energies

Review
Overview on Permanent Magnet Motor Trends
and Developments
Vasileios I. Vlachou 1 , Georgios K. Sakkas 1 , Fotios P. Xintaropoulos 1 , Maria Sofia C. Pechlivanidou 1 ,
Themistoklis D. Kefalas 2 , Marina A. Tsili 3 and Antonios G. Kladas 1, *

1 Laboratory of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece; vasilvlachou@mail.ntua.gr (V.I.V.);
gsakkas@mail.ntua.gr (G.K.S.); fotisxintaropoulos@hotmail.com (F.P.X.);
mariasofiapech@mail.ntua.gr (M.S.C.P.)
2 Hellenic Electricity Distribution Network Operator HEDNO S.A., 10434 Athens, Greece; t.kefalas@deddie.gr
3 Independent Power Transmission Operation (IPTO-ADMIE), 89 Dyrrachiou Street, 15343 Athens, Greece;
mtsili@admie.gr
* Correspondence: kladasel@central.ntua.gr; Tel.: +30-210-7723-765

Abstract: The extreme environmental issues and the resulting need to save energy have turned
attention to the electrification of energy applications. One of the key components involved in energy
efficiency improvements is the appropriate conception and manufacturing of electric machines. This
paper overviews the electromagnetic analysis governing the behavior of permanent magnets that
enable substantial efficiency gains in recent electric machine developments. Particular emphasis is
given to modeling the properties and losses developed in permanent magnets in emerging high speed
applications. In addition, the investigation of properties and harmonic losses related to ferromagnetic
materials constituting the machine magnetic circuits are equally analyzed and discussed. The
experimental validation of the implemented methodologies and developed models with respect
to the obtained precision is reported. The introduction of mixed numerical techniques based on
the finite element method intended to appropriately represent the different physical phenomena
encountered is outlined and discussed. Finally, fast and accurate simulation techniques including
aggregated lumped parameter models considering harmonic losses associated with inverter supplies
are discussed.
Citation: Vlachou, V.I.; Sakkas, G.K.;
Xintaropoulos, F.P.; Pechlivanidou,
M.S.C.; Kefalas, T.D.; Tsili, M.A.;
Keywords: permanent-magnets; electric vehicles; electric motor; demagnetization; geometry opti-
Kladas, A.G. Overview on Permanent mization; constraint model; finite elements analysis; short circuit; neodymium magnets; parameter
Magnet Motor Trends and sensitivity analysis
Developments. Energies 2024, 17, 538.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020538

Academic Editor: Youguang Guo

1. Introduction
Received: 20 December 2023 Electric vehicles represent an emerging application in the field of transportation
Revised: 8 January 2024 electrification initiatives. Leading automotive manufacturers have committed to producing
Accepted: 10 January 2024
electric vehicles to replace internal combustion machines. Some of the key factors that have
Published: 22 January 2024
led to this change are related to reduced environmental emissions and fuel efficiency [1].
Furthermore, one of the key advantages is the energy saving capabilities related to the
appropriate propulsion system, namely concerning the battery, inverter, and electrical
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
motor. Primarily in electrification applications, permanent magnet electric motors are the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
primary technology in most applications due to their increased efficiency [2].
This article is an open access article The rapid development of permanent magnet (PM) materials during the last decades
distributed under the terms and has enabled the design of high-performance permanent magnet synchronous motors
conditions of the Creative Commons (PMSMs), which are preferred by many electric vehicle (EV) manufacturers [3]. The high
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// efficiency, the low maintenance required and the high power/torque density achieved are
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their main attractive characteristics. Some additional advantages of using permanent mag-
4.0/). net motors include power factor improvement, better dynamic performance, and higher

Energies 2024, 17, 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020538 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 538 2 of 47

reliability when compared to rival types of electric motors [4]. However, PMSMs designers
and manufacturers have to meet many challenges during the PMSMs production pro-
cess. For instance, more complex control strategies are required, while the flux-weakening
technique, which is employed under high-speed driving, increases the risk of PMs de-
magnetization. The rare-earth PMs may suffer from high eddy current losses in particular
in high-speed applications and their manufacturing imperfections may affect negatively
the machine’s electromagnetic behavior. Also, the vibrations of the traction system may
be significant since the PMs introduce strong magnetic forces. That is why the EV/HEV
system’s reliability and fault tolerance have to be considered during the PMSMs design
procedure [5].
The evolution of power electronic converters in combination with the application of
appropriate control techniques has positioned permanent magnet motors as a promising
and favored technology that addresses key features of modern electric vehicles as well as
high speed applications. The basic purpose of this paper is to provide a survey of various
contemporary machine topologies, with a particular emphasis on different permanent
magnet configurations developed, compared in Section 2. In Section 3, the literature survey
focuses on material properties and experimental results, examining characteristics includ-
ing losses and, in particular, harmonic losses at higher speeds originated from inverter
supplies. In addition, the results obtained from experimental setups for various types of
permanent magnet configurations are analyzed and discussed; to that respect, magnetic
circuits of electric machines with surface mounted magnets on the rotors are considered,
and the effects on the losses due to epitaxial placement on the surface of the magnets of suit-
able micro-layers with ferromagnetic and/or conducting material grains are investigated.
It should be noted that, during the experimental validation of the characteristics of the
permanent magnets, it was shown that it was necessary to investigate them in conjunction
with the characteristics of the magnetic laminations in presence of the permanent magnets;
to that respect, iron lamination losses measured in standard gapless magnetic circuits such
as Epstein and toroidal cores do not provide sufficient accuracy in regions neighboring
permanent magnets, while C-Core type magnetic circuits under coexistence of DC and AC
excitations enable good precision in harmonic loss prediction. In addition, appropriate
models for synchronous permanent magnet motor analysis under three-phase short-circuit
conditions enabling consideration of magnet demagnetization risks are presented in Sec-
tion 4. Section 5 is devoted to numerical methodologies using mixed numerical techniques
based on finite element method proposed to facilitate permanent magnet motor analysis.
Moreover, Section 6 mentions the potential impact of rotor mechanical deformation on
permanent magnet motor characteristics. Finally, the basic conclusions derived from the
literature survey on permanent magnet motors and the respective application trends are
summarized in Section 7.

2. Topologies of Permanent Magnet Rotors

2.1. Inner and Outer Rotor Configurations
To satisfy the above requirements, numerous PMSM alternatives have been introduced
in the literature. Understanding the various stator windings configurations, there are
several rotor design variants, too. The rotor can be either inner or outer with respect to
the stator’s position. The inner topology is more commonly used since it guarantees the
achievement of a value for the airgap flux density amplitude close to the PMs magnetic
flux density, enabling a wider speed range operation and concluding to a satisfactory
flux-weakening capability. The above features deteriorate when an outer-rotor structure
is adopted. For such a motor, the temperature alleviation is not an easy task as the stator
winding coils (whose copper losses are usually the major heat source) are placed at the
inner part of the machine. Due to the poorer temperature alleviation, researchers have
focused on the development of advanced cooling systems [6]. On the contrary, the winding
coils assembly is much easier as the stator teeth points outwards. Furthermore, the motor’s
axial length can be smaller. A high value is frequently assigned to the outer diameter to
Energies 2024, 17, 538 3 of 47

axial length ratio. This substantially benefits the torque density. The outer-rotor PMSM’s
net mass may be up to 15% smaller than the corresponding one of a motor with inner
rotor [7]. The outer rotor motors are the primary choice in electrified applications as they
reduce transmission losses both during propulsion and regenerative braking. However,
they require suitable and precise design as the high torque requirements must allow the
vehicle to start on uphill roads in order to achieve the necessary speed. At the same time,
the higher moment of inertia contributes to the vibrations and torque harmonics mitigation.
For the above reasons, the outer–rotor PMSMs are the dominant structure at the in-wheel
electrified systems. The high-speed operation is not a great challenge for this machine since
the centrifugal forces retain the PMs [8].

2.2. Surface-Mounted Permanent Magnet Motors

Concerning the magnets’ placement, there is another classification for the PMSMs. In
particular, they are divided into: (a) surface-mounted (SPMSMs) and (b) interior (IPMSMs)
PMSMs. In the first case, the PMs are attached on the rotor’s inner or outer circumference
and they are magnetized radially. The motor’s effective airgap length is equal to the sum of
the PM’s height and the actual airgap length since the magnetic permeability of the PMs is
comparable to that of the air. The large effective airgap length decreases the motor’s self-
inductance. The tooth tip leakage inductance and thus the total inductance can be increased
through the appropriate stator teeth design for a better fault-tolerance capability. The PMs
of a SPMSM are exposed directly to the armature reaction field due to their position. So,
there is high risk for them to be susceptible to partial irreversible demagnetization. This
can be avoided thanks to a sleeve (made of non-ferromagnetic material with high electrical
conductivity) that is placed around them [9].
The sleeve helps also the magnet’s retention when the motor’s rotational speed is
too high. The rotor of a SPMSM has no saliency. The SPMSM’s efficiency is high as a
large amount of magnetic flux is concentrated in the airgap. Its flux-weakening capability
is reduced and its overload capability can be regarded as satisfactory. The permeance
variation in the airgap may cause a high torque ripple when the PMs and the stator teeth
dimensions are not properly selected. The curving of the magnets’ surface declines the
torque ripple, but this is a countermeasure of high cost [10].
The research so far works (aiming either to enhance the SPMSM’s performance or
to mitigate its inherent undesirable features) deals with the following topics: (a) the
examination of different PM shapes and segment numbers; (b) the demagnetization analysis
of the SPMSMs; (c) the study of the impact of poles/slots combination on the SPMSM’s
operational characteristics; (d) the development of advanced analytical models/methods
for the motor’s electromagnetic performance estimation, as well as its thermal behavior
prediction; (e) the introduction of novel design methodologies, especially for SPMSMs with
high-speed operation and/or outer-rotor topology and (f) the incorporation of artificial
intelligence-based methods in the design process. The recent advances in SPMSMs design
and analysis are presented and discussed in the next paragraphs of this section.
Regarding the magnet’s geometry, the authors of the work presented in [11] proposed
an analytical method, based on Schwarz –Christoffel mapping, for PM shape optimization
of an asymmetrical and unidirectional 12-poles SPMSM. According to the applied technique,
the PMs were divided into finite cells so that each cell can be assigned with either air (off)
or magnet (on). The optimization problem was solved by using genetic algorithm (GA).
The results, obtained through 2-D and 3-D finite element analysis (FEA) simulations,
demonstrated that the asymmetrical magnet shape substantially deteriorates the motor’s
cogging torque and torque ripple, while simultaneously slightly increasing the average
output torque. In the work presented in [12], four different magnet shapes (illustrated in
Figure 1) were analyzed and compared to each other for a SPMSM with full-pole-pitched
distributed stator winding.
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)(c) (d)
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure1.1.The
Figure ThePMs
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designsexamined
examinedininthe
thework
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[11]:(a)(a)rectangular-shaped;
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(b)but-
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Figure
Figure 1.1.The
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PMs designs
designsexamined
examined in
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presented in
in [11]:
[11]: (a)
(a) rectangular-shaped; (b)butter-
rectangular-shaped; (b) but-
terfly shaped;
terfly shaped;
shaped; (c) (c) egg-shaped;
(c) egg-shaped;
egg-shaped; (d)(d) bread-load-shaped
(d) bread-load-shaped magnet.
bread-load-shaped magnet.
magnet.
terfly
fly shaped; (c) egg-shaped; (d) bread-load-shaped magnet.

AsAscancanbebeseen
seenininFigure
Figure2,2,the thethickness
thicknessofofthe theproposed
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to handle the the demagnetization
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rest
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highelectric
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terial.
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terial. it wasit
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on the average
motor’s
averageoutput
average outputtorque.
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output output
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(a)
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Figure2.2.
Figure
Figure2.
2.The
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conceptproposed
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in[11]:
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sinusoidal
sinusoidal
sinusoidal
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harmonic
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shaped
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Figure The [11]: sinusoidal plus third harmonic shaped PMs;
(b)
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rotor design
design with
with butterfly
butterfly shaped
shaped PMs.
PMs.
(b)proposed
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(depicted inFigure
Figure3)3)
Figure 3)ononthe
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torque
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(a)
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Figure 3.The
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inin
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in (a)(a)
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Figure 3. The different shapes the work presented [14]: (a) rounded inside shape;
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shape;(d)
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shape.
Energies 2024, 17, 538 5 of 47

The magnets have been shaped according to a sinusoid along the axial direction while
their thickness has been kept uniform along the radial direction. The performance of the
machine with a sinusoidal shaped rotor was found to be superior to that of a conventional
rectangular shaped rotor design when the flux leakage, output torque, cogging torque
and back-electromotive force (Back-EMF) were examined. The influence of the PMs seg-
mentation on the aforementioned motor’s operational features was studied for different
slots/poles combinations and valuable conclusions were drawn. As for the PMs demagneti-
zation, the impact of three-phase short-circuit currents on the SPMSM’s performance under
different load conditions was studied. Moreover, a novel methodology, which takes into ac-
count the edge effect of SPMSMs, was introduced for the demagnetization analysis of ferrite
PMs [16]. Since the PMs shape and dimensions are not the only parameters that affect the
motor’s cogging torque and torque ripple, the proper selection of stator teeth dimensions
and poles/slots combination is necessary, too. Such investigations were conducted in the
work presented in [17,18] toward the SPMSM’s vibration and losses minimization.

