COMPUTER SYSTEMS The computer Hardware

Definitions of terms:
 System – Refers to a collection of entities that collectively work together to
achieve a stated goal e.g. Digestive system, respiratory system, educational
system e.t.c.
 Computer system – it is a collection of three entities namely, hardware,
software and live ware that work together to receive, process, and present
information in meaningful format using computers.

Components of a computer system

1. Hardware –physical or tangible components that make up a
computer system. Classifications of hardware
 Input devices
 System Unit
 Output devices Note: The System Unit refers to the casing that houses components of a
 Storage devices computer. Examples of components housed within the system unit are the CPU,
power supply unit, motherboard, hard disk, RAM, disk drives, fan, ports, cables
2. Software- A set of instructions that direct a computer on what to etc
do. Classifications\categories of software
 System software INPUT DEVICES
- These are peripheral devices through which data and instruction are
 Application software
entered into the computer for processing. They convert user input which
is in human readable form to machine language that a computer can
3. Live ware (Orgware) – Refers to human attachments to the
process.
computer .Classifications of live ware
 Users Classification of input devices
 Programmers - Input devices are classified according to the method of data entry
 Computer engineers etc  Keying devices
 Pointing devices
Functional Organization of The Elements Of A Computer System
 Scanning devices
 Voice recognition devices
 Other technologies used to capture data.

Keying Devices
- These are input devices used for entering data or instructions into the
computer using a set of keys.
- They convert typed numbers, letters and special characters into machine
readable format before processing takes place.

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 4. Light pen –this is alight sensitive –pen – like device. It detects the
Types of keyboards command or item being illuminated by it. The user brings the light pen
 Traditional keyboard – common type of keying device, a full sized rigid to the desired point on the screen and presses the pen button, which
keyboard. identifies the screen location on the computer. They are commonly used
 Flexible keyboard- portable keyboard that can be folded and packed into a as design aids (in graphical drawings).
bag 5. Touch Sensitive Screens- These are screens that have been sensitised
 Ergonomic keyboard –its specially designed to provide comfort and to receive input from the touch of a finger. It uses infrared rays/light
alleviate wrist strain when typing technology that makes the screen touch sensitive.
 Keypad –it’s a small keyboard used on portable devices i.e. Laptops,
PDAs& mobile phone Scanning Devices
 Braille keyboard- a keyboard design for use by the blind and its keys are Scanning – capturing data from an object and converting it into digital
raised by dots. format.
Scanning devices –Are devices that capture data from a source document or
Pointing Devices object and convert it into digital form or picture image.
Types of scanners
- These are devices used to enter data and instructions into the computer
This classification looks at how the scanning device is used when scanning;
using a pointer cursor on the screen.
a) Hand held scanners- It is held within the hand and moved slowly down
the document being scanned. It’s cheap and aimed at the low end home
Type of pointing devices
user market.
1. Mouse –this is a box –like device with a sensor button and a ball that
b) Flatbed Scanners- They are larger than hand held or sheet feed scanners,
slides it on the flat surface(mouse pad)
but produce high quality images as a result of their better construction. It
allows document to be placed on a flat scanning surface. It works like a
Functions of a mouse
photocopier.
 Pointing items on the screen .(click)
c) Sheet Feed Scanners- The document is fed into the scanner, and is
 Opening files and folders (double click) digitized as it passes through the scanner. It has the advantage of small
 Moving (dragging) items on screen size and lower cost but limits on size of paper and speed of scanning.
 Drawing using paint program.
Types of mouse Types of scanning devices
 Standard mouse – it has a ball underneath, two buttons and an Scanning devices can be classified according to technology they use to
optional scroll button located between the left and right buttons. capture data
 Optical mouse–it doesn’t have moving parts. It has a tiny digital 1. OPTICAL SCANNERS
camera that takes pictures as it moves on flat surface and hence shows - They capture data using optical or light technology
pointer position on the screen. - Alight beam passes over an object and image is analysed by a
 Cordless mouse– its battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared specialized software.
waves instead of being physically connected to system unit - They include;
i. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
2. Track ball- it’s an upside down mouse with a ball at the top. Instead of ii. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
moving the device on a flat surface, the user rotates the ball using a iii. Optical Bar Recognition (OBR)
finger.
3. Joystick-it’s an input device that looks like lever used to control a) Optical Mark Reader/Recognition (OMR)
pointer on the screen and also it is used to play computer games - Detects marks made on apiece of paper usingink or a soft pencil by
passing infrared light beam over it.
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 - They are used to mark multiple choice questions. - They are used to capture data coded as lines of varying thickness called
barcodes or Universal Product Code (UPC).Barcodes hold manufacturer’s
Application areas of OMR – details and the product code but not price.
1. To mark multiple choice exam readers - Barcodes are read using barcode readers which are photoelectric scanners
2. Insurance premium collection that translate the bar code symbols into digital form.
3. Payroll data entry Application areas –
4. To read marked research questions  Used in supermarkets, libraries and other retail shops.
Advantages of OMR  Keeping sales records for the purpose of accounting, taking stock,
i. The marks may be made by a variety of methods restocking and identifying slow moving products.
ii. It is fairly straightforward to use Advantages of using a Bar-code reader
iii. Faster way of input (i). They are very fast & accurate provided that the bar-code has been printed
Disadvantages of OMR clearly. For example, if the bar-code is soiled by dirty hands or has broken
i. Limited use as they only detect marks made within given positions bars, errors may occur when an attempt is made to read the code.
ii. The source document must be marked or shaded clearly (ii). It is a cost-saving method.
(iii). Saves time. The prices do not have to be attached to each item in the store
b) Optical character Readers/Recognition (OCR) because the items details are already held in a master file.
- These are documents readers which recognize and read typewritten, (iv). Does not require special skills to operate.
computer printed or hand written characters and transforms the image (v). It improves customer convenience.
into a soft copy that can be manipulated using a word processor.
- In OCR, characters are both in human and machine-readable form Disadvantages of using a Bar-code reader
(i). Requires standby facilities.
Application areas- (ii). Requires very expensive equipment.
 Clearing Cheques (iii). The prices are not stamped on the product, and therefore, high chances of
 handling sales incorrect data being entered.
 Sale order forms
 Stock taking sheets
Advantages of OCR 2. MAGNETIC SCANNERS
i. No typing requirements hence transcription errors are eliminated. A - These are scanners (document readers) used to capture data written using
transcription error is caused by typing wrong data. magnetic ink or coded onto a magnetic strip.The ink is magnetised using
ii. Provides fast input as document is captured directly from the source. particles of iron (II) oxide.
iii. The source document is human-sensible, hence easily understood and - Example
reliable  Magnetic Ink Character Reader/Recognition (MICR)
iv. The document can be turned around hence saving on stationery.
Disadvantages of OCR Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
i. Expensive method of input because of technology used - Used to read data written using magnetic ink. Application areas –
ii. Handling precautions necessary e.g. the document should not be folded  Reading cheques in banks
iii. Special paper and sizes are required  paying rates by instalments
iv. Typing/ writing or printing must be clear for correct interpretation.
Advantages of MICR over OCR
c) Optical bar recognition (OBR)/ barcode readers (i). An MICR can read data faster & accurate since the information on the
document is usually pre-printed.
(ii). Difficult to forge.
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(iii). Document can still be read when folded, written on, etc. This means that, The speech must be “clipped” i.e. each word must be followed by a short
MICR is more ‘robust’. period of silence. This enables the device to recognize the end of each word.
(iv). A wider range of fonts can be used, including hand printing & normal type. If this is not done, the device might not be able to tell the difference between
(v). Faster than OCR. It is possible to read about 2,400 A4 sized documents 1 ‘Command” and “Come and”, depending on the accent of the speaker.
minute 3. Speaker variability.
Disadvantage of MICR Voice input is complex to develop, and it does not take care of speech related
 The system is expensive problems such as accents and tone. This implies that the device must learn
the unique speech of an individual.
VOICE INPUT DEVICES (Speech Recognition Devices - SRD). 4. Most speech systems can only recognize a limited, standard vocabulary of
Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone connected to a spoken words.
computer system is used to enter data in form of spoken words into the computer. 5. The response rates of these devices are still relatively slow.
6. Speech input is complex to develop & is still at the early stages of
The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word development.
in the vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed & filed for identification.

