுக்கரம்
6. Cantilever – நெடுங்கை
7. Torsion bar – முறுக்கு தண்டு
8. Shock Absorber – அதிர்வு உறிஞ்சி
9. Face Shear – முகப்பு வெட்டு
10. Reinforced – வழுவூட்டப்பட்ட

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

7 - Suspension System 142

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 142 01/11/2022 11:53:11 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. http://mechanicalmania.blogspot.com/2011/08/suspension-system-introduction.html
2. http://www.tirereview.com/the-role-of-springs-in-suspension-systems/
3. http://aermech.com/suspension-different-types/
4. http://www.mech4study.com/2015/09/types-of-shock-absorber-suspension-parts.html
5. https://shop.advanceautoparts.com/r/advice/car-maintenance/troubleshooting-your-
vehicle-suspension

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer a) Compression
b) Straightening
1. In leaf spring, one end of the spring c) Expansion
is fixed and the other end of the d) Bending
spring is attached to _______
a) U - bolt 4. Hydraulic damper is working based
b) I - bolt on the principle of
c) Shackle a) Newton Law
d) Axle shaft b) Principle of Lever
c) Principle of friction
2. The up and down motion of the d) Pascal Law
vehicle is called as _______
a) Damping 5. In which type of vehicle, helper
b) Bouncing springs are used?
c) Pitching a) Light vehicles
d) Rolling b) Heavy vehicles
c) Two wheeler
3. Energy stored in the coil spring d) Three wheeler
during

PART - B

Three mark questions

1. State the requirements of a 2. Classify the types of leaf spring?
suspension system?
3. Write short notes on helper spring.

7 - Suspension System 143

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 143 01/11/2022 11:53:11 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. What will happen if suspension 7. State the types of air spring?

system fails?
8. List out the types of shock absorber.
5. State the advantage of rubber
9. How leaf spring is mounted on a
Springs?
vehicle?
6. Classify the types of suspension
10. State the function of suspension
system
system?

PART - C
Five mark questions

1. With the aid of neat sketch, explain 3. State the advantage of air suspension.
torsion bar.
4. Highlight the advantage and
2. Draw any one type of leaf spring disadvantage of a coil spring.
and indicate its parts.

PART - D
Ten mark questions

1. State the advantage and 3. Explain with neat sketch, the

disadvantage of independent principle of wishbone type
suspension system? suspension system.
2. With the aid of simple sketch, 4. With the aid of line diagram,
explain the construction and explain the construction and
working principle of shock working principle of air suspension
absorber. system.

7 - Suspension System 144

BAE_ENG_Chapter_07.indd 144 01/11/2022 11:53:11 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

8 Steering System

Contents

8.0 Introduction 8.9.2 Angles In Wheel

8.1 Functions Of The Steering System Alignment
8.2 Parts Of Steering System 8.9.2.1 Caster
8.2.1 Steering Parts And Its Uses Angle
8.3 Steering Gear Box 8.9.2.2 Camber Angle
8.3.1 Types Of Steering Gear Box 8.9.2.3 Kingpin Inclination
8.3.1.1 Rack And Pinion 8.9.2.4 Toe-In And Toe-Out
Type Steering Gear 8.9.3 Effects Of Improper Wheel
Box Alignment
8.3.1.2 Cam And Peg Type 8.10 Difference Between Mechanical
Steering Gear Box Steering And Power Steering
8.3.1.3 Worm And Sector 8.11 Front Axle
Type Steering Gear 8.11.1 Types Of Front Axle
Box 8.11.1.1 Dead Axle
8.3.1.4 Recirculating Type 8.11.1.2 Live Axle
Steering Gear Box 8.12 Stub Axle
8.4 Power Steering 8.12.1 Types Of Stub Axle
8.5 Reversible And Irreversible 8.13 Troubleshooting, Causes And
Steering Remedies In Steering System
8.6 Steering Play 8.13.1 Excessive Steering System
8.7 Steering Ratio Play
8.8 Turning Radius 8.13.2 Wheel Wobble
8.9 Wheel Alignment 8.13.3 Hard Steering
8.9.1 Aim Of Wheel Alignment 8.13.4 Vehicle Pulling To One Side

Learning objectives

1. To make the students to understand on need and types of steering system.

2. To make the students to understand upon various components, construction
and working principle of a steering system.

8 - Steering System 145

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 145 01/11/2022 11:55:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

8.0 Introduction 8.2.1 Steering parts and

The most conventional steering its uses
arrangement is to turn the front wheels
1. Steering Wheel
using a hand-operated steering wheel
w hich is p osit ione d in f ront of t he It is a circular wheel mounted at
driver to allow it to deviate somewhat the centre portion with two or three rods.
from a straight line. The system The steering wheel is connected with
allows a driver to use only light forces to steering gear box through steering shaft.
steer a heavy vehicle. Front axle carries So the road wheels are turns easily when
t he weig ht of t he f ront p ar t of t he rotation of steering wheel.
automobile as well as facilitates steering
and absorbs shocks due to road surface 2. Steering Column
variations. Let us see about the structure It is hollow shaft in which is made
and its functioning in the following up on alloy steel. The steering shaft rotates
segment. with the help of bearing. In modern
vehicles, the gear change lever is provided
at the steering column for the convenience
8.1 Functions of of the driver.
the steering
system 3. Steering Shaft
• Steering system is helps to turn the It is made up of good quality steel.
front wheels on desired direction with The upper end is fixed in steering wheel
the help of steering wheel. with the help of splines (or) key. The other
• This system provides to vehicle steer end is connected to the steering gear box.
in turning are also stabilize the vehicle
on the straight road. 4. Steering Gear Box
The steering gear box serves the
8.2 Parts of steering following purposes.
system 1. It provides mechanical advantages and
1. Steering Wheel enable the driver to steer the vehicle
2. Steering Column easily.
3. Steering Shaft 2. It converts the turning motion of the
4. Steering Gear Box steering wheel into the to-and-fro
5. Cross Shaft motion of the link rod of the steering
6. Drop arm (or) Pitman arm linkage.
7. Drag Link (or) Pull and Push rod
8. Tie Rod or Track Rod 5. Steering Linkages
9. Ball Joint • When the steering wheel is turned its
10. Front Axle motion is carried to the steering gear
11. Road Wheel box through the steering shaft.

8 - Steering System 146

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 146 01/11/2022 11:55:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Steering arm King pin

Stub Axle beam
axle

Adjuster Ball joint

Track rod
arm
Track rod
(Tie rod) Track rod
end joint

Link rod
Streeing box (drag link)

Drag link
ball joint

Streeing column
drive shaft Drop arm
(pitman)

Streeing wheel

Figure 8.2.1 (a) Steering system

• This motion is converted into angular • The driver easily turns the stub axle
motion of the drop arm which is either left or right side with the help of
connected to the link rod. steering gear box.
• The other end of link rod is connected
to the steering arm by means of ball
8.3.1 Types of steering
joint. The steering arm is connected to
gear box
the lower end of the stub axle. Both the
steering arms are connected by a tie rod. Based on the construction and
• When the steering wheel is to be working principle the steering gear
turned to the right side or left side, the box are classified into the following
stub axle turns to the wheels either left types
or right side. The steering linkage as 1. Worm and sector type
shown in figure 8.21 (a). 2. Worm and Roller type
3. Worm and Nut type
8.3 Steering gear box 4. Worm and wheel type
• The case which holds the steering gear 5. Recirculating Ball type steering
is called as steering gearbox. gearbox
• The Rotary movement of the steering 6. Cam and Peg Steering Gear Box
wheel is converted into reciprocating 7. Cam and Roller type
motion of the steering linkage. 8. Rack and Pinion Steering Gear Box

8 - Steering System 147

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 147 01/11/2022 11:55:54 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Streeing
column
Streeing drive shaft
box
Drag-link
ball joint

Drop arm Drag-link

arm

Drop link

Forward
direction

Axle beam
Spring
King pin seat

Track-rod

Stub Track-rod
Track-rod end joint
axle
arm

Figure 8.2.1 (b) Steering system

8.3.1.1 Rack and pinion steering

gear box Steering column
Construction
• In this type of steering gearbox, in
Pinion
place of cam or worm, the pinion
gear is attached to the steering shaft
through universal joints.
• The pinion is meshed with rack gear.
The circular input motion of the
pinion is converted into a linear rack
output movement.
Rack
• The tie rod at each end of the rack
is connected to the steering arm by
means of ball joint.
Figure 8.3.1.1 (a) Rack and pinion type
Working Principle steering gear box
• When the drive turns the steering • Based on the direction of rotation of
wheel, the pinion at the end of steering the pinion, the rack moves towards the
wheels rotates at its own axis. left or right.
8 - Steering System 148

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 148 01/11/2022 11:55:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Swivel pin
Wish bone
arm

Stub axle Pinion

Tie rod
arm

Ball joint Rack

Tie rod Tie rod

Ball joint Boot

Figure 8.3.1.1 (b) Rack and pinion type steering gear box

• This rack movement, make the tie rod 8.3.1.2 Cam and Peg Steering
to push the steering arm on one side Gear Box
and to pull the steering arm on other Construction
side.
• This type of steering box, in place of
• This turn the stub axle at its pivot
worm, a cylindrical shaft, supported
point. The wheel attached in the stub
by two roller bearing in the housing.
axle is also turned and thus the steering
• The cylindrical shaft carried a deep
movement is achieved.
spiral groove, usually a variable pitch

End plate Ball

Peg bearing

Input
shaft

Lip oil
seal

Cam
Preload
Shim

Rocker
Rocker shaft
arm

Figure 8.3.1.2 (a) Cam & peg type steering gear box
8 - Steering System 149

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 149 01/11/2022 11:55:56 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Steering Shaft

C am

Gro ove

Steering b ox

Peg

Drop arm
B earing

Figure 8.3.1.2 (b) Cam and peg type steering system

on its surface between its bearing and 8.3.1.3 Worm and Sector Steering
this shaft is known as a cam. Gearbox
• An integral rocker arm and shaft is Construction
placed half-way along the cam. At the
• The worm is firmly connected
free end of the rocker arm a conical
to the inner column of the steering
peg is fitted which engages the groove.
shaft.
Working Principle • Worm shaft is mounted on the
housings with the help of two taper
When t he ste er ing w he el and
roller bearing makes the rotation of
shaft rotate the camshaft, one side of
shaft easily.
the spiral groove screws the peg axially
• The sector gear is meshed with worm.
for ward or backward, depending
• The sector gears form a part of the
upon the direction of turning of the cam.
rocker shaft in the steering gear box.
This forces the rocker arm to pivot about
its shaft axis and as a result a similar
angular motion is transferred to the drop Working principle
arm, which is attached to the shaft’s outer • When the driver turns the steering
end. Thus the road wheels are turns either wheel, the worm will turn and turns
left or right. the sector gear. The rotary motion of
8 - Steering System 150

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 150 01/11/2022 11:55:58 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Filler cap worm with two sets of balls in the grooves

Worm of the worm, in between the nut and the
worm. The balls reduce the friction during
Steering gear the movement of the nut on the worm. The
Shaft
nut has a number of teeth on the outside,
which mesh with the teeth on a worm
wheel sector, on which is further mounted
the drop arm. When the steering wheel is
turned, the balls in the worm roll in the
Tapper
roller grooves and cause the nut to travel along the
Bearing
length of the worm. The balls, which are in
Sector 2 sets, are recirculated through the guides.
The movement of the nut causes the wheel
Drop arm sector to turn at an angle and actuate the
link rod through the drop arm, resulting
Figure 8.3.1.3 Worm and sector steering box in the desired steering of the wheels.

the steering wheel is converted into

angular motion of the sector gear. 8.4 Power steering
• The drop arm attached to the sector • In medium and heavy commercial
is also oscillated and through the vehicles, the driver has to put lot of
steering linkages, the wheel is turned physical effort to turn the vehicle. If
to the required degrees in the required the driver continuously drives the
direction. vehicle for longer duration, then the
driver will be very tired.
8.3.1.4 Recirculating ball type • In order to reduce the steering effort
steering gear box by the driver for easy turning, an
It consists of a worm at the end of energy source that aids the driver in
a steering rod. A nut is mounted on the turning the wheels is called as power

Pitman Steering
arm shaft

Ball nut
rack

Recirculating
ball bearings

Worm gear
Sector
gear

Figure 8.3.1.4 Recirculating ball type steering gear box

8 - Steering System 151

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 151 01/11/2022 11:55:59 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Power
steering pump

Rotary
control valve Pressure
tube
Fulid lines

Pinion
Hydraulic gear Tie rod
piston
Rack

Power steering
pump

Steering knuckle

Power steering
gear box

Figure 8.4 Power steering

steering system. Most automotive 8.5 (a) Reversible Steering

power steering system are hydraulic. • Steering gear is said to be reversible
• A pump supplies high pressure fluid if the deflection of steered wheel due
when the driver turns the steering to road surface is transmitted through
wheel. This provides 80% of the required steering linkages and steering gears to
steering effort and the remaining 20% is the steering wheels.
by driver’s physical effort.
(b) Irreversible Steering
Types of Power steering • Steering gear is said to be irreversible
1. Integral type if the deflection of steered wheel due
2. Linkage type to road surface is not transmitted
8 - Steering System 152

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 152 01/11/2022 11:55:59 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

through steering linkages and steering 8.7 Steering ratio

gears to the steering wheels. • The ratio between rotation of steering
wheel to that of the turning angle of
8.6 Steering play the stub axle is called as steering gear
• The position of the steering wheel ratio. Example 360˚ : 36˚(ie) 10 : 1.
may change with the vibrations in the
wheels, result in directional instability
of vehicle. To avoid this, the steering 8.8 Turning radius
wheel should be set to be free to rotate • Turning radius is the smallest radius
to a small degree and this play is called takes place when the vehicle takes a
as steering free play. turn

• Roads were first made for bicyclists, not cars.

• The first cars did not have steering wheels. They were operated by a lever.

8 - Steering System 153

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 153 01/11/2022 11:56:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• The first windshield wipers were hand-operated.

• The first car to use a rear-view mirror was driven by inaugural Indy 500 winner
Ray Harroun in 1911 to see the cars catching up behind him.

8 - Steering System 154

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 154 01/11/2022 11:56:00 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

8.9 Wheel Alignment 8.9.2 Angles in wheel alignment

• It refers to the angular relationship 1. Caster Angle
between the front wheels and parts 2. Camber Angle
attached to it with that of car frame. 3. King pin inclination
Wheel alignments ensure that all four 4. Toe-in and Toe-out
wheels are consistent with each other
and are optimized for maximum contact 8.9.2.1 Caster Angle
with the surface of the road. The angle between the king pin
centre line (or steering axis) and the
8.9.1 Aim of wheel alignment vertical axis, when viewed from the side
1. To turn the steered wheel easily and to of the vehicle, is called the Caster angle.
ensure vehicle directional stability. Caster angle is about 2º to 3º. As shown
2. To reduce the tyre wear to a minimum. in figure 8.9.2.1 (a), (b), (c).

Vertical line
er
C ast

Front Left wheel

Nagative caster
Positive caster

King pin

Figure 8.9.2.1 (a) Caster angle Figure 8.9.2.1 (b) Caster angle

Figure 8.9.2.1 (c) Caster angle

8 - Steering System 155

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 155 01/11/2022 11:56:01 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Importance of Caster Angle 8.9.2.2 Camber angle

1. Positive Caster provides directional The angle between the centre line of
stability. the tyre to the vertical line when viewed
2. To prevent pulling of wheel on one from the front of the vehicle is known as
side during braking Camber. It is approximately 1º to 2º. As
3. To reduce the tyre vibration shown in figure.

Tyre center line

Nagative caster Positive caster
Camber

King pin
center line

Left front King pin

wheel

Figure 8.9.2.2 (a) Camber angle Figure 8.9.2.2 (b) Camber angle

True True
vertical vertical

Wheel
centerline
of tire

Positive caster Nagative caster

Figure 8.9.2.2 (c) Camber angle
8 - Steering System 156

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 156 01/11/2022 11:56:02 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Importance of Camber Angle 8.9.2.4 Toe-in and Toe-out

1. At the time of turning, camber angle
ensures the ease of steering.
2. To reduce the tyre wear.
3. To reduce the load acting on the king
pin and the wheel bearing due to
weight of the vehicle.