2.3. Interior Permanent Magnet Motors

As already mentioned, the second category of the PMSMs are the IPMSMs, whose
permanent magnets are either inset or embedded into the rotor laminations as they are
either tangentially or radially magnetized. Their most important advantages are greater
resistance to PMs as well as better shielding against demagnetization. They are salient-pole
machines. Their d-axis inductance is lower than that in q-axis. The saliency ratio and
the resulting reluctance torque of the IPMSMs with buried PMs are highly dependent
on: (a) the PMs dimensions, position and configuration and (b) the flux barriers location
and geometry [19]. Special attention has to be paid to the flux barriers design parameters
determination since they have a great impact on the motor’s electromagnetic performance.
As for IPMSMs design methodology of flux barriers, it was found that they can reduce
core losses in both stator and rotor. Symmetrical and asymmetrical flux barriers were
considered. In the first case it was found that they have different shapes (trapezoidal,
triangular, etc.) and are placed at both ends of PMs in order to regulate and guide the
magnetic flux around the rotor poles. Conversely, in the second case, they may have
a different geometric configuration and orientation on the both sides of the permanent
magnets, while they may exist only at one side of the rotor pole.
By optimizing the design of the flux barriers, enhancement of the torque capacity of
IPMSMs, reduction of the torque ripple and minimizing the risk of irreversible demagneti-
zation of PMs can be achieved. Thus, based on the findings of the work presented in [20], it
can be concluded that large flux barriers with smaller angle are preferable when rare earth
magnets are used in the magnets. Considering the case of ferrite PMs, we find that the
design of flux barriers is not appropriate as extended torque pulses can occur, creating sig-
nificant problems in machine operation. Regarding the stator winding configuration, either
distributed or concentrated windings can be utilized. However, the distributed windings
enable the more sufficient exploitation of the IPMSM’s reluctance torque [21]. The electro-
motive force, induced by the PMs, of the IPMSMs is lower compared to that of the SPMSMs.
Concerning the efficiency, the IPMSMs have clear advantage over the SPMSMs at high
speeds, while at low speeds their performance is inferior [22]. Their high torque density
levels, along with their ability to handle a wide operation range with deep flux-weakening
control make them the leading candidates for EVs [23]. However, their design process is
characterized by increased complexity due to the large number of design variables [24].
Notwithstanding that, numerous rotor geometries have been analyzed, prototyped, and
evaluated by taking into account features, such the efficiency, flux-weakening-capability,
particular losses, thermal behavior, overload capability, manufacturing cost, risk of failure,
etc. [25].
A design variation of the SPMSMs, the inset PMSMs, is depicted in Figure 4a. The
PMs are allocated on the rotor’s circumference and the gaps among them are filled with
the core’s soft ferromagnetic material. In this way, a better restraint of the PMs is achieved.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o
Energies 2024, 17, 538 6 of 47

the core’s soft ferromagnetic material. In this way, a better restraint of the PMs is achiev
Nonetheless,
Nonetheless, their their thermal
thermal behavior behavior
is poorer is poorer
as: (a) as: (a) lessair
less circulating circulating
surrounds airthe
surrounds
magnets and (b) magnets
high ironand (b) appear
losses high iron losses
close appear
to them. The close to them.
rotor’s The rotor’s
hysteresis hysteresis losses
losses increase
crease since
since the ferromagnetic the ferromagnetic
material among the material amongsaturated.
PMs is easily the PMs is Theeasily saturated.
rotor of thisThe rotor
this machine
machine is anisotropic is anisotropic
as the iron’s as the iron’s
relative magnetic relative magnetic
permeability is much permeability
higher than thatis much hig
of the PMs [26].than
The that of the PMs
difference [26]. the
between Theq-difference
and d-axis between the q- and
inductances d-axis
creates inductances crea
reluctance
reluctance
torque. Thus, the operating torque. Thus,ofthe
principle theoperating
inset PMSMprinciple of theto
is similar inset
thatPMSM
of theisIPMSMs
similar to that of
with buried PMs.IPMSMs with buried PMs.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure
Figure 4. PMSM rotor 4. PMSM rotor
topologies: topologies:
(a) inset; (a) inset;
(b–h) buried (b–h) buried PMSMs.
PMSMs.

Among the most A important

design variation of the
decisions SPMSMs,
during the inset
the design PMSMs,
stage is theisselection
depictedof inthe
Figure 4a. T
PMs
iron bridges size, are
as it allocated on affects
substantially the rotor’s circumference
the IPMSM’s and the
back-emf and gaps
theamong
magnetic them are filled w
flux
leakage [27]. Thethe core’s soft
findings ferromagnetic
of the work presented material. In this
in [28] way, athat
indicated bettertherestraint of the PMs is achiev
d-axis inductance
Nonetheless,
varies with the iron their thermal
bridges saturation level.behavior is poorer as: (a) less circulating air surrounds
magnets and (b) high iron
The relationship between the rotor geometry losses appearandclose
the to them. The
trade-offs rotor’s hysteresis
required for the losses
motor’s wide speed range operation was investigated in the above research work, too. TheThe rotor
crease since the ferromagnetic material among the PMs is easily saturated.
incorporation ofthis machine
bypass is anisotropic
ribs outspreads theas the iron’s
IPMSM’s relativepower
constant magnetic regionpermeability
and boostsisitsmuch hig
than that of the PMs [26]. The difference between
flux-weakening capability [22]. Also, the minimum thickness of the bridges is imposedthe q- and d-axis inductances
by crea
reluctance torque. Thus, the operating principle of the
mechanical constraints. The maximum mechanical stress on the iron bridges for various inset PMSM is similar to that of
IPMSMs with buried PMs.
angles between the PMs has been estimated in [29] through an analytical method. The
Among the most important decisions during the design stage is the selection of
mechanical stress is alleviated when the flux barrier corners are rounded. The optimal
iron bridges size, as it substantially affects the IPMSM’s back-emf and the magnetic fl
design of the rotor’s iron bridges and flux barriers is essential for the IPMSM’s performance
leakage [27]. The findings of the work presented in [28] indicated that the d-axis indu
improvement. This can be implemented either by conducting a sensitivity analysis [30] or
ance varies with the iron bridges saturation level.
by following an optimization-based finite element analysis approach.
The relationship between the rotor geometry and the trade-offs required for the m
Another design parameter of great importance is the rotor rib, i.e., the distance between
tor’s wide speed range operation was investigated in the above research work, too. T
the flux barrier and the rotor circumference. The IPMSM’s maximum output power
incorporation of bypass ribs outspreads the IPMSM’s constant power region and boo
variation as a function of the specific
its flux-weakening dimension
capability was
[22]. Also, thethoroughly studied of
minimum thickness in the
thebridges
work is impo
presented in [31].
by As the rotorconstraints.
mechanical rib becomes The larger,
maximumthe stress concentration
mechanical stress onistherelieved at
iron bridges for v
high speeds butoustheangles
IPMSM’s performance deteriorates. The opposite happens
between the PMs has been estimated in [29] through an analytical method. T when the
rib thickness gets smaller values.
mechanical stress isAdditionally,
alleviated when the rib
the thickness
flux barrier affects
corners d- and
theare rounded.q-axisThe optim
inductances anddesign
consequently the flux-weakening operation. The angle between
of the rotor’s iron bridges and flux barriers is essential for the IPMSM’s the PMs perf
is subjected to constraints, too. The V-shaped rotor is not easily applicable when
mance improvement. This can be implemented either by conducting a sensitivity analy the poles
number is large [30]
as there
or byisfollowing
less available space for the PMs.finite
an optimization-based In this case, analysis
element the angle between
approach.
the PMs decreases. For low angle values, the rotor core’s material is
Another design parameter of great importance is the rotor rib, i.e.,saturated and higher
the distance
rotor losses occur as highlighted
tween in theand
the flux barrier workthe presented in [32]. The
rotor circumference. Themotor’s
IPMSM’s performance
maximum at output pow
the constant power region is negatively affected for low angle values, too.
On the other hand, the rotor losses become lower as the angle value gets higher.
Another defect of the V-shaped IPMSM is the fact that the airgap magnetic flux density
Energies 2024, 17, 538 7 of 47

distribution is less sinusoidal. It contains harmonics of high order that cause torque ripple,
vibrations, and noise. The harmonics can be reduced through the appropriate choice of the
pole arc to pole pitch ratio. The effect of the specific design variable on the airgap magnetic
flux density and back-emf was analyzed and discussed in the work presented in [33,34].
Another effective design solution is the PMs shifting. It leads to the cogging torque and
torque ripple suppression, while the average output torque is preserved [35]. Toward the
specific direction, the impact of stator slotting and armature reaction field was studied in
the work presented in [36] for IPMSMs with multi-segmented skewed poles. Guidelines
regarding the proper poles/slots combination choice were provided in the work presented
in [37] for IPMSMs with fractional-slot concentrated winding (FSCW).
The aim of these research effects was to establish a base capable of securing the
reliability of the IPMSMs that are used at traction applications. In order to overcome a
few of the V-shaped rotor IPMSMs inherent defects, the double-V structure (illustrated in
Figure 4c) has been introduced. An indicative alternative design is shown in Figure 4d.
The manufacturing complexity of this rotor is greatly increased compared to that of an
IPMSM with single magnet per pole. The topology of Figure 4e is known as delta-shaped
rotor. It has three PMs per pole that are arranged in two layers. The first layer contains two
magnet blocks that create a V-shaped structure. The second layer includes only one straight
magnet block. The difference between the q- and d-axis inductance of this motor is very
high. Although a high reluctance torque is produced, this torque can be hardly utilized
due to the DC link voltage limit. So, it has moderate field-weakening capability. Its torque
density is slightly higher than that of the single V-shaped rotor. In order to boost even
more the power/torque density of the delta-shaped rotor IPMSM, the Hairpin windings
was preferred in the work presented in [38]. The U-shaped rotor is depicted in Figure 4f.
At this geometry, the layout of letter “U” is built by the PMs. A PM volume smaller than
the corresponding one of the V-shaped rotor IPMSM is required, aiming for the motor to
deliver the same output torque. Due to its satisfactory torque capability, many already
published research works deal with the analysis and design of this IPMSM.
The rectangular-type rotor is presented in Figure 4g. It has one PM block per pole. Its
PMs are radially magnetized and embedded near the rotor surface. The manufacturing
process of this topology is quite easy. The PMs are well protected against the centrifugal
forces and the armature reaction field. However, the PMs suffer from much higher eddy
current losses compared to the rest IPMSMs due to the larger magnet poles cross-sectional
area. Therefore, the PMs segmentation is demanded. Another drawback of the specific rotor
design is the high leakage of flux through the iron bridges [39]. Its flux-weakening capability
can be characterized as satisfactory according to the findings. Many research efforts gave
emphasis on the torque quality improvement. A thorough analysis was performed in the
work presented in [40] regarding the impact of PM segments numbers and geometrical
parameters on the torque characteristics. It was found that increasing the PM’s thickness
instead of its width is more beneficial for the torque. Significant reduction of the torque
ripple was achieved in the work presented in [41] by conducting a range analysis on data
from orthogonal experiments.
The spoke-type rotor is illustrated in Figure 4h. The PMs are of a rectangular shape and
they are tangentially magnetized and inserted in deep slots. The rotor geometry permits the
magnetic flux concentration. When the magnet bridges are avoided, the flux moving inside
the rotor from one to pole to the adjacent one is averted [42]. The effect of both bridge
leakage and axial leakage was considered in during the design process of an IPMSM of this
type. The magnetic flux concentration leads to an airgap magnetic flux density value higher
than that of the PMs. This feature is of great importance since the produced reluctance
torque is low [43]. The rotor’s manufacturing is easy and of low cost. The restricted field-
weakening capability and the back-emf distortion are the utmost disadvantages of this
IPMSM. A novel design method was proposed in the work presented in [44] toward the
minimization of cogging torque and torque ripple without proceeding to the PMs skewing.
Asymmetric flux barriers were used along with the inverting lamination technique.
 duced reluctance torque is low [43]. The rotor’s manufacturing is easy and of low cost.
The restricted field-weakening capability and the back-emf distortion are the utmost dis-
advantages of this IPMSM. A novel design method was proposed in the work presented
in [44] toward the minimization of cogging torque and torque ripple without proceeding
Energies 2024, 17, 538 8 of 47
to the PMs skewing. Asymmetric flux barriers were used along with the inverting lamina-
tion technique.
The optimization of the rotor shape in the work presented in [45] was found to be
effectiveThe optimization
enough. of the
The torque rotor was
ripple shape in the work
reduced whilepresented in [45]
the average was remained
torque found to be effec-
un-
tive enough. The torque ripple was reduced while the average torque remained
affected. A novel structure with hybrid radial and axial flux-concentrating capability was unaffected.
A novelin
presented structure
the work with hybridin
included radial and
[46] to axial flux-concentrating
reduce capability
the interpolar leakage flux. Thewaselectro-
presented
in the work included in [46] to reduce the interpolar leakage flux. The electromagnetic
magnetic performance of the developed model was superior compared to that of a tradi-
performance of the developed model was superior compared to that of a traditional spoke-
tional spoke-type IPMSM. Targeting the efficiency enhancement, a comparative analysis
type IPMSM. Targeting the efficiency enhancement, a comparative analysis was made in
was made in the work presented in [47] for IPMSMs whose cores were made of a dual
the work presented in [47] for IPMSMs whose cores were made of a dual phase magnetic
phase magnetic material and conventional ferromagnetic materials for rotor laminations.
material and conventional ferromagnetic materials for rotor laminations.
Expect from the so far described rotor designs, there is an adequate number of alter-
Expect from the so far described rotor designs, there is an adequate number of alterna-
native topologies in the literature. They are either design variations of the conventional
tive topologies in the literature. They are either design variations of the conventional rotors
rotors or combinations of them, while few of them exhibit unique geometrical and opera-
or combinations of them, while few of them exhibit unique geometrical and operational
tional characteristics. In any case, the most promising ones are presented herein. The hy-
characteristics. In any case, the most promising ones are presented herein. The hybrid
brid magnets rotor structure of Figure 5a is formed when: (a) high-resistivity ferrite mag-
magnets rotor structure of Figure 5a is formed when: (a) high-resistivity ferrite magnets
nets are introduced in the flux paths of the d-axis and q-axis and (b) V-type NdFeB PMs
are introduced in the flux paths of the d-axis and q-axis and (b) V-type NdFeB PMs are
areplaced
placedininthe
thed-axis
d-axis path.
path. AsAs stated
stated in the
in the work
work presented
presented in [48],
in [48], theoffill
the fill theofair
the air
grooves
grooves between
between the tangential
the tangential magnetmagnet
blocksblocks
withwith ferrite
ferrite PMsPMs improves
improves the the torque
torque qual-and
quality
ity makes
and makes the airgap magnetic flux density more sinusoidal. The reduction
the airgap magnetic flux density more sinusoidal. The reduction of rotor and of rotorPMs
andlosses
PMs losses was achieved by finding the optimal angle between
was achieved by finding the optimal angle between the V-type PMs. the V-type PMs.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5. Promising
Figure IPMSM
5. Promising topologies:
IPMSM (a) (a)
topologies: Different PMPM
Different types; (b)(b)
types; PMs with
PMs various
with airair
various flux-barri-
flux-barriers
ers and
and iron bridges; (c) Two layer PM configurations; (d) Multi-layer PM optimization parame-
iron bridges; (c) Two layer PM configurations; (d) Multi-layer PM optimization parameters;
ters; (e) Outer rotor single layer PMs; (f) Outer rotor multi-layer PMs.
(e) Outer rotor single layer PMs; (f) Outer rotor multi-layer PMs.

