BUILDING MATERIALS 1 - composite building materials were

used (clay & wood)

WEEK 1- HISTORY OF BUILDING
- reeds padded with clay for walls
MATERIALS
COMMUNAL HOUSE
History of architecture is also the history of
building materials. - wooden post & lintel to support the
ridge pole & rafters
Frank Lloyd Wright - wrote: "The nature of
- thatch for the roof structure
the materials employed in construction is
- walls were made of various
inherent to the true nature of every good
materials, such as clay.
building, that is, of the kind of construction
- wattle & daub, tree bark & thatch
we call Architecture." He went on to say that
a house "will glorify the material of which it STONE STRUCTURES
is composed."
- Dolmen
PALEOLITHIC (Old Stone Age) 32,000 - Granaries
BC-12,000 BC Nomadic hunter-(cave) - Temples
- Cromlech
- the human creature Australopithecus
- Construction Method was post &
lived in Africa over 4 million years
lintel
ago, and may have used sticks and
stones as tools. CROMLECH
MESOLITHIC (Middle Stone Age) 12,000 - A circular arrangement of megaliths
BC-8,000 BC enclosing a dolmen or burial mound
- Stonehenge - (SALISBURY PLAIN,
- Food gatherer
SOUTHERN ENGLAND)
- temporary shelter from perishable
 The most imposing megalithic
materials.
monument in existence
NEOLITHIC (New Stone Age) 8,000 BC-  Known in the 12 cent, as "Dance of
3,000 BC the Giants
 Known today as the "sarcen circle"
- The last period of age before the use
of woodwork in building MESOPOTAMIAN PERIOD
- Farming
- Permanent settlement Chaldea-man-made clay, plain & glazed
- Villages of circular & later bricks, bitumen & pitch (for cementing),
rectangular huts calcerous earth (mortar)
- Communal house Assyria - stone, brick (extensively used),
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS alabaster & limestone (for facing)
TENT Persia - hard & colored limestone, timber
- wooden poles/animal bones as ZIGGURATS
framework
- leaves to form the tent - Ziggurat at Ur
- Ziggurat at Bursippa
HUT - Tower of Babel
- broad leaves intertwined as covering BABYLON
CITY OF BABYLON - Timber was still used, particularly as
the main material for building the
- with 100 towers and 100 bronze
upper floors of insulae. buildings that
doors
stood four or five storeys high.
ASSYRIA
ROOMS
PALACE OF SARGON
- Arena, baireus, animal route from
- entrance portals flanked with statues overhead gangway to ramp, gavea
of headed winged bulls & lions and gradin sectors. Skylight,
- contains 700 rooms elevators for the beasts,
underground level
EGYPTIAN PERIOD
EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD
Natural products - timber, stone, brick,
clay - The ruins of the Roman buildings
provided quarry where materials
Masonry materials - limestone, sandstone, were obtained. This influence the
alabaster, basalt, porphyry, granite style of construction, decoration for
Timber used - Acacia (boats) Date Palm columns, & other architectural
(roofing) features as well as fine sculpture &
mosaic from older bldg w/c were turn
Sycamore (mummy case) into basilican churches of the new
faith
GREEK PERIOD
- atrium, narthex, nave, transept, apse
Chief building materials
GOTHIC PERIOD
- Marble
BUILDING MATERIALS: IRON AND
- other stones
STONE
ROMAN PERIOD
RENAISSANCE PERIOD
Chief building materials:
- The Renaissance heralded another
- Concrete change, as brick returned to oust
- The Romans took things a step stone.
further, introducing an essential new - Brick remained the undisputed
building material- concrete- that construction material for many
made major architectural advances centuries to come, leading to unique
possible. and truly ingenious works such as
- the Romans put bricks at the center Florence Cathedral's dome.
of the art of masonry - During the Renaissance, plaster
- stone was used no longer as an out- became widely used. both as an
and-out building material, but as architectural element with a
cladding. protective, bonding purpose, and as
- ricks underwent their own evolution an aesthetic decoration for buildings.
over the centuries, from first century
PERIOD OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
BC raw bricks to the widespread use
Chief building material:
of baked bricks under Tiberius reign
- Concrete
 - Steel WEEK 2 - BUILDING MATERIALS
- Glass
BUILDING MATERIAL - is any material is
- a huge paradigm shift that took
used for a construction purpose.
place between the late 18th century
and the early 19th century. - The building materials sector also
- Alongside brick, metals became an makes a significant contribution to
important building material, most the national economy because the
notably iron and steel, as did output it produces determines both
reinforced concrete. the pace and the caliber of
- The earliest works in iron, for construction.
example the famous 1781 Iron - Building materials are those which
Bridge over the River Severn in are used for construction purposes
England, the first in the world to be such as bricks, stones, timber, steel,
built out of this material, were clay, sand, cement etc.
erected in the eighteenth century - They have an important role to play
in this modern age of technology as
CONCRETE DEVELOPMENT:
they contribute in a nation's
1756 - British Engineer, John Smeaton economy and their output governs
made the first modern concrete (hydraulic both the rate and the quality of
cement) by adding pebbles as a course construction work.
aggregate & mixing powered brick into the
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE CHOICE
cement
OF MATERIALS: CLIMATIC
1824. - Joseph Aspdin invented Portland
BACKGROUND AND ECONOMIC
Cement
ASPECT
1849 - Joseph Monier invented
Climatic background - perhaps the most
Reinforced Concrete, and patented in
important of these is the climatic
1867
background. Obviously, different materials
MODERN PERIOD and forms of construction have developed in
different parts of the world as a result of
- Modern-day developments in
climatic differences.
building materials have raised
additional questions. Increasingly, Economic aspect - the rapid advance of
people are interested in construction methods, the increasing
environmentally-friendly building introduction of mechanical tools and plants,
materials that guarantee high levels and changes in the organization of the
of sustainability, as well as self- building industry may appreciably influence
supporting and earthquake-resistant the choice of materials.
structures. To achieve this, a
THE CHOICE OF BUILDING MATERIAL
number of innovative ideas have
DEPENDS ON:
been put forward in recent years,
such as osmotic cement, translucent - The size and nature of building
concrete, and even cardboard for - its design
construction. The history of - intended purposes
construction materials still seems to - availability of resources
have many an exciting chapter left to - location
write!
16 DIVISIONS OF CONSTRUCTION Seasoning: The stone should be well
seasoned.
DIVISION 01 ~ GENERAL
REQUIREMENTS Weathering: The resistance of stone
against the wear and tear due to natural
Examples: limestone, marble, dolomite,
agencies should be high.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD BUILDING
Workability: Stone should be workable so
STONE
that cutting, dressing and bringing it out in
Appearance: For face work it should have the required shape and size may not be
fine, compact texture, light-colored stone is uneconomical.
preferred as dark colors are likely to fade
Fire Resistance: Stones should be free
out in due course of time.
from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and
Structure: A broken stone should not be minerals having different coefficients of
dull in appearance and should have uniform thermal expansion.
texture free from cavities, cracks, and
Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of
patches of loose or soft material.
most of the stones lies between 2.3 to 2.5.
Stratifications should not be visible to naked
eye. Thermal Movement: Thermal movements
alone are usually not trouble-some.
Strength: A stone should be strong and
However, joints in coping and parapets
durable to withstand the disintegrating
open-out in letting the rain water causing
action of weather. Compressive strength of
trouble
building stones in practice range between
60 to 200 N/mm2. TYPE OF BUILDING STONES
Weight: It is an indication of the porosity (1) Granite: it is a deep-Seated igneous
and density. For stability of structures such rock, hard, durable and available in different
as dams, retaining walls, etc. heavier stones colors. It has high crushing strength
are required, whereas for arches, vaults, &capable of sustaining high weathering.
domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.
(2) Basalt & trap: basalt and trap are also
Hardness: Hardness is assessed by of igneous origin. These are effective solid
scratching. This property is important for rocks which have been formed on the
floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc. earth's surface in the absence of pressure
by rapid cooling of the magma which also
Toughness: The measure of impact that a
carries crystals of various minerals. These
stone can withstand is defined as
are hard, tough and durable and are
toughness. The stone used should be tough
available in different colors
when vibratory or moving loads are
anticipated. (3) Limestone and chalk: These are
sedimentary rocks which have been formed
Porosity and Absorption: Porosity
of remnants of seaweeds and living
depends on the mineral constituents,
organisms consolidated and cemented
cooling time and structural formation. A
together. They are easy to work and contain
porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed
a high percentage of calcium carbonate.
rain water freezes, expands, and causes
cracking. (4) Sandstone: this is another form of
sedimentary rock formed by the action of
mechanical sediments. It shows a sandy Soft stratified rocks can be removed by
structure which is low in strength and easy wedging as their rocks are in the form of
to work with the dress. This is available in layers and are easy to split. Soft rocks are
different colors. removed with the help of pick axes and
crow bars. Limestones, Marble, Slate are
(5) Laterite: this is a metamorphic rock and
removed by this simple method.
is sandy clayey stone. It is porous and soft.
It can be cut easily into blocks and contains 4.Blasting
a high percentage of iron oxide.
Explosives such as blasting powder,
(6) Gneiss: it is a metamorphic rock which blasting cotton, dynamite and cordite are
can be easily split into thin slab and easy to used. The operations involved are boring,
work on. charging, tamping and firing.
(7) Marble: it is a metamorphic rock which DRESSING OF STONES-The process of
can be easily cut with a saw and can be bringing stones to a regular finish
curved.
USES
(8) State: It is also a metamorphic rock
Foundation and Wall Items: Quarry, split
which is black in color and can be split
and sawn stones from rocks are used to
easily.
erect the substructure of buildings.
(9) Gravel: It is available in river beds in the
Facing and Architectural Items: Facing
form of pebbles and is of different shape.
slabs and stones, stairs and landings,
(10) Quartzite: it is a metamorphic rock parapets, etc. are made of slabs sawn or
which is hard, brittle and crystalline. It is split from semi-finished product blocks with
difficult to work with and is very durable. glossy, dull, ground, sawn, pointed, fluted or
rock finish. Facing slabs of granite, gabbro,
QUARRYING-the process by which stones
basalt, marble, breccia, limestone,
are obtained from rock beds. Quarry is the
sandstone and volcanic tuff are generally
place from which the stone is obtained.
used.
METHODS
Building Items: Elements of stairs,
1.Digging/Excavating landings, parapets and guard rails are
manufactured from granite, marble.
In soft rocks, stones are merely obtained by limestone, tuff, etc. Pedestal slabs and
digging with the help of hand tools like stones for farming doorways, cornices and
chisels, pick-axes, hammers, etc. window-sill slabs are made from the same
2.Heating material as the facing slabs.

