HYDROLOGY (BFC 32002)

SEMESTER 2 SESSION 2024/2025

PROJECT REPORT

GROUP 4

LECTURER: IR. DR. HARTINI BINTI KASMIN

GROUP MEMBERS MATRIC NO.
AHMAD FARHAN BIN MOHD AZME DF230137
AKMAL DANIAL BIN MOHD FAIZAL DF230109
MAZLIN BINTI RAMLAN CF220008
NUR ATIQAH IZZATI BINTI HISYAMUDIN DF230159
 INTRODUCTION

Malaysia has an equatorial climate, which is defined by year-round high temperatures, copious
amounts of rainfall, and high humidity. Due to the nation's proximity to the equator, it has a
tropical climate with average temperatures of 25°C to 35°C. There is an abundance of rainfall
throughout the nation, and there are monsoon seasons from November to March and May to
September in particular. These elements provide varied ecosystems and lush rainforests that
are home to a vast array of plant and animal species. The humidity often exceeds 80%,
contributing to the country's rich biodiversity and vibrant natural landscapes.

The atmosphere releases collected moisture during a rain event as precipitation, which can vary
in duration and intensity. These occurrences replenish freshwater supplies and support
ecosystems as droplets of condensed water descend from clouds and land on the ground.
However, heavy rains disturb daily activity and create flooding and soil degradation. Efficient
drainage systems are crucial for controlling runoff and avoiding waterlogging in metropolitan
settings. All things considered, rainfall events are crucial to the hydrological cycle, which
affects weather patterns and keeps life on Earth alive.

In Malaysia, flooding is a common and serious natural disaster that is frequently brought on by
strong monsoon rains, tropical storms, poor drainage infrastructure, and deforestation. During
the northeast monsoon season, which runs from November to March, the east coast states,
including Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang are especially vulnerable.

A hydrograph is a basic tool in hydrology that shows the water flow in a stream or river over a
given amount of time in graphic form. It usually depicts the change in discharge (flow rate)
over time at a specific location in a river or stream. It also shows how a river's water flow varies
in response to rainfall and other hydrological events by plotting the river's discharge over time.
In hydrology, hydrographs are a crucial tool for determining the occurrence, size, and length
of flood occurrences. It is useful for determining how long it takes for rainfall to reach its peak,
evaluating how changes in land use affect river flow, and creating efficient plans for mitigating
and managing floods. Engineers and planners may create flood forecasting models, manage
water resources, and anticipate possible floods by analysing hydrographs.
These are brief water level readings that are obtained in conjunction with various groundwater
studies that occur during the day of a month. For this study, our team will gather data over the
course of one month (31 days). For instance, a test to ascertain the dimensions required to map
the water table's height. The station where we collect data is in Sg. Terengganu at Rumah Pam
Pulau Bahagia.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Flooding appears to have happened more frequently in recent years. The two main causes of
flooding in Malaysia are increased runoff rates brought on by urbanisation and decreased flood
storage as a result of development encroaching upon and occupying drainage corridors and
flood plains. The objective of this project is to compute the average annual rainfall of the
proposed catchment area, the peak flow of the proposed catchment location, the river discharge
at the maximum water level, and the unit hydrograph using rainfall and water level data at
Station Sg. Terengganu at Rumah Pam Pulau Bahagia. Hydrographs, or specific components
such as peak rates, are frequently used in the planning and construction of water control
systems. They are also employed to characterise the hydrological consequences of land use
changes and current and prospective activities that affect watersheds.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the average yearly rainfall in the selected catchment region.

2) To measure the peak flow and highest river discharge in the chosen catchment area.
3) To calculate the unit hydrograph and plot it for the suggested catchment region.
 CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

Introduction of Methodology

The process of planning, gathering, and assessing data to generate evidence to support
a study is known as research methodology. The study of an issue and the rationale behind
specific approaches and procedures are described in the methodology. By explaining the
research process, the methodology seeks to aid in a broader or more in-depth understanding of
the use of the approach. The results of this chapter will include how the research gathers
readings of water levels and rainfall at certain locations, as well as how computations are made
to interpret the data. The Public Info Banjir website was used to gather rainfall and water level
data for this project, which was the primary information source.