A new rotor shape, shown in Figure 6b, was developed in the work presented in [49]
especially for IPMSM’s high-speed operation. The motor’s electromagnetic performance
was found to be superior compared to that of a SPMSM with the same specifications, while
the PMs volume has been decreased by 53%. The rotor geometry of Figure 6c contains two
layers of PMs (i.e., one of U-type and one of V-type). In the work presented in [50], the
impact of the involved rotor design variables was investigated and explained by employing
both analytical and numerical techniques. The final values of the geometrical parame-
ters were selected by considering key performance metrics, the motor’s flux-weakening
capability and the effect of short-circuit faults on the PMs.
 IPMSM of Figure 6e was studied in the work presented in [52]. PMs of a rectangular shape
were allocated near the rotor’s inner circumference. The motor’s cogging torque and
torque ripple was minimized by optimizing the flux barriers design. A hybrid double-U
rotor with two-layer crescent barriers (depicted in Figure 6f was introduced in [53] aiming
Energies 2024, 17, 538 to maximize the IPMSM’s output torque and reduce the utilization of high-cost rare-earth
9 of 47
PMs.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure
Figure6.6.IPMSM
IPMSMtopologies: (a)(a)
topologies: thethe
flux-concentrated V rotor
flux-concentrated design;
V rotor (b) V-shape;
design; (c) U-shape;
(b) V-shape; (d)
(c) U-shape;
VV-shape; (e) VU-shape;
(d) VV-shape; (f) UU-shape.
(e) VU-shape; (f) UU-shape.

2.4. Comparative
In the workAnalysis of PMSMs
presented in [51], aConfigurations
design methodology was proposed for the high-speed
multi-layer rotor IPMSM of Figure
The performance of the V-shaped rotor6d, which has ferrite
IPMSM PMs. Since
was compared tothe
theferrite magnets
respective one
have much lower coercive force than that of the NdFeB PMs, great emphasis
of the configurations with rectangular PMs in the work presented in [54]. The PMs dimen- was given
to thealong
sions incorporation of PMs
with the flux demagnetization
barriers analysis and
design were optimized, rotortomechanical
aiming meet specific analysis at
require-
all the design
ments, stages.
while the Despite
authors of thethe fact presented
work that the outer rotor
in [55] topologythe
estimated is more
rotor’spopular at the
stress distri-
SPMSMs,
bution there
under are research
maximum speedworks that deal
operation with the
to validate itsdesign of outer-rotor
mechanical stability.IPMSMs. The
IPMSM of Figure 6e was studied in the work presented in [52]. PMs of a rectangular shape
were allocated near the rotor’s inner circumference. The motor’s cogging torque and torque
ripple was minimized by optimizing the flux barriers design. A hybrid double-U rotor with
two-layer crescent barriers (depicted in Figure 6f was introduced in [53] aiming to maximize
the IPMSM’s output torque and reduce the utilization of high-cost rare-earth PMs.

2.4. Comparative Analysis of PMSMs Configurations

The performance of the V-shaped rotor IPMSM was compared to the respective one of
the configurations with rectangular PMs in the work presented in [54]. The PMs dimensions
along with the flux barriers design were optimized, aiming to meet specific requirements,
while the authors of the work presented in [55] estimated the rotor’s stress distribution
under maximum speed operation to validate its mechanical stability.
Also, alternative rotor configurations have been analyzed and compared to the con-
ventional ones. For instance, the topologies shown in Figure 7a–d, which have PMs both
radially and tangentially magnetized, were found to present higher torque capability and
saliency ratio than the ones of the equally operated spoke-type IPMSM shown in Figure 8a.
The asymmetric magnetic pole structure of Figure 8d that uses bonded rare-earth PMs
achieves higher output torque compared to the rectangular-type IPMSM of Figure 8c that
has sintered NdFeB PMs. In particular, its reluctance torque was increased by 34% and
the total average output torque was enhanced by 6.5%, as mentioned in the work pre-
sented in [56]. Its only disadvantage is the higher torque ripple, which can be reduced by
optimizing the magnets layout.
 8a.The
8a. Theasymmetric
asymmetricmagnetic
magneticpole
polestructure
structureofofFigure
Figure8d
8dthat
thatuses
usesbonded
bondedrare-earth
rare-earthPMs
PMs
achieves higher output torque compared to the rectangular-type IPMSM of
achieves higher output torque compared to the rectangular-type IPMSM of Figure 8c thatFigure 8c that
hassintered
has sinteredNdFeB
NdFeBPMs.PMs.InInparticular,
particular,its
itsreluctance
reluctancetorque
torquewas
wasincreased
increasedby by34%
34%and
and
the total average output torque was enhanced by 6.5%, as mentioned in
the total average output torque was enhanced by 6.5%, as mentioned in the work pre- the work pre-
Energies 2024, 17, 538 sentedinin[56].
sented [56].Its
Itsonly
onlydisadvantage
disadvantageisisthe
thehigher
highertorque
torqueripple,
ripple,which
whichcan
canbebereduced
reduced ofby
10 by 47
optimizing the magnets
optimizing the magnets layout.layout.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure7.7.IPMSM
Figure IPMSMtopologies:
topologies:(a) (a)the
thespoke-type
spoke-typeIPMSM;
IPMSM;(b) (b)the
thehybrid
hybridrotor;
rotor;(c)
(c) theasymmetric
asymmetric
Figure 7. IPMSM topologies: (a) the spoke-type IPMSM; (b) the hybrid rotor; (c)the
the asymmetric
magnetic
magnetic pole
pole structure
structure [56]; (d) the model used in [56] as a reference point.
magnetic pole structure[56];
[56];(d)
(d)the
themodel
modelused
usedinin[56]
[56]asasa areference
referencepoint.
point.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure8.8.The
Figure Theomega-shaped
omega-shapedPMs:
PMs:(a)
(a)Type-S;
Type-S; (b)Type-Ω;
Type-Ω; (c) Type-Ω-A;(d) (d) Type-Ω-B.
Figure 8. The omega-shaped PMs: (a) Type-S;(b)
(b) Type-Ω;(c)(c)Type-Ω-A;
Type-Ω-A; (d)Type-Ω-B.
Type-Ω-B.

Moreover,
Moreover,the
Moreover, theconfiguration
the configurationdepicted
configuration depictedin
depicted inin Figure
Figure
Figure 6a, 6a, which
which
6a, which isisknown
is known known asasflux-concen-
flux-concen-
as flux-concentrated
trated
V design,
trated V design, was
was studied.
V design, studied.
From the
was studied. From
From the
findings findings
of this of
the findings of this
research research
work, the
this research work,
work, the
following following
are observed:
the following are
are
observed:
(a) the spoke
observed: (a)
(a) thethe
type spoke
spoke type
rotortype
leads rotor
to the
rotor leads to
highest
leads to thethe highest
no-load
highest no-load
back-emf
no-load per back-emf
PM material
back-emf per
per PM PMusagematerial
while
material
usage
usage whilethe
the V-type
while theV-type
V-type
results to theresults
lowest
results totoone;
thelowest
the lowest
(b) one;(b)
theone; (b)the
back-emf the back-emf
total harmonic
back-emf total
total harmonic
distortion
harmonic of distortion
the spoke
distortion
ofof
and theflux-concentrated
the spokeand
spoke andflux-concentrated
flux-concentrated
V rotor is the VVrotor
rotorisisthe
highest the
ones; highest ones;
and ones;
highest (c) and
theand (c)the
theaforementioned
aforementioned
(c) aforementioned
topologies
topologies
have poor have poor demagnetization
demagnetization characteristics.
topologies have poor demagnetization characteristics. characteristics.
The cross-sectional
Thecross-sectional
The cross-sectionalview, view, along
view,along
alongwith with
withthethe no-load
theno-load magnetic
no-loadmagnetic
magneticflux flux density
fluxdensity distribution
densitydistribution
distribution
of
of the
the final
final models
models are
are given
given inin Figure
Figure 6.
6. From
From the
the obtained
obtained results,
results,
of the final models are given in Figure 6. From the obtained results, it can be noticed that: ititcan
can be
be noticed
noticed that:
that:
(a) the
(a)(a)the double-layer
thedouble-layer
double-layerPM PM machines
PMmachines
machineshave have lower
havelower magnetic
lowermagnetic
magneticflux flux density
fluxdensity harmonics
densityharmonics
harmonicscontentcontent
content
compared
compared to the single-layer
single-layer ones,
ones, (b)
(b) the
the q-axis
q-axis inductance
inductance
compared to the single-layer ones, (b) the q-axis inductance of the five models is almostof of
the the five
five models
models is is almost
almost the
the
same; same;
(c) (c)
the the U-shape
U-shape rotor rotor
motor motor
has has
the the
largest largest
d-axis d-axis inductance,
inductance,
the same; (c) the U-shape rotor motor has the largest d-axis inductance, followed by the followed followed
by the by the
single-V
single-V
double-V,
single-V double-V,
and hybrid
double-V, andhybrid
and hybrid
(i.e., (i.e.,UV-shape)
UV-shape)
(i.e., UV-shape)
rotor, (d) rotor,
the(d)
rotor, (d)the
theU-shape
U-shape U-shape
arrangement arrangement
arrangement has the has
has the
lowest
the
difference
lowest between
difference the
between q-axis
the and
q-axis d-axis
and inductance,
d-axis inductance,which
lowest difference between the q-axis and d-axis inductance, which is quite close to that of is
which quite
is close
quite to
close that
to of
that the
of
V-shape rotor, (e) the double-layer PMs motors have almost the same difference between
the d-axis and q-axis inductances and their values are higher than those of the single-layer
PMs, (f) the U-shape rotor has the best mechanical performance, while the V-type one
has the worst one and (g) the U-shaped IPMSM has the best anti-demagnetization ability
among the five rotors under the three-phase symmetric short-circuit faults. In the magnet
of Figure 9, the fields H, B are in the same direction outside the magnet, Figure 9a,b, while
the demagnetization field Hd inside the magnet opposes the fields B, M. Demagnetization
factors depend on the image and permeability of the magnetic material sample and are
very difficult to determine in closed form.
 gle-layer PMs, (f) the U-shape rotor has the best mechanical performance, while the V-
type one has the worst one and (g) the U-shaped IPMSM has the best anti-demagnetiza-
tion ability among the five rotors under the three-phase symmetric short-circuit faults. In
the magnet of Figure 9, the fields H, B are in the same direction outside the magnet, Figure
Energies 2024, 17, 538 9a and Figure 9b, while the demagnetization field H inside the magnet opposes the
11 of 47
fields B, M. Demagnetization factors depend on the image and permeability of the mag-
netic material sample and are very difficult to determine in closed form.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9. Permanent
Figure magnet
9. Permanent field distribution:
magnet (a) Field
field distribution: (a)H; (b) Field
Field H; (b)B;Field
(c) Field B,Field
B; (c) H, MB,
within
H, Mthe
within
magnet.
the magnet.