Uses of Voice Input devices

Other Input Technologies
(a) DIGITIZERS OR GRAPHICAL TABLETS
(a). Voice input is a fast & easier method mostly suitable for the handicapped
- These are input devices that convert graphical drawings \ images on a
especially those with impaired hands.
paper into digital data and convey them to go as computer input
(b). In Security & Access control – Each person has a unique ‘Voiceprint’ that
Application areas –
can be used for identification. This approach could be used in; -
 Verification of signature in banks & insurance companies
- Electronic Money transfer.
 Engineering and architectural drawings
- House/ Car security using voice activated locks.
- Office security for room access.
Advantages of digitizers
(c). In Voice-activated toys & games.
(d). In Quality control & automation (computerization/mechanization) in  They are easy to handle
factories.  Errors are not common
A checker whose hands are busy does not have to stop working to make Disadvantages
entries in log books, instead he/she can simply give spoken comments on  They are slow to use
the goods he/she is examining.
(e). In Automated materials handling – in airports, handler’s give spoken (b)DIGITAL CAMERAS
commands that direct the luggage to the appropriate conveyor belt. - They capture images that are stored in digital form i.e. memory cards
instead of film.
Advantages of Voice Recognition Devices - Digital cameras store images that can be edited, printed or uploaded to
1. Operators without keyboard knowledge can use them the internet or downloaded to a local computer.
2. It is a fast method of inputting data Advantages of Digital Cameras
3. Confirmation of data accuracy is automatic  Economical to use since a film is not required
 Images can be edited or deleted before input is transferred into the computer
Limitations (disadvantages) of Speech Input/Recognition devices found Disadvantages
Today  Expensive to acquire
1. Homophones – some words have same sounds.  Need careful handling
2. Word separation.

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  In Banks – Credit and Service cards, i.e. Automated Teller Machines
(ATMs) give out cash automatically when customer inserts a plastic card &
(c)BADGE READERSy follows the instructions issued.
Are devices used to read data from rectangular plastic cards.  In Access control – Access control cards are used in many offices to control
Cards / Badges access to buildings or rooms for security reasons.
These are small rectangular cards made of plastic that incorporate data in both  In Production control – Punched cards can be used to hold data in a factory
machine-sensible & human-sensible forms, e.g. Credit cards. such as employee’s details, etc, which is used for production scheduling
Ways of Coding data onto badges: - (arrangement), stock control and job costing.
 Magnetized marks, e.g. a short strip of magnetic tape sealed into the card’s (d)KIMBALL (PUNCHED) TAGS.
surface. Some manufacturers use Kimball tags; small paper punched cards attached to
 Optical marks. clothes or other commodities on sale mostly in supermarkets. The data is
 Punched holes. incorporated in the small punched holes. The holes alternate with spaces to
The cards are read using Badge readers. The data recorder machine records data represent data in binary digits.
on these badges automatically, once manually inserted, using magnetized marks,
optical marks or punched holes. An optical scanning method is used to read the Kimball tag and extract the
product code & price from it.
For reading, the badge is slotted into the reading unit where the converter Advantages of punched cards
machine (the reader) accepts the contents of the badge and conveys them directly (i). Data is already coded, hence easy to process.
to the computer as input for processing.
(ii). No transcription requirements.
The badges are used in banks as Credit and Service cards, e.g., in the Automated Disadvantages of punched cards
Teller Machine. (i). Difficult to handle because they are small.
(ii). Store small volume of data.
The Badge contents are usually static, though some cards contents can be altered
by the reader, e.g., Phone credit cards whose currency value keeps on changing (e)TOUCH SCREEN
until zero currency value is left. - The user is able to touch the screen using a finger or stylus in order to write or
(a). SMART CARDS. select an item
A Smart card is a special type of badge whose data can be changed by a - The screen has infrared light which is interfered by fingers to give an out put
special badge reader. Application areas-
A Smart card can be used as a form of electronic money. As the customer  Retail shops
purchases an item, the badge reader can deduct units from the card. This  Air ports
process continues until the card has no more currency units left.  Smart phones
 Personal digital assistant
(b). CREDIT CARDS.
A Credit card has a strip of magnetic tape fixed on it. The tape contains (f)INTERACTIVE WHITE BOARD / SMARTBOARD
coded information, which is usually the owner’s code. The card is inserted - It is a large interactive display that connects to a computer. The computer
into a slot where magnetic data may be picked. Details of the transaction display is projected onto the board’s surface, where the user control the
are then recorded against the credit card no. & the owner’s account is computer
credited with the transaction. Application areas –
Uses of Cards / Badges  Classrooms
 In Car parks – badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry to or exit  Corporate board rooms
from a car park.  Seminars

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 Broadcasting studios
(g)DIRECT INPUT FROM INSTRUMENTS.
Sensors are devices that can be connected to computers & are used to record
physical quantities like Temperature, light, humidity.

SUMMARY TABLE OF INPUT DEVICES

Examples of direct input instruments: -
(a). Sensors used to record temperature, light, humidity in a Green house to
ensure the best conditions for plant growth.
(b). Thermostats connected to a Central heating system controlled by a
computer in order to monitor temperature & to help save electricity. CLASSIFICATIONS EXAMPLES UNDER EACH CLASSIFICATION
(c). Pressure pads on a road connected to computer-controlled traffic lights to Keying devices Keyboard
speed traffic flow. - Traditional keyboard
(d). The continuous logging of temperature data in order to monitor & - Flexible Keyboard
subsequently control a chemical process. The automatic capture of data for - Ergonomic keyboard
use in such processes is usually known as Data logging. - Key pad
- Braille key board
Advantages of using devices, which can read data directly from source Pointing Devices a. Mouse
documents - Standard mouse
(i). They ensure faster & accurate processing of data. This is because the data - Optical mouse
is read directly from the source document, and no data preparation is - Cordless mouse
necessary. b. Trackball
(ii). No typing or recording required, and therefore, not prone to transcription c. Joystick
errors. d. Light pen
(iii). The documents can be re-used, thus saving on stationery. Scanning Devices a) Optical scanners
(iv). The contents of the documents are both human & machine sensible, hence -OMR
reliable. Types of scanners -OCR
(v). Errors are easily corrected.  Hand held -OBR
(vi). Difficult to forge.  Flatbed b) Magnetic Scanners –MICR
 Sheet feed

Speech Recognition Devices

Other technologies a)Digitizers/Graphical tables

b)Digital Camera
c)Touch Screen
d)Voice input
e)Interactive board/Smart bard

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Factors considered when purchasing an input device
i. Initial maintenance cost and operational costs
ii. Input speed
iii. Nature of business/ user needs
iv. Nature and type of computer system used
v. Volume of data to be inputted and processed
vi. Data input accuracy
vii. Mode of operation –whether bulk input or on-line processing is required
viii. Reliability of the device, it should be known to have a success record in
the market on the application.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) / PROCESSOR CONTROL UNIT (CU)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) also known as the Processor carries out all Control Unit coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input,
the processing activities of the computer. This is why it is the most important storage and output operations.
component in the computer and is usually regarded as the brain of the computer. Functions of the Control unit
1. It co-ordinates and controls various parts of the computer system, namely;
Computers in which the CPU is implemented using microprocessors are referred Main memory, ALU & the Peripheral devices.
to as microcomputers. 2. It maintains order & controls all the operations or activities inside the
Processor using the appropriate control signals. For example, it instructs the
The CPU is made up of three major functional units/components namely; ALU on which arithmetic or logical operations are to be performed.
 Control unit 3. It directs sequence of operations by generating synchronization signals
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit 4. It retrieves and interprets instructions from the Main storage & makes the
 Main memory computer to execute these instructions
5. It controls the transfer of unprocessed data to the Main storage & results
from the Main storage.
The Computer Functional Organization
6. It monitors the CPU operations, identifies problems and flashes them on the
computer screen.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
This is the part of the Processor that carries out data processing by:
(i) Performing all the arithmetic operations, such as adding or multiplying
figures,
(ii) Carrying out logical comparisons e.g. <,>, sorting and matching to solve a
particular problem.
The fetch and execute cycle
The microprocessor (CPU) fetches and executes instructions in three phases
namely the fetch, decoding and execution phases.
1. The Fetch Phase: The address of the memory location is accessed and
instruction obtained by the control unit.
2. The decoding phase: The instructions are translated to determine the kind
of operation required. For example, whether to ADD or COMPARE two
numbers.
3. The Execution Phase: The Control Unit gives signals depending on the
decoded instructions. These signals dictate the required execution e.g. data
printing or subtraction.