2.1 Department Of Irrigation & Drainage

In Malaysia, the Irrigation & Drainage Department is the department responsible for
dealing with water resources. The Department of Irrigation & Drainage was established in
1932, and the main purpose of this department is to manage water resources efficiently and
promote optimal land use to ensure water security and environmental sustainability. Currently,
JPS water resources management is also responsible for river and coastal zone management,
water resources and hydrology management, special projects, flood management, and
environmentally friendly drainage.
To further enhance accessibility and openness, the department makes a wide range of
information available via its website (https://publicinfobanjir.water.gov.my/?lang=en). This
portal serves as a central hub where users can obtain statistics on water levels, flood alerts, and
total rainfall in Malaysia. The website additionally supports a project initiated in Kuala
Terengganu that entails obtaining rainfall and water level data from the "public info banjir"
source. Users can locate their stations and gather crucial data for studies related to the region's
water and land resources by using the map provided on the website.
Figure 2.1: The Official Website of the Department of Irrigation and Drainage

Figure 2.2: Hydrological Station Map

2.1.1 Hydrograph

The hydrological data of rainfall distribution and water level stations across
which we have chosen are in Kuala Terengganu. Data is collected and recorded in a
hydrograph. The hydrograph displayed below is the “Sungai Terengganu at Rumah Pam
Pulai Bahagia”. Rainfall data and water level stations are taken across 1 year from 01
January 2023 to 31 December 2023.

Figure 2.3: Hydrograph of Sg Terengganu, Rumah Pam Pulau Bahagia

Figure 2.4: Hydrograph of water Level

2.2 Google Earth Pro

Google Earth Pro is a tool that can explore, visualize, and understand the Earth’s surface
and geographic features. Google Earth Pro is a free application that can help us complete this
study. Google Earth Pro is essential for gathering data on geographical features such as slope
gradients and terrain profiles between stations.

Google Earth Pro provides a user-friendly interface and a vast database of satellite
imagery, aerial photography, and geographical data. It also can allow users to navigate the
globe, zoom in on specific locations, and view detailed 3D terrain, buildings, and landmarks.
We use this program in our study case to identify and analyse the geographical characteristics
of hydrological stations such as terrain profiles, gradient slopes, and cross sections of rivers.
The figure below shows the illustration of Google Earth Pro.

Figure 2.5: Google Earth Pro

2.3 Case Study Location Rainfall and Water Level

Our group case study location is at Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu. By using the data
on the Department of Irrigation and Drainage website, we were able determine a more
suitable location for our study. We selected the area at station Kampung Pulau Bahagia
for the rainfall and water level data.
 Figure 2.6: Rainfall and Water Level Station

2.4 Method Of Rainfall Data Analysis

2.4.1 Arithmetic Mean Method
The arithmetic mean approach is the most straightforward way to compute
precipitation since it just takes the average of all rainfall quantities. It is seen as an
arithmetic or mean average. This technique works well if the stations are distributed
evenly. To compute, add up all the data that was gathered, then divide the total by the
number of elements in the collection. For a number that is uniformly distributed, the
middle value can be used as the arithmetic mean. Next, the arithmetic mean is
determined using a variety of methods depending on the amount and distribution of the
data. Rainfall measurements made by the station need to be accurate. The formula that
was used is :
𝑃𝑖
P=
𝑛

𝑃𝑋 = ( 𝑃 1+𝑃 2+𝑃 3 + ⋯ +𝑃 𝑛 )

where, P = average precipitation depth (mm)

Pi = precipitation depth at gauge within the topographic basin (mm)

n = total number of gauging stations within the topographic basin

2.4.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

All rainfall gauges in and around the basin are taken into consideration to
provide a more accurate representation of the average precipitation across the entire
area when using the Thiessen Method, also called the weighted mean method, which
calculates the average precipitation by distributing weight to local rainfall gauge
observations.
The four phases in the process are as follows:
1. Connecting each statin with straight lines.
2. Construct perpendicular bisectors of the connecting lines and form polygons
with these bisectors.
3. Determine the area of the polygon.
4. Calculate average precipitation using the formula.