3. Thermal
3. Thermal Analysis
Analysis and and Permanent
Permanent Magnet
Magnet Demagnetization
Demagnetization Effects
Effects
3.1. Magnetic
3.1. Magnetic Material
Material Categories
Categories
Designing
Designing electric
electric motors
motors with with
high high
power power density
density for EVsforcan
EVsbecan be challenging
challenging due to due
to power loss and temperature rise. To overcome these challenges,
power loss and temperature rise. To overcome these challenges, a significant amount a significant amount
of
of research has been conducted on the design high-density electric
research has been conducted on the design high-density electric motors with advanced motors with advanced
materials,
materials, improved
improved physics
physics and and mathematics,
mathematics, and and improved
improved powerpower density,
density, modeling
modeling of of
the materials and the motor system, as well as interdisciplinary optimization
the materials and the motor system, as well as interdisciplinary optimization at the system at the system
levellevel of entire
of the the entire
drivedrive system
system [57].[57].
New manufacturing techniques havehave
New manufacturing techniques also also
beenbeen introduced
introduced aiming
aiming to reduce
to reduce produc-
produc-
tion tion costs, such as 3-D printing. Although important magnetization levels have not been
costs, such as 3-D printing. Although important magnetization levels have not been
attained yet, such technologies present advantages in high speed and high supply fre-
attained yet, such technologies present advantages in high speed and high supply fre-
quency applications due to the reduced losses developed, and could constitute an attractive
quency applications due to the reduced losses developed, and could constitute an attrac-
possibility for low-cost core production in such cases. The features of fabricated cores
tive possibility for low-cost core production in such cases. The features of fabricated cores
from a commercially available low-mass and low-cost magnetic polylactic acid (PLA) iron
from a commercially available low-mass and low-cost magnetic polylactic acid (PLA) iron
filament are under investigation [58].
filament are under investigation [58].
Magnetic materials belong to one of the following categories: diamagnetic, paramag-
Magnetic materials belong to one of the following categories: diamagnetic, paramag-
netic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic.
netic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic.
•
•Diamagnetic
Diamagnetic materials have no pure magnetic moment at the atomic or molecular
materials have no pure magnetic moment at the atomic or molecular
level. When diamagnetic materials are subjected to the action of an external field,
level. When diamagnetic materials are subjected to the action of an external field,
atomic currents are produced, which cause total magnetization, which opposes the
atomic currents are produced, which cause total magnetization, which opposes the
external field that caused it. Bismuth (B ) is an example of the diamagnetic material.
external field that caused it. Bismuth (Bi) is ian example of the diamagnetic material.
• Paramagnetic materials have a pure magnetic moment at the atomic level, but the
• Paramagnetic materials have a pure magnetic moment at the atomic level, but the
coupling between neighboring magnetic moments is weak. These magnetic moments
coupling between neighboring magnetic moments is weak. These magnetic moments
tend to align with an external magnetic field, but the magnitude of the alignment
tend to align with an external magnetic field, but the magnitude of the alignment
decreases at higher temperatures due to random thermal agitation effects. Materially,
decreases at higher temperatures due to random thermal agitation effects. Materially,
the adjacent magnetic moments are unequal resulting in a net magnetic moment.
the adjacent magnetic moments are unequal resulting in a net magnetic moment.
• Ferromagnetic materials have a pure magnetic moment at the atomic level, but unlike
• Ferromagnetic materials have a pure magnetic moment at the atomic level, but unlike
paramagnetic materials there is strong coupling between neighboring magnetic mo-
paramagnetic
ments. This materials there is strong
strong coupling causescoupling between
a spontaneous neighboring
alignment magneticmoments
of magnetic mo-
ments. This strong coupling causes a spontaneous alignment of magnetic
at the macroscopic level, in regions called magnetic fields. The magnetic fields are moments
at the macroscopic
further aligned level,
underin regions
the called
influence magnetic
of an externalfields.
field. The
Theymagnetic fieldsinto
are classified are soft
further aligned under the influence of an external field. They are classified
and hard ferromagnetic materials depending on the value of the coherent field (Hc ). into soft
•and Finally,
hard ferromagnetic materialsmaterials
the antiferromagnetic depending andonferromagnetic
the value of the coherent
materials havefield (H ).
neighboring
• Finally, the antiferromagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials have
atomic moments oriented antiparallel. In antiferromagnetic materials, the adjacent neighbor-
ing atomic
magnetic moments
moments oriented antiparallel.
are equal, In antiferromagnetic
so that there is no net magneticmaterials,
moment. the adja-
In ferromag-
centnetic
magnetic moments
materials are equal,magnetic
the neighboring so that there
momentsis no arenet magnetic
unequal, moment.
so that there isIna net
magnetic moment.

3.2. Demagnetization Field

When a sable is magnetized, a field is developed which opposes the magnetizing field.
This field is called the demagnetization field, and it plays a role in the whole process of
magnetization.
Let us consider a uniformly magnetized sample of volume V and area S. The magneti-
zation M creates surface poles. These in turn create a demagnetization field Nx within the
 3.2. Demagnetization Field
When a sable is magnetized, a field is developed which opposes the magnetizing
field. This field is called the demagnetization field, and it plays a role in the whole process
of magnetization.
Energies 2024, 17, 538 12 of 47
Let us consider a uniformly magnetized sample of volume V and area S. The mag-
netization M creates surface poles. These in turn create a demagnetization field N within
the sample. The demagnetization field N is proportional to the magnetization M but in
thesample. The
opposite demagnetization
direction. For example, Nx isthe
fieldalong proportional to the magnetization M but in the
x-axis we have:
opposite direction. For example, along the x-axis we have:
H = −N M (1)
Hdx = − Nx Mx (1)
where H and M are the x-components of the demagnetization and magnetization
fields,
whererespectively,
Hdx and Mxand are Nthe is the demagnetization
x-components factor along the
of the demagnetization andx-axis. If an external
magnetization fields,
field H is applied
respectively, and N to the
is sample,
the then the field
demagnetization inside
factor thethe
along sample Hin
x-axis. If willexternal
an be equal to the
field Ha is
x
vector sum of H and H :
applied to the sample, then the field inside the sample H will be equal to the vector sum
in
of Ha and Hd : H = H + H (2)
Hin = Ha + Hd (2)
A sample with an isotropic distribution of specific orientation axes (magneto crystal-
A sample with
line anisotropy) an isotropic
is considered. It distribution of specific orientation
is initially demagnetized with itsaxes (magneto
domains crystalline
isotopically
oriented as shown in point “O” of Figure 10. Applying a H field, and as H increasesoriented
anisotropy) is considered. It is initially demagnetized with its domains isotopically from
as shown
zero along thein point “O”
positive of Figure
semi-axis 10. Applying
(weak H field, and
field), the amagnetic as H which
domains increases
are from zero
aligned
with the field grow in size and the oppositely oriented magnetic domains decrease in sizethe
along the positive semi-axis (weak field), the magnetic domains which are aligned with
duefield grow
to the in size and
movement the magnetic
of the oppositely oriented
domain magnetic
walls. domains further
As H increases decrease in size due to
(intermediate
the movement of the magnetic domain walls. As H increases further (intermediate field)
field) the magnetic moments in the remaining non-oriented magnetic sectors rotate or flip
the magnetic moments in the remaining non-oriented magnetic sectors rotate or flip in
in orientations along specific axes that are in the direction of the H field. For high values
orientations along specific axes that are in the direction of the H field. For high values of H
of H the magnetic moments along specific axes in magnetic fields not aligned with the H
the magnetic moments along specific axes in magnetic fields not aligned with the H field
field rotate off these axes and align with H.
rotate off these axes and align with H.

Figure 10.10.
Figure Distribution of of
Distribution magnetic field
magnetic orientation
field at at
orientation various points
various along
points thethe
along hysteresis loop.
hysteresis loop.

3.3.
3.3. Hard
Hard Magnetic
Magnetic Material
Material Characteristics
Characteristics
Hard magnetic materials areare
Hard magnetic materials characterized
characterized bybylowlow permeability
permeability and
and a high
a high coherent
coherent
field
field value.
value. TheThe latter
latter property
property makes makes
themthem difficult
difficult to magnetize
to magnetize and demagnetize.
and demagnetize. Per-
Permanent magnets are used as field sources in a wide range of electromechanical
manent magnets are used as field sources in a wide range of electromechanical devices. devices.
One of them is concerned the choice of Fe-Co-V alloy instead of silicon steel. The magnetic
One of them is concerned the choice of Fe-Co-V alloy instead of silicon steel. The magnetic
properties of silicon steel, which is a widely chosen soft magnetic material in motors,
properties of silicon steel, which is a widely chosen soft magnetic material in motors, de-
deteriorate severely under high pressure, which leads to a reduction in motor performance.
teriorate severely under high pressure, which leads to a reduction in motor performance.
In contrast, by choosing this alloy, better torque density, less core loss and better electric
In contrast, by choosing this alloy, better torque density, less core loss and better electric
motor operation performance were found [59].
motor operation performance were found [59].
The properties of primary importance in the selection of a magnetic material are those
The properties of primary importance in the selection of a magnetic material are those
that determine the magnitude and stability of the field they can provide. These include the
that determine the magnitude and stability of the field they can provide. These include
coherent field value Hc , the saturation magnetization value M, the residual magnetization
the coherent field value H , the saturation magnetization value M, the residual
Br , as well as the shape of the hysteresis loop in the second quadrant. This part of the
hysteresis loop is called the demagnetization characteristic, shown in Figure 11a.
The points B, H in the demagnetization characteristics define an energy product B-H
which takes a maximum value max in the interval − Hc < H < 0 as shown in Figure 11b.
When a permanent magnet is used as a field source it is polarized at a functional point (Bm ,
Hm ) of its demagnetization characteristic. The operating point depends on the circuit in
which it is used. It can be determined from the load line of the circuit. This intersects the
demagnetization characteristic at the point (Bm , Hm ) as shown in Figure 12. It is desirable
to polarize the magnet at the point of maximum energy (B-H) max. This will result in
minimizing the volume of the magnet and reducing its cost.
 magnetization B , as well as the shape of the hysteresis loop in the second quadrant. This
part of the hysteresis loop is called the demagnetization characteristic, shown in Figure
Energies 2024, 17, 538 11a. 13 of 47
(a) (b)
Figure 11. B-H second-quadrant curve: (a) demagnetization curve; (b) B-H function of H.

The points B, H in the demagnetization characteristics define an energy product B-H

which takes a maximum value max in the interval −H < H < 0 as shown in Figure 11b.
When a permanent magnet is used as a field source it is polarized at a functional point
(Bm, Hm) of its demagnetization characteristic. The operating point depends on the circuit
in which it is used. It can be determined from the load line of the circuit. This intersects
the demagnetization characteristic at the point (Bm, Hm) as shown in Figure 12. It is de-
sirable to polarize(a)
the magnet at the point of maximum
(b) energy (B-H) max. This will result
in minimizing the volume of the magnet and reducing its cost.
Figure 11.11.
Figure B-H second-quadrant
B-H curve:
second-quadrant (a)(a)
curve: demagnetization curve;
demagnetization (b)(b)
curve; B-H function
B-H of of
function H.H.

The points B, H in the demagnetization characteristics define an energy product B-H

which takes a maximum value max in the interval −H < H < 0 as shown in Figure 11b.
When a permanent magnet is used as a field source it is polarized at a functional point
(Bm, Hm) of its demagnetization characteristic. The operating point depends on the circuit
in which it is used. It can be determined from the load line of the circuit. This intersects
the demagnetization characteristic at the point (Bm, Hm) as shown in Figure 12. It is de-
sirable to polarize the magnet at the point of maximum energy (B-H) max. This will result
in minimizing the volume of the magnet and reducing its cost.