This method is adopted by burning certain Road Construction Items: Curb stones-
kinds of fuels and the exposed surface of intended to separate roadways from
the portion of the rock to be separated On sidewalks; Paving blocks-used for
burning several hours continuously due to pavements; Cobble stone-used to reinforce
unequal expansion of the rock, the rock gets slopes of earth works and banks of water
separated from the mass with a dull noise. basins; Crushed stone-a mixture of jagged
stone fragments (< 70 mm); Gravel-loose
3.Wedging agglomeration of rock fragments (70 mm)
and Sand-loose mass of mineral and rock
particles (0.14-5 mm) obtained from natural limestone and sandstone, thus causing
stone are used in road construction. deterioration.
Underground Structures and Bridges are 6.Living organisms
built of slabs and stones from igneous and
Living organisms sometimes form in the
sedimentary rocks.
joints of stones and cause instability to the
Heat and Chemically Resistant Items are structure. Further, these holes provide room
manufactured from non-weathered rocks. for the accumulation of moisture and
For high temperature working conditions, thereby deteriorate the stones.
they are made from chromite, basalt,
PRESERVATION OF STONES - intended
andesite and tuffs.
to protect the structure against the action of
DURABILITY-depends on the environment weathering agents and also to protect the
at which they are constructed. For proper good appearance of the face work.
durability assurance, it is necessary to know
ARTIFICIAL STONES-Where durable
the agencies which deteriorate stones
natural stone is not available at reasonable
Deteriorating Agencies of Stones: cost, artificial stone, also known as cast
stone becomes the choice.
1.Rain
- Artificial stone is made with cement
Rain is one among the main causes for
and natural aggregates of the
wetness on stones. This wetness is dried by
crushed stone and sand with desired
the sun. The process of wetting and drying
surface finish. Suitable coloring
causes deteriorating of stones.
pigments may be added.
2.Climate
Concrete Block are cast at site in the
In hot climate there are frequent changes in construction of piers or cast in molds for
temperature which results in deterioration. steps, window sills, etc.
Similarly, stones exposed to cold climate
Ransom Stone are prepared by mixing
causes freezing of water in pores resulting
soda silicate with cement to provide
in the expansion, which causes splitting of
decorative flooring. These are also known
stones.
as chemical stones. These have
3.Wind compressive strength of about 32 N/mm2.

Wind loaded with grit and dust strikes the Victoria Stone are granite pieces with the
stones and causes wear of the stones. Also, surfaces hardened by keeping immersed in
moisture penetrate into the pores causes soda silicate for about two months.
dampness resulting in deterioration Bituminous Stone: Granite and diorite are
4.Vegetation Growth impregnated with prepared or refined tar to
form bituminous stone. These are used for
Vegetation growth along the cleavages of providing noise, wear and dust resistant
joints of stones release certain acids by the stone surfaces.
roots and thereby cause deterioration.
Imperial Stone: Finely crushed granite is
5.Chemicals washed carefully and mixed with Portland
Chemicals of different kinds move and react cement. The max is molded in desired
due to the usage of different stone such as shape and then steam cured for 24 hours.
The cured blocks are immersed in silicate color after being freshly cut, but it soon
tanks for three days. These stones are tarnishes to a dull grayish color when
similar to Victoria stones. exposed to air.
Artificial Marble can be either pre-cast or Silver. a soft, white, lustrous transition
cast-in-situ These are made from portland metal, it has the highest electrical
gypsum cement and sand. conductivity of any element and the highest
thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal
Open web steel joists -lightweight warren- occurs naturally in its pure, free form.
type trusses made in several different
styles. Gold. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny,
malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has
Sheet Steel-black and galvanized, can be a bright yellow color and luster traditionally
used to manufacture corrugated roofing and considered attractive,
siding and formed steel decking. Corrugated
sheets have one edge turned up, one Magnesium, Magnesium is a fairly strong,
turned down. silvery-white, light-weight metal (one third
lighter than aluminum) that slightly tarnishes
Steel studs-lightweight, requiring minimum when exposed to air. In a powder, this metal
storage space and does not warp or shrink. heats and ignites when exposed to moisture
Pans and domes-manufactured for use in and burns with a white flame.
forming one- way and two-way ribbed Non-Ferrous Metal Alloys:
concrete floor systems.
Non-ferrous metal alloys are metals that are
NON-FERROUS METAL- metals that do a mixture of two or more metals.
not have any iron in them at all. This means
that Non-ferrous metals are not attracted to Brass. Brass is a mixture of copper and
a magnet and they also do not rust in the zinc. Copper is the main component, and
same way when exposed to moisture. brass is usually classified as a copper alloy.
Typical Non-ferrous metals include copper,
Bronze. Bronze is a metal alloy consisting
aluminium (coke cans), tin and zinc.
primarily of copper, usually with tin as the
Aluminium, it tends to be light in colour main additive. It is a hard and brittle metal. It
although it can be polished to a mirror like has a very high resistance to corrosion.
appearance. It is very light in weight.
Solder. Solder is a fusible metal alloy used
Copper. It is a ductile and malleable metal. to join together metal work pieces and
It is often red /brown in colour. It is a very having a melting point below that of the
good conductor of heat and electricity. work pieces. It is an alloy of Lead and Tin

Zinc, It is very resistant to corrosion from WEEK 7: GLASS AND GLAZING

moisture. However zinc is a very weak
Glass- A hard, brittle inorganic substance,
metal and is used mainly for coating steel.
usually transparent or translucent
Tin. It is a very ductile and very malleable substance, produced by melting a mixture of
metal. It is resistant to corrosion from silica together with a flux, and a stabilizer,
moisture. It is bright silver in appearance. while molten, may be blown, drawn, rolled,
Tinplate is steel with a tin coating. pressed or cast to a variety of shapes.

Lead. It is the densest, softest and the MANUFACTURING

weakest metal. Lead has a bluish-white
SHEET GLASS - (ordinary window glass) wash and colour wash, soil stabilization and
The raw materials, sand, soda and glass production.
limestone, are first ground to a fine state
Magnesian lime is manufactured from
and mixed in the proper proportions. This
dolomite and contain magnesia more than 5
mixture, known as frit, is tied into the filling
per cent. It is used for making mortar and
end of a furnace and melted. Sometimes,
plaster.
cullet (broken glass) is also fed in to the
furnace. WEEK 6: FERROUS AND NON FERROUS
METALS
PLATE GLASS - A high quality glass sheet
of the same chemical composition as sheet In Latin, the iron is known as ferrum and its
glass. chemical designation is Fe.
FLOAT GLASS - A flat glass produced by a The ferrous metal - contains iron as their
new process. It combines the fire-finish of main constituent.
sheet with the perfect flatness of plate frit,
the usual combination of raw materials is The non-ferrous metals - do not contain
melted in an oil or gas fired furnace. iron as their main constituent

TYPES OF GLASS Mercury is the only non-ferrous metal that

is liquid at room temperature.
1. REFLECTIVE GLASS - Used to control
glare and reduce solar heat. It is the product Ferrous metals all have certain
of a glass-coating process properties:

2. ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS - 1. they contain iron

Similar to the process of making plate glass. 2. they will corrode unless protected
Glass of this type is used where clear
visions not required, 3. they are attracted by magnets.