𝑛
𝐴1𝑃1 + 𝐴2𝑃2 + 𝐴3𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛𝑃𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑃𝑖
𝑃= =∑
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝐴
𝑖=1
∑ 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛×𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Precipitation =
∑ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

P = Average precipitation depth (mm)

Pi = Precipitation depth at each station (mm)

Ai = Sub area at each station (Polygon Area)

∑ 𝐴= Total Area

2.4.3 Isohyetal Method

Similar to contour lines on a topographic map, isohyets represent contours of
equal precipitation, providing a visual representation of precipitation distribution. The
Isohyet method is a technique used to estimate mean precipitation across an area by
employing lines of equal rainfall, or isohyets. This method uses topography and other
pertinent data to produce accurate estimations.
The following procedures, which are mostly based on catchment interpolation,
are part of the Isohyet approach:
 1. Recording Rain Gauge Data – Locate the catchment area’s rain gauge and
note the location’s total rainfall measurement.
2. Interpolation Between Gauges – interpolation between rain gauges can be
used to calculate the quantity of rainfall at various locations within the
catchment area. This entails computing the amount of precipitation at
intervals between gauges while accounting for terrain and distance.
3. Plotting Isohyet – Plot the interpolated rainfall values to create a distribution
of precipitation on a suitable base map. Next, isohyets are created by joining
sites with equivalent quantities of precipitation.
4. Forming Isohyetal Map - Collectively, the isohyets create an isohyetal map
that shows regions with comparable amounts of precipitation. The map
provides insight on how precipitation varies geographically within the basin.
∑ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 Pr 𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
∑ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
∑ 𝐴𝑖𝑃𝑖
𝑃=
∑𝐴

P = Average precipitation depth (mm)

Pi = Average precipitation between 2 isohyets lines (mm)

Ai = Sub area between 2 isohyets lines

∑ 𝐴 = Total Area

2.4.4 Peak Flow

2.4.4.1 Rational Method
The Rational Method is a formula for calculating the maximum runoff
discharge from a catchment above a certain point. This is determined by taking the
rainfall intensity in a certain period, runoff coefficient, and drainage area into account
for estimating the peak flow rates in the urban area. It expresses a relationship between
rainfall intensity and catchment area as independent factors and peak flow discharge as
the dependent variable. It is commonly used to construct rainwater drainage systems,
farm dam spillways, and small culverts in road and rail embankments.
Formula:
𝐶𝑖𝐴
𝑄=
360
 Where,
Q – Peak Flow
C – Runoff Coefficient
I – Average Rainfall Intensity
A – Catchment Area

2.4.4.2 Manning Equation

The Manning equation is a widely used empirical formula for estimating the
flow rate or discharge in open channels such as rivers, streams, and channels with
natural or man-made sections. While the Manning equation is primarily used for
uniform flow conditions, it can also be applied to estimate peak flow rates by
considering the channel characteristics. The peak flow rate depends on factors including
Manning’s roughness coefficient, cross-sectional area, hydraulic radius, and channel
slope as shown in the formula:
1 2
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 3 √𝑠
𝑛
Where:
Q = Peak flow rate or discharge
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
A = Cross-sectional area of the channel R = Hydraulic Radius

2.5 Geographical Characteristic

Geographical characteristics refer to the natural and human-made features that define a
particular area or region. These characteristics are the physical attributes and elements that
distinguish one location from another and influence its overall appearance, climate,
ecosystems, and human activities. In addition, the catchment boundary for the stations displays
the flow of water into the specific river and water bodies for effective water management within
the proposed area. To identify the unique geographical features of the proposed area, these
rainfall and water level stations are also analyzed for the terrain profiles, gradient slopes, and
cross sections of the nearest river.
 Figure 2.7: Catchment Area