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 (iii). The Access time of the computer, i.e., the time required to access any
one memory address.

MAIN MEMORY / PRIMARY STORAGE

The fetch-execute cycle Computer storage/memory is divided into two:
1. Main memory (Primary memory).
2. Secondary storage (Backing/ Auxiliary storage).

Main Memoryis the storage used to hold data, programs and instructions
required immediately or currently being used by the Processor.
Main memory can also be described as the Primary storage, Internal Memory,
Immediate Access storage, Semi-conductor memories or Core memory.

Classification of Primary (Main) Memory

The main memory is classified into two main classes:
1. RAM – Random Access Memory
2. ROM- Read Only Memory

READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

It is used to permanently store vital data and programs, which need to be held in
the Main memory all the time.

Depending on the permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are
four types of Read Only Memory;
1. Masked Read Only Memory (MROM)
Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it cannot be
Registers
changed.
Registers are fast memories within the microprocessor/CPU used as temporary
holding areas that enable the ALU to manipulate data and instructions at a high 2. Programmable Read- Only Memory (PROM)
speed. They are also used by the Control Unit during the fetch phase. It allows the user to customize/alter it only once after the content is
written on it.
System Clock Customizing is the process by which a standard product is adapted for
The System Clock is an electronic timing system that is used to control the use in a particular situation.
Processor on when to fetch the next instruction from the Main memory by 3. Erasable Programmable Read- Only Memory (EPROM)
sending electric signals as its means of communication.
This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed/altered a number of times by
The CU performs 1 step of the instruction in 1 clock pulse.
exposing it to ultra violet (UV) light.
4. Electrically Alterable Read- Only Memory (EAROM) / Electrically
The speed of processing will depend on:
(i). CPU Frequency, i.e., time duration of 1 clock pulse. The number of Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
pulses per second determines the speed of the microprocessor. This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed a number of times using
(ii). The number of steps involved in executing a full instruction. electricity. An example of EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic

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 input/output system (BIOS), this is the way Flash BIOS operate, The content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer
allowing users to upgrade their BIOS. is turned off. Therefore, before switching off the computer, it is important to save
your work in a device that offers permanent storage facility.
Characteristics of Random Access Memory (RAM)
- Stores data & programs temporarily during the times when they are needed in
Characteristics of Read Only Memory the Main Memory (during execution).
 It can only be read, but cannot be written to i.e., the user can only read the - Provides “read and write facilities” i.e. it allows instructions to be written,
information in the ROM, but cannot write on it unless it is a special type of read out and to be changed at will.
ROM. - The contents in RAM are user – defined, i.e. the user dictates what is to be
 Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions & data from the contained in the RAM
manufacturer called firmware. - It is a volatile memory (Its content is erased once the computer is turned off)
 It is non-volatile memory i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is - Forms the major proportion of main storage
switched off. Types of RAM
 Forms a small proportion of the main storage ( i.e. it contributes 30% of the There are two main types of RAM;
internal Memory). (a). Static RAM (SRAM).
 Stores essential files for starting the computer (Bootstrap programs) - A Static RAM is able to maintain its data as long as power is provided to the
memory chips.
- It does not need to be re-written periodically, it is very fast and requires less
Common functions/uses of Read – Only Memory (ROM) power.
 It stores Firmware (bootstrap instructions) - the essential files the computer - It is complex and expensive to develop.
uses while booting/ starting up.
 It stores the system data & instructions that are necessary for the normal
- SRAM is very fast and is located inside the Processor as a small amount of
high-speed memory called the Cache memory.
functioning of the computer hardware e.g. the Kernel / supervisor of the
Operating System.
(b). Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 It stores translation programs (code converters) used for converting a user’s
A Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store information as a charge. The
program into machine language
electrical charges in DRAM leak away even with constant power supply
 It stores special functions (facilities) peculiar to a given machine causing the data to either be lost or changed within a few milliseconds.
 It stores character generators for printers & Video displays This means that, unlike SRAM, a DRAM must undergo the Refreshing
 It stores instructions used in special – purpose computers such as process, i.e., it must be re-written continually in order for it to maintain its
computerized fuel pumps. data.
Refreshing involves reading the information out of, and then writing it back
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)/ Working Storage) into the memory, thus restoring a full charge.
This is a read and write memory used to hold instructions and data needed by the DRAM is used widely for most computer memories because it is cheap &
currently running applications and its contents can be accessed directly by the small.
processor. It is a relatively slower type of RAM compared to SRAM.
It is referred to as random access because its content can be read directly
regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. Uses of RAM/ Functions of the main memory
The functions of RAM are:
Read refers to the retrieving (recovering) of information from memory, while 1. It stores data awaiting processing.
Write refers to the storing of information in memory. 2. It stores instructions waiting to be obeyed.
3. It holds the program instructions & the data currently being processed.

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4. It stores intermediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output Types of Registers
devices, i.e. it stores data awaiting output.  Accumulator Register– This temporarily holds the results of last
processing step of ALU
 Instructions register - This temporarily holds data just before it is
interpreted into a form that the CPU can understand.
Note:  Address registers –This temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to
The size of the Main memory affects the speed, power & capability of the be processed.
computer. Each location in a memory has its own address, which allows us to get
All inputs & outputs are transmitted through the Main memory. directly to any program instruction or item of data stored within the memory.
The Main memory is used to store all data requiring processing in order to Address – A label, name or a number identifying a storage location, or a
achieve maximum processing speed. device from which information is received or to which it is transmitted.
 Storage registers-this temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to
General features/ characteristics of the Main memory. and from the CPU and the main memory.
(i). Its operation is wholly electronic, and therefore, very fast, accurate and
reliable. b. Cache Memory
(ii). Data must be transferred to the Main memory before it can be acted on by This is a high speed memory mostly found within the processor used to speed the
the Processor. processes of the computer because it stores frequently used instructions and data.
(iii). It provides direct data access, i.e., data is instantly accessible from the When the processor needs an instruction or data, it searches memory in this order:
Main memory & the Processor can act directly on the data. i. Level 1 Cache (primary cache) located inside the microprocessor
(iv). It is of low/ limited storage capacity. ii. Level 2 cache (external cache) that may be inside the microprocessor or
The Internal memory of the computer is designed in such a way that it mounted on the motherboard.
reaches a capacity beyond which it cannot extend. iii. Level 3cache which is the latest type of cache that works with L2 cache to
(v). It is volatile. The RAM (the section of the Main memory that stores the optimize system performance, then
user programs, application data, instructions and intermediate results Cache uses SRAM technology which means it maintains its data as long as it has
during processing) loses its contents immediately when the power is power.
switched off. Even with a wide and fast bus, it still takes longer for data to get from the main
(vi). The speed of the processor depends on the Main memory. memory card to the CPU than it takes for the CPU to actually process the data.
(vii). It is very expensive, due to the technology involved and the elements used That's where caches come in tomake the data used most often by the CPU
in making them. instantly available because level 1 cache is built right into the CPU.
c. Buffers
Special Purpose Memories Buffers are special temporary memories found in input and output devices used
There are other tiny types of memories included inside the microprocessor or to control the communication speed between the slow peripherals and the fast
input/output devices in order to enhance its performance. Such memories include CPU.
registers, cache memoryand buffers. Input buffer accepts data and instructions at the speed of the input device which
a. Registers is slow and remits them at a higher speed of the CPU to go as computer input.
Registers are temporary memory cells built right into the CPU that contain Output buffer accepts data, instruction or information at a high speed of the CPU
specific data needed by the CPU during processing. Registers hold one piece of and remits them at the low speed of the output devices, to go as computer
data at a time. output.
Computers load data from a larger main memory into registers where it is used For example, computer printers have buffers where they can store massive
for arithmetic operations and is manipulated by machine instructions. documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other
Manipulated data is then often stored back to main memory. urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the background.