3. CATHEDRAL AND FIGURED GLASSES 4. They have higher melting point

- Manufacturing is similar to rolled and
5. They are preferred in building sturdy,
rough cast glasses. However, they contain a
strong, iron fences and walls, gates etc.
pattern or texture impressed usually on one
surface by a patterned roller. Non-ferrous metals also have certain
unique properties:
4. WIRED GLASS - Simply a rolled glass
into which wire mesh is inserted during the 1. they do not contain iron
process of manufacture. The wire greatly
increases the resistance to shattering 2. They are more resistant to corrosion

5. HEAT-ABSORBING PLATE GLASS - 3. they are not magnetic

This glass is made by adding ingredients to 4. They have lower melting point
the mix used in making regular slate glass
so that the finished product is pale bluish- 5. They are mostly preferred in electrical
green or gray and electronics applications.

Shell lime is very pure lime obtained by FERROUS METALS - consist mostly of iron
calcination of shells of sea animals and and small amounts of other elements.
corals. It is used for lime punning, white Ferrous metals are prone to rusting if
exposed to moisture. Ferrous metals can
also be picked up by a magnet. Typical shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be
ferrous metals include mild steel, cast iron riveted or welded. Pig iron is most suitable
and steel. for making columns, base plates, door
brackets, etc.
METAL TYPES
STEEL PRODUCTS
MILD STEEL - A ductile and malleable
metal. Mild steel will rust quickly if it is in Rolled steel sections are available in
frequent contact with water. Used as Nuts various forms for use in Steel Construction
and bolts, Building girders, car bodies,
2. Sheet piling - sections are made to
gates, etc.
interlock and are available in several shape.
CAST IRON - Is a very strong metal when it
3. Steel pipe - seamless or welded small
is in compression and is also very brittle.
diameter pipe and electrically welded large
Used as car Brake discs, car cylinders,
diameter pipe.
metalwork vices, manhole covers,
machinery bases eg: The pillar drill. Reinforcing steel - made from new steel or
from discarded railway-car ades or rails.
HIGH CARBON STEEL. IT is a very strong
and very hard steel that has a high Reinforcing steel comes in plain or
resistance to abrasion. Used for hand tools deformed bars, that is, bars which have lugs
such as screwdrivers, hammers, chisels. or deformations rolled on the surface to
saws, springs and garden tools. provide anchorage in concrete.
HIGH SPEED STEEL - HSS is a metal Welded Wire Fabric - another type of
containing a high content of tungsten, reinforcing material. It consists of parallel,
chromium and vanadium. However it is very longitudinal wires welded to transverse
brittle but is also very resistant to wear. wires at regular intervals.
Used for drill bits and lathe cutting tools. It is
used where high speeds and high Steel Wire - over 150,000 uses for wire
temperatures are created. including pins, needles, nails, bolts, cables,
piano wire, fences.
STAINLESS STEEL is very resistant to
wear and water corrosion and rust. Bolts and Nuts (either hot forged or cold-
Properties-it is an alloy of iron with a typical formed from wire of the appropriate
18% chromium 8% nickel and % diameter).
magnesium content. Used for kitchen sinks, Steel strapping - made from high-tensile
cutlery, teapots, cookware and surgical flat wire in a number of sizes. Used for
instruments banding column forms to keep them from
WROUGHT IRON malleable and ductile bulging under the pressure of freshly poured
Bends well, hot or cold. Dropping-gives a concrete.
dull note when dropped Used for crane - A tightener tightens it and the two
hooks, Anchor chainscores for electric lapped ends is sealed.
motors and transformers
PIG IRON is hard and brittle and melts
easily. It can be hardened but cannot be PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
tempered and agnetized. Its compressive
STRENGTH- with respect to the ability of
strength is high but is weak in tension and
wood in resisting stress and strain.
However, strength of different wood varies - is applied to wood means the ability
in the following manner: to resist decay or simply the length
of its life under a given condition
- Wood is resistant to compression
- also includes the resistance of the
along the fibers
wood to the influence of mechanical
- Stiffness or the ability to resist
wear
bending stress as in floor joists,
beams, and rafters supporting heavy DURABILITY
load Strength in tension or the ability
- The durability of any specie depends
to resist lengthwise stresses
on certain chemical component
- Shearing strength or the ability of the
present in wood such as:
fibers to resist rupture along or
- resins of the wood
across the grain
- Gums of the wood
MOISTURE - is an important factor affecting
Tannin and other decay resisting materials
the strength of wood to a certain extent,
These chemical components provide a dark
strength increases with the degree of wood
discoloration to the heartwood of several
seasoning
species. This phenomenon explains the
WEIGHT of wood is another important relationship of color to the durability of wood
consideration because heavy woods are
COLOR
generally stronger than lighter wood
- Is often a means of identifying wood.
HARDNESS is expressed as resistance to
- Heartwood is generally much darker
indentation or to the saw or across the grain
in color than sapwood, although in
 Hardness is generally dependent on some species, there is a little
the weight of wood, structural differentiation in color between the
elements and degree of seasoning heartwood and the sapwood
- Oxidation turns wood to darker
CLEAVABILITY is the resistance of wood shade
to split along the grains
PROPERTIES AS BUILDING MATERIAL
- The line of least resistance to
splitting is along the radius because - Strong Material
the wood rays are in this direction - Durable
- Wood splits much more easily when - Light in weight
wet because moisture softens the - Ease of working and fastening
fibers and reduces adhesion across - With artistic and natural beauty
the grain
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
FLEXIBILITY and TOUGHNESS
HARDWOOD-'deciduous' broad leaves and
The moisture content of wood influences endogenous trees
flexibility to a considerable degree.
ex: narra, yakal, kamagong, oak, walnut,
Toughness refers to the combined strength, maple, etc.
shock resistance and pliability or flexibility of
PROPERTIES:
wood,
- Contract with heat & moisture
DURABILITY
 - Stronger, denser, & homogenous DIVISION 5-METALS
than hardwoods (good for framing
DIVISION 6-WOOD AND PLATIC
system)
- Good for interior finishes & for DIVISION 7-MOISTURE AND THERMAL
furniture PROTECTION
- Resist fire better than softwood
- Nearly impervious to water (some DIVISION 8-DOORS AND WINDOWS
varieties) DIVISION 10-SPECIALTIES
- Cost: high
DIVISION 11-EQUIPMENT
SOFTWOOD - toniferous' needle-like
leaves and grow outward DIVISION 12-FURNISHINGS

ex: tanguile, apitong, lauan, fine, fir, etc. DIVISION 13-SPECIAL CONSTRUCITON

PROPERTIES DIVISION 14-CONVEYING SYSTEMS

- Contract with heat & moisture DIVISION 15-MECHANICAL

- Have lower density than hardwoods
DIVISION 16-ELECTRICAL
(good for acoustic & thermal
insulation) ELEMENTS OF BUILDING
- Good for interior finishes & for
furniture 1.Building Systems
- Solid but soft 2.Cost
- Flexible & strong
- Not water resistant 3.Lifetimes/Durability
- Cost: low
4.Performance Requirements
WOOD STRUCTURE
5.Integration of Building Systems
Bark, bast, sapwood, heartwood, pith
COST OVER TIME
WOOD is the hand, fibrous material that
1.Foundation/Subgrade structure 10%
makes up the tree under the bark
2.Structure (superstructure) 30-40%
TIMBER is a wood which retains its natural
physical structure and chemical composition 3.Exterior Wall10-20%
and is suitable for various construction
works 4.Interior Partitions10%

LUMBER - is log of timber sawn into pieces 5.Mechanical Devices30-40%

of desired shape BUILDING SYSTEMS:
- PHILIPPINE TIMBER DEFINITIONS/PERFORMANCE
- HARDWOOD 1.Foundation/Subgrade (SITE)
1.Transfer superstructure loads to subgrade
DIVISION 2-SITE CONSTRUCTION condition

