Presentation of

Data
By
Muhammad Zikriya
M.Phil (Statistics)
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
Organization of Data
Organization of data means reformatting of collected data in more understandable form.

Objectives of Organization of Data

A collected data (raw data) is reformatted with the following objectives:
+ To point out the most significant features of the data at a glance.
+ To condense the mass of data in such a manner that similarities and dissimilarities can easily be
cleared.
+ To facilitate comparison
+ To provide basis for further statistical analysis.
Classification
“The process of arranging data into classes or categories according to some common
characteristic present in the data is called classification”.

Classification of data is a function very similar to that of:

+ Sorting letters in a Post Office. If we happen to go to the Sorting Room of a Post Office, we
will find small pigeon-holes for different cities or different localities of the city. The letters
sorted are placed in the pigeon-hole of the city or locality, which the letter is addressed to.
Objectives of Classification
+ The main objectives of classification are to bring out points of similarity and dissimilarity. By
condensing the details it saves one from mental strain. This enables one to make
comparisons and draw inferences simply. It prepares the ground for the proper presentation
of statistical facts.

Types of Classification
Types of Classification
1) Descriptive Classification 2) Numerical Classification
When the data are classified on the basis of This type of classification is based on the data
qualities or attributes, which are incapable of where direct quantitative measurement of the
quantitative measurement, the classification is data is possible e.g. age, income, height,
said to be descriptive or according to weights, etc.
attributes e.g. Gender, marital status, Numerical classification is also called
educational standard, etc. classification according to class-intervals.
Descriptive classification is also called
classification according to attributes.
Tabulation
“A table is a systematic arrangement of data into vertical columns and horizontal rows. Thus the process
of arranging data into rows and columns is called tabulation”.
The specimen and main parts of table are:
Tabulation
1. Title: Title indicates value, time and place 5. Stub: The headings of rows are called row
of the data at heading. A title must be self- caption or stub.
explanatory. 6. Body of Table: It contains the information
2. Prefatory Notes or Head Notes: It explains i.e. entire data with respect to caption and
the further descriptions about the data and stub.
appears just after the title and gives
additional specification of data.
7. Foot Note: Anything not clear from the
title, caption, stub or body can be
3. Column Caption: The heading of each explained in the footnote.
column is called column caption.
8. Source Note: It indicates the source from
4. Box Head: The section of table containing where the data is collected, including;
column captions is called box head. compiling agency, publication, date of
publication and page etc.
Tabulation
Types of Tabulation
Tabulation may be simple, double, treble or complex, depending upon the type of classification.

When tabulation corresponds to one-way When tabulation corresponds to two-way

classification, it is called simple tabulation e.g. classification, it is called two-way tabulation
the marks obtained by the students arranged e.g. the marks obtained by the students
in table form as given below: arranged sex wise in table form as given
below:
Distribution
“Arrangement of data according to the values
of a variable-characteristic (age, height,
weight etc) is called a distribution”.
If we ask from three students about their age,
height and weight and let their answers are:
Student (I) age: 19 years, weight: 60 kg and
height: 6 feet Student
(II) weight: 45 kg, age: 20 years, and
height: 5.5 feet Student
(III) weight: 40 kg, height: 7 feet and
age: 21 years
Frequency Distribution
+ Frequency + Frequency Distribution
“The number of occurrences of a particular “A tabular form of the values of a variable and
observation in a set of data is called its corresponding frequencies is called
frequency”. frequency distribution”.
OR OR
“The number of observations in a particular “The arrangement of values in groups
group (class) is called frequency”. according to their frequencies is called
frequency distribution”.
Types of Frequency Distribution
1. Ungrouped Frequency
Distribution

2. Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Construction of Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
Note: Involved variable is discrete and range is less than or equal to 15.

The following steps are used for constructing an ungrouped frequency distribution:

+ First step is to denote the variable by X and then make a column of the X values that
are in our data.

+ Second step is to construct two more columns that are adjacent to the column of X.
The first of these two columns is for tally marks and the second for frequency.