Figure Figure 12. Demagnetization

12. Demagnetization characteristics
characteristics and
and load load time.
time.

An important consideration in permanent magnet machines concerns the avoidance

An important consideration in permanent magnet machines concerns the avoidance
of permanent demagnetization effects of the magnets in cases of faults, as under such
of permanent demagnetization effects of the magnets in cases of faults, as under such con-
conditions the current component along the direct (d) axis (id ) can take values several
ditions the current component along the direct (d) axis (i ) can take values several times
times greater than those of nominal operation. An approximate analysis of the short
greater than those of nominal operation. An approximate analysis of the short circuit cur-
circuit current variations of the machine can be performed by using analytical formulae
rent variations of the machine can be performed by using analytical formulae based on
based on sub-transient (X ′′ d ), transient (X ′ d ) and steady state (Xd ) reactance values along d
sub-transient (X′′ ), transient (X′ ) and steady state (Xd) reactance values along d axis, re-
axis, respectively, according to the classical two axes transformation method. In general,
spectively, according to the classical two axes transformation method. In general, this
this method enables the analysis of machines with damper windings. The mathematical
method enables the
expression analysis short
concerning of machines with damper
circuit current windings.
time variation is asThe mathematical ex-
follows:
Figure
pression 12. Demagnetization
concerning characteristics
short circuit current time andvariation
load time.is as follows:
"  − t #
− Tt′
  
An important 1
consideration 1 in1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 ′′

i id t(t) = − ωλωλ Mag + permanent

′
− e magnet ·e d machines
+ ′′
−concerns
e ′
·e the
T avoidance
d
(3) (3)
of permanent demagnetization X Xeffects
d X′ ofXXdthe magnets
Xd casesX
inX′′ X′ X das under such
ofdfaults, con-
ditions the current component along the direct (d) axis (i ) can take values several times
greater than those of nominal operation. An
′′
< T′ d
Tdapproximate analysis of the short circuit (4)
T T (4) cur-
rent variations
where, λ Mag isofthetheflux
machine
linkage, canω be performed
is the angular by using analytical
frequency,
′ formulaeshort
Td is the transient basedcircuit
on
sub-transient
time contstant (X′′and
), transient
Td is the(X′
′′ ) and steady
subtransient shortstate (Xd) time
circuit reactance values along d axis, re-
contstant.
spectively, according to the classical two axes transformation
Figure 13 illustrates the demagnetization effects in the permanent method. In magnets
general, this
of an
method
internal permanent magnet V-type machine computed by finite element analysis,ex-
enables the analysis of machines with damper windings. The mathematical the
pression
geometryconcerning
of whichshort circuit
is shown in current
the sametime variation is as follows:
figure.
Permanent magnet motors are now well established in the ever-growing electric car
1 1 1 1 1
industry. Thei presence
t ωλ
of strong rare earths ofe Neodymium in these e motors is vital
(3)for
X X′ X X′′ X′
increasing power density [60]. The absence of copper from the rotor offers an advantage
for achieving high efficiency, as in the case of modern magnetoresistance motors (SRMs),
while the presence of magnets improvesT Tthe power factor and increases the maximum (4)
torque capacity [61]. Meanwhile, concerns related to the magnetization level of permanent
magnets appear [62]. The main disadvantage of this kind of motors is the difficulty of
field attenuation, even at relatively low speeds [63]. The characteristics of the machine are
derived from the preliminary design and based on the observe of the high saturation in the
rotor and stator. In general, the demagnetization calculation methods are applied on top
of some already optimized geometry and help to study the cost in terms of the type and
grade of magnet that the final geometry can use [64–66].
 where, λ is the flux linkage, ω is the angular frequency, T is the transient short cir-
cuit time contstant and T is the subtransient short circuit time contstant.
Figure 13 illustrates the demagnetization effects in the permanent magnets of an in-
Energies 2024, 17, 538 ternal permanent magnet V-type machine computed by finite element analysis, the geom-14 of 47
etry of which is shown in the same figure.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW PMSM under

Figure 13. PMSM under short-circuit
short-circuit conditions
conditions illustrating
illustrating one
one pole
pole part configuration
configuration 48 the
15 ofand
magnetic field
field distribution
distributionofofananinternal
internalpermanent
permanent magnet
magnetV-type machine
V-type with
machine inclusion
with of de-
inclusion of
magnetization
demagnetization effects at at
effects 6060°C◦ C
under short
under shortcircuit
circuitconditions
conditionsinvolving
involvingstator
statorcurrent
currentdensity
density 600%
600%
of
of nominal
nominal value.
value.
function changes for different temperature intervals, the interval Ti − Ti−1 must be rede-
fined. AnThermal
3.4. analogous
Permanent model
Modeling
magnet of is used toare
Permanent
motors describe
Magnets
now well theestablished
coherent field as aever-growing
in the function of temper-
electric car
ature.
industry. The presenceofofmagnetization
The dependence strong rare earths of Neodymium
on temperature in these motors
is non-linear, is vital for
but approximate
increasing
models exist power
[67]. density
The most [60]. The
common absence of
approach copper
is to
Η , (T) = H , (T )(1 + b(T − T )) from the
describe rotor
the offers an
temperature advantage
function
(6)
for achieving high efficiency, as in the case of modern magnetoresistance
with a linear model. This is illustrated in Figure 14, where linearity is established motors (SRMs),
for
aThe
while parameters
local the of the
presence
temperature slope
ofinterval,
magnets ofTithe
−linear
Ti−1 .function
improves the in
power
In this the two and
factor
technique models
it can are,assumed
increases
be respectively,
the maximum
that the
a, b.torque
Since the
residual IEC standard
capacity atuses
[61]. Meanwhile,
magnetization theconcerns
same symbol
the macroscopic related a to
level can forthe
beboth models, it is
magnetization
approximately necessary
level to the
of permanent
correlated with
make the
magnetsfollowing
spontaneousappear distinction
[62]. The main
magnetization for two models,
disadvantage
at the microscopica(B ) and
oflevel. a(Η ) [70].
this kind of motors is the difficulty of field
attenuation, even at relatively low speeds [63]. The characteristics of the machine are de-
rived from the preliminary design and based on the observe of the high saturation in the
rotor and stator. In general, the demagnetization calculation methods are applied on top
of some already optimized geometry and help to study the cost in terms of the type and
grade of magnet that the final geometry can use [64–66].

3.4. Thermal Modeling of Permanent Magnets

The dependence of magnetization on temperature is non-linear, but approximate
models exist [67]. The most common approach is to describe the temperature function
with a linear model. This is illustrated in Figure 14, where linearity is established for a
local temperature interval, Ti − Ti−1. In this technique it can be assumed that the residual
magnetization (a)at the macroscopic level can be approximately (b) correlated with the sponta-
neous
Figure 14. magnetization
Non-linear at the
relationship microscopic
between: (a) level.
spontaneous magnetization;
Figure 14. Non-linear relationship between: (a) spontaneous magnetization; (b) magnetic induction
(b) magnetic induction
withwith Magnetization
temperature.
temperature. is modeled by a linear function of temperature which decreases with
increasing temperature T [68]. Similarly, the residual magnetic induction B is modeled
Asathe
by gradient
linear is is
function
Magnetization different,
[69]. It is Tusually
modeled i − a
by Tlinear
i−1 temperature
expressed
functionasof intervals in a per
a temperature
percentage non-linear
degree
which model
Celsius
decreases as
with
would be moretemperature
mentioned
increasing appropriate
above (%/oz) Tthan
and is
[68]. the linear
given
Similarly, byone. Such an
Equation
the residual (5).alternative
magnetic model B
induction has
r isbeen pro- by a
modeled
posed withfunction
linear second-order
[69]. Itpolynomials [71] for the
is usually expressed as aresidual
percentage magnetic induction
per degree Celsiusand coher-
as mentioned
B (T) = B (T )(1 + a(T − T )) (5)
ent field.
above (%/oz) and is given by Equation (5).
The above equations express an interval of linearity at a temperature T associated
B (T) =BB(𝑇( T)(1 =+ B𝑎r ( TTis 1T +
) +a(aT −T T T (7) (5)
with a reference temperature r T ,) which 0 )(usually 0 ))Since the slope of the linear
20 °C.
Η , (T) express
The above equations = Η , (𝑇 an)(1 + 𝑏 𝑇of linearity
interval 𝑇 ) + b atTa temperature
T ) (8)with
T associated
◦
aThe
reference
omega-shaped PMs Tarrangements
temperature 0 , which is usually 20 C. Since
were proposed the slope ofofthe
as substitutes linear function
conventional
changes for different temperature intervals, the
rectangular-type IPMSMs to enhance the torque characteristics. interval T i − T must be
i−1 developed
The redefined.
geome- An
analogous model is used to describe the coherent field as a function of temperature.
tries (illustrated in Figure 15a–c have bonded instead of sintered PMs and exhibit: (a)
lower iron losses due to the lower magnetic flux density distribution, (b) higher efficiency
Hc,i ( T ) = Hc,i ( T0 )(1 + b( T − T0 )) (6)
under the maximum output control, (c) lower torque ripple and (d) higher average output
torque. Modified models of the V-type IPMSM were introduced in the work presented in
[72]. The IPMSM (depicted in Figure 15a of the 3rd generation Toyota Prius model) was
considered as the reference motor. The modified models of Figure 15b, c were developed
by applying an optimization algorithm. The motors’ performance was evaluated by taking
into consideration the electric vehicle’s behavior under three different driving cycles.
 Energies 2024, 17, 538 15 of 47

The parameters of the slope of the linear function in the two models are, respectively,
a, b. Since the IEC standard uses the same symbol a for both models, it is necessary to make
the following distinction for two models, a(Br ) and a(Hc ) [70].
As the gradient is different, Ti − Ti−1 temperature intervals in a non-linear model
would be more appropriate than the linear one. Such an alternative model has been
proposed with second-order polynomials [71] for the residual magnetic induction and
coherent field.
Br ( T ) = Br ( T0 )(1 + a1 ( T − To ) + a2 ( T − To ) 2 ) (7)
Hc,i ( T ) = Hc,i ( T0 )(1 + b1 ( T − To ) + b2 ( T − To )2 ) (8)
The omega-shaped PMs arrangements were proposed as substitutes of conventional
rectangular-type IPMSMs to enhance the torque characteristics. The developed geometries
(illustrated in Figure 15a–c have bonded instead of sintered PMs and exhibit: (a) lower iron
losses due to the lower magnetic flux density distribution, (b) higher efficiency under the
maximum output control, (c) lower torque ripple and (d) higher average output torque.
Modified models of the V-type IPMSM were introduced in the work presented in [72]. The
IPMSM (depicted in Figure 15a of the 3rd generation Toyota Prius model) was considered
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW as the reference motor. The modified models of Figure 15b, c were developed 16 of by
48 apply-
ing an optimization algorithm. The motors’ performance was evaluated by taking into
consideration the electric vehicle’s behavior under three different driving cycles.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15. The 15.
Figure PMThe
arrangement studies in
PM arrangement [72]: (a)
studies the IPMSM
in [72]: of the 3rd
(a) the IPMSM of generation Toyota Prius
the 3rd generation Toyota Prius
model, used as used
model, a reference motor; (b)
as a reference the modified
motor; V1 model;
(b) the modified (c) the modified
V model; V2 model.
(c) the modified V model.
1 2

The aboveThe thermal model of

results revealed residual
that magnetization,
the proposed modifieddemagnetizing
V2 model (shown force and per-
in Figure 15c) has a
meability is based
higher torque ondensity
the change of the
of 36%, main
while theparameters.
PMs volumeThe hasmodel can be made
been decreased and more
significantly
complex if a sigmoid
lower cogging function
torque. Itisleads
used,tosuch as the
higher tanhdrive
electric function, for example.
efficiency by 0.84%To(inmodel
average) at
the B-Hthecurve, the vehicle
electric following relation
level for thecan be examined
three used: drive cycles. Its only undesirable feature is
the mitigation by 14.69% of the motor’s maximum ,
output power, capability.
B (H, T) = P(T) b tanh + b tanh
Models of permanent magnets are not based on demagnetizing force and (10)
residual
magnetic induction alone and are not complete without modeling magnetic permeabil-
where the function P(T) represents the vertical part of the loop associated with the residual
ity. A model for the recoil permeability can be developed which takes temperature into
magnetization and the function Q(T) the horizontal part of the loop is associated with the
account. This can be achieved by a similar linear model originally developed for soft
demagnetizing force.
ferromagnetic materials.
The ability to impose proper magnetization on magnets to restore full magnetization
is a complex problem that requiresµ(very T ) =stringent
µ( T0 )(1 +conditions
aµ( T0 )( Tto−which
To ) the magnet must (9)
be subjected to make this possible. First, for the study of magnets, a detailed determination
of the B-H magnet
The abovecurve in the second
thermal model of quadrant
residualmust be made. For
magnetization, this purpose, accord-
demagnetizing force and per-
ing to this publication
meability [73],
is based onthe
theexponential
change of the model
mainfor calculatingThe
parameters. the model
B-H curve
can is
bemen-
made more
tioned. According to the above publication, the function describing the curve consists of
two terms, linear and exponential.
In order to obtain its correct fitting, it is necessary to determine the values of two
constants [74]. The formula of the function and the method of calculating the constants
are given below:
B Η B μ μ ⋅H E ⋅ e (K H) (11)
where:
Energies 2024, 17, 538 16 of 47

complex if a sigmoid function is used, such as the tanh function, for example. To model the
B-H curve, the following relation can be used:
   