8.9.2.3 King Pin Inclination

When the vehicle is viewed from
front, the angle between the inclination
of the king pin from the vertical axis
Figure 8.9.2.4 Toe-in
is called the King pin Inclination. The
inclination is normally kept 7º to 8º.
Toe-in
The reason for king pin inclination When viewed from the top, the
1. It gives good road holding on turnings. distance between the front wheels at the
2. It reduces steering effort. front is less than the distance at the back
3. It reduces the load acting on the wheel is called Toe-in. Normally toe-in is up
bearing. to 3 mm.

Vertical line
King pin inclination
King pin
center line

Vertical line

King pin center line

King pin

King pin
inclination

Figure 8.9.2.3 (a) & (b) King pin inclination

8 - Steering System 157

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 157 01/11/2022 11:56:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Toe-out
When viewed from the top, the distance
between the front wheels at the front is more
than the rear side is called toe-out

Figure 8.9.2.4 (b) Toe-out

Figure 8.9.2.4 (a) Toe-in & Toe-out

• An airbag takes only 40 milliseconds to deflate.

8 - Steering System 158

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 158 01/11/2022 11:56:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

8.9.3 E
 ffects of improper 2. Wheels are subjected to vibration
wheel alignment 3. Increases the tyre wear
4. Reduce the tyre life
1. Vehicle will roll over due to centrifugal
5. Hard steering
force acting at the time of turning
6. Vehicle pull on one side

8.10 Difference
 between Mechanical Steering and
Power Steering
Sl No. Mechanical Steering Power Steering
1 Mechanical steering is a system Power steering is a system that
in which Mechanical force is used helps in steering the wheels using
for steering. some source of power viz Hydraulic,
Electric, Air.
2 Resistance to wheel movement is Resistance to wheel movement is less
more.
3 Widely preferred for Low weight Ease of steering in Comparatively
vehicles. heavy weight vehicles.
4 Steering wheel and column, A hydraulic pump, fluid reservoir,
a Mechanical gearbox and hoses, lines; and either a power assist
pitman arm or a rack and pinion unit mounted on, or integral with, a
assembly, linkages; steering power steering gear assembly.
knuckles and ball joints, and 4.
the wheel spindle assemblies.
5 Does not Absorbs road shocks. Absorbs road shocks.
6 Efforts required for steering is high. Efforts required for steering is less.
7 Very difficult to control Greater safety and controllability
directional at the time of under emergency situation.
emergency and directional
stability is difficult to achieve.

8.11 Front Axle Construction

Front axle carries the weight of the In light vehicles, front axles are
front part of the vehicle. Front axle includes tubular in section and in heavy commercial
axle beam stub axles with brake assembly, vehicles, the front axles are made up
track rod and stub axle arm to steer and of I cross section. In both the ends,
brake the vehicle. To accommodate front stub axles are connected with f ront
engine and to provide stability and safety, axle by means of kingpin and steering
the centre portion of the axle is dropped. It track arm.
is called as front axle.
8 - Steering System 159

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 159 01/11/2022 11:56:03 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

King pin Stub axle

Cotter pin

Main beam

Steering arm end

Figure 8.11 Front axle

8.11.1 Types of Front axle 8.11.1.2 Live axle

1. Dead Axle • Live axle is the one through which
2. Live Axle power is transmitted to the wheels by
means of differential and axle shaft.
8.11.1.1 Dead axle In case of front wheel drive or in all
• It is a just dummy axle. It having wheel drive, the front axle will act as
no connections with engine. It has live axle.
sufficient rigidity and strength to
transmit the weight of the vehicle from
the steering and brake system without
differential and axle shaft.
Dead
axle

8.12 Stub Axle

• Stub axle is a short axle. Stub axle are
connected to the front axle by means
of king pin. The front wheels are
mounted on the stub axle.

8 - Steering System 160

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 160 01/11/2022 11:56:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Stub axle is capable of limited angular 2. Reversed Elliot axle

movement about the kingpin for The reverse elliot type is shown
steering the vehicle. in figure 8.12.1 (b) of the stub axle in
• Stub axle helps to turn the vehicle at desired the reversed Elliot shape. A king pin
direction through steering linkage. with cotter pin connects the stub
axle. So the stub axle turns easily to
8.12.1 Types of Stub axle
and fro.
Front axles are built according
to four basic designs for attaching the
steering knuckle to the beam. They are Stub axle

King pin
1. Elliot type
2. Reverse Elliot type Cotter
3. Lemoine type pin

4. Reverse Lemoine type Front axle

1. Elliot axle
The Elliot type stub axle is shown
in the figure 8.12.1 (a). The end of the
axles are in the shape of a elliot. A king Thrust
washer
pin with cotter pin connects the stub axle.
So the stub axle turns easily to and fro. Figure 8.12.1 (b) Reversed elliot

Thrust
washer King pin 3. Lemoine axle
Two spindles at right angles to each
Cotter pin
other, stub axle and axle center. Lemoine,
Front axle a French axle and spring manufacturer
designed this. In this design, pivot spindle
extended up from the wheel spindle. Tends
to raise the axle center above the wheel
Stub axle spindle, hence poorly suited to modern
conditions, where low axle centres is
Figure 8.12.1 (a) Elliot type stub axle preferred.
Thrust washer
Stub axle
King pin Stub axle

Cotter King pin

Cotter

Stub axle Front axle

King pin
Thrust
washer Front axle
Front axle
Stub axle
Elliot Reversed Elliot Lemoine Reversed lemoine

Figure 8.12.1 (a)

8 - Steering System 161

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 161 01/11/2022 11:56:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

In this type, the stub axle is attached and developed the design. A natural drop to
to the end of the axle by means of king the axle center, is an advantageous feature.
pin. It is used in tractors. As shown in In this type, the stub axle is mounted
figure 8.12.1 (c). on the top of the axle by means of king
King pin pin. It is used in tractors. As shown in
figure 8.12.1 (d).
Stub axle
Stub axle

Front axle

Fig 8.12.1 (c) Lemoine type King pin

4. Reversed lemoine axle

Front axle
Marmon, American passenger car
manufacturer, reversed the arrangement Fig 8.12.1 (d)

8.13 Troubleshooting, cause and remedy in a steering

system
8.13.1 Excessive play in steering system
Sl. No. Possible cause Remedy
1 Loose / worn out steering gear Tighten steering gear mounting
(rack or box) mounting. bolts / replace mounting bushes.
2 Loose / worn out steering linkages. Adjust or replace linkages.
3 Worn out of ball joints in steering system Rectify / replace

8.13.2 Wheel Wobble

Sl. No. Possible cause Remedy
1 Mismatched tires or uneven tire pressure. Inflate tyre upto recommended pressure
2 Unbalanced Wheel Balance the wheel
3 improper camber angle and toe in Check the wheel alignment and rectify

8.13.3 Hard Steering

Sl. No. Possible cause Remedy
1 Low inflation pressure in the tyres Properly inflate tyre
2 Improper wheel alignment Check and rectify the wheel alignment
3 Bend in the front axle Rectify
4 Misalignment in chassis frame Rectify
5 Broken / damage bearings and Replace
bushes in steering gearbox

8 - Steering System 162

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 162 01/11/2022 11:56:04 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

8.13.4 Vehicle Pulling on one side

Sl. No. Possible cause Remedy
1 Uneven tyre wear Tyre rotation
2 Improper brake adjustment Check and adjust the brakes
3 Failure of damper / spring in one side Replace the damper / spring

Student Activity

1. Students are advised to submit a report based on the visit to the nearest automotive
workshop to study about various parts in steering system and its assembly procedure in
vehicle.
2. Students are advised to submit a report on construction and working principle of
steering system used in Modern cars with sketches based on the visit to the nearest
Automotive workshop.

G Glossary

1. Alignment – ஒழுங்கமை
2. Axle – அச்சு
3. Kingpin – பிரதானபின் [சுழல் மூட்டுக்கம்பி]
4. Camber angle – மேல் சாய்வு க�ோணம்
5. Ball joint – பங்து கிண்ண இணைப்பு
6. Steering – திசை திருப்பி
7. Worm – திருகுருவப் ப�ொருள்
8. Power steering – விசைத் திருப்பி
9. Irreversibility – மீளாத்தன்மை
10. Stub axle – துணை அச்சு

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966

8 - Steering System 163

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 163 01/11/2022 11:56:05 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning

(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

Webliography

1. https://www.carsdirect.com/car-repair/essential-power-steering-parts-and-what-they-do
2. https://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-the-steering-system-works
3. https://www.cars.com/auto-repair/glossary/steering-gearbox/
4. https://chestofbooks.com/crafts/cars/Motor-Truck/Steering-Gears-And-Fundamental-
Principles-Of-Steering-Mechanisms-Part-2.html
5. http://www.auto-repair-help.com/auto_diagnostics/steering_feels_loose_and_sloppy.
php
6. http://www.differencebetween.info/difference-between-power-steering-and-
mechanical-steering

Evaluation
PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer 2. In steering system, steering arm is
1. During driving, the direction of connected to
vehicle is controlled by a. Steering wheel
a. Steering system b. Drop arm
b. Brake system c. Steering column
c. Engine d. Tie rod
d. Suspension system

8 - Steering System 164

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 164 01/11/2022 11:56:05 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3. The box in which steering gears are b. Rack and Pinion

mounted is called as c. Worm and Wheel
a. Suspension d. Worm and Sector
b. Steering gearbox
8. The permissible play in the steering
c. Differential
wheel is known as
d. Steering geometry
a. Steering alignment
4. How many types of steering b. Steering ratio
gearbox are available? c. Steering play
a. 3 b. 4 d. Turning radius
c. 5 d. 8
9. The allowable caster angle in
5. In steering system, the component degree is
used to pull steering arm on one a. 2° to 3° b. 7° to 8°
side and to push steering arm c. 10° to 12° d. 5° to 6°
another side, is called as
10. The angle between the central
a. Steering shaft
axis of kingpin and vertical axis,
b. Steering gearbox
when viewed from vehicle front,
c. Tie rod
is known as
d. Stub axle
a. Camber angle
6. In power steering system, the b. Caster angle
percentage of amplification by c. King pin inclination
means of hydraulic is d. Toe-in
a. 20 % b. 60 %
11. Front axles are classified into
c. 80 % d. 100 %
_______ types
7. Which steering system is easy to a. 2 b. 4
handling c. 5 d. 6
a. Power Streeting

PART - B

Three mark questions

1. State the functions of a steering 4. Define steering ratio.
gearbox.
5. What are the parameters are there
2. List out the type of steering in a wheel alignment?
gearbox.
6. Write short notes on king pin
3. What do you mean by steering inclination.
play?

8 - Steering System 165

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 165 01/11/2022 11:56:05 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

PART - C

Five marks questions

1. Arrange the parts in a steering gear 4. State the problem arises, if wheel
box. alignment is improper.

2. Discuss the power steering system 5. Explain the role of front axle.
and state the types. Classify the types of front axle.

3. Explain camber angle with simple

sketch.

PART - D

Ten mark questions

1. With the aid of neat sketch, explain 3. Tabulate the difference between
the construction and working mechanical steering and power
principle of rack and pinion steering system.
steering gearbox.
4. State the reason and remedial step
2. Describe the construction and for any two problem that are caused
working principle of worm and in steering system.
sector type steering gearbox with
the aid of necessary sketch.

8 - Steering System 166

BAE_ENG_Chapter_08.indd 166 01/11/2022 11:56:05 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

9 Chassis and Body

Contents

9.0 Introduction 9.4.1 Functions of

9.1 Chassis Frame the Vehicle
9.1.1 Functions of the Chassis Body
Frame 9.4.2 Requirements
9.1.2 Types of Chassis Frame of the Vehicle
9.1.2.1 Conventional Frame Body
9.1.2.2 Semi Integral Frame 9.4.3 Types of Vehicle Body
9.1.2.3 Integral Frame 9.4.3.1 Goods Vehicle
9.1.3 Various Loads Acting on the Body
Frame 9.4.3.2 Passenger Vehicle
9.2 Chassis Body
9.2.1 Construction of the Chassis 9.5 Tinkering And Painting
9.2.2 Parts Mounted on the 9.5.1 Tinkering
Chassis Frame 9.5.2 Tools Used for Tinkering
9.2.3 Materials Used for the 9.5.3 Painting
Chassis Frame 9.5.4 Precautions to be Followed
9.3 Important Dimensions of the Vehicle During Tinkering and
9.4 Body Painting

Learning objectives

1. To make the student to understand about the need, purpose and types of
Chassis frame, sub systems of chassis mounted on the chassis.
2. To make the student to understand on vehicle body, classification of vehicles.

9 - Chassis and Body 167

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 167 01/11/2022 11:57:46 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

9.0 Introduction 9.1.1 Functions of the chassis

The various parts of the vehicle are frame
mounted on the chassis frame. The chassis 1. To withstand the weight of the vehicle,
frame must strong enough to withstand passenger and goods.
total weight of the vehicle. The chassis 2. To form the base to mount the engine,
frame carries engine, clutch, gear box, suspension, steering and power
Propeller shaft, rear axle, suspension, transmission system.
steering gear box and brake. Frame is 3. To build the vehicle body on the
fixed with two longitudinal bars and four chassis frame.
or five cross bars by rivet or bolts. 4. To withstand the reaction due to
driving and braking force.
5. To absorb the ground reaction forces
9.1 Chassis frame due to road undulations.
• The skeleton of the vehicle is chassis 6. To withstand the static load and
frame. dynamic load of a vehicle.
• Chassis frames are made up of alloy
steel and it is of high strength to make 9.1.2 Types of chassis frame
the rigid structure.
Chassis frame are broadly classified
• Based on the construction, application, load
into three types, namely:
capacity of the vehicle, the chassis frame is
made up of different size and shape. 1. Conventional Frame
• Chassis frame forms the backbone of 2. Semi Integral Frame
the vehicle. 3. Integral or Unit Frame

Cross member

Propeller shaft

Differential

Gear
Engine box

Rear axle

Side member

Figure 9.1 Ladder type chassis frame

9 - Chassis and Body 168

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 168 01/11/2022 11:57:46 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

9.1.2.1 Conventional Frame of springs. This arrangement makes the

Here the various components are body completely isolated from the frame
attached to frame and the vehicle body deflection. It is mostly used in heavy
are superimposed on it. The total frame vehicles like buses, trucks etc.
is mounted on the wheel axle by means

Steering gear Wheel and type

Steering wheel
box assembly
Leaf spring
Universal joint
Frame
Rear axle
Slip joint

Gear box Differential

Propeller shaft
assembly
Radiator Clutch

Engine
Universal joint
Wheel
and tire

9 - Chassis and Body 169

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 169 01/11/2022 11:57:47 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

9.1.2.3 Integral Frame

In this type of construction, there is
no separate frame. All the assembly units are
attached to the body. Heavy side members of
the frames are eliminated and cross members
are combined with the floor of the body. The
body of the vehicle gives a mounting for
engine, transmission, suspension and other
mechanical units. Weight of the vehicle is
very much reduced and widely used in cars.

X-Shape member

Cross member

Figure 9.1.2.3 (a) Integral frame

Side member
Vehicle upper body
Figure 9.1.2.1 Conventional frame

9.1.2.2 Semi Integral Frame

This type of frames is made up
of two or three sections and then it is
integrated. The particular portion of the
frame can be replaced if any damaged
happ ens during accident inste ad of
Upper body seal
replacing the entire frame.

Figure 9.1.2.3 (b) Integral frame

Figure 9.1.2.2 Semi integral frame Figure 9.1.2.3 (c) Integral frame
9 - Chassis and Body 170

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 170 01/11/2022 11:57:49 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

9.1.3 Various loads acting on tank, seats, exhaust acting at mounting

the frame points
1. Vertical loads when the vehicle 6. Sudden impact loads during a collision
comes across a bump or pit and road
undulation 9.2 Chassis
2. Engine torque and braking torque In an automobile, all the subsystems
3. Loads due to road camber, side wind, excluding the body is called as Chassis.
cornering force, Centrifugal force
while taking a turn.
9.2.1 Construction of the
4. Aerodynamic forces at considerable
chassis
speed
5. Weight of different components like The layout of various subsystems
engine, transmission, passengers, fuel is shown in the figure.