+ Third step is to sum the frequency column and check with the total number of
observations.
Example of Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
+ The following are the number of flowers
on different branches of a tree:
2461335786294742136425147
9 1 2 10 1 8 9 2 3 8 2 1 2 3 4 4 4 6 6 5 5 6 1 4
5 8 5 4 3 3 2 5 0 9 1 5 9 8 10 0 10 10 -- -- -- --

+ The variable involved is “no. of flowers”

which is discrete.
+ Range = 10 - 0 = 10 (less than 15)
+ Therefore the ungrouped frequency
distribution for this data is:
Construction of grouped Frequency Distribution
The following are the important points of a grouped frequency distribution:

Class Limits Class Boundaries

“The numbers or the values of the “The precise (true) numbers, which
variables, which describe the classes or remove the discontinuity between two
groups, are called the class limit” classes, are called class boundaries or
true class limits”
Construction of grouped Frequency Distribution

Class Mark or Mid Point Size of Class Interval

“The number, which divides each class into “The difference either between two
two equal parts, is called class mark” It can be successive lower class limits or between two
obtained by dividing either the sum of the successive class marks is called the size of
lower and upper limits of a class or the sum of the class interval (also called the class width
the lower and upper class boundaries of the or class length)”.
class by 2. OR
“The difference between the upper class
boundary and the lower class boundary is
called the size of the class interval”.
Construction of Grouped Frequency Distribution
Note: (i) Involved variable is discrete and range is more than 15.
(ii) Involved variable is continuous irrespective of range.

The following steps are used for constructing a grouped frequency distribution:
• First step is to decide the number of classes. H.A Sturges has proposed an empirical rule for
determining the number of classes into which a set of observations should be grouped. The
rule is:
k = 1+ 3.3 log N
where k denotes the number of classes, N is the total number of observation.
• Second step is to determine the range of variation in the data i.e.
R = Xm - Xo
where R is the range, Xm is the largest value and X0 is the smallest value.
• Third step is to determine the approximate width (size) of the equal class interval by dividing
the range (R) of variation by the number of classes (k).
Construction of Grouped Frequency Distribution
• Fourth step is to decide where to locate the lower class limit of the lowest class. The lowest
class usually starts with the smallest data value or a number less than it (will be better if it is a
multiple of class interval).
• Fifth step is to list all the class limits and class boundaries.
• Sixth step is to distribute the data into the appropriate classes by using a Tally-column.
• Seventh step is to complete the frequency column.
• Eighth step is to determine the class marks of each interval (class) by averaging the class
limits or the class boundaries.
• Ninth step is to sum the frequency column and check with the total number of observations.
Example of Grouped Frequency Distribution
The following data relate to heights of 1st year + The involved variable is “height” which is
students (heights in inches): continuous variable.
+ Range = 72 – 60 = 12
62 67 65 64 70 70 66 64 63 65 66 68 71 60 64 + No. of classes = 7 (assumed)
63 62 64 63 65 66 70 71 72 69 68 62 65 64 62
68 67 65 60 69 64 66 63 -- --
+ = 1 + 3.3 log35 =
+ 6.954 = 7
+ Class interval size = Range/k
= 12/7
= 1.74 = 2
Example of Grouped Frequency Distribution

+ Hence the grouped

frequency distribution is:
Relative Frequency Distribution
+ “The frequency of a class divided by the
total of the frequencies is called the
relative frequency of that class and a
table showing the relative frequencies is
called a relative frequency distribution”.

frequency of a class
+ R.F =
total of frequency of a class
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative frequency for ungrouped
frequency distribution is defined as “total
frequency that is obtained by adding the
frequencies for each value to frequency for
preceding values”.

Cumulative Frequency
Distribution
“A tabular form of the values of variable and
cumulative frequencies is called cumulative
frequency distribution”.
Diagrams
Charts or diagrams give visual representations of the data. Diagrams also show comparisons between
two or more sets of data. Diagrams should be clear and easy to read and understand. Too much
information should not be shown in the same diagram otherwise it might become confusing.
• Bar Charts
• Pie Chart or Circle Diagram
Bar Charts
Simple Bar Chart
This chart consists of vertical or horizontal
bars of equal width. The length of the bars
represents the magnitude of the values of the
variable i.e. the lengths of the bars vary
depending on the size of data values.
Bar Charts
Multiple bar chart
By multiple bar charts two or more sets of inter-related data are represented. The technique of
simple bar chart is used to draw this chart but the difference is that we use different shades, colours
or dots to distinguish between different phenomena. Multiple bar charts facilities comparison
between more than one phenomenon.
Bar Charts
Pie Chart or Circle Diagram
A pie-diagram, also known as sector or circle diagram, is a device consisting of a circle divided into
sectors or pie-shaped pieces whose areas are proportional to the various parts into which the whole
quantity is divided. The sectors are shaded or coloured differently. The procedure of constructing a
pie chart is very simple; draw a circle of some suitable radius. As a circle consists of 3600 , the whole
quantity to be displayed is equated to 360. Then divide the circle into different sectors by constructing
angles at the centre by means of a protractor and draw the corresponding radii.