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d. Virtual Memory
This is space on the hard disk which can be used just like the primary memory. MEASURING THE MEMORY SIZE OF A COMPUTER
The size of a computer’s memory is the number of ‘units of storage’ it contains.
The unit of storage can be a Bit, a Byte, or a Word.
A Bit is the smallest unit of storage & can be used to store a 0 or a 1.
COMPUTER BUS A Byte is the amount of storage needed/ required to store 1 character. It normally
A BUS is a parallel collection of electrical pathways that carry data and control consist of 8 bits.
signals from one computer unit to another. A Nibble = 4 bits or half a byte.
A Character is any letter, digit or a symbol.
Note. 1 Byte can be used to store 1 character. A number like 2545 has four bytes
while the words; My Home has seven bytes since the space between them has 1
byte.
A Word is a group of bits or characters considered as an entity and capable of
There are 3 major types of computer buses: being stored in one storage location.
(i). Data Bus. The number of bits in a word is called the Word Size/Word Length. The most
It is a bi-directional (2-way) bus that carries information and data to and common Word sizes are 16, 32 and 64.
from the Processor, i.e., it carries data from the Processor to the memory Memory sizes.
during Write operations & from memory to the Processor during Read Characters
operations. 1 Byte A group of 8 bits 1
The Data bus usually carries data for processing. 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 (a thousand) bytes 103 1,024
It consists of 4, 8 or 16 lines each carrying 1 bit at a time. 1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (a million) bytes 106 1,048,576
Note. The Data Bus determines the Bus Width of the microprocessor. Its 1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (a billion) bytes 109 1,073, 741,824
size indicates the moving capability of information of the chip. 1 Terabyte (Tera) 1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion) bytes 1012 1,099,511,627,776

(ii). Address Bus. A computer memory is made up of many storage cells called Bytes. Each cell
It is a unidirectional (1-way) bus from the Processor to the external (byte) is capable of storing 8 bits (binary digits) and has a unique numeric
devices. It usually contains the address of the memory location or device address.
to be acted on by the Processor (i.e. it conveys addresses). Generally, the memory size of a computer is usually measured in Bytes. The
The Address bus is wide (usually between 4 – 32 lines) to enable it to prefix K is taken to be 1,024 bytes.
address as many devices as possible. For example, when the size of a computer memory is quoted as being, say, 256
Kbytes, this implies that, there are 262,144 memory cells or the computer has
(256 x 1,024) = 262,144 bytes of memory.
(iii). Control Bus. QUIZ: A double – sided disk contains 40 tracks on each side. The tracks are
It’s a unidirectional (1-way) bus that carries command (i.e. timing & divided into 9 sectors of 512 bytes each. What is the total capacity of the disk
control) signals from the Processor. These signals are necessary to in megabytes?
coordinate the activities of the entire system. For example, the command
Answer
for the Printer to prepare to receive data is a control signal from the
processor. Total tracks = (40 x 2) = 80
They usually have 3 – 10 lines. Total sectors = (80 x 9) = 720
Note. Buses are implemented as actual communication lines. They may be Total bytes (720 x 512) = 368, 640 bytes
Internal buses, which are usually laid down as a circuit on the chip itself, or they
may be External buses, implemented as cables. If 1 MB = 1,048, 576 bytes
12
 ? = 368, 640 bytes Examples of processors in this category are: AMD K 5, CYRIX 6x86. INTEL
368, 640 PROCESSORS (PENTIUM PROCESSORS)
1,048, 576
= 0.352 MB
2. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS These processors have fewer instructions set compared to CISC, and their
There are two basic factors (parameters) that determine the power of a processor. instructions are simple.
1. Clock speed (Processor speed) RISC machines are much faster than Micro-processor based machines, i.e. in
2. Width of the Data Bus (Band Width) RISC machines, the time required to execute an operation is much shorter
Clock speed compared to the time a Micro-processor would take to execute the same
Every Microprocessor has a clock that drives its operation. operation.
Clock speed is the speed at which the processor runs and is measured in hertz The RISC processors are used in manufacture of Minicomputers.
(1Hz = 1 cycles per second).
The Clock speed varies from one processor to another. Microprocessors with
faster clocks perform operations much faster compared to those with slower
OUTPUT DEVICES
clocks An output device provides the user with the processing results from the computer.
Note. The speed at which a computer can process data is also affected by the Output therefore, involves receiving information (processed data) from the
speed at which the memory can work. computer through a suitable device for external use.
Bus Width Functions of output units
The size of the Data Bus determines the Bus Width of a microprocessor. It 1. Transmit the intermediate and final processing results to the users.
indicates the moving capability of information on the chip. 2. Convey messages alert or error messages to the operators.
Higher Bus widths provide higher computer performance. For example, fetching 3. Provide immediate response to questions.
a 16-bit instruction from memory using a Data bus width of 16 bits would require 4. They are used when writing onto the secondary storage media.
a single fetch operation, whereas an 8-bit Data bus would require 2 cycles to 5. Accept the results produced by the computer and convert these coded results
fetch the same instruction; hence slowing the execution of the instruction. to human readable form.
The following factors/ considerations determine the choice of an output device.
(i). The speed at which the output is required.
(ii). Whether a printed version is required.
(iii). The volume of the data.
(iv). Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS Types / Classification of Output Devices

Processors can be classified into two categories depending on the number of its They are classified into two:
instruction sets. i. Soft copy output devices
(i). CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) processors. ii. Hard copy Output Devices
(ii). RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors.

1. Complex instruction set computer (CISC) Soft Copy Output Devices

These are processors made up of large number of computer instruction set. - This is a device that gives computer output that can be seen or heard but
This means that, a CPU devotes at least part of its circuit time determining where cannot be physically touched.
instructions begin and end, making them run slowly. Examples;

13
  Monitors(VDU) A pixel refers to an individual tiny dot of light, the basic unit from which
 Speakers(Sound output) an image on a computer screen is made.
 Data projectors If there are few pixels per unit area, the display is said to be of a Low-
 Light emitting diodes resolution. If there are many pixels per unit area, we talk of High-
resolution display.
Hard Copy Output Devices The higher the screen resolution, the finer and higher the number of
- These are devices that gives tangible computer output that can be physically different images that can be displayed.
touched i.e. paper iv. Monitor controls: These are buttons used to adjust physical controls
Examples; such as brightness, contrast and on/off.
a) Printers A good monitor should allow the user to adjust such controls depending
b) Plotters on his/her needs.
c) Microforms v. The size of Video Memory: You should have at least 2 MB of Video
d) Facsimile(fax) memory, but if you have a larger monitor, start with 4 MB of memory. L
vi. Compatibility with the adapter card: The monitor must be capable of
displaying the pictures that the display adapter card can generate.
Otherwise, the display will be unstable.
Soft Copy Output Devices
1. Visual Display Unit (VDU)/ Monitor/Screen
- This is an output device used to display information in form of text, pictures,
Technologies used with monitors
and video.
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):
- It enables the user to monitor what is going on in the computer
CRT uses electron gun at the back of the vacuum tube which fires electrons
Types of monitors
towards groups of phosphor dots coating the inside of the screen. When the
Monitors can be classified according to;
electrons strike the phosphor dots, they glow to give the colours that create
(1). The number of colours it can display
images and text.
i. Monochromatic screens: These provide the output in black and white.
ii. Polychromatic screens: These provide the output in multi colours.
2. Flat Panel Display Technology
(2). Technology used;
Flat panel screens are made of two plates of glass with some type of material in
i. Cathode Ray Tube Monitors
between them that is activated in different ways to display images.
ii. Flat Panel Screen
Some of the materials used between the two plates include;
a) Liquid Crystal
This display is created by applying electricity to cells made of liquid crystal to
alter the visual properties of an image. The resulting type of display is called
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
Factors to consider when choosing a monitor
i. The number of colours it can display, the higher the number of colours b) Electroluminescent Display
displayed, the more realistic the images. This type of material contains a phosphor substance that glows when it is
ii. Size of the screen: This is the diagonal distance across the face of the charged by an electric current.
monitor. The larger the monitor size, the more viewable is the picture c) Gas Plasma Display
area. This type of display uses a gas that emits light in the presence of an electric
iii. The Screen resolution: This is the sharpness of the image. current.
It is determined by the number of pixels per unit area of the screen.

