THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TIc rcsiraiory sysicm movcs air inio and oui of iIc lungs, wIicI arc iIc
siic of ccIangc for oygcn and carlon dioidc lciwccn iIc air and iIc llood.

O IVISIONS OF THE RESPIRSTORY SYSTEM
1. UPPEF FESPIFATOFY TFACT- consisis of iIc aris iIai arc ouisidc iIc
cIcsi caviiy. iIc air assagcs of iIc nosc, nasal caviiics, Iaryn, laryn
and iIc ucr iracIca.
2. LOWEF FESPIFATOFY TFACT- consisis of iIc aris iIai arc found
wiiIin iIc cIcsi caviiy. iIc lowcr iracIca, and iIc lungs iIcmsclvcs,
wIicI includc iIc lroncIial iulcs and alvcoli.

ANATOMY AN PHYSIOLOGY


a. NOSE AN NASAL CAVITIES




















-Air cnicrs and lcavcs iIc rcsiraiory sysicm iIrougI iIc NOSE, wIicI is
madc of lonc and cariilagc covcrcd wiiI slin. Ii is also iIc only cicrnally
visillc ari of iIc sysicm.
-Hairs insidc iIc nosirils llocl iIc cniry of dusi, iIcy arc callcd CILIA.
-TIcrc arc iwo nasal caviiics wiiIin iIc slull, and iIcy arc scaraicd ly
a NASAL SEPTUM, wIicI is a lony laic madc of iIc ciImoid lonc and
iIc vomcr.
-Nasal mucosa is ciliaicd wiiI gollci cclls iIai roducc mucus. Nasal
mucosa warms and moisicns iIc incoming air; dusi and microorganism
arc iracd on mucus and swci ly iIc cilia io iIc Iaryn.
-OLFACTORY RECEPTORS arc found in iIc ucr nasal caviiy, wIicI
dcicci vaorizcd cIcmicals iIai Iavc lccn inIalcd.
-PARANASAL SINUSES in iIc maillac, fronial, sIcnoid, and ciImoid
loncs ocn inio iIc nasal caviiics. iis funciion is io ligIicn iIc slull and
rovidc rcsonancc for iIc voicc.
b. PHARYNX

-Is a muscular iulc osicrior io iIc nasal and oral caviiics and anicrior
io iIc ccrvical vcriclrac.
-Ii is dividcd inio iIrcc aris. nasoIaryn, oroIaryn and
laryngoIaryn.
-NasoIaryn is alovc iIc lcvcl of iIc sofi alaic, wIicI llocls ii during
swallowing; a assagcway of air only.
-OroIaryn is locaicd lcIind iIc mouiI; a assagcway of loiI air and
food.
-LaryngoIaryn is also a assagcway of loiI air and food.

.. LARYNX

-Also callcd as iIc voicc lo, is a cariilagc siruciurc; iIc mosi romincni
is iIc iIyroid cariilagc (adam's alc}.
-TIc laryn connccis io iIc iracIca.
-TIc laryngcal ocning (gloiiis} is Ioodcd ly iIc cigloiiis, wIicI rcvcnis
iIc cniry of food and drinl inio iIc rcsiraiory assagcs wIcn
swallowing.
-Ii coniains iIc iruc vocal cords, wIicI roducc sounds uscd in scccI.


/. TRACHEA an/ BRONCHIAL TREE

-TracIca or iIc windic, cicnds from laryn io iIc rimary lroncIi.
-TIc iracIca is a smooiI-musclc iulc lincd wiiI a ciliaicd mucosa and
rcinforccd wiiI C-sIacd cariilagc rings, wIicI lccs iIc iracIca aicni.
-TIc rigIi and lcfi PRIMARY BRONCHI arc iIc lrancIcs of iIc iracIca
iIai cnicrs iIc lungs. Iis siruciurc is also iIc samc wiiI iIc iracIca.
-TIc furiIcr lrancIing of iIc lroncIial iulcs is oficn callcd as
BRONCHIAL TREE. TIis ircc Ias cicnsivc lrancIcs iIai lccomc
smallcr and smallcr. TIcsc smallcr lrancIcs arc callcd BRONCHIOLES.
e. LUNGS

-lungs occuy iIc cniirc iIoracic caviiy ccci for iIc mosi ccniral arca,
iIc MEIASTINUM iIai Iouscs iIc Icari, iIc grcai llood vcsscls,
lroncIi ,csoIagus and iIc oiIcr organs.
-TIc surfacc of iIc lung is covcrcd wiiI a visccral scrosa callcd iIc
PULMONARY OR VISCERAL PLEURA and iIc walls of iIc iIoracic
caviiy arc lincd ly PARIETAL PLUERA.
I. ALVEOLI









-TIcsc arc iIc funciional uniis of iIc lungs and iIcsc arc iIc siics of gas
ccIangc in iIc lungs.
- Madc of alvcolar iyc 1 cclls, simlc squamous ciiIclium; iIin io
crmii diffusion of gascs.
-Alvcolar iyc 2 cclls roducc ulmonary surfaciani iIai mics wiiI iIc
iissuc fluid lining io dccrcasc surfacc icnsion io crmii inflaiion of iIc
alvcoli.