The angles are calculated by the following formula:

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡
Angle = × 3600
𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Pie Chart or Circle Diagram
Pie Chart or Circle Diagram
Graphs
Data can also be effectively presented by means of graphs. A graph consists of curves or straight
lines. Graphs provide a very good method of showing fluctuations and trends in statistical data.
Graphs can also be used to make predictions and forecasts.

+ Histogram
+ Frequency Polygon
+ Frequency Curve
+ Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
+ Historigram
Histogram
A histogram consists of a set of rectangles having bases on a horizontal axis i.e. X-axis (note that
these bases are marked off by class boundaries not class limits) with centers at the class marks and
areas proportional to the class frequencies.

If the class intervals sizes are equal then the heights of the rectangles are also proportional to the
class frequencies and are taken numerically equal to class frequencies.

If the class intervals sizes are not equal then the heights of the rectangles have to be adjusted.
Histogram
Histogram
To draw a Histogram we proceed with the
following steps:
+ Find class-boundaries.
+ Mark class-boundaries along the x-axis
and the frequencies along y-axis.
+ Construct rectangles having width
proportional to class-interval size and
heights proportional to class frequencies.
+ The resulting graph will be the Histogram
as given in next slide.
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
To draw a Histogram we proceed with the
following steps:
+ Find class-boundaries and adjusted
frequencies.
+ Mark class-boundaries along the x-axis
and the frequencies along y-axis.
+ Construct rectangles having width
proportional to class-interval size and
heights proportional to class adjusted
frequencies.
+ The resulting graph will be the Histogram
as given in next slide.
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is a many sided closed figure. It is constructed by plotting the class frequencies
against their corresponding class marks (mid-points) and then joining the resulting points by means of
straight lines. It can also be obtained by joining the mid-points of the tops of rectangles in the
histograms

Method
• Draw X-axis and Y-axis.
• Take class marks on X-axis and frequencies on Y-axis.
• Join the points by means of straight lines. The resulting figure is the required frequency
polygon.
Frequency Polygon

To draw a Frequency Polygon we proceed

with the following steps:
• Find class-marks (mid-points).
• Mark mid-points along the x-axis and the
frequencies along y-axis.
• Place a dot against each mid-point with
respect to its class frequency.
• Join the dots by straight lines to get
Frequency Polygon as given on next
slide.
Frequency Polygon
Frequency Curve
When the frequency polygon is smoothed out Method
as a curve then it becomes frequency curve. • Draw X-axis and Y-axis.
OR • Take class marks on X-axis and
when the mid-points are potted against the frequencies on Y-axis.
frequencies then a smooth curve passes
through these points is called a frequency
• Plot the frequencies against the class
marks.
curve.
• The plotted points are then joined by a
smooth curve, which gives frequency
curves.
Frequency Curve

To draw a Frequency Curve we proceed with

the following steps:
• Find class-marks (mid-points).
• Mark mid-points along the x-axis and the
frequencies along y-axis.
• Place a dot against each mid-point with
respect to its class frequency.
• Join the dots by smooth line to get
Frequency Curve as given below.
Frequency Curve
Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
+ When a curve is based on Method

cumulative frequencies + First calculate the cumulative

frequencies.
then it is called a + Take upper class boundaries on X-axis
cumulative frequency and the cumulative frequencies on Y-
axis.
polygon or ogive.
+ Plot the cumulative frequency against
the upper class boundaries.
+ Join the potted points by straight lines.
The resulting figure is the required less
than cumulative frequency polygon or
less than ogive.
Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

To draw a Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) we proceed with the following steps:
+ Find class-boundaries and cumulative frequencies.
+ Mark upper class-boundaries along the x-axis and cumulative frequencies along y-axis.
+ Place a dot against each upper class-boundary with respect to its class cumulative frequency.
+ Join the dots by straight line to get Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) as given below.
Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
Historigram
A curve showing changes in the value of one Method
or more items from one period of time to the
next is known as the graph of time series. This
• Draw X-axis and Y-axis.
curve is also called historigram. Thus a • Take time (years, months, weeks, etc.)
historigram displays the variations in time along X-axis and the corresponding
series dealing with prices, production, imports, values along Y-axis. Plot the various
population etc. points.
• Join the plotted points either by a
smooth curve or by straight lines. The
resulting figure is the required
Historigram.
Historigram

• Draw X-axis and Y-axis.

• Take time along X-axis and the corresponding values along Y-axis. Plot the various points.
• Join the plotted points either by a smooth curve or by straight lines. The resulting figure is the
required Historigram.
Historigram