14
 (iii). It causes fatigue to the user’s eyes, especially when stared at for a long
duration.
(iv). Can lure computer operators into not keeping hardcopy records.
(v). Screen might not allow the viewing of the full area of data.
(vi). Screens can blow up as a result of overheating thereby causing fire in a
computer laboratory.

Voice Output Devices

Advantages of LCD over CRT Voice output is softcopy and is useful where reading is not necessary or is
1. The screen of an LCD is much thinner & smaller than of CRT. impossible and where fast output is required.
2. LCD’s have no flicker. For example, Voice output is used:
3. They consume low power compared to the CRT.  As a learning aid.
 In emergency situations for messages.
Cathode Ray Tube Flat Panel Screen  In answering services, e.g. Post office talking clock.
It is bell-shaped Its screen is flat-shaped Advantages of Voice Output
Has poor resolution Has a high resolution (i). It is very fast, making it useful in emergency situations to relay messages.
Heavier, hence less portable Light, hence more portable (ii). Can be used for distant communication, especially if done over Telephone
Occupies more space Occupies less space lines.
Cheaper Expensive (iii). Useful where reading is impossible - can be used by visually disabled
Produces a high amount of radiation Produces low amount of radiation people.
Consumes more power Consumes less power
Disadvantages/ Limitations of Voice Output
Difference between a CRT and a Flat Panel Screen (i). The output is not permanent.
(ii). It may be boring, especially for prolonged output.
(iii). Cannot be used by people with hearing problems.
(iv). If the message is conveyed through beeps, it may be hard to understand.

Data Projectors
Advantages of VDU/ Monitors - They are used to display output onto a plain white screen like a wall or a
(i). The speed of output is fast – a Monitor displays the output almost instantly/ white board.
immediately. Light Emitting Diodes
(ii). It displays the information enabling the operator to visually confirm if the - These are indicators that display light when an electric signal is passed
data is correct before producing a hardcopy. through them to help the user to know whether the device is on or off.
(iii). Enables the operator to monitor his performance and improve productivity. - LEDs are also used in burglar alarms where a red light indicator may be used
(iv). Used when saving the information to a secondary storage media. to indicate presence of danger,
(v). Minimizes paper work, hence reducing the cost incurred on stationery. - LED Neon lights are used to make advertisement on billboards, traffic lights
(vi). The screen is cheap, if bought as individual device. also rely on red, green and amber indicator lights as most traffic lights are
Disadvantages of VDU computer controlled.
(i). Produces softcopy output which is temporary and can get lost when the
computer system crashes or there is no power to run it.
(ii). It is impossible to produce multiple copies.
Hard Copy Output Devices
15
Hard copy-refers to tangible computer output that can be felt such as paper.
Hard copy output device- a device that gives computer output in a tangible form
such as a printer.
The Importance of producing a hardcopy output
i. One may need to sign a document, for example, a letter
ii. One may need to read the work away from the computer
iii. In case there may be power blackout
iv. When physical record keeping is necessary
v. One may want to scan, photocopy or fax a document
vi. Some users have difficulties reading from the monitor since they
experience eyestrain. CHARACTER (SERIAL) PRINTERS
vii. Hardcopies are important backups in case the softcopy gets corrupted or  Character printers are usually low-speed printers that print one character at
the computer system crashes. a time.
 Are comparatively slow & less costly than Line or Page printers.
Hardcopy output devices include;  Have printing speeds that vary from 10 to over 200 characters per second
a) PRINTERS (cps).
A Printer is a hard copy output device that facilitates the transfer of information  They usually use the Daisy wheel or Dot-matrix printing mechanism.
from a computer to a paper.
LINE PRINTERS
CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS  They usually print one whole line at a time.
Printers are basically classified in 3 ways: -  Are more expensive than the Character printers, but less costly compared to
the Page printers.
(1). In terms of Print speed.
- Low-speed. PAGE PRINTERS
 Print one whole page at a time.
- High-speed.
 Are faster & relatively more expensive than both Line printers & Character
(2). According to the amount of text it can print per given period of time.
printers.
- Character Printers.  Page printers are Non-impact printers, i.e. their printing operation is silent.
- Line Printers.  They provide high quality outputs.
- Page Printers. E.g. Laser printer
(3). The method used to produce the characters on the stationery/ paper.
- Impact Printers. BASIC METHODS OF PRODUCING PRINT
- Non-impact Printers. (a). Impact printers.
An Impact printer provides prints by printing head element coming into actual
contact with the stationery through the inked ribbon.

The Dot Matrix Printer

- It has a set of pins on the printers head which strikes on an ink ribbon Placed
over the paper
- They print a pattern of dots in the shape of the desired character