Figure 2.8: Cross Section

 CHAPTER 3

DATA PRESENTATION

3.1 RAINFALL DATA

DAY DAILY RAINFALL

1 57.5
2 0
3 45
4 0.5
5 0.5
6 0.5
7 0
8 16.5
9 18
10 1
11 27
12 9
13 91.5
14 73.5
15 57
16 87
17 4.5
18 35.5
19 42
20 5.5
21 2.5
22 0
23 128.5
24 74.5
25 85
26 12.5
27 9.5
28 18
29 3.5
30 1.5
31 0
TOTAL 907.5

Table 3.1: Rainfall Data Sg. Terengganu at Rumah Pam Pulau Bahagia
3.2 WATER LEVEL DATA

DAY DAILY RAINFALL

1 0.44
2 0.45
3 0.43
4 0.49
5 0.56
6 0.58
7 0.63
8 0.47
9 0.58
10 0.47
11 0.60
12 0.59
13 0.62
14 0.61
15 0.62
16 0.47
17 0.47
18 0.62
19 0.56
20 0.47
21 0.47
22 0.47
23 0.57
24 0.58
25 0.59
26 0.56
27 0.55
28 0.47
29 0.57
30 0.47
31 0.47
TOTAL 16.5

Table 3.2: Water Level Data Sg. Terengganu at Rumah Pam Pulau Bahagia
 CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS & RESULT

4.1 Peak Flow

Peak flow refers to the maximum rate of discharge during the storm runoff period. Basin and
storm feature primarily influence the outcome. The peak discharge value reflects the current
water conveyance system's ability to receive precipitation in the case study location. It is also
used to evaluate the best size for water transportation systems like rivers, diversion channels,
and gutters.

4.1.1 Rational Method

The estimation for the catchment boundary area is to be 12.7 𝑘𝑚2 (1268 hectare) using Google
Earth Pro programme. We divided the catchment boundary area into two sections, area 2 for
residential bungalow area, while area 1 is for commercial and business centre. Area 1 has a
total area of 5.44 𝑘𝑚2 , while area 2 are 7.26 𝑘𝑚2 ,

Figure 4.1: Area 1 of the catchment area

 Figure 4.2: Area 2 of the catchment boundary area

4.1.1.1 Running Coefficient, C

According to the figure below, which is a table of the MSMA 2nd Edition’s Recommend Runoff
Coefficient for Various Land Uses. The runoff coefficient for area 3 is 0.90. While for area 1
and 2 is 0.70. However, when more than one region is estimated within the catchment boundary
area, the utilization of the formula below from MSMA 2nd Edition is needed to calculate the
average runoff coefficient.

∑𝑚
𝑗=1 𝐶𝑗 𝐴𝑗
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∑𝑚
𝑗=1 𝐴𝑗

Using the formula;

(0.70)(7.26) + (0.90)(5.44)
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
12.7

𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.786
 Table 8: Recommended Runoff Coefficient for Various Land Uses from The MSMA 2nd
Edition

4.1.1.2 Overland Sheet Flow Path Length, L

The length of the overland sheet flow path was assumed using Google Earth Pro. The distance
assumed is 4.13 𝑘𝑚2 .

Figure 4.3: Overland sheet flow path length of the catchment boundary
Slope of the Overland Surface, S

Figure 4.4: Elevation profile of the sheet flow path

Slope of the overland surface;

ℎ𝑓
𝑆= × 100%
𝐼

(12 − 2)
𝑆= × 100%
4.13

𝑆 =0.24 %

4.1.1.3 Value of Horton’s roughness, n

The value of Horton’s roughness, n that was assumed for the sheet flow is 0.045, according to
the table of Value of Horton Roughness, n from MSMA 2nd Edition below.
 Table 9: Value of Horton’s Roughness

4.1.1.4 Time Concentration, Tc

Time concentration, Tc, is the time required for runoff to travel from hydraulically most distant
point in the watershed to the outlet.