O PROCESS OF RESPIRATION
TIc roccss of rcsiraiion Ias iIrcc aris.
1. Pulmonary Vcniilaiion or iIc inflow and ouiflow of air in iIc
aimosIcrc and iIc alvcoli of iIc lungs.
2. Diffusion of gascs (oygcn and carlon dioidc} lciwccn iIc alvcoli
and iIc ulmonary caillarics.
3. Transori of oygcn and carlon dioidc via iIc llood io and from
iIc iissuc cclls.

A. VENTILATION
O is iIc icrm for iIc movcmcni of iIc air io and from iIc alvcoli.
O TIcrc arc iwo asccis of vcniilaiion. inIalaiion and cIalaiion.
O TIc rcsiraiory ccnicrs arc locaicd in iIc mcdulla and ons. Mcdulla
gcncraics imulsc io iIc rcsiraiory musclcs. TIcsc musclcs arc iIc
diaIragm and iIc cicrnal and inicrnal inicrcosials musclcs.


I. INHALATION
-TIc moior imulscs from iIc mcdulla iravcl along iIc Ircnic ncrvcs
io iIc diaIragm, wIicI coniracis and movcs down iIc cIcsi caviiy.
-TIc cIcsi caviiy is candcd and cands iIc aricial lcura.
-TIc cicrnal inicrcosials musclcs ull iIc rils u and oui, wIicI
cands iIc cIcsi caviiy from sidc io sidc and froni io lacl.
-TIc visccral lcura adIcrcs io iIc aricial lcura and is also
candcd and in iurn cands iIc lungs. Iniraulmonic rcssurc
dccrcascs, and iIc air rusIcs io iIc lungs.

II. EXHALATION
-Moior imulscs from iIc mcdulla dccrcasc, and iIc diaIragm and
iIc cicrnal inicrcosial musclcs rcla.
-TIc cIcsi caviiy lccomcs smallcr and comrcsscs iIc lungs.
-TIc clasiic lungs rccoil and furiIcr comrcss iIc alvcoli.
-Iniraulmonic rcssurc incrcascs, and iIc air is forccd oui of iIc
lungs.
-Eansion of iIc lungs is Iclcd ly coIcsion lciwccn lcura and
iIc rcsscnc of surfaciani in alvcoli.


O EXCHANGE OF GASES

TIcrc arc iwo siics of ccIangc of oygcn and carlon dioidc.
TIc lungs and;
TIc iissucs of iIc lody

O EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
-iIc ccIangc of gascs lciwccn iIc air in iIc alvcoli and iIc llood in
iIc ulmonary caillarics arc callcd cicrnal rcsiraiion.
O INTERNAL RESPIRATION
-inicrnal rcsiraiion is iIc ccIangc of gascs lciwccn iIc llood in
iIc sysicmic caillarics and iissuc fluid (cclls} of iIc lody.

TIc air wc inIalc (iIc cariI's aimosIcrc} is aroimaicly
oxygen and 0.04 .arbon /ox/e.
TIis inIalcd air also coniains aloui oxygen and 4.S
.arbon /ox/e, so ii is aarcni iIai somc oygcn is rciaincd wiiIin iIc
lody and iIc carlon dioidc roducc d ly iIc cclls is cIalcd.
D. IFFUSION OF GASES