Daisy wheel
16
It has a removable flower like wheel consisting of embossed characters. When character to be printed is involved.
printing, they are rotated to align the characters and then the character is hit by a pressed against an inked ribbon 5. Printing operation is silent
hammer onto to the paper by a print- because there is no print-head
They produce low quality printouts. head element. element hitting against the
(b). Non-impact printers 6. Use striking mechanism stationery.
In Non-impact printers, the print-head element does not come into contact 6. Do not use striking mechanism
with the stationery/ paper.
They use Thermal, Chemical, or Electrostatic principles to produce the
characters on the paper.
They need special papers.
Examples
Inkjet Printers Factors to consider when selecting a Printer
They use ink cartridges containing black and colour ink separately. The cartridges The following factors are to be taken into consideration while selecting a printer.
has nozzles that spray in on a paper to create an image. The paper allows the ink 1. The Cost involved: This will include the printer’s initial price, the costs of
to settle and dry quickly. maintenance & the cost of consumable items, e.g. printing papers,
ribbons/cartridges, etc.
Thermal Printers 2. Volume of printing expected: This will help in selecting a printer in terms
- They use thermal technology to heat ink which is normally in wax or resin of print speeds.
from to melting point before fusing it onto the paper. The print head has 3. Colour printing (The nature of the reports to be generated & their
heating element through which current is passed to form the shape of print recipients.)
character. The printing quality, such as the capability to print graphics & colour
- They are mostly used in point of sale terminals to print receipt and barcodes printing should be considered with respect to the needs of the recipients
- They produce high copy printouts 4. Compatibility with other computers.
- They are expensive to purchase and maintain and they also require expensive This will involve the interface with the computer system being used and the
paper specially made to sense the heated head character images. make of particular computer.
5. Environment in which the Printer will operate.
Laser Printers 6. Reliability of the Printer.
Operate by shining a laser beam to create an image on a rotating drum, as the 7. Application it is required for and also the available application software
beam hits the drum, it ionizes some region which attracts ink toner particles, the packages.
toner is then fused onto a piece of paper through heating. 8. Stationery/type of paper used by the printer.
The word laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation. 9. Documentation.
The toner consists of fine black powder of carbon.
b) PLOTTERS
Comparison between Impact & Non-impact printers These are output devices that produce graphics, such as diagrams, maps, images
and statistical charts on paper.
Impact Printers Non-impact Printers
1. Use Inked ribbon. 1. Use thermal or electrostatic
2. Slow. principles or toners Characteristics of Graph Plotters
3. Able to produce multiple copies 2. Faster. - They are large in size.
by use of carbon papers. 3. Almost impossible to produce - They use Ammonia papers.
4. Cheaper. multiple copies.
5. They are noisy because the 4. Costly due to the technology
- They use special ink.
17
 - Have a wide carrying capacity.
They are called secondary devices because they are not accessible to the CPU.
Uses/ applications of Graph Plotters Contents in a secondary storage media can be quickly transferred into the
Graph Plotters are used: - computer’s Main memory for processing when required.
 In Computer Aided Design (CAD) – are mainly used for printing large
architectural or engineering drawings. In this case, the computer is used to The Need for Secondary Storage in Computers
form the graphical design & the Plotter produces the output. 1. The storage space available in the Main memory is limited. This requires
 In Weather forecasting for drawing Isobars on weather maps. the use of backing storage devices, which can be used to store large
 In Statistical work for producing graphs or complicated mathematical quantities of information.
formulas. 2. The main memory is volatile hence whatever is in memory is lost when the
 In Cartography to produce contour maps. computer is switched off. Thus, there is a need to store programs and data in
 In Craft and Textile industry for drawing designs. the permanent secondary storage device from which it can be retrieved
when needed.
(c) COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM) 3. Primary storage is expensive, thus the need for secondary storage devices
This is the process of transforming digital data produced by the computer into which are cheaper.
human-readable form and recording it in reduced physical size into a 4. Primary storage consumes a lot of power hence using secondary storage
photographic film. media becomes advantageous.
This method of output provides photographed type of computer output stored as
microscopic filmed images into the microform. Advantages of secondary devices
 Are very accurate
Applications of COM  Less expensive
Microfilm output is conveniently suited to applications/ areas where: -  High capacity
 There is bulky storage of information.  Non volatile
 The volume of output is high, say, 100,000 pages per month.  Re-usable
 The data must be stored for long periods and use or update is not frequently  Low energy consumption
necessary; as in case of old copies of customer’s files in banks, or backup  They are used for back-up information
copies of newspapers. Such data is usually referred to as Archival data.
 In Postal services, where the cost of mailing a microfiche is considerably less FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
than mailing the equivalent bulky report. (i). Used to store backup data and instructions that is not needed immediately
(d)FACSIMILE (FAX) by the CPU and this helps in creating space for another data to be stored in
This device enables the original document, text or image to be scanned with a the main memory.
fax machine, which treats the contents as a single fixed graphic image, (ii). Used for transportation and distribution of data and software from one
converting it into a bitmap. In this digital form, the information is transmitted machine to another.
as electrical signals through the telephone system. The receiving fax machine (iii). Used to back up files for safe-keeping.
reconverts the coded image and prints a paper copy of the document. To backup is to produce a duplicate of data or programs or information
and store it away from the original one.
(iv). Used to install new software.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA (also called
Secondary storage is provided by less expensive devices such as:
Auxiliary or Backing storage) (i). Magnetic disks (Hard disks &Floppy diskettes).
Secondary storage is a memory that is used by the computer to hold programs, (ii). Magnetic tapes.
data and information that is not needed immediately by the Processor.
18
(iii). Cassette tapes. A Magnetic disk can be of 2 forms: -
(iv). Punched cards. a. Floppy diskettes (Soft disks), zip and jazz disks
(v). Zip disks. b.Hard disks.
(vi). Optical disks, which include CD-ROMs &WORM (Write once Read (ii). Magnetic Tapes
Many) disks, and (iii). Optical Storage Media
(vii). Digital Video Disks (DVDs)
(viii). Solid state storage devices e.g. memory stick/card and flash disks [flash Optical storage media
pen] drives - Optical storage media is where data is written and read using a laser beam.
When writing, a laser beam is used to align a permanent data pattern on the
The data is stored permanently in Disk drives. The disk drives can either be disk surface. When reading, the data contents are sensed by the pattern of light
fixed inside the computer, as in the case of Hard disks, or inserted anytime you reflected from the beam by the data on the disk surface.
want to read or write in them. - The process of storing data in a CD is called toasting/burning or writing.
What is a drive?
 A drive is a computer device that reads or writes data from or into a storage - Two reasons why optical storage media are used are;
media. i. They store very large volume of data
Examples;
ii. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the magnetic
media.
 Hard disk drive (HDD or drive C :).
Examples of optical media
 Floppy disk drive (FDD or drive A :).
 Compact Disks [CD]
 CD-ROM drive.
 DVD (Digital Video Discs)
 DVD-ROM drive.
 Optical card
 Tape drive.
 Optical tapes
 Zip drive.
A Disk drive can be used as an Input device, Output device or Secondary storage Compact Disks [CD]
device. A CD is made by having information burnt into a Polymer material using a laser.
Classification of secondary storage One compact disk can hold averagely 700MB storage.
They are classified according to Types of Compact Disks
a) Portability i.e. removable and fixed
 Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM):
b) Technology used to store and retrieve data i.e. magnetic, optical, magneto –
 Compact Disk-Recordable (CD-R):
optical and solid state.
 Compact Disk Rewritable (CD-RW):

1. Fixed storage devices and media CDs and DVDs are also used in Multimedia (the integration of text, motion
These are secondary storage devices that are housed within the system unit of the video, graphics, & sound). Programmers pack Multimedia in the CDs enabling
computer. Example the Hard Disk consumers to enjoy the work of multimedia inventions.

2. Removable storage media

These are storage media not housed inside the computer.
Data is read and written into the media using a device known as a drive Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM):
Once data and information are stored in it, the user can only read from it but it
Secondary Storage Media and technology cannot be written to.
(i). Magnetic disks
19
To record data, the recording surface is made into pits and lands (bumps). When a iii. DVDs are relatively affordable as compared to the CD because of their high
laser beam falls on the land, this is interpreted as 1, otherwise a zero is recorded. storage capacities.
 Compact Disk-Recordable (CD-R): Disadvantages of using DVDs
CD-Rs are sold blank and then information is recorded on them once after which i. They easily get scratched through poor handling, storage and dust and the
it cannot allow any more to be added. scratches can distort any information stored.
CD-Rs are coated with a special dye which changes colour to represent data when ii. Many computers still lack inbuilt DVD drives.
burned using a laser beam. iii. DVD drives are quite expensive to install compared to CD drives.
NOTE: CD-ROMS and CD-Rs are referred to as Write once Read Many Optical card
(WORM); Data is only recorded once but can be read as many times as possible. - Resembles magnetic ink character recognition [MICR] card but data is
read and written optically
 Compact Disk Rewritable (CD-RW): - They are mostly used in banking and other business organization to record
Data or information stored in CD-RW can be erased and new information written customer’s details.
many times. They are also sold blank. Optical tapes
- This is similar to magnetic tape only that data is stored on it by using
Advantages of CD-RW optical technology.
(i). Used when you need to erase the data and re-write new information such as Blue Ray Disk (BD)
updating files. This is a high-capacity optical storage used for storing and playing back high
(ii). Used to make a practice CD or to test the contents of a CD before making a definition audio and video content.
permanent one. They support higher resolution and higher storage capacity of up to 50GB as
(iii). More cost effective for near line data storage requirements than CD-R. compared to the DVDs.
They use blue-violet laser beam to read and store data on the media.

Disadvantages of CD-RW Advantages of Optical discs as secondary storage media

(i). CD-RW drives and media are expensive than CD-R drives. (i). Have very high storage capacities. This enables them to be used for
(ii). CD-RWs are slower than CD-R and CD-ROM drives as it takes more time multimedia applications.
to format and copy data to a CD-RW than to a CD-R and CD-ROM. (ii). Have relatively high access speeds.
(iii). Data can be read and written to CD-RW discs only by CD-RW drives. (iii). Are Non-volatile, i.e. information kept in them is permanent. Therefore,
(iv). CD-RW drives are currently facing stiff competition from the DVD- they are more secure against alteration.
Recordable (DVD-R) because the DVD-R can store more information (iv). Are cheap especially if used for large storage volumes.
than CD-RW. (v). They are robust, that is, they resist temperature, electromagnetic fields and
are not affected by water.
DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disks)
(vi). Have very high data transfer rates.
A DVD looks like a CD-ROM, however, it can store much more information in
(vii). Some Optical discs allow data to be written to them a number of times,
the range of 4.7GB to 17GB.
e.g., CD-RW.
DVDs offer superior pictures and sound and the ability to play audio CDs in a
DVD player, and pictures that are sharp & clear.
Solid state storage media
Advantages of DVDs - Are non-volatile storage media that use integrated circuits rather than
i. Digital images and sound tracks in a DVD are of a higher quality. They do not mechanical, magnetic or optical technology hence they do not have movable
deteriorate with constant use. parts..
ii. The user can access any part of the film immediately, that is, random access/ - They are referred to as solid state because they do not have movable parts.
direct access, unlike in a movie stored on a magnetic tape. Examples
- Flash disk/flash pen/memory stick

20
 - Memory card

The flash disk technology:

