 Heat:

Heat is a form of energy which flows from higher temperature to lower temperature by conduction,
convection and radiation processes.

 Temperature:

Temperature is the thermal state of a body that determines whether a body can give out heat to or
receive heat from another body when placed in contact with it.

 Distinction between heat and temperature:

Heat Temperature
1. It is a form of energy and measures the total 1. It is a measure of degree of hotness or
energy of all molecules in the substance. coldness of a body.
2. Its unit is joule in SI and calorie in CGS. 2. The unit of degree Celsius or Kelvin or
degree Fahrenheit.
3. Two bodies can be in a thermal equilibrium 3. Two bodies cannot be in thermal equilibrium
without having equal thermal energy. Their if they are at different Temperature.
temperatures are equal in case.
4. Flow of heat doesn’t depend upon the heat 4. Flow of heat depends upon the temperature
energy contained in bodies in thermal contact. difference between two bodies. Heat always
flow from a body at higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature.
5. It is a total kinetic energy of all molecules in a 5. It is a measure of average kinetic energy of
substance. molecules in a substance.

 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

If two bodies are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then the first two bodies must
be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

 Absolute zero:

Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which point the atoms of a substance transmit no
thermal energy - they are completely at rest. It is 0 degrees on the Kelvin scale, which translates to -
273.15 degrees Celsius (or -459.67 degrees Fahrenheit). At temperatures approaching absolute zero,
the physical characteristics of some substances change significantly. For example, some substances
change from electrical insulators to conductors, while others change from conductors to insulators.
Absolute zero has never been reached in laboratory experiments.

 Absolute temperature:

The Temperature at which the volume of the gas becomes zero and kinetic energy of the gas
disappears is called absolute temperature.

 Common temperatures in the absolute scale are:

  0°C (freezing point of water) = 273.15K.
 25°C (room temperature) = 298.15K.
 100°C (boiling point of water) = 373.15K.
 0°K (absolute zero) = -273.15°C.

*** 1 atm = 101325 Pa

 Comparisons of Scales:
∴ 100℃=100 ° K =180 ℉=80 ° R=80 ° ℜ

9
∴ 1℃= ℉ ∴ 1 ℃=1° K
5

5 5
∴ 1℉ = ℃ ∴ 1 ℉= ° K
9 9
9
∴ 1° K=1 ℃ ∴ 1 ° K= ℉
5

 Relation between the Different Scales of Temperature:

Reading−Lfp
∴ ∈any Scale ,
Ufp−Lfp

℃−0 ℉−32 ° K −273

∴ = =
100−0 212−32 373−273

℃ ℉−32 ° K−273
¿, = =
100 180 100

℃ ℉ −32 ° K−273
¿, = =
5 9 5

*** Ufp = Upper fixed point: At standard pressure, the temperature at which pure water starts
becoming steam is called Upper fixed point. It is also called Steam point.
*** Lfp = Lower fixed point: At standard pressure, the temperature at which pure ice starts melting
is called Lower fixed point. It is also called Ice point.

 Specific heat capacity:

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a body per
unit of mass. In SI units, specific heat capacity (symbol: C) is the amount of heat in joules required
to raise 1 gram of a substance 1 Kelvin.

 Quantity of heat:
If m is the mass of the body, C is the specific heat, then quantity of heat E required to raise the
temperature through ∆ θ is mC ∆ θ i.e. ∴ E=mC ∆ θ
Method of mixtures: When a hot body is allowed to share its heat with a cold body, there is a flow
of heat from the hot body to the cold body until both attain a common temperature. Then, if no heat
is lost to or gained from the surroundings, then

∴ Heat lost by the hot body= Heat gained by the cold body .
Or,

∴ ∆ E=mC ∆ θ
Where,
∆ E=Energy is required ¿ raise the Temperature
∆ θ=Chage of Temperature
m=mass of the Substance
C=Specific heat capacity

 Mean Square Velocity/Speed:

Mean of the square of the velocities/speeds of all the molecules of a gas or particles is called Mean
Square Velocity/Speed. If the velocities/speeds of N number of molecules of a gas/particles are
respectivelyc 1 , c2 , c 3 … … c N , then the sum of the square of the velocities of the molecules is,
2 2 2 2
c 1 +c 2 +c 3+ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ +c N

2 2 2 2
c 1+ c 2+ c 3+ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ +c N
And mean square velocity/speed,c 2=
N

 Root Mean Square Velocity/Speed:

The square root of the Mean of square of the velocities/speeds of all the molecules of a gas or
particles is called the Root Mean Square Velocity/Speed. If the velocities/speeds of N number of
molecules of a gas/particles are respectivelyc 1 , c2 , c 3 … … c N , then the root mean square velocity C or
C rms or√ c 2 will be,

√c = 2

√
c21 +c 22 +c 23 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + c2N
N

 Ideal Gas:

The molecule of a gas those obey the basic assumptions of kinetic theory at any temperature and
pressure and behaves according to the laws obtained from the assumptions is called Ideal gas.

 The Ideal Gas Equation of State:

Let, the volume, pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of gas be respectively V, P and T. From
Boyle’s law, we get
1
V∝
P

When, T is constant
From Charles’ law, we get
 V ∝T

When, P is constant
According to law of proportionality,
T
V∝
P
T
¿ , V =k
P
¿ , PV =k T
Here, k is constant.
Now, from Avogadro’s hypothesis, 1 mole of any gas contains the same number of molecules under
identical conditions of temperature and pressure. If we consider one gm-molecule or 1 mole of the
gas then k is designated by R. The value of R is same for all gases.
So, for 1 mole of any gas,
PV =R T
And for n mole gas,
PV =nR T

 Boyle’s Law:
For a constant mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas is inversely
proportional to the volume it occupies.
1
∴P∝
v
1
∴ P=constant ( K )×
v
∴ PV =constant

 Charles Law:
For a constant mass of gas,
At constant pressure, the volume occupied by the gas is proportional to its absolute temperature.
∴ V ∝ T . This is Charles first law.

 Gay-Lussac's Law

For a constant mass of gas,

At constant volume, the pressure exerted by the gas is proportional to its absolute temperature.
∴ P ∝ T . This is Charles second law.