Tc = 10

Based on the table of equation to estimate time concentration from MSMA 2nd Edition

Table 10: Equation to estimate time concentration from MSMA 2nd Edition
Using the formula:

1
107. 𝑛. 𝑙 3
𝑡0 = 1
𝑠5
1
(107)(0.045)(4130)3
𝑡0 = 1
0.245

𝑡0 = 138.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑡0 = 2.3 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

4.1.1.5 Rainfall Intensity, i

From the MSMA 2nd Edition table 2.B1, its display the fitting constant for the IDF empirical
equation for various locations in Malaysia with high ARIs ranging from 2 to 100 years and
storm durations ranging from 5 minutes to 72 hours.

𝜆𝑇 𝑘
𝑖=
(𝑑 + 𝛩)𝑛

Where,

i = average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

T = average recurrence interval – ARI (0.5 ≤ T ≤ 12 month 2 ≤T ≤ 100 year)

d = storm duration (hours), (0.0833 ≤ d ≤ 72)

𝜆, k, 𝛩, and n = fitting constants dependent on the rain gauge location

 Table 11: Fitting constants for IDF empirical Equations for the Different Locations in
Terengganu for High ARIs between 2 and 100 year and Storm Durations from 5 minutes to
72 hours

Because information for water level stations in Terengganu, Kg. Bt. Hampar, Setiu is used. The
following value of k. o and n is 55.452, 0.186, 0.000 and 0.545 respectively. T, average
recurrence interval is 20 years while d, storm duration is equal to time of concentration, tc
which is 2.3 hours

Using the formula,

(55.452)(20)0.186
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑖 =
(2.3 + 0.000)0.545

𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑖 = 61.48
ℎ𝑟

4.1.2 Peak Runoff

Based on the MSMA 2nd Edition, the formula for rational method that will be used in empirical
IDF curve is as shown as below

𝑖. 𝐶. 𝐴
𝑄𝑝 =
360
Where;

Q = Peak runoff (m3/s)

C = Runoff Coefficient

I = Average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

A = Drainage area (ha)

Using the formula.

(61.48)(0.786)(1268)
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓, 𝑄𝑝 =
360

𝑚3
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓, 𝑄𝑝 = 170
𝑠

4.1.3 Manning Method

The Manning formula (also known as Manning’s equation) estimates the average velocity of a
liquid in an open channel flow. It’s commonly used for calculating flow variables in partially
full conduits. The Manning Equation is applied in this method, and its formula is shown below.

1 2 1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆𝑜2
𝑛

Where;

Q = discharge of water So = slope of waterway

A = area of cross section n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

Calculation For Every Section
The data obtained has been calculated based on the contours of the cross section. based on the
cross section Sungai Kuala Terengganu. The figure below shows the river's depth and height.
This also includes a calculation to determine the parameter.

A) Cross section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu (upstream)

Figure 4.5: Cross section for upstream

300m

12.6m 4m

288m

Perimeter = 304.6 m
Area = 1227.6 m2
B) Cross section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu (midstream)

Figure 4.6: Cross section for midstream

297m

1m 6.1m

291m

Perimeter = 298.1 m
Area = 294 m2
C) Cross section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu (downstream)

Figure 4.7: Cross section for downstream

299m

10.2m 7.6m

282m

Perimeter = 299.8 m
Area = 581 m2
Table 12: Value of Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) for Open Drains and Pipes
(Chow, 1959; DID, 2000)

Table 13: Calculation of discharge of each cross section

Section Slope,So Manning Wetted Cross Hydraulic Discharge

Roughness,n perimeter, sectional mean Q (m3/s)
P (m) Area radius,R =
𝟐 𝟏
(m2) (m) 𝟏
𝑨𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝒐𝟐
𝒏