DIVISION 3-CONCRETE 2.Act as subgrade exterior envelope

DIVISION 4-MASONRY
3.Resist lateral loading from below and 5.Mechanical Systems (SERVICES)
above
1.Maintain interior environment through
2.Superstructure (STRUCTURE) service to the space with:
1.Transfer vertical dead and live loads - Air distribution systems (ventilation)
- Water distribution systems
2. Transfer lateral loading on exterior
(plumbing)
surfaces of building
- Heating and cooling systems
3.Provide rigidity and limit deflection - Electrical distribution systems
Artificial lighting
4.Provide armature for the suspension and - Data distribution systems
support of secondary structure and other - Fire detection, suppression and
building systems such as the exterior alarm systems
envelope, mechanical systems, interior - Vertical circulation systems
partitions etc., (elevators)
3.Exterior Envelope (SKIN) 6.Furnishings (STUFF)
Exterior Envelope 1.Accommodate occupation of space
1.Mediate between interior and exterior 2.Provide devices for storage, surfaces for
environments working 3.Accommodate all other interior
means: furnishings needs

•Control of mass flux System 1: Foundations/Site

•Control of thermal flux System 2: Superstructure

Control of light energy System 3: Exterior Envelope

Transfer of loads (primarily self weight and System 4: Interior Partitions

lateral) System 5: Building Services
•Control of acoustic flux WEEK 3: WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
2.Provide delineation of interior space for WOOD is that fibrous substance which
programmatic composes the trunk and branches of a tree
activities that lies between the pitch and the bark

3.Define character of building on urban and - Technically, wood is known as

architectural scales "Xylem"

4.Interior Partitions (SPACE PLAN) - Zylem -The woody tissue of a tree

that provides support and conducts
1.Delineate interior spatial conditions
water and mineral nutrients upward
2.Control acoustical energy from the roots.
- a natural organic material that has
3.Provide conduit for services been used for many centuries for the
4.Provide rated fire barriers construction of buildings, bridges
and a variety of other structures
5.Define the character of the interior space
 - Still the most common materials for are used) also are recessed; the glazing is
small to medium-scale project in flush with the frame jamb surface.
other countries
is made from refractory clay mixed with
- In the Philippines, wood was widely
crushed pottery, stones and sand burned at
used during the Spanish period and
high temperatures and cooled slowly.
until 1960's
EARTHENWARE - these are made by
ADVANTAGES AS BUILDING MATERIAL:
burning the ordinary clay at low temperature
- Lightweight and cooling slowly.
- Renewable, recyclable, natural
MAIOLICA - It is Italian earthenware coated
- Sound absorptive
with an opaque white enamel, ornamented
- Aesthetic
with metallic colour. It is manufactured from
DIDADVANTAGES AS BUILDING low-heat clays to which up to 20 per cent
MATERIAL: calcium carbonate is added in the form of
chalk. Majolica has a microporous texture.
- Flammable
- Susceptible to rot and insect CERAMICS VENEER IS MADE IN TWO
damage TYPES
- Size irregularities
A. Adhesion type-held to the wall by the
bond of the mortar to the ceramic veneer
back and to the backing wan.
Edge clearance- the distance between the
edge of a glass pane or unit and a window B. Anchor type-are held by mortar and by
frame. wire tiles between the terracotta and the
Wall behind adhesion type ceramic veneer
SETTING BLOCK- one of the small blocks
of lead or synthetic rubber placed under the GYPSUM - A soft mineral consisting of a
low edge of a glass pane or unit to support it hydrated calcium sulfate from which
within a frame. gypsum plaster is made colorless when
pure as a retarder in portland cement.
GLAZING SYSTEM
PRODUCTS
GLASS MULLION SYSTEM - A glass
mullion system is a type of glazing system 1. PLASTERS
that can be used to construct vertical glass
1. Plaster of Paris - made from carefully
curtain walls, canopies, skylights, and so
selected white rock. When mixed with water
on, allowing large areas of glazing to be
to form a paste, it sets in about 15 to 20
created whilst maintaining a high level of
mins.
transparency.
b. Keene's Cement - Highly resistant to
BUTT-JOINT GLAZING - A glass
moisture penetration and has a smooth
installation technique in which two glass
surface.
panels do not meet in a mullion; instead, a
weatherproof vertical joint is formed c. Casting Plaster - made from specially
between them by means of a sealant. selected rock and ground much finer than
plaster of Paris. It is slower setting and
FLUSH GLAZING - Glazing in which glass
cooler working
is set in a recess in a frame; stops (if any
d. Hard wall Plaster - a neat gypsum the form of chips and sometimes some
plaster containing hair or fiber, widely used perlite.
to form the first (scratch) coat and second
b. Fireproofing Tile - made to cover steel
(brown) coat on plastered walls and ceiling.
members in a building to protect them
e. Cement band Plaster - intended for against fire.
application to concrete surfaces. Almost any
4. GYPSUM PRECAST WALL PANELS -
finish plaster can be applied over the coat.
Made by casting in mold a panel consist of
f. Finish Plaster - made specially to two outer shells. Made by casting in mold a
produce the finish (Putty) coat for plastered panel consist of two outer shells
surfaces. It has to be mixed with hydrated
LIME - Used in the making of the finish or
Lime putty and water.
putty coat for interior plaster.
g. Prepared finish Plaster - requires only
- Used is hydrated or slake lime which
water. It contains no lime, so the plaster
is mixed with water to form a plastic,
surface can be decorated as soon as it is
putty like material to which is added
dry.
gauging plaster.
h. Texture Plaster - Used when a rough - Lime products provide a key-
surface is required. ingredients for many essential
processes
i. Acoustical Plaster - calcined gypsum is
- Lime was used as the chief
mixed with a light weight-mineral aggregate
cementing material in the building
to make a type of finish plaster that has a
construction both for mortar and
high rate of sound absorption.
plasters.
j. Joint Plaster - For filling nail holes and - The raw material for the
covering joints in gypsum wall board. manufacture of lime (cao) is calcium
carbonate which is obtained by the
2. GYPSUM BOARDS calcination of limestone.
1. Gypsum wallboard - A fireproof VARITIES OF LIME
sheathing for interior walls and ceilings. It is
made of a core of gypsum covered on each Pure limestone is called calcite and that
side by a heavy specially manufactured containing magnesite is called dolomitic
kraft paper. limestone. The mineral containing calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate in
b. Gypsum Loth - used as a base for equimolecular quantities is called dolomite
plaster, providing adhesion for gypsum
plaster. Stone lime is almost pure lime obtained by
calcination of limestone
c. Gypsum Precast Roof Decking -
Precast from gypsum containing various Kankar lime is an impure lime obtained by
types of fiber are made in either the square- calcination of kankars dug out from
edged plank underground sources. These occur in the
form of nodules and compact blocks. It is
3. GYPSUM TILE suitable for making lime-sand mortars for
1. Partition and Furring Tile - made for substructures. It is commonly used for
specially calcined gypsum, to which is making hydraulic lime.
usually added about 5 percent wood fiber in
6. TEMPERED PLATE GLASS - Three to II. THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL
five times as strong as regular plate of the GLASS
same thickness - and area in resisting
1. LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK
compressive forces and fracture due to
strain ()r thermal shock. It is made by 2. LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK
reheating and suddenly cooling plate glass.
3. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK
7. VITREOUS COLORED PLATE -
Polished plate glass can be heat- SOLID GLASS BRICK - Also made to
strengthened and coated on one side with admit light into a building, because of its
vitreous color which is fire-fused to the solid construction, it offers greater
surface. protection against vandalism than
conventional window glass or glass blocks.
8. LAMINATED SAFETY GLASS (Bullet
proofing) - Widely used in the automotive GLAZING - the pains or sheets of glass or
industry and transportation, but now finding other transparent material made to be set in
some uses in the building industry, like frames, as in windows, doors, and mirrors.
glass that can withstand firearm attack and METHODS
explosions.
DOUBLE GLAZING - The installation of two
9. INSULATING GLASS - This consists of parallel panes of glass with a sealed air
two sheets of plate or sheet glass, space between to reduce the transmission
separated by an air space, and joined of heat and sound.
around the edges to produce a hermitically
sealed unit. FACE GLAZING - The setting of a glass
pane in a rabbeted frame, holding it in place
CLASSIFICATION OF SHEET GLASS with glazier's points, and sealing it with a
1. Window glass - used for glazing beveled bead of putty or glazing
windows doors and storm sash in residential coumpound.
buildings where good light and vision are Putty - a compound of whiting and linseed
required at moderate cost. oil, of doughlike consistency when fresh,
2. Heavy sheet glass - used for glazing used in securing windowpanes or patching
windows and doors where greater strength woodwork defects.
is required but where slight distortion is not Face putty - the putty or glazing compound
objectionable. formed on the exterior side of glass an even
3. Picture glass - used for covering backing.
pictures, photographs, maps, charts Bedding - a thin layer of putty laid in the
projector slides and instrument dials. rabbet in a wood sash to give a pane of
GLASS PRODUCT glass an even backing.