Steered
road wheel
Front axle Engine Final drive Rear drive
axle
Clutch
Propeller shaft
Gear box
Universal
joint
Wheel base

Wheel track

Figure 9.2.1 (a) Construction of the Chassis

9 - Chassis and Body 171

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 171 01/11/2022 11:57:50 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Rear axle

Front axle Differential

Clutch
Propeller
shaft
Engine
Universal
joint
Fly wheel Gear box

Figure 9.2.1 (b) Construction of the Chassis

In the present manufacturing of the

vehicle, the body is separately fabricated
and it is mounted over the chassis. The
importance subsystems that are connected
in the chassis frame includes engine, clutch
assembly, gear box, suspension system,
wheels and tires, steering system, brake,
fuel tank, electrical system etc.

9.2.2 Parts mounted on the

chassis frame
1. Chassis frame 3. Clutch
Chassis frame is fixed with two The main function of the clutch
longitudinal bars and four or five cross is to take up the drive smoothly from
bars by rivet or bolts. Quality alloy steel is the engine and to release or disengage
used to withstand the total weight of the whenever desired. It is fixed in between
vehicle. It is considered as the backbone engine and gear box. To avoid broken of
of the vehicle. gears in the gear box.

2. Engine
The driving power of the vehicle
is provided by the engine. It converts the
chemical energy in the fuel into mechanical
energy to propel the vehicle. The engine
power is transmits to road wheel through
clutch, gear box and rear axle.

9 - Chassis and Body 172

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 172 01/11/2022 11:57:50 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. Gearbox road conditions. It is fixed in between

According to operating conditions, axle and chassis frame.
to provide the necessary torque variation
from the engine to the drive wheels, gear 6. Brake system
box is used. Also, to reverse the direction Brake systems are used to stop the
of the vehicle whenever required. vehicle, or to reduce the vehicle speed,
and to prevent rolling of the vehicle when
Engine Rear wheel
Transmission Drive shaft travelling on inclined surface. Brakes are
fixed in each four wheels. Its functions
by using mechanical linkage, hydraulic
power and air.
U-joint
Differential
Clutch

7. Steering system
Steering system is used to change
5. Suspension system
the direction of the vehicle as desired by
Strut the driver. The steering systems helps
in reducing the drivers work through
mechanical advantage, to control the
vehicle according to road condition and
speed.
Steering
knuckle
Tierod

Control arm

Susp e ns i on s y ste m is us e d to
prevent the road shock and to enhance
ride comfort to the passenger and to the 8. Electrical system
various vehicle components. They also Electrical system includes ignition
preserve vehicle stability under various system lighting system, starting system,
9 - Chassis and Body 173

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 173 01/11/2022 11:57:51 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

charging system and other electrical 9.3 Important

accessories. Electrical energ y for all dimensions of the
the system is provided by the battery. vehicle
Battery is known as heart of the electrical
system. 1. Wheel base
• Wheel base is the distance between
Motor
components the centres of the front and rear
Electronic wheels.
components
Electrical
components

Electrical
components
Energy storage
Lighting
components

Rear over
Wheel base hang
Front overhang
9.2.3 Materials Used for the
Chassis Frame Figure 9.3.1 Wheel base
Frame should be extremely rigid
and strong so that it can withstand shocks, 2. Wheel track
twist, stresses and vibrations when vehicle
is moving on road. The chassis frame
should be made from high strength
materials. The following materials are
widely used for the manufacture of the
chassis frame. Wh ac
k
e el l tr
b as ee
1. Mild sheet Steel e
W
h

2. Carbon sheet Steel

3. Sheet Nickel Alloy
The chemical composition of nickel
alloy steel is
Carbon – 0.25% - 0.35%
Manganese – 0.35% - 0.75%
Silicon – 0.30% Wheel

Nickel – 3% Track

Phosphorus – 0.05%
Sulphur – 0.5% Figure 9.3.2 Wheel track

9 - Chassis and Body 174

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 174 01/11/2022 11:57:51 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Wheel track is the distance between 9.4 Body

both the front wheels or rear wheels B ody is the superstructure for
measured from the centres of tyres. all vehicles. It may either constructed
separately and bolted to the chassis
3. Front over hang
or m anu f a c tu re d i nt e g r a l w it h t h e
Front over hang is the distance chassis.
between the front bumper and centre of
• The chassis and body make the
front axle.
complete vehicle.
• A body consists of windows and doors,
4. Rear over hang
roof, luggage compartment, passenger
Rear over hang is the distance between seats etc.
the rear bumper and centre of rear axle. • A body should be designed such that it
will against the air resistance, gradient
5. Over all width resistance and rolling resistance.
The distance between the two side
members is called over all width. 9.4.1 Functions of the
vehicle body
6. Over all height 1. Vehicle body protects the passengers
It is the amount of space between and the goods from sunlight.
the ground surface to the upper side of 2. Prevent the dust from entering into
the vehicle body is called over all height. the vehicle.
3. Protects the passenger from rainfall.
7. Over all length
The distance between the centre of front 9.4.2 Requirements of the
and rear bumper is called as over all length. vehicle body
1. Weight of the body should be as
8. Ground Clearance minimum as possible.
• Ground clearance is the amount of 2. It should have minimum number of
minimum space between the road components.
surface and the underside of the chassis. 3. It should have reasonable fatigue life.

Wheel track Steering

glass
Light

Horn
Tyre &
Wheels Number plate
Fuel
Suspension tank Brake
door Seat

Figure 9.4 Body

9 - Chassis and Body 175

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 175 01/11/2022 11:57:51 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. It must provide adequate space for 9.4.3.1 Goods vehicle body

both the passenger and the luggage. This type of vehicle bodies is used
5. It should create minimum vibration for transportation of goods. Based on the
during running. nature of the goods transported, Engine
6. Weight and stresses induced in the horsepower, load carrying capacity, the
body should be distributed evenly to vehicle bodies are designed.
all portions.
7. It should be able to scope with impact 9.4.3.2 Passenger vehicle body
loads of reasonable magnitude and This type of vehicle bodies is used for
safe guard the passengers during transportation of passengers. Based on the
accidents. number of passengers, level of luxury, engine
8. The shape of the body should be such horsepower, the vehicle body is designed.
that the air resistance is minimum The various types of vehicle bodies
9. It is easy to manufacture as weIl as are shown in 9.4.3 table.
cheap in cost.
10. It should be easy to maintenance. Passenger Transport
a. Small car bodies up to six seat capacity.
9.4.3 Types of vehicle body b. Medium car bodies up to ten seat capacities.
c. Mini bus Bodies.
Vehicle bodies are classified into d. Large bus body for common and
two types namely Luxurious transport.
1. Goods vehicle body e. Railway coach bodies.
2. Passenger vehicle body. f. Three Wheeled Bodies

Vehicle body classifications

Vehicle Body

Passenger Vehicie
Goods Vehicle Body
Body

1. Cars 1. Punjab truck body

2. Buses 2. Truck half body
3. Truck platform type
3. Luxury coaches 4. Tractor
5. Tractor with articulated trailer
6. Pick-up
7. Delivery van
8. Tanker
9. Tipper

Table 9.4.3 Vehicle body classifications

9 - Chassis and Body 176

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 176 01/11/2022 11:57:51 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure Types of vehicle body

Vehicle type Other names Examples of cars in the category
Small car Hatchback, micro-car, city Toyota Carolla, Hyundai i10, Mazda2,
cars, small family car Nissan Micra, Ford Fiesta
Medium car Sedan, medium family car Opel Astra, Ford Fiesta, Hyundai i20
Large car Saloon, family car Toyota Camry, Ford Falcon, Audi A6, Ford
Mondeo
Sports car Roadster Honda CR-V, Mazda MX5, Audi TT
People Mover Mini van Toyota Tarago, Chrysler Voyager,
Compact SUV Mini SUV, Mini 4x4 Hyundai i35, BMW X1, Skoda Yeti
Medium SUV Large 4x4 Toyota RAV4, Ford Kuga, Mitsubushi
Outlander, Jeep Wrangler, Audi Q3
Large SUV Large 4x4 Toyota Land Cruiser, Mitsubishi Pajero,
Hyundai Santa Fe, land Rover Range Rover
9 - Chassis and Body 177

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 177 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Goods Transport d. Medium load Carrying vehicle

a. Truck Bodies e. Heavy load carrying Bodies
b. Tanker Bodies f. Three wheeled Bodies.
c. Minivan Bodies g. Tipper bodies.

9.5 Tinkering and 9.5.2 Tools used for

painting tinkering
9.5.1 Tinkering 1. Gas and Arc welding unit
2. Alloy steel sheets
3. New chassis sub frame to be
replaced
4. Sheet metal cutter
5. Spray painting gun
6. Required matching colour
7. Thinner
8. Emery sheet
9. Cleaning clothes
Figure 9.5.1 Tinkering 10. Patti and scrapper
11. Wood hammer (or) mallet
Tinkering is performed to remove
dents, s c ratches , chem ic a l e ro s i on ,
environmental erosion occurred 9.5.3 Painting
on the exterior surface. This will Painting on vehicle bodies are used
improve the aesthetic appearance of the for both surface protection from corrosion
vehicle. and decoration purposes.
9 - Chassis and Body 178

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 178 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Degrease the surface to be painted

using a degreaser and wipe the surface
free of dust.
• Apply the primer and allow it to
dry.
• Apply 2 - 3 base coat with the required
matched colour evenly on the surface
using spray gun. Ensure complete
dryness between each coat.
• Apply the 1 – 2 clear coat to form a
Figure 9.5.3 Painting
glossy and transparent coating and
allow it to dry.
Steps followed in painting • Polish the painted surface.
1. Preparation • Inspect for any paint run and gently
2. Primer remove these with thinner.
3. Base coat • Finally remove all masking from the
4. Clear coat car.
5. Polishing • Then wash it thoroughly and wax
• Wash the area to be painted with when dry.
plain water and soap and scrub off
any deposits with a micro fibre cloth.
Allow the surface to be dried. 9.5.4 Precautions to be
• Remove badges, trims, door handles, followed during
side-indicator lamps, headlights, tinkering and painting
windscreen etc that will hinder the 1. Before tinkering, the vehicle must be
paint job using right tools. raised to the required height by jack
• Remove the dents using wooden and firmly parked.
hammer. 2. Axles and wheels in the vehicle should
• Finish doing the dent work for the area be removed
to be painted. Use emery sheet to clean 3. Remove the fuel tank, lubrication
any rust on the area to be painted. oil sump and other fluids in the
If any new metal is welded, then vehicle.
ground the weld seam. Treat rusted 4. All electricity circuits must be securely
areas with corrosion protection spray grounded.
(optional). 5. Clean the vehicle with compressed
• Fill in small imperfections with body air
filler, and sand back the surface with 6. Grease and Wax sticking on the
smooth grades of emery paper, until vehicle surface should be cleaned
the surface is smoothed out. using degreaser
• Mask the surrounding area with Brown 7. The area to be painted should be
paper. washed and dried thoroughly.

9 - Chassis and Body 179

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 179 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• It takes 15 ml of gasoline to start the average vehicle.

• It takes about 25 hours to build a car, a whopping 10 hours of that

25 is spent painting the car.

Student Activity

1. Students are advised to submit a report based on the visit at automobile body building
shop on various chassis subsystems.
2. Students are advised to submit a report based on the visit at automobile body building
shop on mounting body over the chassis frame and various mounting methods.

9 - Chassis and Body 180

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 180 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

G Glossary

1. Chassis Frame - அடிச்சட்டம்

2. Chassis - அடித்தளம்
3. Body - மேற்கூடு
4. Integral - ஒருங்கினைந்த
5. Static Load - நிலைப்பளு
6. Construction - கட்டுமானம்
7. Wheel base - இருசு இடைத்தூரம்
8. Resistance - தடை
9. Gradient - சரிவு
10. Immerse - மூழ்குவி

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications,
New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing,
New Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

9 - Chassis and Body 181

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 181 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2014/02/what-is-chassis-in-automobile-how-
many-types-of-car-according-to-the-body-style.html
2. https://autokeeda.wordpress.com/2015/03/28/various-loads-acting-on-frame/
3. https://www.pressmark.co.uk/chassis-manufacturing-process/
4. https://info.japanesecartrade.com/content-item/237-classification-of-cars-on-the-basis-
of-body-type
5. https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/how-to/a3110/a-diy-guide-to-painting-your-
car-15998013/
6. https://www.thoughtco.com/auto-body-dent-repair-281389

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer 4. An automobile without body is
called as
1. The metal used for manufacturing
a. Frame
of chassis frame is ________
b. Clutch
a. Alloy steel
c. Body
b. Rubber
d. Chassis
c. Asbestos
d. Wood powder 5. The distance between the two front
wheels is called as
2. Chassis frames are classified into
a. Wheel base
__________ types
b. Wheel track
a. 2
c. Ground clearance
b. 3
d. Overall width
c. 4
d. 5 6. The vehicle part which prevent the
passenger from sunlight, rain, dust is
3. In heavy vehicles, _____________
known as
type of chassis frame is used.
a. Frame
a. Conventional frame
b. Windshield wiper
b. Semi – integral frame
c. Body
c. Integral frame
d. Transmission system
d. None of the above

9 - Chassis and Body 182

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 182 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

7. The backbone of the automobile is d. Chassis frame

______
9. The complete vehicle is obtained
a. Chassis frame
when _________ is integrated with
b. Body
the chassis frame.
c. Engine
a. Windshield wiper
d. Differential
b. Differential
8. The chassis in which the body and c. Body
the frame are acting as a single unit d. Electrical accessories
is known as
10. Generally, vehicle bodies are
a. Conventional frame
classified into _________ types.
b. Semi – integral frame
a. 2 b. 3
c. Integral frame
c. 4 d. 5

Part – B
Three mark questions

1. Classify the types of Chassis Frame. 4. List out the materials that are used
2. What do you mean by Chassis? to manufacture the chassis frame.

3. List any three parts that are 5. Define wheelbase.

mounted on the chassis. 6. State the functions of vehicle body.
7. What is painting process?

Part –C
Five mark questions

1. Highlight the functions of chassis 3. Explain the vehicle body and list
frame. out the functions.
2. Draw the chassis frame with 4. Explain the various parts that are
indicate the parts connected to the chassis frame?

Part – D
Ten mark questions

1. Indicate the various loads that are 3. Briefly explain about important
acting on a Chassis Frame. dimensions of a vehicle.
2. List out the requirements of a
vehicle body.

9 - Chassis and Body 183

BAE_ENG_Chapter_09.indd 183 01/11/2022 11:57:52 AM

 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT

10 Electrical System

Contents

10.0 Introduction 10.8 Engine Starting System

10.1 Battery 10.8.1 
Starter Motor
10.1.1 Types of Battery Drive Mechanism
10.1.2 Construction and Working
10.8.1.1  B endix
Principle of Lead-Acid
Drive
Battery
Starting
10.1.3 Battery Charging
System
10.2 Ignition System
10.2.1 Types of Ignition System 10.8.2 Starting Switch
10.2.1.1 Battery Coil 10.8.3 
Maintenance of Starter
Ignition System Motor
10.2.1.2  (a) Rotating 10.9 Charging System
Armature Type 10.9.1 
D.C Generator (or)
Magneto Ignition Dynamo
System 10.9.2 Cut Out Relay
10.2.1.2  (b) Rotating 10.9.3 Alternator
Magnet Type
10.10 Lighting System
Magneto Ignition
System 10.10.1 Important Lights in a
Lighting System
10.2.1.3  Electronic
Ignition System 10.10.2 Vehicle Lighting Circuit
10.3 Ignition Coil 10.10.3 Direction Indicator
Lamps
10.4 Spark Plug
10.11 Wind Screen Wiper
10.4.1 Types of Spark Plug
10.12 Air Conditioning System
10.4.2 Ignition Switch and Key
10.12.1 Construction and
10.5 Difference Between Battery Coil Working of Air
Ignition System And Magneto Conditioning System
Ignition System
10.13 Troubleshooting, Causes and
10.6 Distributor Remedies in the Ignition System
10.7 Ignition Advance Mechanism 10.14 Troubleshooting, Causes and
10.7.1 Types of Ignition Advance Remedies in the Starter Motor
10.7.1.1  Vacuum Advance
Mechanism

10 - Electrical System 184

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 184 01/11/2022 12:01:21 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Learning objectives

1. To learn about the types, importance of the electrical system used in an

automobile.
2. To understand the construction, working principle of various electrical
systems used in an automobile.