O IFFUSION is iIc movcmcni of gascs or oiIcr ariiclcs from an arca
of grcaicr rcssurc or conccniraiion io an arca of lowcr rcssurc or
conccniraiion.
O TIc conccniraiion of cacI gas in a ariicular siic is crcsscd in a
valuc callcd PARTIAL PRESSURE.
O TIc partaI pressure of a gas is mcasurcd in mmHg, is iIc rcssurc
iIai ccris wiiIin iIc miiurc of gascs, wIciIcr iIc miiurc is
aciually in a gascous siaic or is in liquid sucI as llood.
O Dccausc ariial rcssurc rcflccis conccniraiion, a gas will diffusc
from an arca of IigIcr ariial rcssurc io an lowcr ariial rcssurc.
O TIc air in iIc ALVEOLI Ias a IigI PO2 and low PCO2. TIc
PULMONARY CAPILLARIES, wIicI Ias jusi comc from iIc lody,
Ias low PO2 and IigI PCO2. TIcrcforc, in cicrnal rcsiraiion,
oygcn diffuscs from iIc air in iIc alvcoli io iIc llood, and carlon
dioidc diffuscs from iIc llood io iIc air of iIc alvcoli.
O TIc ARTERIAL BLOO iIai rcacIcs sysicmic caillarics Ias a IigI PO2
and a low PCO2. TIc BOY CELLS AN TISSUE FLUIS Iavc a low PO2
and a IigI PCO2, lccausc cclls coniinuously usc oygcn in ccll rcsiraiion
(cncrgy roduciion} and roducc carlon dioidc in iIis roccss. TIcrcforc
in inicrnal rcsiraiion, oygcn diffuscs from iIc llood io iIc iissuc fluids
(cclls}, and carlon dioidc diffuscs from iIc iissuc fluid io iIc llood.

C. TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN AN CARBON IOXIE

O Oygcn nccds io lc iransoricd from iIc lungs io iIc iissucs, and
carlon dioidc musi lc iransoricd from iIc iissucs lacl io iIc
lungs.
O Normally, mosi of iIc oygcn (97%} comlincs looscly wiiI iIc
Icmoglolin in iIc rcd llood cclls and is carricd io iIc iissucs as
OXYHEMOGLOBIN. TIc rcmaining oygcn is dissolvcd and
iransoricd in iIc fluid of iIc lasma and cclls.
Mosi carlon dioidc is iransoricd in lasma as iIc licarlonaic ion
(HCO3}. A smallcr amouni (lciwccn 20 and 30 crccni of iIc iransoricd
CO2} is carricd insidc iIc FDCs lound io Icmoglolin. Carlon dioidc carricd
insidc iIc FCDs linds io Icmoglolin ai a diffcrcni siic iIan oygcn docs, and
so ii docs noi inicrfcrc in any way wiiI oygcn iransori. Dcforc carlon dioidc
can diffusc oui of iIc llood inio iIc alvcoli, ii musi firsi lc rclcascd from iis
licarlonaic ion form. For iIis io occur, licarlonaic ions musi comlinc wiiI
Iydrogcn ions io form carlonic acid. Carlonic acid quiclly sliis io form waicr
and carlon dioidc, and carlon dioidc iIcn diffuscs from iIc llood and cnicrs
iIc alvcoli.








DNA


-DNA coniains a sci of insiruciions for luilding a Iuman. TIcsc insiruciions
arc inscrilcd in iIc siruciurc of iIc DNA molcculc iIrougI a gcnciic codc.
3 DASIC COMPONENTS
O Pcniosc sugar
O Dcoyrilosc
O PIosIaic
4 NITFOCENOUS DASES
O Adcninc
O Cuaninc
O Cysiosinc
O TIyminc


NA REPLICATION
- is a liological roccss iIai occurs in all living organisms and coics
iIcir DNA; ii is iIc lasis for liological inIcriiancc.


NA MUTATION
- involvc largc scciions of DNA lccoming dulicaicd, usually iIrougI gcnciic
rccomlinaiion.
TYPES OF MUTATION
Sulsiiiuiion
A sulsiiiuiion is a muiaiion iIai ccIangcs onc lasc for anoiIcr.
FramcsIifi muiaiion

O Inscriion
Inscriions arc muiaiions in wIicI cira lasc airs arc inscricd
inio a ncw lacc in iIc DNA.
O Dclciion
Dclciions arc muiaiions in wIicI a scciion of DNA is losi, or
dclcicd.
NA REPAIR
- DNA rcair rcfcrs io a collcciion of roccsscs ly wIicI a ccll idcniifics and
corrccis damagc io iIc DNA molcculcs iIai cncodc iis gcnomc.
TIc raic of DNA rcair is dccndcni on many faciors, including iIc ccll iyc,
iIc agc of iIc ccll, and iIc ciraccllular cnvironmcni. A ccll iIai Ias
accumulaicd a largc amouni of DNA damagc, or onc iIai no longcr cffcciivcly
rcairs damagc incurrcd io iis DNA, can cnicr onc of iIrcc ossillc siaics.
1.an irrcvcrsillc siaic of dormancy, lnown as scncsccncc
2.ccll suicidc, also lnown as aoiosis or rogrammcd ccll dcaiI
3.unrcgulaicd ccll division, wIicI can lcad io iIc formaiion of a iumor iIai
is canccrous.