GLASS BLOCKS Glazier's point - a small, pointed piece of

sheet metal for holding a glass pane in a
I. FUNCTIONAL - direct or diffuse the wood sash until the face putty has
daylight which passes through them to hardened.
improve the illumination of the building
Interior
WET GLAZING - The setting of glass in a Garlic stone is produced by moulding a
window frame with glazing tape or a liquid mixture of iron slag and portland cement.
sealant. These are used as flag stones, surface
drains, etc.
GLAZING TAPE - a performed ribbon of
synthetic rubber having adhesive properties ADVANTAGES
and used in glazing to form a watertight seal
- Can be used in areas where natural
between glass and frame.
stone is costly or unavailable
CAP SEALANT an adhesive liquid or - Desired Shape and size is obtained
synthetic rubber injected into the joint easily
between a glass pane or unit and a window - Can be made in situ thus saving
frame, curing to form a watertight seal. dressing and transport cost
- Practically Defect Free
GLAZING BEAD - a wood molding or metal
- Cavities can be made for wiring or
section secured against the edge of a glass
plumbing easily
pane or unit to hold it in place.
- Weatherproof
DRY GLAZING - The setting of a glass in a - Strength is Design Based
window frame with compression gasket - More Durable
instead of glazing tape or a liquid sealant.
WEEK 5: CERAMIC, CLAY, GYPSUM,
COMPRESSION GASKET a performed LIME
strip of synthetic rubber or plastic
CERAMIC - comes from the greek word
compressed between a glass prae or unit
Kepa (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for
and a window frame.
pottery", from Képau (keramos), "potter's
Lockstrip gasket - a performed gasket of clay tile, pottery".
synthetic rubber for securing a glass pane
- Traditional ceramics: china,
or unit in a window frame or opening held in
porcelain, bricks, tiles, glasses and
compression by forcing a keyed locking strip
high temperature ceramics
into groove in the gasket.
- Refer to polycrystalline materials
Glass size - (glazing size) the size of a and products formed by baking
glass pane or unit required for glazing an natural clays and mineral admixtures
opening, allowing for adequate edge at a high temperature and also by
clearance. sintering oxides of various metals
and inorganic substances having
Edge block (centering shim, spacer) one of high melting point. As a building
the small blocks of synthetic rubber placed material, ceramics, may include
between the side edges of a glass pane or brick, stone, concrete, glass,
unit and a frame to center it. abrasives, porcelain, high
Face clearance - the distance between the temperature refractories, etc.
face of a glass pane or unit and the nearest - Clay is the most common example
face of its frame or stop, measured normal of ceramic materials.
to the plane of the glass. CLAY - one of the most important classes
Bite - the amount of overlap between the of structural materials. The raw materials
edge of a glass pane or unit and a window used in their manufacture are clay blended
frame.
BRICKS - one of the oldest building Uses: it is used for building temporary
material brick continues to be a most structures.
popular and leading construction material
Fourth class bricks are overburnt and
because of being cheap, durable and easy
badly distorted in shape and size and are
to handle and work with, Clay bricks are
brittle in nature.
used for building- up exterior and interior
walls, partitions, piers, footings and other Uses: the ballast of such bricks is used for
load bearing structures. foundation and floors in lime concrete and
road metal
CLASSIFICATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICK
First class bricks
Size and shape: the bricks should have
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of
uniform size and plane
deep red, cherry or copper color.
Texture and compactness: the surfaces
2. The surface should be smooth and
should not be too smooth to cause slipping
rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight
of mortar. The brick should have pre
edges and square corners.
compact and uniform texture. A fractured
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks surface should not show fissures, holes grits
and stones. or lumps of lime.
Uses: first class bricks are recommended Hardness and soundness:
for pointing. exposed face work in masonry
Water absorption should not exceed 20
structures, flooring and reinforced brick
per cent of its dry weight when kept
work.
immersed in water for 24 hours Crushing
Second class bricks are supposed to have strength
the same requirements as the first class
BRICK - a small rectangular block typically
ones except that
made of fired or sun-dried clay
1. Small cracks and distortions are
- The basic ingredient of brick is clay
permitted.
- Plasticity, tensile strength.
2. A little higher water absorption of about
CLAY OCCURS IN THREE PRINCIPAL
16-20% of its dry weight is allowed.
FORMS
3. The crushing strength should not be less
A. SURFACE CLAY - Found near the
than 7.0 n/mm2.
surface of the earth.
Uses: second class bricks are
B. SHALES - clays which have been
recommended for all important or
subjected to high pressure until they have
unimportant hidden masonry works and
become relatively hard.
centering of reinforced brick and reinforced
cement concrete (roc) structures. C. FIRE CLAYS are found at deeper levels
and usually have more uniform physical and
Third class bricks are under burnt. They
chemical qualities.
are soft and light-coloured producing a dull
sound when struck against each other. CLASSES
Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry
weight.
1. Calcareous days - contains about 15 SURFACED or DRESSED LUMBER - is a
percent calcium carbonate and burn to a planed lumber having at least one smooth
yellowish color. side
2. Noncalcareous days - composed of S25-planed or dressed lumber that is
silicate of alumina, with feldspar and iron smooth on 2 sides
oxide. These clays bum buff, red or salmon
S45-planed or dressed lumber that is
depending on the iron oxide content which
smooth on 4 sides
vary from
SLAB - is a kind of rough lumber cut tangent
Fire Resistant
to the annual rings of wood running the full
Non-combustible, creates a barrier against length of the log and containing at least one
fire flat surface
Time limit 30, 60, 90 minutes, how long it
TIMBER - Is a piece of wood suitable for
takes for the paint or substrate to fail, for the
use as a building material
fire to go through the door
LUMBER - The timber product
Char, smolder, and ignite with difficulty
manufactured by sawing, resawing, passing
METHODS OF WOOD PRESERVATION lengthwise through a planning machine,
cross-cutting to length and grading
Wood does not decay naturally through age
nor will it decay if it is kept constantly dry or ROUGH LUMBER - lumber that is sawn,
continuously submerged in water. edged and trimmed but not surfaced
TYPES OF WOOD PRESERVATION DRESSED LUMBER - Lumber that is
surfaced with a planning machine to attain a
- External processing is accomplished
smooth surface and uniform size.
by coating wood with preservative
chemicals that will penetrate into the WEEK 4: BUILDING STONE
fibers
STONE - been described as a naturally
- Internal processing-a chemical
occurring, brittle substance created from the
compound is impregnated at a
same minerals and earth components found
specified pressure to permeate the
in rocks
wood thoroughly
ROCK - the component of the earth's crust
MEASURING
that lacks a definite shape and structure.
Board foot - unit measure in computing
The majority of rocks have a certain
wood volume
chemical makeup and are composed of
Board foot - Thickness X Width X length/12 minerals and biological stuff
Where: Thickness is in inches CLASSIFICATION OF STONES:
Width is in inches The origin and conditions of rock formation
predetermine their chemical and
Length is in feet
mineralogical composition, crystalline
DEFINITION OF TERMS structure and texture.
 Geological or genetic
classification
  Physical classification - Argillaceous rocks:
 Chemical classification
In these rocks clay and alumina is the main
GEOLOGICAL OR GENETIC
constituents.
CLASSIFICATION
Examples of the argillaceous rocks are
a.) Igneous rocks also known as primary,
slate. latente, etc.
unstratified or eruptive rocks are of volcanic
origin and are formed when hot molten rock - Siliceous rocks:
cools and solidifies
Silicious-The principal constituent is silica.
 Igneous rocks are generally very Le sand. The rocks are very hard and
hard. durable
b) Sedimentary rocks - are also known as Examples: granite, basalt, trap, quartzite,
aqueous or stratified rocks. The various gneiss. syenite, etc.
weathering agencies, eg rain, air, frost, etc.
break up the surface of earth. Rain water - Calcareous rocks
carries down these broken pieces to the The principal constituent is Calcium
rivers. carbonate or lime.
c) Metamorphic rocks - are formed from NARRA - furniture, panelling, flooring, door
igneous and sedimentary rocks as a result panels, stairs, plywood and veneer
of the action of the earth movements,
temperature changes, liquid pressures, etc. YAKAL and GUUO - post and girders,
jambs attached to concrete, wooden decks
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION exposed to weather
The basis for such a classification is the KAMAGONG - chests, jewel boxes
physical properties of rocks, the manner
and arrangement of different particles and EXAMPLE OF HARDWOOD
mass forming a stone
OAK - common symbol of strength and
(1) Stratified Rocks show distinct layers endurance and has been chosen as the
along which the rocks can be split. national tree of many countries.
Examples: sandstone, limestone shale,
SOFTWOOD
slate, marble, etc.
TANGUILE, APITONG & PHIL
(2) Unstratified Rocks - do not show any
MAHOGANY - most common lumber in the
stratification and cannot be easily split into
market, for framing, joists, trusses, nailers
thin layers. The examples of such rocks are
etc.
granite, basalt, trap, etc.
WHITE & RED LAUAN - for framing, chests