10.0 Introduction electrical energy into chemical energy

Electrical energy is a form of an by applying external electrical source is
energy. Electrical energy is used for domestic, known as charging of the battery. Whereas
agriculture and industrial purpose etc. conversion of chemical energy into electrical
Electrical energy plays an important role energy for supplying the external load is
in an automobile. The automotive electrical known as discharging of the battery.
system can be classified as follows. Terminal
Vent posts
1. Starting System caps
2. Ignition System Cover
Cell
connectors
3. Lighting System
Cell
4. Generation, Storage and Distribution partitions
Cells
System
5. Accessories Plates
Case
Electrolyte
10.1 Battery
Separators
The battery is an important and
essential component in an automotive
electrical system. The electrical energy 10.1.1 Types of battery
is stored in the battery and it is supplied 1. Lead Acid Battery
to all the electrical subsystem when the 2. Lithium-iron Battery
vehicle is not operating. The battery is 3. Nickel Cadmium Battery
considered as the heart of an automotive 4. Nickel Metal Hydride Battery
electrical system. 5. Sodium Sulphur Battery
A positive terminal and a negative Out of which, the lead-acid battery
terminal form a cell. Several cells are is widely used in an automobile.
connected in series or in parallel is called
as a battery. 10.1.2 Lead Acid Battery
A battery is used to store electrical Construction And
energy as chemical energy. This chemical Working Principle
energy is then converted to electrical energy The following are the important
as and when required. The conversion of parts of a battery
10 - Electrical System 185

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 185 01/11/2022 12:01:21 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

1. Container porous rubbers, or mats of glass fibre.

2. Plates The separators must be porous so that
3. Separator the electrolyte may circulate between
4. Cell cover the plates.
5. Electrolyte
6. Terminal post Cell cover
C ellcover is used to cover the
Container
complete cell. It protects the cell from the
The container is a single piece dust as well as other external impurities.
moulded part made up of hard rubber or Vent holes are provided to exhaust the gases
bituminous. The container will house all generated in the cell to the atmosphere.
the internal parts of a battery and holds Filler openings are available to fill up
the liquid electrolyte. The container is the electrolyte.
divided into six compartments for the
six cells. Projections are provided on
Electrolyte
the inside at the bottom to support the
plates. Bridges are used to prevent the In lead-acid battery dilute sulphuric
plate from touching at the bottom. acid (H 2 SO 4 )is used as an electrolyte.
For this purpose, one part concentrated
sulphuric acid is mixed with three parts
Plates
of distilled water.
Plates are of two types viz. 1. Positive
plate and 2. Negative plate
Terminals
The positive plate is made of lead Terminals are used to connect
peroxide. This is dark brown, hard and the charging circuit as well as the load.
brittle substance. Lead oxide acts as active For easy identification, the diameter of
material. Highly porous in nature. The the positive terminal is bigger than the
negative plate is made of pure lead in negative terminal.
soft sponge condition. Spongy lead acts
as active material. Grey in colour. Highly
porous in nature. Grids are used to hold (-) Car battery (+)
the plates and to conduct the electrical
charge. H2SO4(aq)
Pb
cathode
(c)
doc b
plates
coated
Separator with
Pb PbO2
The
Separators are placed between anode
lead acid
plates
positive plates and negative plates to cell

insulate them between each other. This will

prevent the short-circuiting between the
positive and negative plates. The separators Working principle
are thin sheets of non-conducting material During discharging (i.e., supplying
made up of chemically treated wood, a current), atoms from the spongy lead on
10 - Electrical System 186

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 186 01/11/2022 12:01:21 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

the negative plates combine with sulphate Method of Charging

molecules to form lead sulphate and 1. Constant Voltage Method
hydrogen. The combination of lead peroxide 2. Constant Current Method
and hydrogen at the positive electrode 3. Quick Charging Method
produces water and lead sulphate. The
water dilutes the electrolyte, making it a 1. Constant voltage method
weaker solution, drop in cell voltage, hence T h e c h a r g i n g v o lt a g e i s k e p t
specific gravity of electrolyte is reduced. constant throughout the charging process.
During recharging, current is made The charging current is high in the begining
to flow into the positive electrode of when the batter y is in the discharge
each cell. This current causes the lead condition. The current is gradually
sulphate at the negative electrode to dropping off as the battery picks up charge
recombine with hydrogen ions, thus
re-forming sulphuric acid in the electrolyte 2. Constant current method
and Spongy lead on the negative plates. T h e c h arg i ng c u r re nt i s ke pt
Also, the lead sulphate on the positive constant throughout the charging period.
electrodes recombines with water to The charging may be carried out in two
regenerate lead peroxide on the positive steps. An initial charging of approximately
plates and sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. higher volt and a finishing rate of low
Thus cell voltage is increased and the volt is used to avoid excessive gassing
specific gravity of electrolyte is increased. or overheating.
The two way of reversible chemical
reaction (charged on the left and discharged 3. Quick charging method
on the right) is given as The 80% of the total charging is
done with high current and later the
Lead Peroxide + Sulphuric Acid + charging current is reduced. A battery
Spongy Lead  Lead Sulphate + Water in good condition alone charged in this
+ Electrolyte method.
PbO 2 + 2H 2SO 4 + Pb  PbSO 4 + 2H 2O
+ PbSO 4 Specific Cell Battery %
gravity Voltage Voltage Charge
1.28 2.12 V 12.7 V 100
10.1.3 Battery Charging 1.24 2.08 V 12.5 V 70
The batter y is charged by t he 1.20 2.04 V 12.3 V 50
vehicle generator during vehicle running. 1.15 1.99 V 12.0 V 20
When the engine is in off condition, the 1.12 1.96 V 11.8 V 0
electrical device will utilise the stored
electrical energy from the battery. This A battery is called as ‘dead battery’
will quickly discharge the battery and it when the battery is completely discharged
requires external charging to charge the condition.
battery.
10 - Electrical System 187

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 187 01/11/2022 12:01:21 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

10.2 Ignition system 1. Battery

2. Ignition Coil
1. To supply a spark inside the cylinder,
3. Contact breaker points
at the end of compression stroke, to
4. Condenser
ignite the compressed charge of the
5. Distributor
air-fuel mixture.
6. Spark plug
2. Convert low tension current into high
7. Ignition Switch
tension current. (6v to 12v in to 20,000
to 30,000v)
Battery
3. To produce spark in the multi cylinder
engine at the right time as per the A battery is used to provide energy
firing order. for ignition. The battery is charged by the
dynamo or alternator and provide electrical
10.2.1 Types of ignition energy to the electrical parts in the vehicle
system as and when it is required.

1. Battery coil Ignition system

2. Magneto Ignition system Ignition coil
3. Electronic Ignition system An ignition coil is made up of an
iron core surrounded by two insulated coils,
10.2.1.1 Battery coil ignition namely primary winding and secondary
system winding. Acting as a step-up transformer.
The main parts of a battery coil It converts low tension current (12v) into
ignition system is high tension current of 20000 to 30000

Coil (20000-30000 V)
Distributor
contacts

Ignition
Secondary
switch
Primary winding winding
(200-300 turns of (2100 turns of
20 quage wire) 40 gauge wire)

Ammeter Contact
breaker

Capacitor

Spark
plugs
Battery
(6 or 12V) Distributor

Figure 10.2.1.1 (a) Battery coil ignition system

10 - Electrical System 188

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 188 01/11/2022 12:01:22 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Distributor
Spark
plugs

Electric
arc

Contactor

Contact
breaker

Capacitor
Ignition coil
Battery

Figure 10.2.1.1 (b) Battery coil ignition system

volts. This high tension current enables Condenser

to generate a spark across the electrodes A condenser is connected in parallel
of a spark plug. to the contact breaker points to prevent
arching at the contact breaker points.
Contact breaker points Also, used to increase the intensity of
The opening and closing of the the spark.
primar y circuit are made by contact
breaker points. When the points are closed Distributor
current flow in ignition coil and charge The distributor is used in multi-
the primary circuit and when it open, cylinder engine to distribute the high
discharge of primary current take place tension current from the ignition coil to
and by mutual induction, in secondary the individual spark plug as per the firing
coil high tension current is induced. order.
10 - Electrical System 189

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 189 01/11/2022 12:01:23 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Spark plug Construction

A spark plug has two electrodes Permanent magnets are stationary
which are separated with each other. When and acting as the North and South poles.
a high tension current is applied between The armature consisting of the primary and
these two electrodes, it produces spark to secondary windings all rotate between the
ignite the air fuel mixture in the engine poles of a stationary magnet. Primary winding
cylinder. will be made up of thick wire with less no. of
turns (150 to 300 turns) and the secondary
Working Principle winding is made up of thin wire with more
When the ignition switch is turned No. of turns (15000 to 25000 turns). Contact
“ON”, the current flows from the battery breaker points and condenser are connected
to the primar y winding, through the to the primary winding and spark plug is
contact breaker. The flowing current connected to the secondary winding.
induces a magnetic field in the primary
winding. As the contact breaker opens, the
Secondary
current collapses resulting in high tension winding Permanent
magnet
induction in the secondary winding. This
high tension generated in the secondary
winding is transferred to the distributor
by a cable. The distributor distributes
high tension to the spark plug located in
Pole shoe
the individual cylinder as per the firing
Primary Armature
order. A spark is generated in the spark winding
plug to initialise the combustion of fuel Contact breaker
points
and air.
Condenser

10.2.1.2 (a) Rotating
Figure 10.2.1.2 (a) Rotating armature type
Armature type
magnet ignition
Magento System
Magneto ignition system is a special
type of ignition system with its own electric Working
generator to provide the required necessary When the armature rotates, the flow
energy for the vehicle. A magneto, when of current is happening in primary winding
rotated by the engine, is capable of producing and Contact breaker point in the closed
a very high tension and doesn’t need a condition. The magnetic field is induced
battery as a source of external energy. It in primary winding. When the contact
is mounted on the engine and replaces all breaker point open, the magnetic field in the
components of the coil ignition system primary winding collapses and by mutual
except the spark plug. Magneto ignition induction principle, high tension current
system can be either rotating armature is induced in the secondary winding. This
type or rotating magneto type. high tension current is applied to the spark

10 - Electrical System 190

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 190 01/11/2022 12:01:24 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

plug and spark is produced to ignite the will make the flow of current to the
air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. primary winding and generates magnetic
field. When the contact breaker points
10.2.1.2 (b) Rotating magnet open, the magnetic field in the primary
type magneto winding collapses and by mutual induction
ignition system principle, high tension current is induced
Construction in the secondary winding. This high tension
current is applied to the spark plug and
In this permanent magnet are
spark is produced to ignite the air-fuel
fitted over the engine flywheel. The fixed
mixture in the combustion chamber.
armature will have few hundred winding
(150 to 300 turns) made up of thick wire
and this act as a primary winding. The 10.2.1.3 Electronic ignition
secondary winding is made up of thin system
wire with thousands of turns (15000 to The following are the important
25000 turns). Contact breaker points and parts of an Electronic Ignition System
condenser are connected to the primary 1. Battery
winding and spark plug is connected in 2. Ignition Switch
the secondary winding. 3. Ignition Coil
4. Electronic Control Unit
Working 5. Distributor
When the flywheel is rotated, the 6. Spark Plug
permanent magnet will also rotate. This 7. Reluctor

Rotor arm
Magneto unit
Spark generation

Condenser

Power
Generation

Cell
Distribution

Magneto Contact
breaker

Iginition
switich

Figure 10.2.1.2 (a) Rotating armature type magento system

10 - Electrical System 191

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 191 01/11/2022 12:01:25 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Secondary Primary winding

winding

Distributor
Rotor

Contact breaker points

Rotating magnet

Cam

Condenser
Spark plugs

Figure 10.2.1.2 (b) Rotating magnet type magneto ignition system

Ignition coil
Electronic
control module

Distributor
cap

Spark plug

Rotor
Ignition
switch

Vacuum Battery
advance
Magnetic
pick-up
Reluctor
or armature

Figure 10.2.1.3 (c) Electronic ignition system

10 - Electrical System 192

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 192 01/11/2022 12:01:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Battery
Spark plugs

Ignition switch

ECU
amplifier

Pulse generator

Ignition coil Distributor

Figure 10.2.1.3 (b) Electronic ignition system

Distributor
Spark plugs

Ignition
switch ECU

Ignition coil

Battery

Figure 10.2.1.3 (c) Electronic ignition system

Working diode and the transistor and it controls

Permanent magnet and pick up the flow of current to the primary circuit.
coil are placed in the distributor. The When ECU closes the primary circuit,
magnetic flux from the magnet will pass the primary winding charges. When ECU
through the reluctor. Hence, electricity is opens the primary circuit, the charge in
generated. The current will flow through the primary winding collapses and by
the electronic control unit. ECU has the mutual induction, high tension current

10 - Electrical System 193

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 193 01/11/2022 12:01:30 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

is induced in the secondary winding. High tension

Insulation
This high tension current will reach the cap terminal

respective spark plug as per the firing Ignition Contact-

switch beaker
order through a distributor. Thus, the terminal (distributor
terminal)
spark is produced and the air-fuel ,mixture
is ignited. Common
Aluminium
casing winding
connection
Advantages
1. No moving parts Secondary
2. Ignition timing is controlled by winding

ECU, hence no need for an advance Primary

winding
mechanism
Laminated
3. Long life for spark plug soft-iron core
4. Spark intensity is higher
5. Contact breaker points, condenser are
Figure 10.3 (b) Ignition coil
eliminated

10.3 Ignition coil Types of Ignition coil

1. Can type (or) Metal glad type
Secondary
2. Core type
tower

10.4 Spark plug

Primary
terminals
Terminal

Laminated
soft iron
core
Primary
winding Insulator
Secondary
winding few coils
many coil heavy wire
thin wire
Shell

Gasket
Figure 10.3 (a) Ignition coil
Threads
The ignition coil is used to convert Insulator
tip
12 V D.C. from the battery to 20,000V to
Side
30,000V A.C. It works on the principle of electrode
Center
electrode
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
It is also called as Step up transformer. The
Figure 10.4 (a) Spark plug
primary coil is made up of thick wires with
150 to 300 turns. The secondary coil is made In petrol engines, at the end of
up of thin wires with 20000 to 25000 turns. compression stroke, the spark plug is used to
10 - Electrical System 194

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 194 01/11/2022 12:01:31 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

introduce spark to ignite the air-fuel mixture. Hot plug Cold plug
Spark plug consists of a central electrode,
a ground electrode, an insulator. There is
a small gap (0.5mm to 0.7mm) is available
between the central electrode and ground
electrode. When the high tension current
from the ignition coil through a distributor
is applied between these electrodes, spark
is produced. This spark will ignite the air
fuel mixture. Figure 10.4.1 (b) Types of spark plug

Terminal
Hot spark plug

Insulator
In this type of spark plug, the length
of the insulator is long and heat travel
Central
electrode path is long. This spark plug is widely
Shell
used in low-speed engine and engine
operating in the cold climatic area.
Sealing
ring
Gasket
washer Cold spark plug
In this, the length of the insulator is
Side electrode
short and heat travel part is short. These
spark plugs are widely used in high-speed
Figure 10.4 (b) Spark plug
engines and heavy loaded engines.

10.4.1 Types of spark plug

10.4.2 Ignition switch and key
1. Hot spark plug
2. Cold spark plug The Ignition switch is used to
connect the battery to the required circuits
via a key. It will have three terminal viz.,
The battery (B), Ignition (Ig) and Starter
(St). The terminal B is always connected to
the battery. Ignition system, fuel system,
Heat travel
path lighting and other electrical accessories
Cylinder are connected in the Ignition terminal
head
via a fuse. The solenoid switch of the
starter motor is connected in Starter (St)
Cooling water terminal.
When the ignition switch is positioned
Figure 10.4.1 (a) Types of spark plug in Ignition (Ig), then the electricity from the

10 - Electrical System 195

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 195 01/11/2022 12:01:32 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

battery will flow to all the electrical system

(except starting system) of the vehicle.
When the ignition switch is positioned in
Starter (St), then the current will flow to
the starter motor through the solenoid and
thus the engine is started.
Figure 10.4.2 Ignition Switch

10.5 D
 ifference between battery coil ignition system and
magneto ignition system
Battery coil ignition system Magneto ignition system
1. Electrical energy is supplied by the Electrical energy is generated by the
battery Magento
2. Easy to start the engine Little difficult to start the engine
3. Difficult to start the engine, when The battery is not required; hence this
the battery is low problem will not arise
4. Wiring circuit is complex Wiring circuit is simple
5. Spark intensity is good even at low Spark intensity is poor during low engine
engine speed. speed.
6. More space is required Less space is required
7. Difficult in maintenance Easy maintenance
8. Does not work, if the battery fails No need for battery
9. Used in Cars, buses and trucks Used in Moped, Scooter, Motor bikes.