1 0.24 0.05 304.6 1227.6 4.03 30459.95

2 0.24 0.05 298.1 294 0.99 2861.36

3 0.24 0.05 299.8 581 1.94 8854.82

Total 42176.13

AVERAGE PEAK FLOW, Qavg (m3/s) 14058.71

4.1.3 Comparison Between Two Method

The Rational Method and the Manning Method are two common approaches to estimate peak
discharge and flow in open channels. The results show that the peak flow value obtained from
the Rational Method is 170 m3/s, while the peak flow value given by Manning Method is
14058.71 m3/s. There are two significant differences in the values obtained through the two
methods. As a result, we may conclude that the analysis had imperfections and limitations. To
start the calculations using Manning's equation, three cross-sections of the river are determined
using Google Earth Pro. To make it easier area calculations, we split each cross-section into
two sections. We estimated the wet perimeter and cross-sectional area using Google Earth Pro
data. Given accessibility of the water level station in Sungai Kuala Terengganu, appropriate
constant values were obtained from Kampung pulau bahagia based on the rain gauge location.
This may result to unpredictable output. Then, the duration for curb gutter flow and drain flow
disappears because of a lack of knowledge about the required criteria. We are therefore able to
determine that there are differences in the calculated values in these two data sets.

4.2 HYDROGRAPH

A hydrograph is a graphical representation of how the flow (discharge) of water in a river or

stream changes over time. It provides insights into the response of a watershed to precipitation
events. The component of a Hydrograph is Rising Limb, Peak Discharge, and Falling Limb. To
figure out the discharge of a river, multiply its cross-section area by its velocity.
4.2.1 Unit of Hydrograph of upstream

Table 14: 7 Consecutive days discharge for upstream

Date Water level Discharge, Q

22/12/2023 0.47 23.38
23/12/2023 0.57 41.67
24/12/2023 0.58 43.90
25/12/2023 0.59 46.21
26/12/2023 0.56 39.52
27/12/2023 0.55 37.44
28/12/2023 0.47 23.38

Figure 4.8: Hydrograph of Cross Section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu

Upstream
50.00
45.00
40.00
Discharge, Q (m3/s)

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00 Baseflow
10.00
5.00
0.00
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
date (days)
 Table 15: Calculation for UH ordinate for upstream

Date Flowrate Baseflow Direct flow UH ordinate

(m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s per cm)
22/12/2023 23.38 23.38 0 0
23/12/2023 41.67 23.38 18.29 0.68
24/12/2023 43.90 23.38 20.52 0.76
25/12/2023 46.21 23.38 22.83 0.85
26/12/2023 39.52 23.38 16.14 0.60
27/12/2023 37.44 23.38 14.06 0.52
28/12/2023 23.38 23.38 0 0
Total 91.84
Area = 1227.6 m2 = 1.228 km2

1. Total direct runoff volume =

91.84 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
×1× ×
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 3.31 x 105 m3
2. Calculate runoff depth =
3.31 × 105 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚
× ×
1.228 𝑘𝑚2 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚
= 0.26954 m = 26.95 cm
4.2.1 Unit of Hydrograph of midstream

Table 16: 7 Consecutive days discharge for midstream

Date Water level Discharge, Q

22/12/2023 0.47 23.85

23/12/2023 0.57 42.51
24/12/2023 0.58 44.78
25/12/2023 0.59 47.14
26/12/2023 0.56 40.32
27/12/2023 0.55 38.20
28/12/2023 0.47 23.85

Figure 4.9: Hydrograph of Cross Section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu

midstream
50.00
45.00
40.00
discharge,Q (m3/s)

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
date (day)
 Table 17: Calculation for UH ordinate for midstream

Date Flowrate Baseflow Direct flow UH ordinate

(m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s per cm)
22/12/2023 23.85 23.85 0 0
23/12/2023 42.51 23.85 18.66 0.16
24/12/2023 44.78 23.85 20.93 0.18
25/12/2023 47.14 23.85 23.29 0.20
26/12/2023 40.32 23.85 16.47 0.14
27/12/2023 38.20 23.85 14.35 0.13
28/12/2023 23.85 23.85 0 0
Total 93.7

Area = 294 m2 = 0.294 km2

1. Total direct runoff volume =

93.7 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
×1× ×
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 3.37 x 105 m3
2. Calculate runoff depth =
3.37 × 105 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚
× ×
0.294 𝑘𝑚2 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚
= 1.1473 m = 114.73 cm
4.2.1 Unit of Hydrograph of downstream