(3) Foliated Rocks - have a tendency to
and jewel boxes
split up only in a definite direction. Most of
the metamorphic rocks have a follated DAO - for panelings, and plywood veneer
structure, except for quartzite and marble
which have granulose structure. Examples: EXAMPLE
metamorphic rock like gneiss, schist PINE - LIGHTWEIGHT
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION CATEGORIES OF LUMBER
YARD LUMBER - ordinary light b. Urea formaldehyde resins-cheap and well
construction and finishing works, consists of cure at from 70°F up. Will withstand soaking
1 to 2 in. (think) material manufactured to in cool water.
boards, roof plank, flooring, sidings and
c. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues-not
moldings of all kinds.
usually recommended because of the high
SHOP LUMBER - usually left in 1 to 2 in. temperature needed to cure them. Useful
rough thickness often contain knots and for combining timber and plywood and are
defects, intended for use in shop or mills, very water-resistant.
sash, doors, cabinets, etc.
d. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde- resin
STRUCTURAL LUMBER - usually cut into glues are expensive but have excellent
timbers 3 to 4 in. (or more) thick, intended qualities of durability arid water resistance.
for use in heavy construction.
SEASONING - Process of removing the
LAMINATED SHEETS/BOARDS moisture content (drying) of timber in order
to prevent the timber from possible
Plywood is a type of manufactured wood
fermentation and making it suitable for use.
made from thin sheets of wood or specified
Some of the objects of seasoning wood as
by number of layers. The layers are glued
follows:
together so that adjacent plies have their
wood grain at right angles to each other for 1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after
greater strength. placement in structure
Plyboard the core is made of board strips. 2. Increase strength, durability and
workability.
Particle board made by combining wood
particles with resin binders 3. Reduce its tendency to spit and decay.
-Known as chipboard 4. Make it suitable for painting.
Block board made up of a core of softwood 5. Reduce its weight.
strips together
Methods of Seasoning
Flake board made by combining wood
Kiln Drying - consists basically of
flakes with resin binders.
introducing heat. This may be directly, using
ENGINEERED WOOD natural gas and/or electricity.
Medium-density fiberboard Air Drying - is the drying of timber by
exposing it to the air. The technique of air
(MDF) is an engineered wood product
drying consists mainly of making a stack of
formed by breaking down hardwood or
sawn timber (with the layers of boards
softwood residuals into wood fibers, often in
separated by stickers) on raised
a defibrator, combining it with wax and a
foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady
resin binder, and forming panels by applying
place.
high temperature and pressure. MDF is
more dense than plywood. Solar Drying - more advanced version of
conventional sun drying: the product is kept
GLUE USE IN LAMINATING
in a transparent container exposed to the
a. casein glue-satisfactory for use in dry- sun. The critical difference between SD and
locations not exposed to rain or water. sun drying is that the SD requires a solar
collector, and the dehydrating product is not temperature, producing a glasslike coating
exposed to the direct sunlight, and a control which is available in almost any color and
system can be installed on the solar
2) salt glaze, consisting of solution of
collector.
sodium iron silicate. Salt glaze is
Chemical Drying. An aqueous solution of transparent so the color of the brick is
certain chemicals have lower vapour presented under a lustrous gloss.
pressures than that of pure water.
CLASSIFICATION
CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD TIMBER
Common bricks
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings
- Common burnt clay bricks which are
greater is the strength.
accepted for use in general brick
2. Compact medullary rays. work with no special claim for
attractive appearances. Walls built
3. Dark color
with common bricks require
4. Uniform texture
Loadbearing bricks - an be either
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut Common or facing Bricks' conform to
surface. Specified average Compressive strength
Limits.
6. When struck sonorous sound is
produced. Facing bricks - Quality burnt clay Bricks,
which give Attractive appearance in their
7. Free from the defects in timber. color and texture. It is used Without
8. Heavy weight. rendering Plastering, or other surface
treatments
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
Engineering bricks
FIRE RETARDANT VERSUS FIRE
RESISTANT - bricks burnt at exceedingly high
temperatures
Fire Retardant - possess a dense and strong semi-
vitreous body and conform to the
Makes combustible materials difficult to
defined limits for strength and water
ignite Slows the ignition, burning, or makes
absorption.
the flame self extinguish
- primarily used in civil engineering
BRICK TEXTURE - texture are applied by works that require high load bearing
attachments which cut, scratch, brush, roll, capacity good damp-proof and
or roughen the surface or by applying or chemical
spraying glazes on the brick before or after
Resisting characteristics.
burning
Damp proof course
TYPES
- clay bricks of specified low water
1) ceramic glaze, consisting of spraying a
absorption used at the base of a
coating of a mixture of mineral ingredients
wall/minimum two courses to
on one or more surfaces of the brick. The
glaze melts and fuses to the brick at a given Resist the upward movement of Ground
water.
- their use is method of doing this is to cover it with
fireproofing tile.
Recommended for free standing
5. Roof tile - one way ribbed concrete floor
Wall where otherwise a sheet of
and roof slabs can be formed by using
Dpc material would create a plane of structural clay floor tile. They are
weakness causing the wall to be vulnerable manufactured in both load-bearing and
to lateral forces. nonload bearing grades in standard
thicknesses ranging from 3 to 12 in and
Brick bounds standard length and widths of 12 in:
1. Pattern bond. the method of laying 6. Structural glazed facing tile - produced
bricks in a wall in order to form some from high- grade light burning clay which is
distinctive pattern or design suitable for the application of ceramic or salt
2. Structural bond. The method by which glaze. Two types are single faced units and
the individual units in a brick structure are two opposite faces glazed.
tied together either by overlapping or by TERRA COTTA-it is an italian word, terra
metal ties means clay and cotta means burnt.
3. Mortar bond the adhesion of mortar to - refractory clay product and is used in
bricks or to steel reinforcements used in ornamental parts of buildings.
conjunction with them
PORCELAIN - a high grade ceramic ware
CLAY TILE having white color, zero water absorption
STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE - are hollow and glazed surface which can be soft or
units as opposed to brick which is solid. hard, consists of finely dispersed clay.
Tiles are made from the same material as kaolin, quartz and felspar, baked at high
brick, but all clay tile are formed by temperature and covered with a colored or
extrusion in the stiff-mud process. transparent glaze. The glazing material is
applied before firing.
TYPES
- Because of white color, it is also
1. Load bearing wall tile - used for the called whiteware which is of two
bearing watts of light buildings, the height types:
usually restricted to four stories. - Soft porcelain is made from white
clay to which flint is added.
2. Back-up tile - intended for use in both
- Hard porcelain is made form china
bearing and non-bearing walls which will be
clay or kaolin with quartz and felspar
faced with brick or facing tile. The facing is
are added as filler.
bonded to the back up and the loads are
supported by both. STONEWARE - a hard ceramic material
resembling porcelain with a different color,
3. Furring tile - used on the inside of
usually grey or brownish
exterior walls to provide air spaces for
insulation to prevent the passage of - Perspective or other visuals
moisture and to provide a suitable plastering - Design factors and applicable codes
surface. Classified as non-load bearing.
2. LOCATION OR SITE PLAN (Civil
4. Fireproofing tile - structural steel must engineer's drawings might include these)
be insulated in fireproof construction. One
- This Information might be on cover sheet AND/OR POWER/COMMUNICATION
3. FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY PLAN (might PLAN (S)
be included on another sheet) - Exits,
- Include legend and reference to reflected
firewalls, square footages, and other code
celling plan
compliances
17. MECHANICAL PLAN (S)
4. FOOTING AND FOUNDATION PLAN (if
required) including plumbing
- Might be part of the structural engineer's 18. SPECIFICATIONS (if required or put in
drawings separate booklet)
5. DEMOLITION PLANS (if required) 6. - The sheet numbering system can
FLOOR PLAN (S) vary according to the complexity of
the project and office preference.
Begin with lowest floor first
- For small projects, a simple numeric
7. BUILDING SECTIONS system can be used. Most offices
prefer to use a system that Identifies
Key to floor plans
each area of specialty by a prefix.
8. EXTERIOR ELEVATIONS (if required) 9.
WALL SECTIONS, STAIR SECTIONS
Drawn at large scale A list of the most common prefixes follows;
however; other prefixes may be added as
10. INTERIOR ELEVATIONS
needed
- Show most prominent elevations
A - Architecture
11. DETAILS
S – Structural
- Drawn at large scale
M - Mechanical
12. FINISH PLAN (5) or FINISH
E - Electrical
SCHEDULE
P - Plumbing
- Include legend and specific
1- Interiors
finishes
F - Finishes or Furniture
13.FURNITURE PLAN (S) INSTALLATION
Q - Equipment
- Include legend and furniture placement
PREPARING CONSTRUCTION
14. FURNISHING AND EQUIPMENT DRAWINGS