10.6 Distributor the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the

The Distributor does two functions. correct firing order. A coil wire delivers
First, it has a set of contact breaker points, the high tension from the coil to the
that works as a switch. When the CB points centre terminal of the distributor cap.
close, current flows through the coil. When Inside the cap, a rotor is on top of the
the CB point open, current flow stops and distributor shaft. The distributor shaft
coil produces a high tension current. A is driven from the engine camshaft by a
condenser is connected in parallel to the CB pair of spiral gears. When the rotor turns,
points. The condenser aids in the collapse the centre terminal of the distributor cap
of the magnetic field and help to reduce is connected by spark plug wires to the
arching occurs between the CB points. spark plugs. The spark plug wires carry
Second, the distributor is used to the high tension current to the spark
distribute the high tension current from plug in the cylinder that is ready to fire.

10 - Electrical System 196

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 196 01/11/2022 12:01:32 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

terminal to ignition coil rise is after the TDC, then the piston is
terminal to spark plug moving down on the power stroke before
carbon brush
combustion pressure reaches its maximum.
Segment cap When there is a change in the load and
rotor speed of the engine, then the ignition
timing has to be adjusted accordingly
Cap holder to ensure maximum pressure just as the
Cap piston moves through the TDC and this
Base plate
Ignition advance is called as ignition advance.
mechanism
Housing

Grease cup Shapt 10.7.1 Types of ignition

advance
1. Vacuum advance mechanism
Figure 10.6 (a) Distributor 2. Manual method
3. Centrifugal advance mechanism
4. Combined centrifugal and vacuum
advance

10.7.1.1 Vacuum advance
mechanism
When the throttle valve is partly
open, a partial vacuum develops in the
intake manifold. The less air-fuel mixture
gets inside the engine cylinder and hence
fuel burns slower. The spark must be
advanced at part throttle to give the
Figure 10.6 (b) Distributor mixture more time to burn.
The vacuum advance mechanism
advances spark timing by shifting the
10.7 Ignition advance
position of the base plate. The vacuum
Mechanism
advance unit has a diaphragm linked to the
In an engine, the spark is timed base plate. A vacuum passage connects the
just before the piston reaches TDC on diaphragm to a port just above the closed
the compression stroke. This will ensure throttle valve. When the throttle valve
the peak combustion pressure is obtained moves past the vacuum port, the intake
just after the TDC. If the pressure rise manifold vacuum pulls on the diaphragm.
is before the TDC, then it will result This rotates the base plate so that the
in a weak power stroke. If the pressure contact points open and close earlier.

10 - Electrical System 197

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 197 01/11/2022 12:01:32 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Diaphram
High vacuum

To
carburetor

Advance Cam
Vacuum Step
atmosphere breaker
spring stop
pressure plate

Diaphram Primary
Diaphram link spring

To
carburetor
Low vacuum

No advance Cam
breaker
plate

Movable breaker plate

Vacuum unit

Diaphragm
Compression

Vacuum advance arm

Hose connection

Figure 10.7 (a) Vacuum advance system

To atmosphere
Base plate
Diapharagm

Throttle

Engine side
Return spring

Figure 10.7 (b) Vacuum advance system

10 - Electrical System 198

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 198 01/11/2022 12:01:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Base plate
Spring

Cam

Spring

Weight

In 2017, Rolls-Royce unveiled a one-off custom build called the Sweptail.

At a reported price of nearly $13 million, it is believed to be the most
expensive new car ever.

10.8 Engine starting The system which is used to start

system the engine is called as Starting system.
In olden days, a handle is inserted and
Switch
rotated in the crankshaft and thus the
Battery
engine was started. Now, to crank the
Starter
engine D.C. motors are used. The electrical
energy from the battery is converted into
mechanical energy by the D.C. Motor.
The D.C. motor pinion is coupled with
the ring gear in the flywheel and thus the
Figure 10.8 Engine starting circuit engine is started.
10 - Electrical System 199

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 199 01/11/2022 12:01:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Starter circuit

Battery

Solenoid

Ignition
switch

Starter saftey Control

switch circuit Starter
motor

Figure 10.8 Engine starting system

10.8.1 Starter motor drive 4. Rubber compression system

mechanism 5. Sliding armature system
The ratio between the starting motor 6. Parallel type system
pinion gear and the ring gear in engine 7. Friction clutch system
flywheel is varied from 1:10 to 1:15. For
example, if the ratio 1:15 means, the flywheel 10.8.1.1 Bendix drive starting
will rotate 1 revolution when the motor system
pinion rotates 15 revolutions. Once, the Construction
engine is cranked, then the speed of the There is a threaded sleeve in an
engine will increase. If the starter motor armature shaft. The sleeve will move on
is continuously engaged, then the engine the shaft back and forth. Armature shaft
will drive the motor and the speed of the is directly connected to the drivehead.
motor will be 15 times higher than the Coil spring is mounted over the sleeve.
engine speed. This will lead to failure of Pinion will be over the sleeve. There is
the starting motor. To prevent this, pinion an unbalanced weight on the pinion.
gear should be disengaged from the flywheel
ring gear once the engine is started and
Working
the mechanism used for disengagement is
called as starter motor drive mechanism. When the starter switch is “ON”,
armature and sleeve assembly rotate. While
rotating, the pinion moves over the sleeve
Types of starter motor drive due to inertia as pinion is loosely mounted
mechanism over the sleeve. The pinion is engaged with
1. Bendix drive the flywheel ring gear and start the engine.
2. Over running clutch type As the engine speed increases, the pinion
3. Folo – thru system retracts and go away from the engine flywheel.
10 - Electrical System 200

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 200 01/11/2022 12:01:34 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Feild coil
Connector
Magenetic switch
Cover
band
Through
Drive housing
bolt
Drive spring
Oiler

Brush Armature Drive pinion

Commutator

Commutator end frame

Bendix spring Drift pin

Stop nut

Driving head

Pinion gear

Figure 10.8.1.1 (a) Bendix drive starting system

10.8.2 Starting switch battery to the pull-in – windings and it get

The switch is a device which is used magnetised. It pulls the contact disc and
to open and close the electric circuit. A closes the circuit between the battery and
starting switch is used between the starter the starter motor. When the switch is off,
motor and the battery. In this, plunger, the pull-in – windings get demagnetise
contact disc, pull-in – windings, terminals and the spring makes the circuit open
and connection wires are there. When the between the battery and the starter motor.
switch is on, the current passes from the It is also called as ‘Solenoid Switch’.

10 - Electrical System 201

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 201 01/11/2022 12:01:34 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Amature and shaft beginning to rotate 10.8.3 Maintenance of starter

motor
1. Starting motor should not be operated
continuously for more than 30 seconds.
Forces stationary
2. Once the engine is turned on, the
pinion endwise on startingswitch should be released.
shaft
3. Periodic greasing should be made.
Pinion meshed 4. Ensure the proper tightness of cable
in flywheel
5. Replace the faulty bearing immediately
6. Don’t crank the engine frequently, if
the engine fails to start
All parts noe rotating together
cranking engine 10.9 Charging system
Engine starts The mechanical energy of the engine
is converted into electrical energy by means
of a Generator. This electrical energy is
stored in the battery. The generator is
driven by the engine crankshaft. To control
Excessive flywheel speed drives the current flow, regulators are used. An
pionion out of mesh
ammeter is used to measure the current.
The generator is also called a dynamo.

10.9.1 Construction and
working of generator
(or) Dynamo
Based on the Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, the device

Unbalanced
Armature weight Torsion spring

Sleave

Starting
motor

Sliding
Piston gear dog
Collar Fly wheel Stationery drive head

Figure 10.8.1.1 (b) Bendix drive starting system

10 - Electrical System 202

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 202 01/11/2022 12:01:34 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Most car companies

themselves are
named after their
founders like Ford,
Rolls-Royce, Austin, Ferrari,
Lamborghini, Porsche, Renault,
Citroen, Honda, Toyota (Toyoda),
DeLorean etc.
Starter solenoid

Starter housing

Starter motor Starter bendix

Switch
Plunger

Winding Battery

• Car Radios Were Once Considered

Dangerous.

• The first car radio was invented

To starting motor
by Paul Gavin in 1929. It could
Contact disc be installed in most cars, and cost
just over $100. In 1930, laws to ban
Figure 10.8.2 Starting Switch the use of car radios while driving
were proposed in Massachusetts
which is used to convert mechanical and St. Louis because many feared
energy from engine in to electrical energy them to be a dangerous distraction
is called as Generator (or) Dynamo. to drivers.

Important parts
1. Frame
2. Armature
3. Commutator
10 - Electrical System 203

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 203 01/11/2022 12:01:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Main fuse

Battery

Ignition
switch

Charging system light

Starter

Alternator
Alternator belt

Figure 10.9 (a) Charging system

Battery Regulator

Generator
Switch

Ammeter

Figure 10.9 (b) Charging system

10 - Electrical System 204

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 204 01/11/2022 12:01:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Pulley
Pole Piece Field coils Fan

Bearing

Armature
shaft

Commutator

Brush

Armature
Body

Figure 10.9.1 Dynamo (or) D.C. Generator

4. Brush It has two windings, namely shunt

5. Pole shoe and series. It has an armature carrying the
6. Field coil contact points. The armature is hinged
T he e ng i ne c r an k shaf t pu l l e y and is kept away from the windings
drives the dynamo through a V – belt by a spring when the generator is not
drive at two to three times crankshaft running.
speed. Field coils are placed on each pole
and are connected in series. Field coils Once the generator starts, a tension
produce an electromagnetic field and the is imposed on two windings of the cutout
armature conductors are rotated into the relay. It produces the magnetic field which
field. The armature cuts the magnetic attracts the armature. As soon as the
fields and an emf is generated in the tension produced by the generator is of
armature conductors. The commutator sufficient value to force the charge into the
is to collect the current generated in battery, the magnetism is strong enough
armature conductors and DC is sent out to pull the armature down overcoming the
through the carbon brushes. spring tension. This makes the contact
point closes and thereby completing the
circuit between the generator and the
10.9.2 Cut out relay
battery. Thus, the battery gets charged.
When the generator is operating, the
cutout relay closes the circuit, permitting When generator stops, the armature
the battery to get charged. When the loses the magnetism and the spring tension
generator stops, it opens the circuit, thereby on the armature pulls the contact point
preventing the battery from discharging away, thereby opening the circuit between
back through the generator. the battery and the generator.
10 - Electrical System 205

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 205 01/11/2022 12:01:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Hinge Armature

Contact
points
Spring

Shunt
winding

Iron
core

Insulator

Generator
wire Battery

Figure 10.9.2 (a) Cut out relay

10.9.3 Alternator with the amount of the current flowing.

The alternator converts mechanical The stationary loops or conductors are
energy from the engine into electrical energy. assembled into a laminated iron frame.
It is also called A.C. Generator. With the help The assembly is stator. As the rotating
of rectifiers formed by diodes, the Alternating magnetic field cuts through the windings,
Current (AC) is converted into Direct Current an alternating current is induced in the
(DC) and stored in vehicle battery. stator. As the magnetic poles are changing
for every half revolution, stator induces an
The rotor shaft usually consists of
alternating current for every revolution
pole pieces with a field coil or winding
of the rotor.
between them. When the current flows
through the winding, it becomes an
electromagnet. Current flows in and out of Advantages
the winding through two brushes riding on • Light in weight
slip rings. Each slip rings connects to one • A high output is obtained even at low
end of the winding. The current produces engine speed.
a magnetic field which rotates as the rotor • The cutout relay is not needed.
turned by engine crankshaft through a belt. • Long life.
The strength of the magnetic fields varies • Highly reliable.
10 - Electrical System 206

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 206 01/11/2022 12:01:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Amature Contact Ammeter

point

Hinge Series
winding

Shunt
winding
Battery

From
generator

Armature Series winding

Contact breaker
points

Battery Terminal

Generator terminal

Shunt winding

Figure 10.9.2 (b) Cut out Relay

10.10 Lighting system

The automobile uses lighting system
to provide illumination especially during
night or light needed to safely operate
the vehicle. The various lights provide
vision and information to the driver,
convenience for passengers, signals and
warnings to other driver and pedestrians.
Figure 10.9.3 Alternator Light means illumination.

10 - Electrical System 207

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 207 01/11/2022 12:01:36 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

From Battery
Diode Stator
Magnet

To electrical circuit
Slip rings

Diode

Figure10.9.3 Alternator

10.10.1 Important lights in a lighting system and its purpose

Sl. No. Lights Purpose
1 Head Lamps To illuminate the road ahead at a reasonable
distance with sufficient intensity during the night.
2 Tail Lamps To show red at the rear of the vehicle. This gives
an indication to the driver of the following
vehicle.
3 Parking Lamps To mark the front of a parked vehicle at night.
4 Fog Lamps To illuminate the road ahead using yellow light
during mist, winter season, hill station etc
5 Stop Lamps (or) Brake To indicate the application of brake to the
lamps following vehicle driver in order to slow down or
stop the vehicle.
6 Direction indicating To indicate an intended change in direction by
lamps flashing light on the side towards which the turn
will be made. The lamps are available in front and
rear of the vehicle.
7 Panel Lamps To illuminate the dashboard in order to see the
readings indicating in various meters.
8 Interior Lamps To illuminate the interior part/passenger
compartment of the vehicle.
9 Reverse lamps To illuminate the back of the vehicle and to
indicate the reversing of the vehicle
10 Number Plate Lamps To illuminate the number plate of the vehicle

10 - Electrical System 208

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 208 01/11/2022 12:01:36 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

10.10.2 Vehicle lighting circuit

10 - Electrical System 209

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 209 01/11/2022 12:01:36 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Figure 10.10.2 Lighting system

10.10.3 Direction indicating well as following vehicle. A lever operated

lamps turn switch is mounted in the steering
Lamps are provided at each front column. The turn signal lever is moved
and rear corner of a vehicle. This allows up for a right turn and down for a left
the driver to signal an intention to turn turn. A flasher unit is used to open and
left or right to the opposing vehicle as close the lighting circuit about 70 – 80

10 - Electrical System 210

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 210 01/11/2022 12:01:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Front right Front left

indicator lamp indicator lamp
Flasher unit
Fuse Battery

Direction indicator lamp

Indicator lamp Switch

Rear right indicator lamp Rear left indicator lamp

Figure 10.10.3 Directional signal circuit

times per minute to make more able to three speeds. Many cars have intermittent
the other driver. After completing the windshield wipers. These include an
turn, the return movement of the steering adjustable time delay between blade
wheel automatically cancels the turn signal movements. The wiper blades will move
and the lever moves back to its neutral across and back, pause and then repeat
position, opening the circuit. the action.
A windshield washer is part of
10.11 Wind Screen the windshield wiper system. When the
Wiper driver presses a button, liquid windshield
washer fluid squirts on the windshield.
Wi n d s h i e l d w i p e r s c l e a n t h e
This allows the blades to clean more
windshield so that the driver can see
effectively.
clearly while driving on rain or snow or
dirt on the windshield. The wipers are
operated by an electric motor.
The electric motor drives the worm.
Worm drive the worm wheel. The drive to
the blades is transmitted via a shaft and
rotary link assembly. It is incorporated
with a special limit switch to ensure
consistent parking of the wiper arms
and blades in the correct position. The
windshield wiper switch has atleast two or
10 - Electrical System 211

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 211 01/11/2022 12:01:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Blade

Wiper arm

Motor

Sector

Pivot

Toothed
Sector
Armature Shaft
Worm shaft

Link
Worm wheel
Motor

Figure 10.11 Wind screen wiper

10 - Electrical System 212

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 212 01/11/2022 12:01:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

10.12 Air conditioning passenger prefers mild heating and during

system the summer season, passenger prefers
cooling. To achieve this, the system which
The passenger is like to travel
is to provide both the conditions is called
with comfort. During the winter season,
an airconditioning system.