Table 18: 7 Consecutive days discharge for downstream

Date Water level Discharge, Q

22/12/2023 0.47 22.77
23/12/2023 0.57 40.62
24/12/2023 0.58 42.79
25/12/2023 0.59 45.04
26/12/2023 0.56 38.52
27/12/2023 0.55 36.49
28/12/2023 0.47 22.77

Figure 4.10: Hydrograph of Cross Section at Sungai Kuala Terengganu

downstream
50.00
45.00
40.00
discharge,Q (m3/s)

35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
date (day)
 Table 19: Calculation for UH ordinate for downstream

Date Flowrate Baseflow Direct flow UH ordinate

(m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s per cm)
22/12/2023 22.77 22.77 0 0
23/12/2023 40.62 22.77 17.85 0.32
24/12/2023 42.79 22.77 20.02 0.36
25/12/2023 45.04 22.77 22.27 0.40
26/12/2023 38.52 22.77 15.75 0.28
27/12/2023 36.49 22.77 13.72 0.25
28/12/2023 22.77 22.77 0 0
Total 89.61

Area = 581 m2 = 0.581 km2

1. Total direct runoff volume =

89.61 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
×1× ×
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 3.22 x 105 m3
2. Calculate runoff depth =
3.22 × 105 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚
× ×
0.581 𝑘𝑚2 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚
= 0.555 m = 55.52 cm
 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 DISCUSSION

In Malaysia, floods usually happen in the Northeast Monsoon season, which runs from October
to March and particularly affects Peninsular Malaysia's beaches. We have done research on the
growing problem of floods in Malaysia because of this concern. The risk of flooding has
significantly increased over the last several decades, and this increase can be linked to changes
in the hydrological system created by human activities. These include industrial agriculture,
building on hillsides, deforestation, fast urbanisation, and the conversion of forests into
communities. Consequently, when rainfall rises as a result of climate change, inland areas
become increasingly susceptible to severe flooding. Based on the data we gathered, we gained
a variety of results during the course of this study. This comprises rainfall data for a 31-day
period from rainfall stations and water level information from a water level station. Microsoft
Excel has been used to record all of this data.

The initial outcome of our data collection was designing the catchment boundary of the study
area. The data provided by this catchment boundary will be used to calculate the mean area
rainfall, peak flow, and flow rate of the river. We used three different methods, namely the
Arithmetic Mean Method, the Thiessen Polygon Method, and the Isohyetal Method, to
calculate the average precipitation. According to our calculations, the estimation for the
catchment boundary area is to be 12.7𝑘𝑚2 (1268 hectare) using Google Earth Pro programme.
Total area for first area is 5.44𝑘𝑚2 and second area is 7.26𝑘𝑚2 . Runoff coefficient for third
area is 0.90 while for first and second area is 0.70. The distance assumed for overland sheet
flow path length is 4.13𝑘𝑚2 . Slope of the overland surface is 0.24%. Next, the value of sheet
𝑚3
flow for Horton’s roughness is 0.045. Lastly, the result for the peak runoff is 170 𝑠

There are several ways to prevent flooding. Firstly, afforestation and reforestation are two ways
to increase natural water absorption and decrease runoff. These methods involve planting trees
and recovering forests. Secondly, construct barriers to stop rivers from overflowing into
residential areas in order to implement flood control structures. Then put in a movable barrier
to regulate the water level and flow. After that, construct a building that will hold extra water
during prolonged downpours and release it gradually. Thirdly, enhancing early warning
systems and flood forecasting through the use of satellite technology and meteorological data
to identify potential flooding and periods of heavy rain. Next, establish a method for informing
the community earlier so that preparations and an evacuation can happen on time. Furthermore,
reestablishing natural flow patterns and eliminating obstacles that can lead to water back-up
and flooding, natural waterways can be preserved and restored. Moreover, the river should be
regularly dredged to preserve its ability to transport water. Communities can better control and
lower the danger of flooding to save lives and property by combining these strategies. Lastly,
in order to determine the efficacy of flood management techniques, it is essential to conduct
routine monitoring and assessment. The key to modifying and enhancing these tactics to
guarantee their continuous efficacy in lowering the risk of flooding is flexibility and
adaptability.