THE CELL CYCLE

-TIc ccll cyclc, or ccll-division cyclc, is iIc scrics of cvcnis iIai ialcs lacc in
a ccll lcading io iis division and dulicaiion (rclicaiion}.

PHASES

1n1erpose
Dcforc a ccll can cnicr ccll division, ii nccds io ialc in nuiricnis. All of
iIc rcaraiions arc donc during iIc inicrIasc. InicrIasc rocccds in iIrcc
siagcs, C1, S, and C2.
GJ pose
TIc firsi Iasc wiiIin inicrIasc, from iIc cnd of iIc rcvious M Iasc uniil
iIc lcginning of DNA syniIcsis is callcd C1 (C indicaiing gu}. Ii is also callcd
iIc growiI Iasc.
$ pose
TIc cnsuing S Iasc siaris wIcn DNA syniIcsis commcnccs; wIcn ii is
comlcic, all of iIc cIromosomcs Iavc lccn rclicaicd, i.c., cacI cIromosomc
Ias iwo (sisicr} cIromaiids.
G2 pose
TIc ccll iIcn cnicrs iIc C2 Iasc, wIicI lasis uniil iIc ccll cnicrs miiosis.
Again, significani liosyniIcsis occurs during iIis Iasc, mainly involving iIc
roduciion of microiululcs, wIicI arc rcquircd during iIc roccss of miiosis.
InIiliiion of roicin syniIcsis during C2 Iasc rcvcnis iIc ccll from
undcrgoing miiosis.
M Pose
Ccll growiI and roicin roduciion sio ai iIis siagc in iIc ccll cyclc. All of
iIc ccll's cncrgy is focuscd on iIc comlc and ordcrly division inio iwo similar
daugIicr cclls. Miiosis is mucI sIoricr iIan inicrIasc, lasiing crIas only
onc io iwo Iours. As in loiI C1 and C2, iIcrc is a CIccloini in iIc middlc of
miiosis (MciaIasc CIccloini} iIai cnsurcs iIc ccll is rcady io comlcic ccll
division.




IMMUNE SYSTEM
- a sysicm of liological siruciurcs and roccsscs wiiIin an organism iIai
roiccis againsi discasc ly idcniifying and lilling aiIogcns and iumor cclls. Ii
dciccis a widc variciy of agcnis, from viruscs io arasiiic worms, and nccds io
disiinguisI iIcm from iIc organism's own IcaliIy cclls and iissucs in ordcr io
funciion rocrly.
- major comoncnis of iIc immunc sysicm includc iIc lonc marrow, lymIaiic
sysicm including lymI nodcs and lymIaiic circulaiion and iIc slccn. TIcsc
organs and iissucs arc locaicd iIrougIoui iIc lody in ordcr io rovidc
sysicmic immunc rcsonsc.



BOY EFENSES
TIc lody's dcfcndcrs againsi iIcsc iiny lui migIiy cncmics arc iwo
sysicms, simly callcd iIc 8ccc and non8ccc dccn8c 889cn.

. NONSPECIFIC EFENSE SYSTEM
-rcfcrs io iIc mccIanical larricrs iIai covcrs lody surfaccs and io cclls
and cIcmicals iIai aci on iIc iniiial laiilcfronis io roicci iIc lody
from invading aiIogcns.

SUHFACE MEMHHANE HAHHIEHS
TIc lody's firsi linc of dcfcnsc againsi invasion of discasc causing
microorganisms arc iIc skn and mu.us membranes.
TIcsc mcmlrancs also roduccs a variciy of roicciivc cIcmicals.
O Acid I of iIc slin
O HydrocIloric acid and roicin digcsiing cnzymcs
O Saliva and lacrimal fluid
O Siicly mucus
CELLS AND CHEMICALS
TIc lody uscs an cnormous numlcr of cclls and cIcmicals io roicci
iisclf. TIcsc dcfcnscs rcly on iIc dcsiruciivc owcrs of Iagocyics and
NK cclls, iIc inflammaiory rcsonsc and a variciy of cIcmical
sulsianccs iIai lill aiIogcns and Icl rcair iissuc.

a. PHACOCYTES
O Engulf and dcsiroy aiIogcns iIai lrcacI iIc surfacc mcmlranc
larricrs.
l. NATUFAL KILLEF CELLS
O Policcs iIc lody in llood and lymI.
c. INFLAMMATOFY FESPONSE
O Ii is iIc lody's sccond linc of dcfcnsc.
d. ANTIMICFODIAL ACENTS
O Comlcmcni- cnIanccs Iagocyiosis ly osonizaiion and
inicnsifics iIc inflammaiory and immunc rcsonsc.
O Inicrfcron- is a grou of roicins syniIcsisizcd ly virus-infccicd
cclls and ccriain immunc cclls. Ii rcvcnis virus from muliilying
in oiIcr lody cclls.