H + Q( T ) Hc,i ( T0 ) H + Q( T ) Hc,i ( T0 )
Bi ( H, T ) = P( T ) b0 tanh + b1 tanh (10)
Q ( T ) h0 Q ( T ) h1

where the function P(T) represents the vertical part of the loop associated with the residual
magnetization and the function Q(T) the horizontal part of the loop is associated with the
demagnetizing force.
The ability to impose proper magnetization on magnets to restore full magnetization
is a complex problem that requires very stringent conditions to which the magnet must be
subjected to make this possible. First, for the study of magnets, a detailed determination of
the B-H magnet curve in the second quadrant must be made. For this purpose, according
to this publication [73], the exponential model for calculating the B-H curve is mentioned.
According to the above publication, the function describing the curve consists of two terms,
linear and exponential.
In order to obtain its correct fitting, it is necessary to determine the values of two
constants [74]. The formula of the function and the method of calculating the constants are
given below:
B( H ) = Br + µ0 µr · H − E · K1 (K2 + H ) (11)
where:
• E is a constant needed for unit conversion
• µr denotes the relative magnetic permeability
• Br is given by the manufacturer and indicates the residual magnetization.
• K1 indicates the acidity of the knee; indicative value is −4–10−5 m/A for neodymium
NdFeB magnets of classical grade (regular grade magnet).
• K2 is calculated from the equation:
h i
ln ( Br + (µr − 1)·µ0 · jH c )· E1
K2 = − jH c (12)
K1
Permanent magnet losses cause an increase in magnet temperature and can lead
to a decrease in demagnetization resistance. In order to avoid the negative effects of
bifurcations, the above V-shaped PM motor geometry, shown in Figure 14, was considered,
which includes an internal PM configuration. Proper evaluation of the demagnetization
risk requires combining the permanent magnet loss model with a thermal analysis.
The rotor of the machine comprises permanent magnets of ND50H grade. The cal-
culated magnetic field distribution under short circuit illustrating magnet regions with
important demagnetization risks is shown in Figure 14 The demagnetization evaluation
is highly dependent on the model used for the B-H curve behavior. Figure 16 shows the
percentage of PM demagnetization evaluated by different models implemented. This figure
illustrates that at higher temperatures the simpler models for demagnetization evaluation
may lead to important overestimation of the magnet demagnetized percentage.
The study demonstrates that the proposed methodology for the evaluation of per-
manent magnet bifurcation losses combined with the modeling procedure adopted for
the demagnetization consideration can provide great services in the proper determination
of the demagnetization risks of MM and the efficient use of the material in the design of
electrical machines.
 ation may lead to important overestimation of the magnet demagnetized percentage.
The study demonstrates that the proposed methodology for the evaluation of perma-
nent magnet bifurcation losses combined with the modeling procedure adopted for the
demagnetization consideration can provide great services in the proper determination of
Energies 2024, 17, 538 the demagnetization risks of MM and the efficient use of the material in the design17 ofof
47
electrical machines.

Figure
Figure16.
16.Percentage of of
Percentage thethe
demagnetized areaarea
demagnetized withwith
respect to stator
respect current
to stator underunder
current different tem-
different
peratures for ND50H magnet grades.
temperatures for ND50H magnet grades.

3.5.Demagnetization
3.5. DemagnetizationModeling
ModelingofofPermanent
PermanentMagnets
Magnets
Permanentmagnet
Permanent magnetmotors
motorscurrently
currentlyhave
havebeen
beenestablished
establishedas asaafavored
favoredoption
optionin inthe
the
ever-growing electric
ever-growing electric automotive
automotive industry.
industry.InInthe
thepresence
presenceofofstrong
strongrare earth
rare neodymium
earth neodym-
material
ium enables
material substantial
enables increase
substantial in power
increase density.
in power In addition,
density. the absence
In addition, of copper
the absence of
from the rotor offers advantages of reduced maintenance and increased
copper from the rotor offers advantages of reduced maintenance and increased efficiency; efficiency; on
thethe
on other
otherhand,
hand,in the case
in the of modern
case of modernreluctance
reluctancemotors
motors (SRM), thethe
(SRM), presence
presenceof magnets
of mag-
improves the power factor and offers the potential for higher torque.
nets improves the power factor and offers the potential for higher torque. A key area A key area of
of
extensive study concerns the level of magnetization of permanent magnets
extensive study concerns the level of magnetization of permanent magnets at specific tem- at specific
temperatures
peratures [67,68].
[67,68].
The following investigationshows
The following investigation showsin inthe
thedemagnetization
demagnetizationresults
resultsunder
underthree
threephase
phase
short-circuits conditions, in radial flux permanent magnet motors favored in
short-circuits conditions, in radial flux permanent magnet motors favored in electric mo- electric mobil-
ity applications.
bility applications. The optimization
The optimizationof the geometry
of the waswas
geometry based on the
based on combination
the combinationof high
of
torque at low speeds and satisfactory performance under field attenuation
high torque at low speeds and satisfactory performance under field attenuation conditionsconditions [75].
Based on the geometry of the motor, three different types of magnets were used in order
[75]. Based on the geometry of the motor, three different types of magnets were used in
to draw conclusions about the motor operation in each case. In the motor with ND52
order to draw conclusions about the motor operation in each case. In the motor with ND52
(Figure 17) type, there is a strong sensibility to demagnetization even when the stator
(Figure 17) type, there is a strong sensibility to demagnetization even when the stator cur-
current is quite low. It is therefore considered quite important to characterize and diagnose
rent is quite low. It is therefore considered quite important to characterize and diagnose
demagnetization at an early stage. With the 2-D finite element method (FEM) and PMSM
demagnetization at an early stage. With the 2D finite element method (FEM) and PMSM
motor current examination, which is based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT), harmonics
motor current examination, which is based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT), harmonics
indeed lead to safe conclusions in case of fault, as they are characterized as fault indicators
indeed lead to safe conclusions in case of fault, as they are characterized as fault indicators
for detecting demagnetization. Therefore, the effect of increasing the current is expected to
for detecting demagnetization. Therefore, the effect of increasing the current is expected
reduce the strength of the machine [76].
to reduce the strength of the machine [76].
The motors with ND50H magnets were also tested for its demagnetization behavior
when the current is 1.5 and 7 times the nominal current as shown in Figures 18 and 19,
respectively. In this case, the improvement compared to the previous machine with ND52
magnets is very large.
ND42UH type magnets were then placed in the machine. Magnets of this type have a
higher jHc value and are therefore more difficult to demagnetize than ND50H magnets and
in that respect, even more difficult when related to the original simulation of the machine
with ND52 magnets. In order to keep the torque performance of the machine the same, the
length of the machine has to be increased, since the Br value of the magnets is reduced [77].
The demagnetization behavior of this machine with ND42UH magnets, as shown in the
diagrams below, is much more robust than the previous two machines. This is evident as it
shows a strong resistance to demagnetization, i.e., almost zero demagnetization, up to T:
120–180 ◦ C and then it demagnetizes abruptly and rapidly.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 48
Energies 2024, 17, 538 18 of 47

Figure 17.17.
Figure Demagnetized
Demagnetized magnet area
magnet variation
area with
variation temperature
with temperature forfor
a current 1.51.5
a current times thethe
times rated
rated
value at an angle of 180 degrees with reference to the d-axis, in case of ND52 type magnets.
value at an angle of 180 degrees with reference to the d-axis, in case of ND52 type magnets.

The
Themotors
motors with
with ND50H
ND50H magnets
magnetswere
werealso tested
also testedforfor
itsits
demagnetization
demagnetization behavior
behavior
when the current is 1.5 and 7 times the nominal current as shown
when the current is 1.5 and 7 times the nominal current as shown in Figures 18 in Figures 18 and 19,19,
and
respectively.
respectively. In In
this case,
this thethe
case, improvement
improvement compared
compared to to
thethe
previous
previousmachine
machine with ND52
with ND52
Figure
Figure
magnets 17.
is 17. Demagnetized
Demagnetized
very large. magnet
magnet area
area variation
variation with
with temperature
temperature forfor a current
a current 1.51.5 times
times thethe rated
rated
magnets is very large.
value at an
value angle
at an of of
angle 180180
degrees with
degrees reference
with to to
reference thethe
d-axis, inin
d-axis, case ofof
case ND52 type
ND52 magnets.
type magnets.

The motors with ND50H magnets were also tested for its demagnetization behavior
when the current is 1.5 and 7 times the nominal current as shown in Figures 18 and 19,
respectively. In this case, the improvement compared to the previous machine with ND52
magnets is very large.

Figure
Figure 18.18.18. Demagnetized
Demagnetized magnet
magnet area area variation
variation with with temperature
temperature a for
forfor a current
current 7 times
7 times the rated
thethe
rated
Figure Demagnetized magnet area variation with temperature a current 7 times rated
value at
valuean angle
at an of 180
angle ofdegrees
180 with
degrees reference
with to
referencethe
tod-axis,
the in case
d-axis, in of
caseND50H
of ND50Htype magnets.
type
value at an angle of 180 degrees with reference to the d-axis, in case of ND50H type magnets. magnets.

Figure 18. Demagnetized magnet area variation with temperature for a current 7 times the rated
value at an angle of 180 degrees with reference to the d-axis, in case of ND50H type magnets.

Figure
Figure
Figure 19.
19.19. Demagnetized
Demagnetized
Demagnetized magnet
magnet area
magnet area variation
variation
area variationwith with temperature
temperature
with temperature for
forfor current
current 7 times
7 times
current the
thethe
7 times ratedrated
value
rated value
value
at an angle
at an of
angle180
ofdegrees
180 with
degrees reference
with to
referencethe
tod-axis,
the in case
d-axis, in of
caseND50H
of ND50Htype magnets.
type
at an angle of 180 degrees with reference to the d-axis, in case of ND50H type magnets. magnets.

ND42UHBased type
on the previouswere
magnets analysis,
then it is indicated
placed in in that
thethe the method,
machine. Magnets which
of ofwastype
this implemented
have
ND42UH type magnets were then placed machine. Magnets this type have
and
a higher used,
jHc enables
value and easy
are and fast
therefore representation
more difficult toof demagnetization
demagnetize than of any
ND50H configuration
magnets
a higher jHc value and are therefore more difficult to demagnetize than ND50H magnets
and of
in internal
that permanent
respect, even magnets
more as well
difficult when as any kindtoofthe
related winding
original and stator geometry.
simulation thetheIn
of of
and in that respect, even more difficult when related to the original simulation
addition,
Figure the power density
19. Demagnetized of the
magnet area machine
variation withincreases
temperaturewhenforthe magnets
current 7 timesused havevalue
the rated higher
at an angle ofmagnetization
residual 180 degrees with reference
[78]. to the d-axis,
This becomes in case of
apparent ND50H
since when typethemagnets.
type of magnets is
changed, appears a need to vary the active length of the machine in order to maintain the
ND42UH type
performance magnets
at the were then
same torque level.placed in way,
In this the machine.
the power Magnets
densityofofthisthetype have is
machine
a higher jHc altered.
indirectly value and Thearedemagnetization
therefore more difficult to demagnetize
varies strongly than ND50H
with temperature magnets
which can be
and in thatby
assessed respect, even more
the importance difficult
of the whentemperature
respective related to the original of
coefficients simulation of the
the coercive force.
Energies 2024, 17, 538 19 of 47

The angle of the stator currents play a less important but not negligible role in de-
magnetization of the magnets, as the maximum demagnetization does not occur in all
magnets when the excitation field is oriented along 180◦ angle. The geometry of the rotor
near the magnets and the local core saturation enables more uniform distribution of the
demagnetization. Finally, the design of appropriate flux barriers next to the magnet borders
is necessary to increase the magnet withstand to demagnetization effects by reducing the
flux density developed near the magnet endings [79,80].
The final configuration proposed includes two different neodymium magnet grades,
that is 42UH and 50H, respectively, while the motor produces higher torque density
compared to the motor involving a single magnet grade (ND42UH). In addition, it offers
reduced torque ripple and THD while it exhibits greater withstand to demagnetization
and lower manufacturing costs. The determination of the appropriate geometry has been
obtained by applying the robustness evaluation algorithm in conjunction with the torque
calculation algorithm.