10.12.1 Construction and working principle of vehicle air

conditioning system

Evaporator

Low side
tap Expansion value(or orifice tube)

Compressor

High tap
side

Condenser
Receiver
dryer

Figure 10.12.1 (a) Air conditioning System

10 - Electrical System 213

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 213 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Condenser

Liquid refrigerator

Receiver

Dry
Super heated vapour
Expansion refrigerant
refrigerant
valve
Wet refrigerant

Evaporator Compressor

Figure 10.12.1 (b) Simple steam air conditioning system

Imp o r t a nt p a r t s o f a v e h i c l e the condenser where it is condensed into

airconditioning system liquid refrigerant by a constant temperature
1. Compressor process.
2. Condenser This liquid refrigerant is expanded
3. Receiver/driver i n t h e e x p an s i on v a l v e w h e re it i s
4. Thermostatic Expansion Valve converted into the low-pressure low-
5. Evaporator temperature liquid refrigerant. This
6. Refrigerant refrigerant is sent into the evaporator,
7. Lines and Hoses where it receives the heat energ y
The compressor is driven by the from the passenger compartment and
eng ine by me ans of b elt dr ive. The c onve r t e d i nt o v ap ou r re f r i ge r ant ,
compressor receives the low pressure, there by cooling effect is obtained. This
low-temp erature vap our ref rigerant vapour refrigerant is again sent into the
from the evaporator. This refrigerant compressor and the cycle is continued.
is compressed to high pressure, high- This airconditioning system controls the
temperature vapour refrigerant by the temperature, humidity, ventilation and
compressor. This refrigerant is sent into dust level simultaneously.

10 - Electrical System 214

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 214 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

10.13 Troubleshooting, causes and remedies in

the ignition system

1. Engine Misfiring
Sl.No. Cause Remedy
1. Spark plug faulty Clean, regap or replace the spark plug
2. Loose electrical wiring Tighten, clean the wires
3. Late ignition timing Correct ignition timing
4. Wear and tear of contact breaker point Replace
5. Faulty ignition coil Replace

2. Engine does not start

Sl.No. Cause Remedy
1. Cable lose, corroded, open terminal Tight, repair as needed
2. Defective ignition switch Replace
3. Faulty condenser Rectify
4. Defective contact breaker points Rectify
5. Low voltage in the battery Charge the battery

10.14 Troubleshooting, causes and remedies in Starter

Motor

1. Starter motor does not start

Sl.No. Cause Remedy
1. Low voltage in the battery Charge the battery
2. Burned coil / winding Replace
3. Faulty starting switch Rectify
4. Faulty armature Repair or replace
5. Dust on sleeve or pinion Clean the parts

Student Activity

1. Students are advised to submit a detailed report based on the visit to the nearest
service station to study the service of various electrical components such as a
battery, ignition coil, condenser, spark plug etc.
2. Students are asked to prepare and submit a detailed report with appropriate sketches
on the starting system, charging system and lighting system based on the visit to
the nearest service station.

10 - Electrical System 215

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 215 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

G Glossary

1. Battery – மின்கலம்
2. Primary Winding – பிரதம மின் சுற்று அல்லது முதல் நிலை
மின் சுற்று
3. Secondary Winding – துணை மின் சுற்று அல்லது இரண்டாம்
நிலை மின் சுற்று
4. Circuit – மின் சுற்று
5. Electrolyte – மின்னாற் பகுப�ொருள்
6. Electrical Energy – மின் ஆற்றல்
7. Mechanical Energy – இயக்க ஆற்றல்
8. Ignition or Induction Coil – தூண்டு சுருள்
9. Magnetic Field – காந்த புலம்
10. Condensor – மின் தேக்கி
11. Distributor – பகிர்வி
12. Spark Plug – மின் ப�ொறிக்கட்டை
13. Illumination – வெளிச்சம்
14. Generator – மின்னாக்கி
15. Contact Breaker Points – தடை செய்யும் முனைகள்

References

1. S.K. Gupta, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-837-4691-0, First Edition 2014, Reprint 2016.
2. Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Sci Tech Publications (India) Pvt Ltd, 2011.
Ramalingam. K.K.
3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1, Standard Publisher and distributor, ISBN
– 13 – 978-8180141966
4. Jack Erjavec- Automotive Technology_ A Systems Approach -Delmar Cengage Learning
(2009) ISBN-13: 978-1428311497
5. James D. Halderman, Automotive Technology, Principles, Diagnosis and service, fourth
Edition, 2012, Prentice Hall, ISBN - 3: 978-0-13-254261-6
6. K.K.Jain and R.B.Asthana, Automobile Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
7. R.K.Rajput, A Text Book of Automobile Engineering, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.
8. A.K. Babu & Er. Ajit Pal Singh, Automobile Engineering, S.Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
9. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2004
10. Automotive Mechanics by William Crouse, Donald Anglin

10 - Electrical System 216

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 216 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Webliography

1. https://www.searsauto.com/car-care-101/different-types-of-batteries-for-your-car
2. https://www.epectec.com/batteries/charging/
3. http://www.manbat.co.uk/news/how-do-car-batteries-work/
4. http://www.secondchancegarage.com/public/91.cfm
5. http://www.t3atlanta.com/blog/car-tips/types-of-spark-plug-materials/
6. https://www.samarins.com/glossary/starter.html
7. https://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-the-charging-system-works
8. https://www.hella.com/techworld/uk/Technical/Automotive-lighting/Basic-principles-
of-car-lighting-technology-220/
9. https://www.cars.com/auto-repair/glossary/wiper-motor/
10. http://www.mech4study.com/2015/09/car-air-conditioning-system.html

Evaluation

PART - A
One mark questions
Choose the correct answer
a. 2
b. 3
1. ________ is called as the heart of
c. 4
an automotive electrical system.
d. 5
a. Battery
b. Dynamo 4. The gap between the central
c. Spark plug electrode and ground electrode of
d. Contact breaker points a spark plug is
a. 5 mm to 10 mm
2. A positive terminal and a negative
b. 10 mm to 20 mm
terminal forms a __________
c. 30mm to 50 mm
a. Rotor
d. 0.5mm to 0.7mm
b. Cell
c. Battery 5. In the starting system, the starter
d. Coil motor is engaged with flywheel
through __________
3. The number of types of an
a. Valve
ignition coil __________
b. Armature

10 - Electrical System 217

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 217 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

c. Pinion a. 2
d. Coil b. 3
c. 4
6. Which of the following is used to
d. 5
convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy? 9. The ratio of acid and water in an
a. Motor electrolyte solution is __________
b. Generator a. 1:3
c. Regulator b. 3:1
d. Camshaft c. 4:1
d. 1:4
7. The illumination is related to
__________ 10. The ignition coil is also called as
a. Light __________
b. Sound a. Step up transformer
c. Motion b. Battery
d. Temperature c. Spark plug
d. Rotor
8. The number of types of the ignition
system is __________

PART - B

Three marks questions

1. List out the various electrical 5. List out the various types of starter
system in an automobile? motor drive mechanism.
2. State the use of condenser in an 6. What do you mean by ignition
ignition system? advance?
3. List out the advantages of an 7. Write short notes on air
electronic ignition system. conditioning?
4. Why spark plug is used? 8. Identify the reason for more noise
in a generator?

PART - C

Five marks questions

1. Draw neatly and indicate the 2. State the difference between coil
various parts of a battery. ignition system and Magento
ignition system?

10 - Electrical System 218

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 218 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3. Highlight the maintenance 5. With the aid of a neat sketch,

requirements of a starter motor. explain the construction of an
ignition switch.
4. Draw the headlamp circuit used
in an automobile and indicate the 6. Draw the layout of a vehicle air
parts. conditioning system and indicate
the parts.

PART - D

Ten marks question

1. Explain the construction and 4. With the aid of a neat sketch,

working principle of a battery coil explain the construction and
ignition system with a neat sketch. working principle of an
alternator.
2. Describe the construction and
working principle of an electronic 5. Explain the various lights and
ignition system with a neat sketch. its purposes that are used in an
automobile.
3. Illustrate the working principle of
Bendix drive mechanism with neat
sketch.

10 - Electrical System 219

BAE_ENG_Chapter_10.indd 219 01/11/2022 12:01:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Model Question Paper

(Mark Evaluation)
+2 Basic Automobile Engineering
Vocational Theory

Theory Marks – 90     Internal Assessment Marks – 10     Total Marks – 100

Part – A Choose the best answer 15 × 1=15

Part – B Answer the following Questions 10 x 3 = 30
(Answer any 10 out of 13 Questions)
Part – C Answer the following Questions 5 x 5 = 25
(Answer any 5 out of 7 Questions)
Part – D Answer all the Questions 2 x 10 = 20
(Either or Type)

+2 Model Question Paper (English Medium)

(Theory Marks : 90)

Part – A

Choose the correct Answer 3. In which type of clutch, there is no

Answer all the questions. 15 × 1 = 15 need of clutch pedal?
a. Single plate clutch
1. The Transmission system which has b. Multiplate clutch
good road grip is, c. Diaphragm clutch
a. Front engine rear wheel drive d. Centrifugal clutch
b. Rear engine rear wheel drive
4. Which type of lubricating oil is
c. Front engine front wheel drive
used in gear box?
d. Front engine four wheel drive
a. S.A.E 30
2. Types of Multiplate clutch b. S.A.E 40
a. 3 b. 4 c. S.A.E 90
c. 2 d. 5 d. S.A.E 120

Model Question Paper 220

BAE_ENG_MQ.indd 220 01/11/2022 12:23:45 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

5. Top Gear ratio is 10. The up and down movement of the

a. 1:2 vehicle is called
b. 2:1 a. Rolling b. Skidding
c. 1:1 c. Bouncing d. Pitching
d. 3:1
11. Caster angle is
6. Which device is used to adjust the a 1o to 2o b. 2o to 4o
angle Variation and transmit the c. 3o to 4o d. 2o to 3o
power?
12. Back bone of the vehicle is
a. Propeller shaft
a. Chassis frame b. Body
b. Sliding joint
c. Engine d. Gear box
c. Differential
d. Universal Joint 13. The number of turns in the primary
winding of the ignition coil is
7. Tyre strength is indicated by a. 100 to 150
a. Bead b. 150 to 300
b. Tread c. above 400
c. Ply rating d. 600 to 700
d. side wall
14. How does the dynamo (or)
8. Brake shoes are made up of Generator get the drive?
a. Asbestos a. connecting rod
b. Aluminium alloy b. Piston
c. Steel Alloy c. Engine Crank shaft
d. Copper d. Engine Cam shaft
9. Which type of brake is 15. The part used to connect front axle
mostly used in cars? and stub axle is
a. Vaccum brake a. Piston pin
b. Hydraulic brake b. King pin
c. Mechanical Brake c. Cotter pin
d. Air Brake d. Circlip

Part – B

Answer any ten Questions. 18. What are the types of

Question number 25 is gear box?
compulsory 10 × 3 = 30
19. What are the types of rear axle
16. Explain Air Resistance. Shaft?

17. What are the advantages of 20. What is the effect of low tyre
diaphragm clutch? pressure?

Model Question Paper 221

BAE_ENG_MQ.indd 221 01/11/2022 12:23:45 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

21. What are the properties of brake 24. Define – steering ratio.
fluid?
25. Define – wheel base.
22. What are the advantages of Anti –
26. What is the use of cut out unit?
lock – brake system?
27. What is the use of condenser?
23. What are the types of shock
absorber? 28. State any three types of clutch.

Part - C

Answer any five questions. 32. What are the requirements of

Question number 33 is vehicle body?
compulsory 5 × 5 =25
33. Draw and label the parts of head
29. Draw and explain briefly the lamp circuit.
front engine Rear Wheel drive 34. What are the reasons and remedies
transmission system. for clutch slip?
30. Draw and mark the parts of 35. What are the advantages and
propeller shaft. dis – advantages of power
31. What are the advantages and steering?
disadvantages of independent
suspension system?

Part – D

Answer all the

Questions 2 × 10 = 20

36. Explain the construction and 37. Explain the construction and
working of single plate clutch with working of battery coil ignition
neat sketch system with neat sketch
(Or) (Or)
Draw and explain the construction Explain the construction and
and working of differential unit. working of master cylinder with
neat sketch

Model Question Paper 222

BAE_ENG_MQ.indd 222 01/11/2022 12:23:45 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

+2 – Basic Automobile
Engineering - Practical

Contents

S. No. Practical Unit Page. No. Month

1 Clutch Unit 224

June
2 Gear Box 228

3 Differential 231
July
4 Steering Gear Box 235

5 Master Cylinder 239

August
6 Wheel Cylinder 243

7 Shock Absorber 247 September

8 Self Starter Motor 250

October
9 Dynamo 254

10 Battery 258 November

Practical 223

BAE_Practical.indd 223 01/11/2022 12:25:27 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical –1
Clutch Unit

Aim:
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given clutch.

Equipments:
Given Clutch

Tools Required:
1. Box Spanner
2. Arber press
3. Reverting machine
4. Spring Tester
5. Long nose pliers
6. Double end spanner

Materials Required
1. Cotton waste
2. Kerosene
3. Petrol
4. Emery sheet
5. Metal tray

Reason for dismantling:

• Clutch is not disengaged when the clutch pedal is pressed.
• Difficult to press the clutch pedal.
• More noise in clutch.
• Vehicle speed is low even engine is in good condition.
• Manufacturer POI (Pencil of Inspection)

Practical 224

BAE_Practical.indd 224 01/11/2022 12:25:27 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Relese
finger Strut
Eye bolt
Fulcrum pin
Antirattle
Fly wheel spring
clip Clutch cover

Hub Throw out

bearing

Release
Coil
fork
spring
Clutch disc
Springs between hub
and disc absorb shock

Single plate clutch

Practical 225

BAE_Practical.indd 225 01/11/2022 12:25:28 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Clutch plate with friction lining

Body
Spring
Flywheel

Crank
shaft

Pressure plate
Hub Thrust
bearing

Driven shaft
Driving
shaft Release lever
(withdrawl finger)

Knife edge

Practical 226

BAE_Practical.indd 226 01/11/2022 12:25:30 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Dismantling:
• Remove the universal joint bolts, center bed bolts, propeller shaft assembly and
speedometer cables from the gear box.
• Remove clutch fork connection, gear box, clutch mounting bolts.
• Remove the gear box from the vehicle with the help of rope.
• Place the clutch in the Arber press and remove the clutch casing bolts.
• Remove pressure springs, release lever finger, pressure plate, clutch plate and etc…

Inspection:
• Inspect the clutch plate, pressure plate, linings, release lever, pressure spring, bolt,
nuts, washer and etc… for any damage.
• Check the release lever spring tension it is more than 5 pounds replace by new one.
• Check the coil spring length before and after compression by using coil spring tester.
• Check the clutch free pedal play.

Assembling
• Assembling is the reversing process of dismantling.
• Place the clutch cover on the fly wheel and tighten the bolts. [Marking on clutch cover
and flywheel should be in coincide].
• Check the clutch and gear box is working properly.

Result:
Thus the given clutch unit was dismantled, inspected and reassembled.

Practical 227

BAE_Practical.indd 227 01/11/2022 12:25:30 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical –2
Gear box

Aim:
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given gear box.

Equipments:
Given Gear box

Tools Required
1. Ring spanner
2. Double end spanner
3. Screw driver
4. Ball pein hammer
5. Drift punch
6. Wooden hammer

Materials Required:
1. Cotton waste
2. S.A.E 90 oil
3. Metal tray
4. Grease
5. Kerosene

Reasons for Dismantling

• Gear slip
• More noise in neutral position
• Difficult to operate gear shifting lever
• Gear changing is very hard
• Manufacturer POI is over

Practical 228

BAE_Practical.indd 228 01/11/2022 12:25:30 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Gear shift
Clutch fork
gear
Clutch
Output
shaft

Input
shaft

Idle gear

Counter shaft

Practical 229

BAE_Practical.indd 229 01/11/2022 12:25:31 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

3-4 synchronizer

Third gear
Input (clutch) gear
Second gear (fourth gear)

1-2 synchronizer

First gear
Fifth gear

Countershaft

Fifth gear
synchronizer

Third gear
Fifth gear
Input (clutch) gear
Second gear
First gear
Reverse
idler gear
Reverse gear

Speed Gear Ratio

First gear 7:1
Second gear 3:3:1
Third gear 1:7:1
Top gear 1:1

Dismantling procedure:
• Remove the gear box from the vehicle and place it on the work bench.
• Drain the gear box oil.
• Remove the gear shifting lever, selector rod mechanism, end cover, bearings, main
shaft gears, main shaft, clutch shaft with gear, counter shaft and etc…

Inspection:
• Clean all the pants.
• Clean the gear box casing and inspect for any damage.
• Check the main shaft, gears, counter shaft gears and clutch gear for any damage and
replace the new one if any damage.
• Check the clutch shaft, main shaft and counter for any damage.