5.2 CONCLUSION

In summary, floods can happen for a variety of reasons, whether they are brought on by natural
or artificial factors. In order to put preventive measures into place that can assist decrease flood
damage and expedite recovery operations, it is crucial to look into Malaysian floods to
determine whether a location is at risk to experience flooding. The chosen case study location
is Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, with the objective of examining areas in Malaysia that
frequently face flooding issues. In December 2024, 7 days in a row were recorded at the rainfall
station on the Sg. Terengganu at Rumah Pam Pulau Bahagia during a period of 31 days. The
required information had been collected using computer programmes like Google Earth Pro
and official hydrological websites like the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (JPS). After
that, the data was used to determine the average yearly rainfall based on the specified rainfall
stations using three different methods which is the Thiessen Polygon Method, the Arithmetic
Mean Method, and the Isohyetal Method. Furthermore, the river discharge at its highest water
level and the peak flow in the catchment boundary are determined using Manning's Equation
and the Rational Method. Plotting of the unit hydrograph of the planned catchment area is
shown upstream, midstream, and downstream to analyze and predict the hydrologic response
of the watershed area to a rainfall event. It is highly recommended to take preventative
measures to reduce the risks of flooding within the Kuala Terengganu area. As a result, it is
necessary to raise community knowledge of the risk of floods in order to prepare for
emergencies and teach water conservation techniques. As these ecosystems work to absorb and
replenish water, lower peak flows, and prevent downstream flooding, restoration and
preservation of naturally occurring water retention features like forests and grasslands should
also be prioritised. Lastly, avoiding building in flood-prone locations and maintaining natural
drainage patterns are two ways to improve urban planning.

REFERENCES

WEBSITES
1. https://tirto.id/penyebab-banjir-cara-mencegahnya-dan-tindakan-yang-harus-
dilakukan-gaxv
2. https://www.irujukan.my/masalah-banjir/#google_vignette

APPENDIXES

MINUTES OF MEETING
Meeting 1 Date: 10/5/2023 Time: 10pm-11pm
No:
Methods of Meetings: Google Meet
1 Nur Atiqah Izzati Binti Hisyamudin
2 Mazlin Binti Ramlan
3 Ahmad Farhan Bin Mohd Azme
4 Akmal Danial Bin Mohd Faizal
Meeting Agenda
No. Details Person in charge
1 Understand and analyzed the project instruction All
2 Determined the exact location and stations for All
the project
3 Group leader assigned task for each member Group leader
Prepared By Verified By
Nur Atiqah Izzati Binti Hisyamudin Dr Hartini Binti Kasmin
 APPENDIXES

MINUTES OF MEETING
Meeting 2 Date: 19/5/2023 Time: 10pm-10:30pm
No:
Methods of Meetings: Google Meet
1 Nur Atiqah Izzati Binti Hisyamudin
2 Mazlin Binti Ramlan
3 Ahmad Farhan Bin Mohd Azme
4 Akmal Danial Bin Mohd Faizal
Meeting Agenda
No. Details Person in charge
1 Understand the project instruction again All
2 discuss each other's work progress All
Prepared By Verified By
Nur Atiqah Izzati Binti Hisyamudin Dr Hartini Binti Kasmin
 LIST OF INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS

Name of Member Nur Atiqah Izzati Binti Hisyamudin

1. In charge of collection data for rainfall station and water rainfall station
Contribution 2. In charge of introduction part
3. In charge of discussion and conclusion part
4. Attend all meeting
Name of Member Mazlin Binti Ramlan
Contribution 1. In charge of methodology part
2. Attend all meeting
Name of Member Ahmad Farhan Bin Mohd Azme
1. In charge of calculation part
Contribution 2. In charge of report compilation
3. Attend all meeting
Name of Member Akmal Danial Bin Mohd Faizal
1. In charge of calculation part
Contribution 2. In charge of report compilation
4. Attend all meeting