3.6. Demagnetization Consideration Methodology

The proposed demagnetization calculation models assume that the demagnetization
field is only the component of the field that has a direction parallel to the easy axis of mag-
netization of the permanent magnet. According to them, during finite element formalism, it
is relatively simple to integrate the respective model into the overall computational scheme.
The stepwise model is an intermediate solution to the restrictive and linear models.
It essentially places the demagnetization curve on predefined linear lines. The number of
these curves can be relatively small in order to reduce the running time of the algorithm.
However, the accuracy is limited compared to the linear model which essentially allows for
the generation of demagnetization lines without involving the restriction of the discrete
distance between them, which is the case in the step model [81].
Furthermore, the specific methodology developed is based on the stepwise representa-
tion of simpler demagnetization models into more accurate and time-consuming models,
depending on the results obtained in terms of demagnetized subregions. In particular,
successive considerations of the behavior of the B-H curve are adopted: in a first step,
the constrained model is explored as this model refers to the recoil curve as a single line
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
passing through the nominal recoil point and to the knee as a constrained function 20 ofthat
48 sets

the recoil line to zero recoil, and then the step model is applied, using a predefined number
of recoil lines and the same knee definition line as before. In the next step, the exponential
model is introduced,
Consequently, theusing two exponential
first FEA curves with
analysis is performed fixed
with theknee parameters,
standard which form
representation
of
thethe permanent
recoil magnet
curve and B-Hthen
the and kneeaccording
behavior.toThe
the local magnetization
resulting models forresults a recursive
the ND50H magnet
algorithm ◦ C are shown
class at 20introduces the new recoil 20.
in Figure curves consecutively, if needed.

Figure
Figure20.20.B-H
B-Hcurves
curvesand recoil
and models
recoil derived
models for ND50H
derived magnet
for ND50H gradegrade
magnet at 20 °C 20 ◦ different
at (the C (the different
colors reflect respective different parameter values implemented in these models).
colors reflect respective different parameter values implemented in these models).

4. Combined Permanent Magnet and Lamination Loss Modelling

Surface-mounted permanent magnets present design advantages due to the creation
of a strong magnetic field in the gap of electric motors, but are sensitive to the develop-
ment of eddy currents and respective losses [82], while internal magnet configurations
involve dominant losses in neighboring laminated iron parts [83]. These are generated by
Energies 2024, 17, 538 20 of 47

Consequently, the first FEA analysis is performed with the standard representation of
the permanent magnet and then according to the local magnetization results a recursive
algorithm introduces the new recoil curves consecutively, if needed.

4. Combined Permanent Magnet and Lamination Loss Modelling

Surface-mounted permanent magnets present design advantages due to the creation
of a strong magnetic field in the gap of electric motors, but are sensitive to the development
of eddy currents and respective losses [82], while internal magnet configurations involve
dominant losses in neighboring laminated iron parts [83]. These are generated by harmonic
phenomena due to stator slotting during rotor rotation and switching frequency effects
involved in pulse-width modulation techniques applied in the inverter supply [84]. In
recent literature, numerous techniques for loss estimation in permanent magnets have been
developed [85], indicating the dominance of losses due to eddy currents over hysteresis
losses in most practical electric motor applications [86].
In order to reduce the losses due to eddy currents, the magnet segmentation method
can be applied. However, even in segmented magnets, the harmonics generated by the
supply usually involve penetration depths less than the size of the segments [87]. In that
respect, there is a need to account for the third dimension in the magnet end regions
when modeling the generated eddy currents in order to accurately calculate the losses they
generate while using a 2-D Finite Element Analysis [88].
A methodology based on the 3-D Fourier Transform (3-D FFT) method has already
been proposed in the literature [89]. Moreover, a technique has been introduced, enabling
evaluation of eddy current losses in permanent magnets, by using a 2-D Finite Element
Modeling (2-D FEA) combined with differential resistance concept in the magnet’s end regions.
Another methodology introduces lumped parameter impedances by developing an
already well-established technique for considering the end region of the rotor damper wind-
ings. The skin effect of the magnet is taken into account through appropriate techniques
involving mutual inductances in lumped parameter models. In addition, a C-core type
magnetic circuit has been modeled through both three-dimensional and two-dimensional
finite element analysis and validated by measurements. In addition, a methodology for
separating the core and permanent magnet losses through consecutive experiments has
been presented and implemented [90].
Apart from losses considerations, an important feature affecting equally the supply
strategies, concerns the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and interference (EMI) effects
of permanent magnet motor drives.

4.1. EMC and EMI Effects Consideration

EMC and EMI issues are of importance in most permanent motor adjustable speed
drive applications [91,92]. A generally accepted strategy for reducing their impact in
electric vehicles is based on the integration of the inverter supply with the motor part in
the same casing [93], sharing a single cooling system and providing an adequate shielding
of alternating current high frequency phenomena, enabling avoidance of interference with
other electrical and electronic equipment. Nevertheless, high frequency effects exist on the
direct current part concerning the battery management system and the link with the inverter
that is why various techniques for their mitigation and attenuation have been proposed,
such as appropriate filter topologies [94], combined with switching techniques [95,96], as
well as multi-winding machine configurations [97]. It may be noted that a detailed analysis
of EMC and EMI effects is critical in particular applications involving very restrictive
requirements such as in aerospace engineering [98,99].

4.2. Experimental Setup

In order to properly model the losses in permanent magnets, a specific simple magnetic
circuit was constructed as shown in Figure 21. This magnetic circuit consists of two U-
shaped sections with wound coils and a core made of soft magnetic material, separated by
 restrictive requirements such as in aerospace engineering [98,99].

4.2. Experimental Setup

Energies 2024, 17, 538 In order to properly model the losses in permanent magnets, a specific simple mag-
21 of 47
netic circuit was constructed as shown in Figure 21. This magnetic circuit consists of two
U-shaped sections with wound coils and a core made of soft magnetic material, separated
by two neodymium allow magnets. Two copper coils are wound around the position
two neodymium allow magnets. Two copper coils are wound around the position where
where the magnets are placed. These windings are used for excitation purposes and for
the magnets are placed. These windings are used for excitation purposes and for detecting
detecting the included
the included voltage,
voltage, as shownasin shown in thebelow.
the diagram diagram In below.
the firstInstep,
the the
firstlosses
step, the losses
in the core
in the core were measured without the presence of the permanent magnet.
were measured without the presence of the permanent magnet. In the second step, the In the second
step, the magnets
magnets wereinplaced
were placed in the magnetic
the magnetic circuit,
circuit, and and losses
the total the total losses
were were measured
measured at various
atfrequencies.
various frequencies.
This two-step process allows for the precise determination of eddyofcurrent
This two-step process allows for the precise determination eddy
current losses
losses in in the permanent
the permanent magnets.magnets.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure21.
21.Magnetic
Magneticcircuit considered
circuit for for
considered losses validation:
losses (a) Experimental
validation: magnetic
(a) Experimental circuitcircuit
magnetic con-
figuration; (b) Flux density distribution for AC current of 0.06 A at 10 kHz.
configuration; (b) Flux density distribution for AC current of 0.06 A at 10 kHz.

4.3.Core
4.3. CoreLoss
LossininC-Core
C-CoreMagnetic
MagneticCircuit
Circuit
Thecore
The coreloss
lossmodel
modelisisbased
basedon
onthe
theBertotti’s
Bertotti’sseparation
separationofoflosses
lossestechnique
technique[100],
[100],
whichisisexpressed
which expressedby byEquation
Equation(13).
(13).
. .
P ==K K
PCore H BB f f+
2 +KKC BB2 ff 2 +
+KK EB
B1.5ff 1.5 (13)
(13)

where:
• K H = 1.05·10−2 [7.W/(kgT2 Hz)] represents the hysteresis loss coefficient.
• KC = 7.91·10−5 [7.W/(kgT2 Hz2 )] represents the eddy current loss coefficient.
• KE = 3.16·104 [7.W/(kgT1.5 Hz1.5 )] represents the excess loss coefficient.
The excitation coil of the magnetic circuit consists of 24 turns and the magnets are
absent during the experiment. The coefficient K H , KC and KE were derived from measuring
lossesunder various loading conditions. Figure 22 presents the measured losses under
sinusoidal current supply for different frequencies and maximum flux density values (Bmax ),
along with the corresponding adjusted surface area obtained [101]. The measured iron
losses vary both with the maximum value of the applied magnetic field (the hysteresis loop
variations with the maximum flux density at 50 Hz frequency are shown in Figure 23) and
frequency (the hysteresis loop variations with frequency for 0.8 T maximum flux density
are shown in Figure 24). It may be noted that the measurements have been made at room
temperature (approximately 20◦ ) and are compatible with the corresponding simulation
results of the model adopted. A similar technique has been followed to calculate the iron
losses in induction motors under PWM inverter supply providing good precision in their
evaluation [102].
 23) and frequency (the hysteresis loop variations with frequency for 0.8 T maximum flux
23) and frequency (the hysteresis loop variations with frequency for 0.8 T maximum flux
density are shown in Figure 24). It may be noted that the measurements have been made
density are shown in Figure 24). It may be noted that the measurements have been made
at room temperature (approximately 20° ) and are compatible with the corresponding sim-
at room temperature (approximately 20° ) and are compatible with the corresponding sim-
ulation results of the model adopted. A similar technique has been followed to calculate
ulation results of the model adopted. A similar technique has been followed to calculate
the iron losses in induction motors under PWM inverter supply providing good precision
Energies 2024, 17, 538 the iron losses in induction motors under PWM inverter supply providing good precision
22 of 47
in their evaluation [102].
in their evaluation [102].

Figure
Figure 22. Core loss
22. Core loss and
and the
the fitted
fitted surface
surface of
of the
the core
core loss
loss model
model with
with variations
variations in
in frequency
frequency and
and
Figure
flux 22. Core loss and the fitted surface of the core loss model with variations in frequency and
density.
density.
flux density.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 48

Figure 23. Experimental
Experimental assessment
assessment of the hysteresis loops of
of soft
soft magnetic
magnetic material.
material. Family of
Figure 23. Experimental assessment of the hysteresis loops of soft magnetic material. Family of
curves at a specific frequency
frequency of
of 50
50 Hz
Hz for
for different
different maximum
maximum magnetic
magnetic field
field density
density variations.
variations.
curves at a specific frequency of 50 Hz for different maximum magnetic field density variations.

Figure 24.
Figure 24. Experimental assessment of the hysteresis
hysteresis loops
loops ofof soft
soft magnetic
magnetic material.
material. Family
Family of
of
curves at
curves at aa specific
specific magnetic
magnetic flux
flux density
density amplitude
amplitude of
of 0.8
0.8 TT as
as aa function
functionof
ofexcitation
excitationfrequency.
frequency.

4.4. Magnet Losses

In order to properly evaluate the losses in the permanent magnets in a magnetic cir-
cuit as the one shown in Figure 21, it is necessary to separate the core losses from the total
losses. Moreover, the choice of stator design and the supply by modern inverters with
high switching frequency introduce harmonics that can contribute to significant losses in
Energies 2024, 17, 538 23 of 47

4.4. Magnet Losses

In order to properly evaluate the losses in the permanent magnets in a magnetic circuit
as the one shown in Figure 21, it is necessary to separate the core losses from the total
losses. Moreover, the choice of stator design and the supply by modern inverters with
high switching frequency introduce harmonics that can contribute to significant losses
in the magnets, causing the rotor to heat up [103]. In that respect, the aim to exploit the
advantages of permanent magnets in modern machines have prompted several researchers
to increase the frequency of electromechanical energy conversion by examining in detail
the losses of the magnets [104,105].
The FEA modelling process requires usually an examination of three-dimensional
configurations due to the geometries of the applied permanent magnets and the paths of
the developing eddy currents. Additionally, the nonlinear characteristics of the cores neces-
sitates a step-by-step time representation, resulting in a demanding framework concerning
memory and execution time constraints [106].
In order to develop efficient models for estimating losses due to switching frequency in
the runner of surface-mounted permanent magnets, mixed numerical techniques coupling
field and circuit equations have been proposed for cases involving pulsed width modulation
(PWM) power supplies [107,108]. Such models are based on a 2-D Finite Element Analysis
(2-D FEA) combined with circuit equations in border areas of the permanent magnets. The
analysis takes into account the extreme end effect phenomena associated with the switching
frequency, which are primarily responsible for the majority of eddy current losses in the
magnets [109]. It is worth noting at this point that a significant part of the losses relates
to the existence and occurrence of harmonics inside the machine. The harmonic content
in the PMSM flux due to stator grooving was determined in [110]. The currents in a solid
rotor of a PMSM due to stator indentation were calculated in [111], taking into account
magnetic saturation. It was shown that the harmonics of the teeth decrease with saturation
and, consequently, the respective losses were lower.
The model’s accuracy is validated through experimental measurements in magnetic
circuits. The comparison between the experimental losses and the losses predicted by
the model was made by applying a basic loss segregation analysis and highlighted the
dominance of losses due to eddy currents in permanent magnets associated with the switch-
ing frequency [112]. In the case that the air gap field contains only synchronized spatial
harmonics, the magnetic bisection losses can be neglected. Similarly, in real situations,
the magnetic flux density in the air gap has a spatio-temporal variation: therefore, non-
synchronized spatial harmonics are generated. Therefore, significant losses are caused by
eddy currents in the rotor [113].
Particular 2-D Finite Element methodologies combining end zone circuits, in order to
take into account the currents flowing in permanent magnets end zones, have been created
by using both time discretization techniques based on harmonic analysis through complex
variables, and FDTD including time-stepping techniques [114].
The magnetic circuit shown in Figure 21, which supplied the sinusoidal waveform
current at 1 kHz up to 20 kHz corresponding to switching frequency of SPWM supply,
presented comparable losses in laminated iron and permanent magnet parts, illustrating
a dominance of the latter in higher frequency ranges. Moreover, the simulated results
obtained by the 2-D coupled method were in good agreement with the those of the 3D FEA
model and the respective experimental ones [115].
These results demonstrated that such modeling procedures are promising for efficient
simulation of magnet eddy current losses, which are generated by the intermittent frequency
of the carrier signal used in pulse-width modulation in inverter-driven surface permanent
magnet machines [116]. It may be noted that such techniques are necessary as the standard
two-dimensional finite element analysis without coupling with the circuit equations results
in significant overestimation of the eddy current losses in the magnets.
Energies 2024, 17, 538 24 of 47

In the work presented in [117], by applying such a method, a parametric design study
has been performed, enabling a significant reduction of the computation time and allowing
optimization of key machine parameters.
In the above mentioned analyses, the governing equation is the diffusion equation
expressed in Cartesian two-dimensional formulation in terms of the magnetic vector poten-
tial, while at the same time the gradient of the electric scalar potential enables consideration
of the end region effects of permanent magnets [118]. A similar approximate analysis
has been developed, reflecting the calculation of the magnetic field in two-dimensional
problems in which a region with a space-varying magnetic parameter is defined extending
the Maxwell-Fourier method for the simulation of surface-mounted high-speed cylindrical
permanent magnet machines [119].