Flash disks use the Universal Serial Bus port (USB) to connect to the system unit.
Flash disks are easily portable because of their small size. Advantages of using a hard disk
Advantages of using the flash disk i. Offers fast accessibility of information because it uses direct/random access
i. They are manufactured in different storage capacities therefore the user can method.
choose the one with a capacity that suits various storage needs. ii. Has a vast storage capacity, usually in gigabytes.
ii. Flash disks have huge storage capacities ranging from megabytes to iii. The hard disk is durable, it does not deteriorate quickly since it is fixed and the
gigabytes. user does not move it from place to place.
iii. They offer fast accessibility to information stored in them since they use iv. It is safe as it is protected by an external cover therefore there are less chances
direct or random access method of retrieval. of it coming into contact with dust, water, static electricity, which may cause
iv. The information stored in them is more secure than in floppy and optical data or programmes loss.
disks therefore they can withstand to some extent rough handling.
v. They are made in small sizes hence they are highly portable.
vi. They are cost effective to use because of their high storage capacities and Disadvantages of using a hard disk
affordable cost. i. Relatively expensive compared to other secondary storage media.
Disadvantages of using flash disks ii.If it gets damaged it can result in loss of programs and data if no backups had
i. They are expensive to acquire compared to floppy disks and optical disks. been made.
ii. They are vulnerable to viral attacks, especially when used in many computers iii. During file updates, the original ones get overwritten and this makes it
iii. A computer must have a USB port in order to allow use of a flash disk. necessary to have backups in case an old program, data or information will be
needed.
Fixed storage devices and media iv. Hard disk is prone to disk crash due to dust, poor handling, viruses or power
These are secondary storage devices that are housed within the system unit of the failure. These can lead to loss of data and programmes, which are expensive
computer. and hard to obtain.
v. Information stored in a hard disk easily get spoilt when it comes into contact
The hard disk with a magnetic field or static electricity.
- The hard disk is a fixed storage device made up of metallic disk platters
together with a read/write head, housed in a protective metal case. HANDLING PRECAUTIONS FOR MAGNETIC MEDIA
- -
It works on the same basic principles as the floppy disk. (i). Should be stored in optimum temperature ranges.
- Have enough a high recording density (ii). Should be protected in their cases when not in use in order to
- Data can be accessed faster than with floppy disks safeguard their recording surfaces against environmental influences
such as dust, touch, direct sunlight, radiations, etc.
Structure of the disk platters (iii). When mounting the media into its reading/writing unit, care should be
taken to avoid brushing the recording surfaces against the mechanical
components of the drive.
(iv). Should never be brought near magnetic bodies. Such bodies might
cause the demagnetization of the recording surfaces (i.e., remove the
magnetic property from the surfaces) making recording in terms of
magnetism impossible.

21
 (v). Put on the power before mounting the media and off after removing
the media from the drive. This is because the fluctuation in power
might also cause de-magnetization.
(vi). Do not expose magnetic media to excessive heat. Heat energy leads to
loss of magnetic strength in materials, hence magnetically recorded
data can easily get lost.
(vii). Do not drop magnetic media on the ground because the impact
weakens magnetism.
(viii). Do not bend or fold a magnetic media or put heavy weights on them to
avoid breaking or damaging it.
(ix). Do not touch the magnetic surfaces.

PUNCHED CARDS & PUNCHED PAPER TAPES.

These are paper media, which were used as storage media by the early computers.
They have been replaced by the magnetic media, due to the following reasons:
(i). They are bulky.
(ii). Provide slow input.
(iii). They are non-reusable.
(iv). They can be destroyed due to dust. POWER SUPPLY AND PERIPHERAL DEVICE
(v). Costly to produce - the punching & verification are tedious and expensive. INTERFACING
Power supply unit and adapter
Factors to consider before choosing a storage device for Backup - A computer system must be connected to Alternating Current (AC) power
i. Cost: The storage devices come in different prices supply through the power supply unit or adapter but its internal devices
ii. Availability: Is the desired storage device available in the market? require Direct Current (DC) power.
iii. Accessibility to information stored in it. This may be sequential or direct - The work of the power supply unit and the adapter is to convert AC to DC.
iv. Reliability and security: One should buy a device that does not easily crash - Peripheral Device Interfacing means connecting an input, output or storage
v. Durability: One should buy a device that is long lasting device to a computer through ports using either cables or wireless
vi. Storage capacity: A device with a large storage capacity will hold more data connectivity.
and information. Some devices have storage capacities in megabytes, others in
gigabytes and others in terabytes. THE MOTHERBOARD (System Board/Circuit board)
vii. Physical size and portability: Some devices can easily fit in a pocket while Computers, like all electronic circuit devices are made of printed Circuit boards.
others cannot. Small-sized devices are more portable; that is, they can easily Circuit boards are electronic boards on which copper wires have been printed to
be carried from place to place. form circuit paths.
viii. Compatibility with the existing computer system hardware: A system
should have the right drive or port for the storage device you want to use. A The little gold lines on the motherboard are called Buses and act as roadways that
system should, for example, have a CD drive if the device to be used is a CD. enable the motherboard’s electronic components such as cpu, bios, memory chips
and slots to communicate and perform the functions of a computer.

INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) PORTS

A Port is a socket used to connect a peripheral device to the computer. Such
devices include Printer, Monitor, Mouse, Scanner, etc

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I/O Ports allow access in and out of the computer through cables.
There are several types of ports: - Many new PCs come with USB ports. USB ports support a wide range of
1. Parallel (LPT) ports. desktop peripherals, e.g., Keyboards, digital Cameras, mice, scanners, flash disks,
2. Serial (Com) ports. mobile phones, joysticks etc.
3. USB ports. USB ports communication is quite fast compared to parallel and serial ports
4. SCSI ports. hence it is very popular.
5. Video Graphics Array (VGA) Types
6. Firewire Interface (IEEE 1394)  Low speed USB
7. Sound ports  High speed USB
USB was designed to deliver data transfer rate of up-to 12Mbits/sec to and from
PARALLEL INTERFACE the PC. It also supports low-speed mode of 1.5Mbit/sec for devices like
- Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of many Keyboards, Mice and Joysticks.
conductors. [Wires] USB is “user-friendly due to its Plug-and-play feature.
- It’s a one way transmission cable
- They transmit data byte-by-byte Plug and play {PnP} refers to the ability of a new hardware to be automatically
- They transmit data faster over a short distance. accepted by the operating system once it is connected to the computer without the
- A parallel cable connects to a parallel interface port commonly referred to as need to restart the computer.
Line Printer Terminal (LPT).
Advantages of USB ports over Serial & Parallel ports
LPT ports are D-shaped with holes for 25 pins. (i). Devices are powered by the bus hence there is no need for external power
It is used mainly to connect Printers, Scanners, and sometimes external Hard adapters.
drives, CD-ROM drives, Tape devices & Network adapters to the computer. (ii). USB can support a maximum of 127 daisy-chained devices, because of its
Parallel ports are usually faster than Serial ports. high bit addressing system.
Note. The SCSI Port is an example of a parallel port.
SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) PORTS
SERIAL PORTS Pronounced as Scuzzy
They are sometimes referred to as Communication (COM) ports. - SCSI is a device interface used to transmit data in parallel but is faster than
- Serial Ports support transmission of data one bit at a time hence are slower the parallel cables.
than parallel ports. - It allows connection to multiple devices.
They are also D-shaped with 9 or 25 pins.
They are used primarily to connect devices such as serial Mice, external Modems, Personal System 2 (PS/2) Interface
keyboard, light pen and sometimes Printers to the System unit. They can also be - Mainly for connection of mouse and key board.
used for computer-to-computer connection. - Most desktop computers come with two PS/2 ports, one for mouse and the
- They are reliable because they can transmit data for a long distance [15m other for keyboard.
away]
- It allows a two way communication [to and from] Video Graphics Array (VGA) interface
- Are most widely used. - It is used to connect display devices such as a monitor or projector to the
computer.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Ports - It is shaped like a letter D with 15 pins.
USB port is a standard interface that has replaced the parallel and serial cables - VGAs are gradually being replaced by High Definition Multimedia Interface
and interfaces with advanced Plug-and-play standard that transmits data 1-bit at a (HDMI)
time but with very high speed and quality.