PLAN (S) if required Sheet Size

15. REFLECTED CEILING PLAN (S)  The size of sheets that drawings are
done on can vary among
Include legend and coordinate with professional firms, depending upon
Electrical & Mechanical the office standards, the type of
16. ELECTRICAL PLAN (S) project, and the form of reproduction
selected for the drawings.
  Generally, sheets are composed in a  Dimensions are grouped, where
horizontal format, and multiple possible, and ordered in a
sheets (which comprise a set) are hierarchical manner. First the
bound on the left side, as for a book. overall, or outside, dimension of a
 AO, A1, A2, A3 space or object is indicated, then the
dimension of smaller details within
Sheet Composition
the space are noted.
 When sheets are bound into a set
and a person leafs through the  Dimensions are required on all
sheets, the information on the right- construction drawings and must be
hand side of the sheet is generally accurate, complete, and readable. At
seen first. For this reason, title the present time, most construction
blocks and important information are drawings are dimensioned in the
often placed to the right side of the English or metric systems, using feet
sheet. This is particularly Important if and inches, or meters.
the sheet is not completely filled with
drawings, schedules, etc. The blank,  In drawings using the metric system,
unused areas should appear to the all dimensions (texts) are in
left. millimeters, such as 5mm.

Title Blocks  The most common method of

 Title blocks on a construction dimensioning is the framing
drawing sheet serve a number of technique. The advantage of this
key functions. These title blocks are system is that it most closely follows
drawn in a variety of ways. the construction sequence in the
field and informs the particular
 Title blocks typically contain trades of dimensions most important
Information that identifies the to their area of construction. The
project, its location, the name of the framing technique is to the face of a
client, the designer's (or firm's) name stud, concrete, or masonry wall.
and address.
 Graphic symbols used on electrical  The dimension can be placed to
plans to indicate the location of the either the face of the sub wall
electrical outlets and wall switches (depending on the location and how
easy it is for the builder to make a
Dimensioning mark), or to each side, with an
indication of the total sub wall
 Dimensioning involves incorporating
thickness.
numerical values. in a drawing to
accurately locate and size various
 The of other method dimensioning
objects and assemblies in buildings
involves locating the centerline of a
and interiors.
wall. In this case the builder must
subtract from the centerline to find
 Dimension lines and arrows (or tick
where to run the face of the wall
marks) are used to identify exactly
studs, or make a center mark on the
where the dimension begins and
stud. This takes extra time and
ends.
introduces the possibility of errors.
 However, this method is appropriate vertical elements related to both
where one wants to locate a wall in floors.
the exact center of a space, or in the
center of a structural frame gridwork.  Stairways are labeled "up" on one
In the field of kitchen design, level and "down" on the level above.
specialized cabinetry is almost When viewing a floor plan of a
exclusively dimensioned in only building that includes a mezzanine
inches (or millimeters) instead of feet or loft, the upper level is shown in
and inches, to the finish faces. plan.