2. SPECIFIC DODY DEFENSES
-iIc immunc sysicm rccognizcs somciIing as forcign and acis io
inaciivaic or rcmovc ii. TIc immunc sysicm's rcsonsc io a iIrcai is
callcd immunc rcsonsc.

ANTICENS
- arc largc, comlc molcculcs rccognizcd as forcign ly iIc lody.
Forcign roicins arc considcrcd iIc sirongcsi aniigcns.
CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
LYMPHOCYTES
-iIcy arisc from Icmocyiollasis of lonc marrow.
- sccializcd WDC wIosc funciion is io idcniify and dcsiroy invading
aniigcns.

1. D-LYMPHOCYTES
Fcsonsillc for Iumoral immuniiy
Diffcrcniiaic inio.
i. Plasma cclls
ii. Mcmory cclls
2. T-LYMPHPCYTES
Fcsonsillc for ccll mcdiaicd immuniiy.

TIcrc arc 5 iycs of T-Cclls
i. Killcr T cclls
ii. Hclcr T cclls
iii. Surcssor T cclls
iv. Mcmory T cclls
v. Cyioioic T cclls

MACFOPHACES
TIcy sccrcic roicins callcd monolincs, iIai arc imoriani in
immunc rcsonsc.
TIcir rolc is io Iagocyiosc (cngulf and iIcn digcsi} ccllular dclris
and aiIogcns, ciiIcr as siaiionary or as molilc cclls.
HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
Ii is cIaracicrizcd ly roduciion of aniilodics ly iIc D-LymIocyics
in rcsonsc io a sccific aniigcn.

CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE
Ii is iniiiaicd ly iIc wIiic llood cclls callcd iIc T cclls.
T cclls arc viial in rcgulaiing immunc funciion.


THE BLOO
Dlood is a sccializcd organ iIai diffcrs from oiIcr organs in iIai ii
cisis in fluid siaic. Ii is comoscd of lasma and various iycs of
cclls.
Ii is a siicly oaquc fluid wiiI a cIaracicrisiic mciallic iasic.
TIc color of iIc llood varics from scarlci (oygcn ricI} io a dull rcd
(oygcn oor}
Dlood is sligIily allalinc wiiI a I lciwccn 7.35-7.45
Dlood accounis for aroimaicly 8 crccni of lody wcigIi. Iis volumc
in malcs is 5-6 liicrs.

A. PLASMA
Is iIc fluid oriion of iIc llood; ii coniains various roicins sucI as
allumin, glolulin, filrinogcn, and oiIcr faciors ncccssary for cloiiing,
as wcll as clccirolyics, wasic roducis, and nuiricnis. Aloui 55% of
llood volumc is lasma.

D. DLOOD CELLS
CELL TYPE MAJOF FUNCTION
BC (LEUKOCYTES)

NcuiroIil



Monocyic



EosinoIil



DasoIil


LymIocyic



T LymIocyic




D LymIocyic



Plasma ccll


RBC (ERYTHROCYTE)



PLATELET (THROMBOCYTE)
FigIis infcciion

Esscniial in rcvcniing and
limiiing lacicrial infcciion via
Iagocyiosis; avcragc lifc
san is 2-4 I

Enicrs iissuc as macroIagc;
IigIly Iagocyiic, csccially
againsi fungus immunc
survcillancc.

Involvcd in allcrgic
rcaciions(ncuiralizcs
Iisiaminc}; digcsi forcign
roicins.

Coniains Iisiaminc; inicgral
ari of Iycrscnsiiiviiy
rcaciions.

Inicgral comoncni of
immunc sysicm.


Fcsonsillc for ccll mcdiaicd
immuniiy.; rccognizcs
maicrial as forcign"
(survcillancc sysicm}


Fcsonsillc for Iumoral
immuniiy; many maiurc inio
lasma cclls io form
aniilodics.

Sccrcics immunoglolulin;
mosi maiurc form of D
LymIocyics.

Carrics Icmoglolin io
rovidc oygcn io iissuc;
avcragc lifc san is 120 days.

Fragmcni of mcgalaryocyic,
noi rcally a ccll; rovidcs
lasis for coagulaiion io
occur, ,mainiains
Icmosiasis, avcragc lifc san
is 10 days.