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- HDMI is the latest interface used to transmit digital and video data from Computer hardware must be assembled (connected properly) for the computer
computer to a projector, TV or audio device. system to be operational.
- When setting up a computer, ensure all cables, both power and data
Firewire interface interface cables are available.
- Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same feature as the USB but transmit data faster - Match each device to its port to avoid damaging the pins hence affecting
than USB hence suitable for streaming video from a digital video camera to a data transmission.
computer.
- Streaming media is the process of delivering or obtaining media such that the Mounting Internal Devices
end-user can watch or listen to it while it is still being delivered. It is an - While External devices are connected to the motherboard through ports,
alternative to file downloading, a process in which the end-user obtains the internal devices are connected to the motherboard through slots and
entire file for the content before watching or listening to it. sockets.
- Internal devices use special ribbon cables to connect to the motherboard
Audio inter face through the slots and sockets.
- Audio interface is used to connect speakers and microphones to the computer. Examples of internal devices are the hard disks and Optical drives, which are
connected to the motherboard through interface connectors called controllers.
Infrared and Bluetooth Wireless interface
- Infrared is a wireless interface that uses infrared enabled devices. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
- Blue tooth is also a wireless interface that uses short range audio broadcast to Software refers to a set of instructions that guides the computer hardware on its
connect to any Bluetooth enabled devices. functions, the data and related documentation such as user guides.
All programs (software) are written using programming languages.
Ports and their Symbols
Software Flexibility
Software flexibility means that software used on a given computer is easy to
change, instead of buying a new machine each time a new program is needed,
you only need to ‘load’ the new program into the machine.

Software can be classified in three different ways/Criteria

1. Classification according to purpose
2. Classification according to acquisition
3. Classification according to End-User-License (EUL)
1. Classification according to purpose
- This refers to whether the software is designed to manage the hardware
resources or to help the user accomplish specific tasks.
- Under purpose, we have two types of software
a. System software
b. Application software

Basic computer setup and cabling

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 (b). FIRMWARE
It is a micro program which is a combination of both software and
hardware recorded permanently on electronic chips and is mounted on the
motherboard.
- Firmware interprets the external Instruction set of a computer used to
give direct orders to the computer.

(c). UTILITY SOFTWARE

Utility software is a special program that performs routine activities that makes
certain aspects of computing go on smoothly. Such activities include sorting,
copying, file handling, disk management and debugging.
Debugging: Means removing errors from a program. Statements of the program
are studied to determine the cause of an error.

A. System software (d). NETWORKING SOFTWARE

This refers to programs that perform a variety of fundamental operations that - A type of software used to establish communication between two or more
avails computer resources to the user. computers by linking them using a communication channel like cables to
create a computer network.
Functions of system software
- Booting the computer B. Application Software
- making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly - These are programs written to enable a user accomplish specific tasks.
- Loading and executing application programs. - These tasks include word-processing, database management, accounting,
- Storing and retrieving files communication etc.
- Performing a variety of system utility functions. Application software falls into 2 main categories/groups: -
(i). General-purpose packages (Application packages).
Categories of system software (ii). Special-purpose applications
i. Operating system
ii. Firmware General-purpose packages (Application packages/ Off-shelf)
iii. Utility software - They are pre-written programs made for non-specialists, in the home or
iv. Networking software business, and may be used for a wide variety of purposes.
- They are off-shelf programs that are developed and supplied by
(a). OPERATING SYSTEMS manufacturers and software houses at a price.
This is a set of computer programs that is responsible for execution of user - Examples of Application packages are: -
programs called applications and acts as interface between applications and the * Word processors * Spreadsheets.
computer hardware. * Databases * Graphic packages, etc.
Examples of OS
- Microsoft Windows [e.g Windows2000, Windows XP and vista] Advantages of General-purpose application software
- UNIX (i). Packages save a lot of time and programming effort, because the user buys
- Linux the software when it is ready-made.
- Macintosh [Mac OS]
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(ii). Are relatively cheap to the user.
(iii). They can be used to accomplish a large variety of tasks.
(iv). They are easy to learn and use, hence are suitable for people with little
computer skills.
(v). Packages are thoroughly tested and has all errors corrected.
(vi). The packages are generally portable.

Disadvantages of General-purpose application software

(i). They may lack some features required by the user hence fail to solve the
user’s problem satisfactorily.
(ii). The purchaser has no direct control over the package, because he/she is not
involved in developing it. 2. Classification according to acquisition
(iii). They may include extra features not needed by the user which may take Software can be classified according to acquisition as;
extra storage. i. in-house developed or
(iv). They may require the user to change processes and hardware for ii. Vendor off-the-shelf software.
compatibility which may in turn be expensive.
Special-purpose applications (In-house developed software) In-house developed
In-house or Tailor-made programs are programs that are uniquely made to meet a - These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a
particular user’s needs. particular user’s needs. It is developed by hired programmers.
They may not suit the needs of other users or organizations and are not available -
in shops.
Vendor off-the-shelf (Standard) software
Advantages of Special-purpose applications - It is developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available for
(i). The user gets a well tried and tested program, which he/she is able to use purchase through a vendor, distributors or directly from the developers.
with confidence.
(ii). The user is able to quickly implement the results obtained from the use of the 3. Classification according to end-user-licenses [EUL]
package. These can be categorized as
(iii). They are tailored to meet a particular customer’s needs and can therefore  Open source software
solve specific problems to the client’s satisfaction.  Proprietary software
(iv). They can be revised after some time whenever a need to do so arises.  Freeware
(v). They are usually accompanied by comprehensive documentation which helps
the user to learn it fast. Open sources/non-proprietary
(vi). Purchaser has direct control over the package, as he is involved in its - Refers to software whose source code is freely made available to the
production. user. Users are encouraged to use, modify and distribute the modified
product.
Disadvantages of Special-purpose applications - Examples
(i). Are very expensive to acquire Linux OS
(ii). They take time to be developed Proprietary software
(iii). They are designed to solve problems of specific users and may not be of any - Refers to software whose source code is hidden from users. Modification
use to the general user. is only made by the software manufacturer.
- The software may be licensed to the user at a fee or applied freely
Examples of applications - Examples

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 -Microsoft windows OS (h). User needs.
- Office suite-adobe page maker The type of hardware chosen should be the most appropriate to satisfy the
- CorelDraw suite user’s needs.
(ix). Availability of hardware spare parts.
Freeware (x). Monitor size, technology and resolution.
Refers to software products that are freely made available to the user.
Software Factors
The following factors should be considered when selecting software:
(a). Authenticity of the software.
This refers to genuineness, validity or originality of the software.

(b). Documentation of the programs.

Documentation refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having
details on how to install, use and maintain the software.

(c). User needs

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM The needs of the user determine the type of operating system and
Hardware Factors application programs that should be purchased.
Some factors to consider when selecting computer hardware are:
(a). Processor Speed. (d). Reliability and security.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operation. People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to
 The higher the processor speed, the faster the computer. confidential and private information.
(b). Memory capacity (amount of Main memory –RAM).
 When the memory needed by a program and the data it processes is (e). User friendliness of the software.
more than the RAM installed in the computer, the job may abort or User-friendliness is a measure of how easily the user can be able to learn
take time to process. and use the computer or program.
(c). Warranty (Service contract/ assurance/ guarantee).
A Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells
out terms and conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or
malfunction.
(d). The cost of the computer system. (f). Cost of the Software.
The cost of acquiring software product must be carefully considered against
(e). Upgradability of the computer the benefits that it is likely to bring.
Upgrading means making a computer to accept an improved device.
(g). Compatibility
(f). Compatibility of the system Compatibility is the capability of software to work harmoniously with the
Compatibility means the ability to fit in other devices in the existing existing hardware and software.
computer and work harmoniously.
(g). Portability. (h). Portability of the software.
This is the ability to carry a device from one point to another. Portable Portability refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more
computers such as laptops, PDAs are suitable for may need to work away than one computer.
from the office.
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(ix). System requirements
One should know the details of the computer hardware that are needed for
the software to be able to run efficiently and effectively. Such details
include;
 The size of the hard disk required by the software
 The speed of the processor
 The memory capacity

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