 The usual distance of the nearest  Symbols are used in construction

dimension line from the building line drawings as a pictorial shorthand
is 20 mm, and the distance between language to reduce drawing time
dimension lines is 10 mm. time and coordinate separate
drawings.
FLOOR PLAN
 The floor plan is perhaps the most  Symbols are divided into several
significant architectural drawing, as it types: material symbols, line
contains a tremendous amount symbols, graphic symbols, and
information about the design and component symbols.
construction of a building or space.
 Material symbols are used in
 It also serves as the primary drawing drawings to represent the type of
to which many of the other specialty construction materials used in a
drawings can be keyed. component. Symbols are also used
to indicate materials in elevation
drawings.
 A floor plan is an orthographic view  Materials shown in section view are
of a total building or an area within a rendered with commonly recognized
building, seen as if a horizontal marks, as seen in this partial
cutting plane were passed through it example.
at a height of approximately 1.50
meters above the floor line.  Standard techniques can also be
used to represent material seen
 The portion of the building seen from
above may be in three dimensions
but the drawing shows these  Graphic symbols can be used to
elements only in two dimensions: index related parts of drawings,
length and width. There is no sense either on the same sheet or multiple
of height. sheets. Letters, numbers, and notes
can be placed within the symbol to
 In multiple-level buildings, a organize it with other symbols and
separate floor plan is drawn for each refer to other sheet numbers.
level. In turn, each level is aligned Symbols can also be used to denote
with the one above for bearing walls, a specific height of a floor elevation
stairways, ductwork, and other or structural column designation.
  This example shows a few of the names=3/16 in. (5 mm)
most commonly recognized
4. Majority of lettering, such as notes and
architectural symbols.
dimensions
 Construction drawing legends
combine graphic symbols with notes. = 3/32 - 1/8 in. (2.4 - 3mm)
They are used on a variety of
drawings, such as floor plans, NOTES
furniture plans, electrical plans, and  Notes are used on construction
lighting plans. drawings for the identification of
 A wall legend is helpful for features or information that cannot
designating specific wall types in a drawings or by a symbol. Notes
floor symbols of electrical plan. should be concise, easy to read, and
 The plumbing legend details out the clear in their meaning. > Notes
information represented by symbols should be grouped and aligned
on the plumbing and sanitary plan. vertically to the right or left side.
names or initials of the drafters and They should also be placed close to
checkers, revision blocks, and space for the elements described in order to
professional seals. keep leaders as short and direct as
possible. Notes should be placed in
LETTERING IN DRAWINGS open areas of the drawings so line
work, textures, and dimensions will
 The most important aspect of
not be drawn over them be
lettering in construction drawings is
conveyed by
its readability.
 It should be consistent in style and CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
easy to follow. Most offices use
uppercase lettering for quick  Construction drawings (often I
readability, but a clear lowercase called working drawings) visually
alphabet can also be employed. communicate the design and the
 In both manual and computer- aided Information required to bring a
lettering, a consistent style or font building or space into reality to
should be selected and used by all everyone who is involved in the
participants. building process.
 The height of lettering on  These drawings generally follow a
construction drawings varies set of architectural drawing
according to the hierarchy of the conventions that are widely
Information being presented and the accepted in the industry.
type of reproduction being used. The  However, there is not just one right
following standards are generally way to do construction drawings.
used: The office staff and project size,
office standards, and the detail
1. Sheet numbers in the title block= 1/ 2 in. needed for custom fabrications can
(12 mm) require construction drawings that
vary from the conventions.
2. Main titles under individual drawings =
3/18 - in. (5-6 mm) DRAWING CONVENTIONS AND
REPRESENTATIONS
3. Subtitles, such as room.
  Construction drawings communicate  EXTERIOR WALLS = 15 mm or 20
how something is built by showing mm with plastering
specific assemblies and employing  INTERIOR WALLS = 10 mm / 15
architectural drawing conventions. mm with plastering
These conventions are fairly
standard throughout the industry and  Generally, a minimum of three line
are used to reduce the drawing time weights should be used. Walls
and space needed to convey should be drawn with the darkest
Information. and thickest lines
 Abbreviations, graphic symbols,  Textures are represented with light
keys, and legends are used as lines.
shorthand to reduce drawing time  Built-in furniture, cabinetry, and
while conveying Important other objects are drawn with medium
Information. lines.
 Another convention governs how  Walls are drawn with heavy lines.
dimensions are recorded in a
Doors and Windows in Plan View
drawing. Dimensioning standards
ensure that the exact sizes and  Doors and windows are drawn in the
placement of assemblies are floor plan using various symbols and
communicated by using a system images, and are further dimensioned
that is recognized by both the and referenced to schedules in the
designer and the builder. construction drawings.
 The symbols used will depend upon
ABBREVIATIONS
the operating action of the door or
 Abbreviations for words and short window, the specifics needed to
phrases are often used in describe it, and the scale of the floor
construction drawings. plan drawing.
 The architect, engineer, interior  Windows are drawn in floor plans in
designer, drafter, and contractor a variety of ways according to the
must all be able to recognize what scale of the plan and office
each abbreviation stands for. The standards. Generally, if the scale is
drafter should include a legend of large enough, windows are drawn in
abbreviations (often shown on the based on their style and type of
title sheet of a set of drawings) to operation.
insure their meaning is understood.
GRAPHIC AND TEXT NOTATION ON
SYMBOLS FLOOR PLANS
 The actual wall thickness will vary ROOM NAMES AND NOTES
with the type of construction and
 There are a number of items in a
materials, but typically exterior walls
floor plan drawing that cannot be
are drawn at about 6 to 8 inches
portrayed graphically and need to be
(152 to 203 mm) thick, depending
noted. These will vary according to
upon what materials they are
the scale of the floor plan, its
constructed of and interior walls are
complexity, and whether it is a
generally drafted at approximately 5
design or construction drawing.
inches (127 mm) thick in plan view.
  Approximate sometimes room size is  A floor plan is carefully dimensioned
indicated beneath the room name; to ensure items such as walls,
however, this is done mostly in columns, doors, windows, openings,
presentation drawings, as the stairs, and other particulars are
dimension is generally not accurate correctly located for construction.
enough for a construction drawing.  Generally it uses the frame
dimensioning technique.
ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS
DIMENSIONING TECHNIQUE
 A number of specialized symbols are
used on the floor plan.  The extension line begins slightly
 For example, columns are usually away from the object a minimum
assigned a grid number and 1.50 mm never touching it. It
referenced to the column centerline extends about 3 mm beyond the
for dimensioning purposes. The grid dimension line.
consists of numbers along one axis  Arrows, dots, or fi5-degree tick
and letters of the alphabet along the marks (most common) are used at
other, so that one can easily pinpoint the extension line and dimension
a specific column, such as D-2 or C- line junction. The arrows, dots, or
4. A centerline is drafted as a series tick marks are drawn with a thicker
of single dashes and long lines and/or darker line to make them
passing through the column. A stand out graphically. The m5-
column designation bubble (sized for degree tick marks are drawn in a
the appropriate lettering within it) is consistent direction, generally
placed at the end of this line. In sloping left to right.
some cases, such as at an end  Exterior walls of a building are
column, the reference line might be dimensioned outside the floor plan.
to the face of a column, instead of The outermost dimension line is the
the center. overall building dimension. The next
 Wall and building section cuts are dimension line, moving toward the
shown on the floor plan with a plan, indicates wall locations and
symbol that indicates the centerlines to doors and windows
approximate location of the cut and (depending on the wall type).
the direction of view.  Other miscellaneous details in the
 A circle is generally used that is plan (such as minor offsets, jogs, or
divided in two sections. The top cabinetry and fixtures) are located
portion a letter, such as A, B, and C, on a third dimension line. This
generally indicates how many hierarchy of line work allows the
sections are cut. The bottom section carpenters and other trades to
of the circle contains a number that quickly locate major framing
refers to the sheet number this elements and minor details by
section is drawn on. In small projects referring to the appropriate
where there are a limited number of dimension line.
sheets, bottom numbers are not  Numerals are placed above and
used. centered on the dimension line,
being drafted at a height of 1/8 to
DIMENSIONING FLOOR PLAN
3/16 inch (3.17 to ff.76 mm = 5 mm).
  The numbers do not rest on the  Drawings serve as the prime means
dimension line, as they might blend of communication for constructing
in with the line and become buildings, interior spaces, cabinets,
unreadable. In computerized furniture, and other objects.
drafting, the machine is often  Construction drawings are scaled,
programmed to automatically place detailed, and accurate
the numbers centered in the broken representations of how an object
dimension line, rather than above it. looks and how it is constructed, as
 Dimensions are oriented to read well as the materials used.
from the base or right side of a
drawing. When an area is too small  The drawings follow established
for the dimension to go in the usual architectural graphic conventions to
place, the numbers are placed indicate sizes, material, and related
outside (or sometimes below) the information that is needed to bring
extension line and a leader is used the objects or spaces into reality.
to point to the dimensioned area.  The builder needs clear, concise
drawings that are directly related to
DESIGNATION OF MATERIALS
the different views of an object. such
 Floor plans generally are not used to as plans, elevations, sections and
designate specific materials, as other drawing types that are
finishes might be too small to show discussed in later chapters.
in plan and their selections might be
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
changed later. The amount of
material Information provided on a  Specifications, contracts, and
floor plan depends on the size and construction drawings are an integral
complexity of the proposed part of what is referred to as the
construction. contract documents These
 The plans for a small residential documents form a guide for the
project may contain more detailed various workers and suppliers to
information, such as the finished follow in constructing the project.
floor materials, because the design  The construction drawings show
may be simpler and very few the location, size, and particulars of
materials used. a structure to be built. The
 The few materials that might be specifications set the standards of
designated on the floor plan are the the workmanship and materials in
walls, which can be pouched to writing.
indicate wood or other wall material  The drawings and specifications
designations such as block, brick, or complement one another and are
concrete. Floor and wall finish used together.
materials are better indicated on the
THE DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS
finish plans.
COMPLEMENT ONE ANOTHER AND ARE
USED TOGETHER
DRAWING AS A GUIDE FOR  For example, the drawings show the
CONSTRUCTION color and location of paint to be
applied to a wall surface, but do not
tell how it is to be applied (sprayed,
 rolled, or brushed) and the resulting  Construction drawings are
quality workmanship required. sequentially arranged by major
 In this case, the subsurface must components.
first be prepared to receive the paint,  This sequence generally follows how
adjacent areas need to be protected the building is constructed, from the
from the painting, the minimum skills ground to the shell of the building to
of the painter must be specified, and the interiors. However, the exact
the cleanup needed must be called sequence of drawings and their
out. content will vary from project to
project and office to office.
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
SEQUENCE OF CONSTRUCTION
 Construction drawings (often
DRAWINGS
called working drawings) visually
communicate the design and the 1. TITLE/COVER SHEET
information required to bring a
- Client, project, designer information
building or space into reality to
- Index of sheets, professional
everyone who is involved in the
stamps.
building process.
- Architectural Abbreviations &
 These drawings generally follow a
symbols with the lower level also
set of architectural drawing
shown or simply labeled "open".
conventions that are widely
accepted in the industry. In construction drawings, floor plans are
 However, there is not just one right drawn to scale and detailed to show walls,
way to do construction drawings. doors, windows, plumbing fixtures,
The office staff and project size, appliances, stairs. cabinetry, and any other
office standards, and the detail built-in or free- standing interior features.
needed for custom fabrications can Most of these items are drawn, as viewed
require construction drawings that from above.
vary from the conventions.
WALL AND PARTITION TYPES
ORGANIZATION DRAWINGS OF
CONSTRUCTION There are three commonly used interior
partition types in building design.
 A variety of types of drawings are
needed to accurately describe a • These are wood frame, steel frame, and
project to the various tradespeople masonry partitions; or a combination of
who will do the work. these.
 The main types are what are  Wood Frame
generally called architectural and  (Galvanized) Steel Frame
engineering drawings.  (Brick) Masonry Partition
 For example, a concrete wall may be
described as to its size and finish on WOOD FRAME PARTITIONS
the architectural drawings, but an
 Wood construction for interior
engineering drawing is also needed
partitions generally consists of 2-4"
to spell out the exact structural
wood studs [actual size is 1-12" x 3-
components, such as size and
1/2" (38.1 mm x 88.9 mm)] spaced
spacing of steel reinforcing in the
16 inches (4106 mm) or 24i inches
wall.
 (610 mm) on center; the 16-inch  Masonry partitions refer to walls
spacing being more common. constructed of concrete block,
 Studs are upright supports in the glass block, brick structural clay
wall of a building to which sheathing, tile, terra cotta, and gypsum
drywall, etc., are attached. block.
 Gypsum wall board of various  Generally, masonry partitions
thicknesses is nailed or screwed form the exterior walls that are
directly to the wood studs on one or what the building is constructed
both sides of the partition depending of. However, depending on the
on the design intent, use of space, design intent, there may be
fire and sound rating. interior masonry partitions
required for special purposes
STEEL (METAL) FRAME PARTITION
such as a bearing wall, fire
 Steel construction with metal studs resistive construction, or
is more common for large acoustical barrier.
commercial buildings and consists of
SCALE OF FLOOR PLAN
galvanized steel.
 Metal studs are available in several  Floor plans are drawn at a scale that
thicknesses, referred to as gages. best presents the information to be
The most common thickness used conveyed without being too small to
for studs and other metal framing is read.
25 gage (0.0175 or 0.4155 mm).  Residential floor plans are relatively
Heavier gages are used for load- small in overall square meter and
bearing partitions, framing door are generally drawn at a scale of
openings, or very tall partitions. 1:50 in metric scale.
 As commercial spaces can be quite
large, a scale of 1:100 metric or
 Metal studs are manufactured in a even 1:200 metric might be more
"U" shape with small flanges and appropriate.
have precut openings for the  In NBCP, Floor Plans drawn to scale
passage of electrical conduit and of not less than 1:100 showing:
other cables. They are attached to a gridlines, complete identification of
top and bottom metal channel or rooms or functional spaces.
"runner."
DRAFTING STANDARDS
 Metal studs are similar in size to
wood studs and are available in • Walls in Plan View
widths of 1-5/8, 2-12, 3-5/8, 4, and 6
inches (41.3, 63.5, 92.1, 101.6, and
152.4 mm).
 Like wood studs, they are spaced 16
inches or 24 inches (406 mm or 610
mm) on center. For most commercial
interior 24-inch construction partition
spacing is used.
MASONRY PARTITION