Assembling:
• Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result:
Thus the given gear box was dismantled, inspected and reassembled.
Practical 230

BAE_Practical.indd 230 01/11/2022 12:25:31 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical –3
Differential

Aim:
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given differential.

Equipment:
Given differential unit.

Tools Required:
1. Ring spanner
2. Double ended spanner
3. Copper hammer
4. Iron hammer
5. Drift punch

Materials Required:
1. Cotton waste
2. S.A.E 90 oil
3. Metal tray
4. Grease
5. Kerosene
6. Degreaser

Reasons for Dismantling:

• More noise in differential
• Rear wheel rotate in low speed
• Rear wheel does not turns easily
• Low power transmits to rear wheel
• Manufacturer POI is over.

Practical 231

BAE_Practical.indd 231 01/11/2022 12:25:31 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical 232

BAE_Practical.indd 232 01/11/2022 12:25:32 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical 233

BAE_Practical.indd 233 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Dismantling:
• Place the differential unit on the work bench.
• Remove the crown wheel.
• Remove the differential cage.
• Remove the sun gear, planet gears.
• Clean all the parts with kerosene.

Assembling:
Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result:
Thus the given differential was dismantled, inspected and reassembled.

Practical 234

BAE_Practical.indd 234 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical –4
Steering Gear Box

Aim:
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given steering gear box

Equipments:
Given steering gear box

Tools Required
1. Double end spanner
2. Ring spanner
3. Box spanner
4. Plastic hammer
5. Ball Peen hammer
6. Screw driver
7. Plier
8. Drift punch
9. Feeler gauge
10. Torque wrench
11. Metal tray

Materials Required:
1. Cotton waste
2. Kerosene

Reasons for Dismantling:

• Hard steering wheel
• More vibration
• Movement of steering arm is not transmitted to stub axle
• Manufacturer POI is over.
Practical 235

BAE_Practical.indd 235 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Swivel pin
Wish bone
arm

Stub axle Pinion

Tie rod
arm

Ball joint Rack

Tie rod Tie rod

Ball joint Boot

Fig (a) Rack and pinion type steering gear box

Power steering
pump

steering knuckle

Power steering gear box

Dismantling
• Remove the horn switch.
• Remove the steering wheel by loosening the wheel lock nut.
• Remove the end play column, thrust bearing and shaft.
• Remove the steering column, thrust bearing, and shrin
• Remove the drop arm drag link
• Remove the steering gear.

Practical 236

BAE_Practical.indd 236 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Pitman Steering
arm shaft

Ball nut
rack

Recirculating
ball bearings

Worm gear
Sector
gear

steering column

Pinion

Rack

Inspection
• Clean all the parts by kerosene.
• Inspect the, steering wheel steering shaft and worm gear for any damage.
• Inspect the cross shaft and drop arm.

Practical 237

BAE_Practical.indd 237 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Inspect the bolts, nuts and screw.

• Inspect the thrust bearing shim and housing for any damage.
• Inspect the roller for any damage.
• Replace all the damaged parts by new one.

Assembling
Assembling is the reverse process of the dismantling.

Result
Thus the given steering gear box was dismantled, inspected and reassembled.

Practical 238

BAE_Practical.indd 238 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 5
Master Cylinder

Aim
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given master cylinder.

Equuipments
Given master cylinder

Tools required
1. Ring spanner
2. Double end spanner
3. Screw driver
4. Wooden hammer

Material required
1. Cotton waste
2. Diesel
3. Brake oil

Reason for dismantling

1. Braking system not functioning properly.
2. Leakage if brake fluid from master cylinder.
3. Less braking efficiency.

Dismantling
• Remove the oil lines from the master cylinder.
• Disconnect the brake pedal connection from the master cylinder from the chassis.
• Drain out the brake fluid from the master cylinder.
• Remove the circlip by using the circlip plier.
• Remove the piston assembly and spring from the master cylinder by using wooden
hammer.
Practical 239

BAE_Practical.indd 239 01/11/2022 12:25:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Master cylinder
Pedal

Piston

Drum brake

Disc brake

Air vent hole

Cap

Body
RESERVOIR
Washer

Piston holes Circlip

Primary rubber cap
Inlet port
Compression Bypass port
Push rod
chamber

Piston

Fluid check Return spring Rubber cap

valve Rubber cap

Secondary rubber cap

Practical 240

BAE_Practical.indd 240 01/11/2022 12:25:34 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Fulid
reservoir
Fuild intake Equalization
Equalization and return port
port port
Circuit 2 Circuit 1
Snap
ring
Fulid intake
and return
Push rod port

Circuit 1
return
spring

Master
cylinder
Spacer body

Plunger Rear Bore Circuit 2 Circuit 2 Circuit 2 Circuit 1

dust seal hydraulic rear return front rear
seal seal spring seal seal

Practical 241

BAE_Practical.indd 241 01/11/2022 12:25:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Inspection
• Clean all the parts.
• Check the inlet port and by pass port for any blockage.
• Check the spring force.
• Check the piston hole.
• Piston spring, force, value, rubber cups, and brake, pedal linkage.
• Replace the defective parts by a new one.

Assembling
Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result
Thus the given master cylinder dismantled, inspected and re-assembled.

Practical 242

BAE_Practical.indd 242 01/11/2022 12:25:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 6
Wheel Cylinder

Aim
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given wheel cylinder.

Tools Required
1. Long nose plier
2. Double end spanner
3. Ring spanner
4. Screw driver
5. Brake shoe tongues
6. Wooden hammer

Material required
1. Cotton waste
2. Kerosene
3. Brush

Reason for dismantling

1. Brake is not applied when brake pedal is pressed
2. Brake is not released even return spring is in good condition
3. Leakage of brake fluid through dust cover
4. Less brake efficiency
5. Wear and tear of rubber cup
6. Difficulties in brake pedal operating
7. Manufacture POI is over

Practical 243

BAE_Practical.indd 243 01/11/2022 12:25:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Inlet port
Piston
Cylinder

Return spring Rubber

Dust cover cup

Direction of wheel
rotation
Wheel cylinder
Pressure
applied

Trailing
Self-servo shoe
action

Leading Return
shoe spring

Dismantling
• Disconnect the brake fluid pipe line connection
• Remove the wheel
• Remove the brake drum
• Remove the brake shoe return spring & brake shoe
• Remove the brake shoe tappet
• Remove the mounting bolts of the wheel cylinder
• Remove the wheel cylinder from the brake plate
• Place the wheel cylinder on the work bench
• Remove the dust cover
• Dismantled the wheel cylinder
• Remove the piston, rubber cup and spring
Practical 244

BAE_Practical.indd 244 01/11/2022 12:25:35 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical 245

BAE_Practical.indd 245 01/11/2022 12:25:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Inspection
1. Clean all the parts.
2. Check the wear and tear or any damage in the piston.
3. C heck the wheel cylinder body and the condition of inlet port and the bleeder port.
4. Check the condition of the spring.
5. Check the primary and secondary rubber cup.

Assembling
1. Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.
2. Check the brake condition after assembling.

Result
Thus the given wheel cylinder was dismantled, inspected and re-assembled.

Practical 246

BAE_Practical.indd 246 01/11/2022 12:25:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 7
SHOCK ABSORBER

Aim
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the given shock absorber.

Equipment required
Given shock absorber

Tools required
1. Double end spanner
2. Screw driver
3. Drift punch
4. Wooden hammer

Material required
1. Cotton waste
2. Grease
3. Oil tray

Reasoning for dismantling

• More noise suspension system
• Vehicle pulling to one side
• Improper functioning of shock absorber
• Manufacturing POI is over

Dismantling
1. List the front axle of the vehicle by using jack
2. Remove the lower eye and upper eye mounting bolts of the shock absorber
3. Remove the shock absorber from the vehicle

Practical 247

BAE_Practical.indd 247 01/11/2022 12:25:37 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Chassis eye

Protecting Cover

Gland

Head Drain From Gland

Packing
Piston rod
Inner cylinder

Reservoir

Piston and two

way valve

Foot valve

Axle eye

Fig 7.5.2.2 Telescopic type Shock absorber

Practical 248

BAE_Practical.indd 248 01/11/2022 12:25:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

4. Clean the shock absorber by kerosene or water.

5. Loosen the outer tube nut and remove the foot value in the inner tube.
6. Remove the dust cover.
7. Remove the piston and valve assembly.

Inspection
• Inspect the upper eye and lower eye for any damage.
• Inspect the inner tube, outer tube, foot valve, cylinder, piston assembly and etc.
• Replace the defective parts by new one.

Assembling
Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result
Thus the given shock absorber was dismantled, inspected and assembled.

Practical 249

BAE_Practical.indd 249 01/11/2022 12:25:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 8
SELF STARTER MOTOR

Aim
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling of self starter motor.

Equipment required
Given starter motor.

Tools required
1. Double end spanner
2. Ring spanner
3. Wooden hammer
4. Screw driver
5. Armature growler
6. Insulation tester

Material required
• Fine cloth
• Kerosene
• Fine emery sheet
• Insulation tape
• Metal tray
• Work bench

Reasoning for dismantling

• Armature not rotating
• Armature rotate is slowly
• Armature rotates continuously
• More noise while running
• Manufacture POI is over

Practical 250

BAE_Practical.indd 250 01/11/2022 12:25:38 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Torsion
Unbalanced weight spring
Armature

Sleeve

Starting motor

Piston Sliding dog

gear Stationery drive
Collar Fly wheel head

Practical 251

BAE_Practical.indd 251 01/11/2022 12:25:40 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Dismantling
• Disconnect all the electrical connections.
• Disconnect the mounting bolts and nuts of the starting motor.
• Remove the starting motor from the vehicle and clean the outer portion.
• Place the starting motor on workbench.
• Remove the end cover.
• Remove the armature shaft.
• Dismantled the drive mechanism [Pinion, Bearing, Spring and etc.]

Inspection
• Clean all the parts.
• Inspect the armature, field winding, collar, sleeve unbalanced weight, pinion, drive
mechanism, spring, bearing and etc… for any damage.

Insulation test
• An A.C. circuit containing two poles and one light switch is used for this test.
• One pole is connected with the armature coil and other is with the segment.
• ‘ON’ the light switch, if the light, glows change the brush plates.
• Connect one pole to the field terminals and other end with the vice, if the light, glows
change the field.

Practical 252

BAE_Practical.indd 252 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Armature glower tester

It used to check any short circuit in the armature.
If a growling sound comes, then there is a short circuit in the armature, otherwise if
is ok.

Assembling
Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result
Thus the given self starter motor dismantled, inspected and assembled.

Practical 253

BAE_Practical.indd 253 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 9
DYNAMO

Aim
Dismantling, inspecting and assembling the & given dynamo.

Equipments required
Given Dynamo

Tools required
1. Ring spanner
2. Double end spanner
3. Screw driver
4. Drift punch
5. Wooden hammer
6. Armature growler
7. Insulation tester
8. Puller
9. Copper hammer

Material required
1. Cotton waste
2. Kerosene

Reasoning for dismantling

• No current supply through terminals
• More noise when the generator is running
• Low output current in dynamo
• Damage armature bearing
• Manufacture of POI is over

Practical 254

BAE_Practical.indd 254 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Alternator

Battery
Ignition switch

Starter

Solenoid

Earth

Adjuster bolt
Spring load brush

Commutator

Armature

Pivot bolt

Practical 255

BAE_Practical.indd 255 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Pulley
Pole Piece
Field coils Fan

Bearing

Armature
shaft

Commutator

Brush

Armature
Body
Dynamo (or) D.C. Generator

Dynamo pulley

Mounting bolt Crank shaft

Practical 256

BAE_Practical.indd 256 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Dismantling
• Disconnect the electrical connections.
• Remove the belt from the dynamo pulley.
• Remove the mounting bolts and nuts.
• Place the generator on the work bench.
• Dismantling the following parts from the generator.
1. ‘V’ Pulley
2. End cover
3. Armature assembly
4. Commutator

Testing
Insulation test

Insulation test
• An A.C circuit containing two poles and one light switch is used for this test.
• One pole is connected with the armature coil and other is with the segment.
• ‘ON’ the light switch, if the light, glows change the brush plates.
• Connect one pole to the field terminals and other end with the vice, if the light, glows
change the field.

Inspections
• Inspect the following parts.
• Armature winding, field coils, commutator, carbon brush, bearing, spring force, fan,
‘V’ pulley and etc…

Assembling
Assembling is the reverse process of dismantling.

Result
Thus the given dynamo was dismantled, inspected and assembled.

Practical 257

BAE_Practical.indd 257 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical – 10
BATTERY

Aim
To check the condition of the battery.

Equipments required
Given battery

Tools required
1. Double end spanner
2. Screw driver
3. Hydrometer
4. Voltage tester

Material Required
• Cotton waste
• Grease
• Distilled Water

Procedure

Specific gravity test

• Hydrometer is used for this test.
• Remove the vent plug and place the hydrometer hose inside the cell.
• Press and release the rubber bulb.
• Small amount of electrolyte is drawn into the glass tube.
• Now the float is float in the electrolyte.
• Note the reading on the graduate scale.

Practical 258

BAE_Practical.indd 258 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

S. No. Cell No. Specific Gravity

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Terminal
Posts
Vent caps

Cover Cell
connections

Cell
partitions
Cells

Plates

Case

Electrolyte

Separators

Practical 259

BAE_Practical.indd 259 01/11/2022 12:25:41 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Practical 260

BAE_Practical.indd 260 01/11/2022 12:25:44 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

• Tabulate the reading.

• Repeat the same procedure for other cells.

Cell voltage tester

Cell voltage tester is used to check the volt for cell.
Remove the vent plug and check the voltage if cell by using voltage tester.
Tabulate the following.
Repeat the same procedure for other cells.
Maximum cell voltage per cell is 2.1.V it depends on specific gravity of the electrolyte.

S. No. Cell No. Volt

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Result
The charge condition of battery is checked.

Practical 261

BAE_Practical.indd 261 01/11/2022 12:25:44 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Case Study

Name Er. T. Amalan Paul Samuel M.E.

Designation Configuration Manager
Organisation Vestas Wind Systems A/S
Denmark
School & Batch T.V.S. Higher Secondary School,
1997–1999 batch

I thank my Creator for bringing me through with His grace and blessings. Also,
I am grateful to my T.V.S. Higher Secondary School and my Auto mechanic teacher
Er.R.S.Muralidharan who played a major role in my academics for what I am today.
Though I took this course without an option, still he was instrumental in kindling
my interest & passion towards mechanical engineering.
I sincerely thank my parents Mr. M.Thanasekaran, Retd. Sub-Divisional
Engineer, BSNL and Mrs. Padma Thanasekaran, Retd. PG Asst., for their support and
encouragement throughout my life.
Though vocational group is often overlooked by many, this course helped me
to get my basics on engineering right. Being a vocational course, the curriculum is
set in such a way that it helps to build the confidence of a young student towards
equipping oneself as entrepreneur. The confidence that I gained from the subject still
speaks for itself when I access any real time situations at my work.
Auto Mechanic course had set a solid foundation for my career as an engineer.
The motivation given by Er.R.S.Muralidharan helped me to aim for engineering that
progressed towards the completion of Master’s in Engineering with specialization in
CAD / CAM. He taught me the importance of looking for details, completion with
perfection, team work, maintaining the equipment & tools that we use practical &
systematic way of servicing components etc. I am always thankful to my school which
not only helped me to grow in my academics but also instilled in me the importance
of discipline and social responsibility.
Currently, I am working with Vestas Wind Systems A/S a Danish manufacturer,
seller, installer, and servicer of wind turbines. It is the largest wind turbine company
in the world.

- Case Study 262

BAE_Case Study.indd 262 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

I am proud to work in the green energy sector for more than a decade by giving
back to the society positively. I have an international patent - WO/2012/089214. The
invention relates to a method and assembly for aligning a wind sensor relative to a
rotatable nacelle of a wind turbine.
From all these years I have understood that hard work brings positive returns.
Enjoy learning and always have a superior goal to achieve and work towards it every-
day by accomplishing smaller ones.

All the very best and wishes.

T. Amalan Paul Samuel

- Case Study 263

BAE_Case Study.indd 263 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Case Study

Name T. Dinesh Moorthi

Father Name K. Thirumalaisamy
Organisation Schneider Electric GmbH, Wiehl, Germany
School Palani Gounder Higher Secondary School,
Nachimuthu Polytechnic College Campus,
Pollachi, Coimbatore District - 6420012

Dear friends,
I, T.DINESH MOORTHI, would like to share my opinion and how I strived to
reach the highest position in my life as I choose a Auto Mechanic group in Vocational
Stream at higher Secondary level.
My father worked as an Instructor in Auto Mechanic Laboratory at Nachimuthu
Polytechnic College, Pollachi. After the completion of my SSLC, out of my personal
interest and my father’s advice I selected the vocational group and joined at Palanigounder
Higher Secondary School, Pollachi, a school of excellence for vocational education
which received the NCERT Award twice for promoting good vocational education.
These two years of study was a turning point in my career. During my school
days, I had skill training in reputed car companies, where I learnt modern technologies
and acquired innovative skills along with academic studies which changed my entire
career. It paved way for my higher education and bright future.
I was the top rank holder in the Higher Secondar y XII Standard Public
Examination. I applied for B.E., admission in Anna University through single window
counseling system. I got the fifth place in Anna University ranking for admission.
I selected Production Engineering Course at PSG College of Engineering, Coimbatore.
The strong knowledge which I acquired in the Higher Secondary Course and
the technical skill experience which I got in the industrial training helped me a lot in
the engineering course and so I was awarded with the best outgoing student at PSG
College of Engineering.

- Case Study 264

BAE_Case Study.indd 264 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

I was selected in the campus interview to work at Schneider Electric Company.

Then I was placed in the R & D Centre, Bengaluru. Thereafter, I got promotion went
to Demark and served for 1½ years. For the past 2½ years I have been working at
Schneider Electric Company in Germany.
In the present Scenario, what I suggest that Vocational education is an essential
one for all and the need of hour. It is the base of our life and is necessary for the
growth of our economy and nation.
My suitable selection of vocational course is the basic reason for my growth
and my life is an example to others.
Thanking you, all the best good luck.

All the very best and wishes.

T. Dinesh Moorthi

- Case Study 265

BAE_Case Study.indd 265 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Case Study

Name P. Thirumurugavel
Father R. Prasad
Mother P. Valli
D.O.B 04.11.1996
School General Cariyappa Higher Secondary School,
Dhasaradhapuram, Saligramam, Chennai – 93.
Residence 104/25 Annai Abirami Nagar, 3rd St.,
Thiruverkadu, Chennai.
Garage Address Sri Sakthi Auto Garage 13, C.D.N Nagar
14th Street Nerkundram, Chennai.

I am proud to saying a few words about my school. General Cariyappa Higher

Secondary School Which is a pioneer I teaching Vocational education in higher
secondary level changing the life style of the students?
The name automobile engineering itself threatened me that the syllabus would
be tough and hard when I joined this course but I completed it with first rank I the
state at 2014. My teams project potable Battery charger won NCERT award and our
team went to Bopal to receive the same with pleasure and pride and all the credit goes
to my Head masters and Teachers.
Through I could not step in to the college due to family crisis and I could do
my apprentice ship in major service centers since 2am the student of this school.
My vocational education in automobile engineering has given me confidence
to bear my own workshop and running it successfully.
Iam an employer of right persons providing them monthly salary besides earning
Rs 1, 00,000 personally.

- Case Study 266

BAE_Case Study.indd 266 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

I give complete service and repairs to various light and heavy vehicles giving the
good name from many customers and all these success in my life are the byproducts
of my vocational education which I remember with happy tears.
Thanking you

All the very best and wishes.

P. Thirumurugavel

- Case Study 267

BAE_Case Study.indd 267 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Case Study

Name Ashok S.A, S/O. S.A.Raja

Qualification M.E., Electronic application engineer
Job Assistant Professor, Panimalar Engineering
College, Chennai
School N.S.V.V. Boys Higher Secondary School,
Pattiveeranpatti, Dindugal District

Hello Friends
I, R.Ashok have completed my higher secondary Automechanic course from
N.S,V.V. Boys higher secondary school Pattiveeranpatti during the year 2005 and 2007.
I like to share the key turning points happened in my life. After completing
my 10 standard, my father advised me to join in Auto mechanic group. Even though
th

my interest towards teaching field, I joined in this course. After that, my teacher
Mr.S.S. Suthan encouraged me and guided me that teaching is possible in this field
also. Under his guidance, I studied well in 12 th standard and passed out with state
first rank. I take this opportunity to thank my teacher Mr.S.S. Suthan for his help
and encouragement. Moreover, I could able to select the subject Electronics and
communication in my Engineering degree.
At this moment, I express my sincere thanks to all the teachers of N.S.V.V Boys
higher secondary school and I am grateful to the school management who helped
poor student like me to change our life.

All the very best and wishes.

Ashok S.A

- Case Study 268

BAE_Case Study.indd 268 01/11/2022 12:27:13 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

References

1. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering 11. Garrett.T.K, Newton.K, Steeds. W.,

Vol 1 & 2”, Standard Publishers, Seventh “The Motor Vehicle”, 13 th Edition,
Edition, 1997, New Delhi. Butterworth Publishers,2001.
2. Rajput, R.K., “A Textbook of Automobile 12. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Vehicle
Engineering”, Lakshmi Publication, Technology, Butterworth Heinmann
Second Edition, New Delhi, 2015 Publishers, Second Edition, 2002.
3. Garrett.T.K, Newton.K, Steeds. W., 13. Jain, K.K., and Asthana. R.B,
“The Motor Vehicle”, 13 th Edition, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw
Butterworth Publishers,2001. Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.
4. Heinz Heisler, “Engine and Vehicle 14. Jack Erjavec, “Manual Transmissions
Technology”, Butterworth Heinmann and Transaxles”, Delmar Thomson
Publishers, Second Edition, 2002. Learning, 2001
5. Jack Er javec, Rob Thomps on, 15. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Vehicle
“Automotive Technology: A Systems Technology, Butterworth Heinmann
Approach”, Cengage Learning, 2014 Publishers, Second Edition, 2002.
6. Jack Erjavec, “Manual Transmissions 16. Rajput, R.K., “A Textbook of Automobile
and Transaxles”, Delmar Thomson Engineering”, Lakshmi Publication,
Learning, 2001 Second Edition, New Delhi, 2015
7. William H. Crouse, ‎Donald L. Anglin, 17. Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics”,
“Automotive Mechanics”, McGraw-Hill Second Edition, East-West Press,
Higher Education, 1993 1999.
8. Garrett.T.K, Newton.K, Steeds. W., 18. William H. Crouse, ‎Donald L. Anglin,
“The Motor Vehicle”, 13 th Edition, “Automotive Mechanics”, McGraw-Hill
Butterworth Publishers,2001. Higher Education, 1993
9. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Vehicle 19. Garrett.T.K, Newton.K, Steeds. W.,
Technology, Butterworth Heinmann “The Motor Vehicle”, 13 th Edition,
Publishers, Second Edition, 2002. Butterworth Publishers,2001.
10. Jack Erjavec, “Manual Transmissions 20. Rajput, R.K., “A Textbook of Automobile
and Transaxles”, Delmar Thomson Engineering”, Lakshmi Publication,
Learning, 2001 Second Edition, New Delhi, 2015

References 269

BAE_References.indd 269 01/11/2022 12:26:14 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

21. Gupta. S.K., “A Textbook of Automobile 32. R ajput, R .K., “A Textbook of

Engineering”, S. Chand & co, New Delhi, Automobile Engineering”, Lakshmi
2016 Publication, Second Edition, New Delhi,
22. Tim Gilles, “Automotive Chassis: Brakes, 2015
Suspension, and Steering”, Cengage 33. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Vehicle
Learning, 2005 Technology, Butterworth Heinmann
23. Jack Erjavec, “Automotive Brakes”, Publishers, Second Edition, 2002.
Cengage Learning, 2003 34. Gupta. S.K., “A Textbook of Automobile
24. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Vehicle Engineering”, S. Chand & co, New Delhi,
Technology, Butterworth Heinmann 2016
Publishers, Second Edition, 2002. 35. Garrett.T.K, Newton.K, Steeds. W.,
25. Reimpell.J., “The Automotive Chassis: “The Motor Vehicle”, 13 th Edition,
Engineering Principles”, Butterworth- Butterworth Publishers, 2001.
Heinemann, Second Edition, 2001 36. Rajput, R.K., “A Textbook of Automobile
26. Don Knowles, “Automotive Suspension Engineering”, Lakshmi Publication,
and Steering Systems”, Cengage Second Edition, New Delhi, 2015
Learning, 2002 37. Srinivasan. S, “Automotive Mechanics”,
27. Tim Gilles, “Automotive Chassis: Brakes, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Suspension, and Steering”, Cengage Education, 2003
Learning, 2005 38. Tom Denton, “Automobile Electrical
28. Rajput, R.K., “A Textbook of Automobile and Electronic Systems”, Butterworth
Engineering”, Lakshmi Publication, Heinmann Publishers, 4 th Edition,
Second Edition, New Delhi, 2015 2012

29. Robert Bosch GmbH, “Automotive 39. Kohli P L., Automotive Electrical
Handbook” 9th Edition, Wiley Equipment, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi, 2006
30. Don Knowles, “Automotive Suspension
and Steering Systems”, Cengage 40. Rob er t B os ch GmbH, “B os ch
Learning, 2002 Automotive Electrics and Automotive
Electronics”, 5th Edition, Springer
31. Tim Gilles, “Automotive Chassis: Brakes,
Suspension, and Steering”, Cengage 41. Robert Bosch GmbH, “Automotive
Learning, 2005 Handbook” 9th Edition, Wiley

References 270

BAE_References.indd 270 01/11/2022 12:26:14 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Glossary

Torque Tube முறுக்கு விசைக் குழாய்

Rear axle casing பின் இருசு மூடி
Sliding joint (or) Slip joint நெகிழ் இணைப்பு
Braking Torque தடை விசை
Banjo type casing தம்புரா வகை இருசு மூடி
Split type casing பிரிக்கும் வகை இருசு மூடி
Hypoid gear சுருள் பற்சக்கரம்
Worm gear திருகு பற்சக்கரம்
Bevel gear சரிவு பற்சக்கரம்
Coupling இணைப்பி
Differential assembly வேகமாற்றித் த�ொகுப்பு
Axle breather அச்சுக்கூட்டின் காற்று நீக்கி
Hub சக்கரக் குடம்
Rim விளிம்புச் சட்டம்
Tube காற்றுக்குழல்
Tyre பட்டை
Tubeless tyre குழலற்ற பட்டை
Tubed tyre குழலுடைய பட்டை
Vulcanizing கசிவு நீக்குதல்
Tread மிதிப்புப் படலம்
Breakers முறிவலைப் படலம்
Bead wires விளிம்பிழைகள்
Ply rating படல எண்
Cord ply இழைநார்ப் படலம்
Inflation காற்றழுத்தம்
Fitness certificate தகுதிச் சான்றிதழ்
Anchor pin ஆதார பின்

Glossary 271

BAE_Glossary.indd 271 01/11/2022 12:24:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Brake band தடை வளையம்

Dust boot தூசு மூடி
Brake shoe adjuster தடைக்கட்டை நகர்த்திகள்
Serrated wheel adjuster பற்சக்கர வகை நகர்த்தி
Wedge type adjuster ஆப்பு வகை நகர்த்தி
Snail type adjuster நத்தை வகை நகர்த்தி
Power brake சத்தூட்ட தடை
Booster திறன் பெருக்கி
Air exhauster காற்று வெளியேற்றி
Stabiliser நிலை நிறுத்தும் கம்பி
Cambering வளைவூட்டிதல்
Stub Axle துண்டு அச்சு
Universal Joint க�ோணம் மாறும் இணையம்
Suspension system அதிர்வு நீக்கும் அமைப்பு
Shackle அசைவுக் கரம்
Bushes தேய்வுறைகள்
Clips கவ்விகள்
Central bolt மையத் திருகாணி
Mainleaf பிரதான பட்டை / முக்கிய பட்டை
Helper spring துணைப் பட்டைவில் த�ொகுப்பு
Forging அடித்துருவாக்கல்
Silent block bush சத்தமற்ற தேய்வுறை இணைப்பு
Parallel link type இணை இணைப்பு வகை
Trailing link (or) Swing arm type ஊசல் (அல்லது) அசைவுக்கரம் வகை
Ammeter மின்னோட்ட அளவி
Firing order எரிதல் வரிசை
Electric motor மின்னோடி
Electric resistance மின்தடை
Generator மின்னாக்கி
Governor கட்டுப்படுத்தி
Lead acid battery காரீய அமில மின்கலம்
Starter motor இயக்க முன்னோடி
Soft Iron core தேனிருப்பு உள்ளகம்

Glossary 272

BAE_Glossary.indd 272 01/11/2022 12:24:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Storage battery சேம மின்கலம்

Transformer மின்மாற்றி
Generating system உற்பத்திப் பிரிவு
Separators இடைநிறுத்திகள்
Vent holes காற்றுத் துவாரங்கள்
Charging மின்னேற்றம்
Discharging மின்னிறக்கம்
Rating தீர்வை முறை
Rectifier மின்திருத்திக்கருவி
Horn ஒலிப்பான்

Glossary 273

BAE_Glossary.indd 273 01/11/2022 12:24:33 PM

 www.tntextbooks.in

Class XII – Basic Automobile Engineering

Theory & Practical
List of Authors and Reviewers
Acadamic Advisor & Expert Authors
Dr. P. Kumar, Er. R.S. Muralidharan
Joint Director (Syllabus), Vocational Instructor,
State Council of Educational Research and Training, T.V.S. Higher Secondary School, Madurai.
Chennai. S.S. Suthan
Vocational Instructor,
Nadar's Sundara Vishalakshi Vidyasala Boys
Domain Experts Higher Secondary School,
Dr. E. Natarajan, Pattiveeranpatti, Dindugal District
Prof., Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Er. P. Saravanan,
College of Engineering Guindy, Vocational Instructor,
Anna University, Chennai. Neelambal Subramaniam Hr. Sec. School, Salem.

Dr. P. Vijayabalan, Er. R. Muthu Kumar

Prof., Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Vocational Instructor,
Palani Gounder Higher Secondary School,
Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, Nachimuthu Polytechnic College Campus,
Kelampakkam, Chennai. Pollachi, Coimbatore District.
Er. A. Pandian,
Translators & Experts Vocational Instructor,
Dr. M.S. Senthil kumar, Neelambal Subramaniam Hr. Sec. School, Salem.
Associate Professor, Er. R. Thiruvenkadaswamy
Department of Automobile Engineering, Vocational Instructor,
MIT, Anna University, Chennai. Shri K. Krishnaswamy Naidu Memorial Higher Secondary School,
Coimbatore.
Dr. K. Arunachalam,
Associate Professor, N. Manavalan,
Vocational Instructor (Retd.),
Department of Automobile Engineering,
General Cariappa Hr. Sec.School, Chennai.
MIT, Anna University, Chennai.

Academic Coordinators
Reviewer
A. Ilangovan,
Dr. N.V. Mahalakshmi, Lecturer,
Professor, DIET, Thirur, Thiruvallur District.
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Anna University, P. Malarvizhi,
Chennai. B.T. Assistant,
PUMS, Padiyanallur, Thiruvallur District.

Art and Design Team QR Code Management Team

J.F. Paul Edwin Roy
B.T. Asst.,
Layout Designing and Illustration) PUMS Rakkipatti, Veerapandi, Salem Dist.
Udhaya Info, Chromepet, Chennai A. Devi Jesintha
B.T. Asst.,
Wrapper Design GHS., N.M. Kovil, Vellore.
Kathir Arumugam M. Murugesan
B.T. Asst.,
Quality Control PUMS, Pethavelankottagam,
V.S. Johnsmith Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.

Coordination
Ramesh Munisamy

Data Operator This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.

M.S. Vaahitha Elegant Maplitho paper.
M. Aswini
Printed by offset at:

274

BAE_Contributors.indd 274 01/11/2022 12:28:11 PM