4.5. Experimental Validation in a Linear Motor Prototype

Permanent magnet motors are a preferred choice in electrification applications, in
particular, respective to initiatives in transport, due to their relative advantages of increased
efficiency and the absence of rotor excitation requirements. This characteristic presents
important advantages in high-speed ranges [120]. However, the generation of significant
fault currents, as well as the subsequent risks of permanent magnet demagnetization and
impact on the behavior of the drive system, significantly increases concerns related to the
appropriate configuration for each class of electromobility application [66,121].
A wide range of studies and analyses have been developed on the losses in the
permanent magnets of inverter-fed motors [122]. The studies focus on different types of
motors, such as surface mounted PM synchronous motors and IPMSMs, as well as on
various types of permanent magnets such as NdFeB and SmCoalloys [123]. High harmonic
effects excite the high-speed leakage losses such as eddy current losses in surface-mounted
permanent magnets [92,124]. Internal permanent magnet configurations facilitate the
reduction of leakage losses but suffer from withstand limitations in high-speed applications
due to rotor dynamics [85]. With this in mind, the switching frequency harmonics are
responsible for a significant part of the losses in high-speed permanent magnet motors
supplied by PWM inverters [20,125].
Coupled field and circuit methodologies facilitate the appropriate optimization of the
geometry of permanent magnet motors. Intermittent frequency losses can be appropriately
included in terms of the magnetic field and electric circuit coupling equations, thereby sep-
arating iron and permanent magnet losses over a range of high frequency conditions [126].
Such a technique offers improved computational efficiency for the prediction of eddy cur-
rent losses, using a specific two-dimensional finite element analysis (2-D FEA). Moreover,
superposition principle considering frozen local iron permeabilities associated with low
frequency effects and incremental permeabilities associated with the switching frequency,
due to PWM power supply, allows fast calculations compatible with the optimization
procedure adopted [127].
The methodology is related to the calculation of the switching frequency losses devel-
oped in the iron laminations. Initially, the degree of saturation of the iron parts due to the
fundamental supply frequency is considered, and then the dynamic losses dominated by
the eddy current losses and the contribution of dynamic excess losses in the iron parts and
permanent magnet parts are determined.
Still high harmonics due to slotted geometry and switching supply waveforms, as
well as the DC magnetic field bias due to PM flux, greatly affect the iron losses during
the operation of a PM motor [128]. The above mentioned modeling techniques have been
validated through measurements on a manufactured prototype linear magnetic machine
circuit with surface magnets mounted on the rotor, shown in Figure 25c. The machine
configuration and the placement of the three phase full pitch stator windings involving
one slot per phase and pole is shown in Figure 25a. Figure 25b illustrates the machine part
corresponding to one pair of poles.
 idated through measurements on a manufactured prototype linear magnetic machine cir-
cuit with surface magnets mounted on the rotor, shown in Figure 25c. The machine con-
figuration and the placement of the three phase full pitch stator windings involving one
slot per phase and pole is shown in Figure 25a. Figure 25b illustrates the machine part
Energies 2024, 17, 538 corresponding to one pair of poles. 25 of 47

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure25.
25.Prototype
Prototypemagnetic
magneticcircuit
circuitofofa alinear
linearpermanent
permanentmagnet
magnetmachine:
machine:(a)(a)Geometry
Geometryofofthe
the
linear machine configuration; (b) One pair of poles part; (c) Manufactured prototype.
linear machine configuration; (b) One pair of poles part; (c) Manufactured prototype.

With
Withthe
theimplementation
implementation of the experimental
experimentalpart,
part,the
thevalidation
validation
ofof
thethe EMF
EMF devel-
developed
oped
at
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW
at
the the stator
stator windings
windings terminals
terminals has has
been been achieved.
achieved. A A horizontal
horizontal force
force applied
applied to theto of
the48
26 rotor
rotor
part part caused
caused an accelerated
an accelerated motion.
motion. The The measured
measured EMF,EMF,
shownshown in Figure
in Figure 26a, 26a,
is in is in
good
good agreement
agreement withwith the simulated
the simulated one, one,
shownshown in Figure
in Figure 26b. 26b.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 26.
26. Comparison
Comparisonof of total
total losses
losses between
between experimental
experimental measurements
measurements and
and those
those calculated
calculated
using the proposed methodology: (a) Experimental Back-EMF results from induction at the ends of
using the proposed methodology: (a) Experimental Back-EMF results from induction at the ends of
the windings; (b) Simulation results Back-EMF from induction at the ends of the windings.
the windings; (b) Simulation results Back-EMF from induction at the ends of the windings.

Table
Table 11 compares
compares the the fundamental
fundamental amplitude
amplitude ofof the
the experimental
experimental and
and the
the simulated
simulated
EMF
EMF as well as the respective Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The difference observed
as well as the respective Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The difference observed
on
on the
the fundamental
fundamental amplitude
amplitude between
between experimental
experimental andand simulated
simulated waveforms
waveforms is is quite
quite
satisfactory (2.2%) as
satisfactory (2.2%) as ititdepends
dependsononthe
themagnetic
magnetic flux
flux variation
variation along
along oneone
pairpair of poles.
of poles. The
The difference in the THD of the two waveforms is relatively more important (23.9%), as
they are of lower values and more sensitive to local manufacturing imperfections.

Table 1. Comparison of laboratory measurements with simulation results.

Results Parameters Value

Fundamental amplitude (mV) 962
Energies 2024, 17, 538 26 of 47

difference in the THD of the two waveforms is relatively more important (23.9%), as they
are of lower values and more sensitive to local manufacturing imperfections.

Table 1. Comparison of laboratory measurements with simulation results.

Results Parameters Value

Fundamental amplitude (mV) 962
Simulation
THD (%) 25.8
Fundamental amplitude (mV) 984.3
Laboratory Measurements
THD (%) 19.62
Fundamental amplitude (mV) 2.2%
Error
THD (%) 23.9%

Moreover, a specific design methodology for permanent magnet motors for elec-
trification applications has been introduced. The methodology includes efficiency and
power density criteria coupled with criteria for avoiding magnet demagnetization risks
in fault conditions, using coupled magnetic field and electric circuit equations, thereby
enabling efficient modeling through two-dimensional finite element analysis. In addition,
another technique involves the design of a Machine Learning (ML) based demagnetization
fault diagnosis method for PMSM motors. The time-frequency domain analysis based
on the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) is applied to the process of extracting failure
characteristics of PM from the stator phase current signal [129].
In addition, to measure the losses in the stator laminations, the permanent magnet
rotor can be easily removed from such a prototype. In a first step, the rotor was kept
stationary and the stator winding was powered by a sinusoidal AC source, providing
1200 At excitation at a frequency of 10 kHz (shown Table 2).

Table 2. Measured total losses variation with sinusoidal excitation current in the linear motor
prototype for different frequencies in both cases of rotor presence and without rotor.

f = 1 kHz f = 5 kHz f = 10 kHz f = 15 kHz f = 20 kHz

Excitation Losses Excitation Losses Excitation Losses Excitation Losses Excitation Losses
(At) (W) (At) (W) (At) (W) (At) (W) (At) (W)
8 0.1 9 0.1 8 0.2 9 0.3 9 0.5
12 0.2 13 0.2 11 0.3 11 0.4 12 0.8
14 0.3 16 0.4 14 0.5 15 1 15 1.5
18 0.4 19 0.5 17 0.7 18 1.5 19 2.1
20 0.5 22 0.8 21 1.2 22 2.1 23 3.1
24 0.6 25 1 24 1.5 25 2.8 26 4
26 0.7 28 1.2 27 2 29 4 29 5.8
28 0.8 31 1.8 30 2.8 32 4.5 34 6.5

Based on the above results, it can be observed that permanent magnet losses are
relatively negligible at low frequencies, while they become very significant in the high
frequency regions. Moreover, the good agreement assessed between the measured and
simulated losses at all frequencies considered demonstrated the validity of the proposed
methodology in this class of problems and its suitability to be applied to surface-mounted
high speed permanent magnet motors [130,131]. This table shows that the losses in the
permanent magnets are comparable to those developed in the laminated parts of the stator
in all frequencies considered. The techniques introduced achieve adequate modeling of
high frequency losses, as validated by measurements on a prototype magnetic circuit, and
ensure robustness of the design, which is of major importance in highspeed applications.
Energies 2024, 17, 538 27 of 47

5. Mixed Numerical Techniques for the Simulation of Permanent Magnet Machines

Permanent magnets (PM) are usually represented in electrical machines by using the
finite element method (FEM) combined with other methods in order to calculate parameters
and analyze phenomena developed in permanent magnets; such techniques have been
extensively applied by researchers to overcome the problems of computational complexity
(mainly posed by 3D finite element analysis) and to improve the accuracy of the method. In
the following sections, representative related work reported in the international literature
over the last two decades is presented.
A method that combines 2-D FEM results along radial sections of the geometry, called
quasi-3-D FEM is proposed for the analysis of PM machines in [132]. Relying on the
disadvantage of quasi-3-D FEM is its inability to conduct finite element analysis when the
rotor back iron and permanent magnets have different lengths along the radial direction.
Thus, an improved technique was applied, combining asymptotic boundary conditions
with a finite element method to improve the calculation accuracy and computational
efficiency [133].
A proposed strategy uses a Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to dynamically
reset the objective function according to its optimization objective. Analytical functions
are used in order to verify the proposed method is feasible and capable of reducing the
computational time. The numerical example of the optimal design of a PM motor shows
that the computer program developed based on the proposed algorithm can significantly
reduce the FEM simulation times and speed up the optimization while ensuring the
accuracy of the dual RSM [134,135]. Scmidt and Susic [136] and de Assis et al. [137] use the
Frozen Permeability Method (FPM), which performs a discrete analysis of fields induced
by different excitation sources, in combination with FEM to calculate permanent magnet
synchronous motor parameters [138].
A work proposed an accurate tubular permanent magnet linear motor (PMLM) iron
loss calculation model combined with finite element method, in which the effect of the
primary motor structure harmonics on core losses are accurately calculated [139]. Xie et al.
use coupling of analytical models, FEM and CFD for electromagnetic and thermal analysis
of low-speed PM motors [140]. The simulation and measurement curves showed that high
copper loss of the stator winding is observed at the location of the highest temperature
rise of the system. The results demonstrate that as the fluid flux rate accelerates, the
system temperature rise decreases at an inversely proportional rate. Finally, after a tipping
point, the system temperature stabilizes. Similarly, Chen et al. apply such techniques to
high-speed train motor applications [141].
In the work presented in [142], a new transverse flux permanent magnet linear mo-
tor (TFPMLM) is constructed, which is called double-sided double excitation; using the
Schwarz–Christoffel (SC) mapping method enabled efficient analysis of the magnetic field
and motor characteristics. Genetic Algorithms (GA) have been implemented in conjunction
with coarse FEM to optimize the magnet positions and their effect on the motor characteris-
tics [143]. The distribution of the aerodynamic field in the air gap of the electrical motor has
been equally evaluated and its impact on the thermal analysis as well as the functionality of
the method in comparison to other techniques, has been assessed [144]. In addition, other
techniques for optimizing and examining key motor parameters combining multi objective
optimization and using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) have been proposed [138,145].

6. Mechanical Analysis of Electrical Machines

6.1. Mechanical Deformation Effects
Recent developments in power electronics favor highspeed permanent magnet ma-
chines, which are widely used in electric drive applications due to their advantages in
terms of achieving high power density, efficiency, durability, and low maintenance costs.
High-speed motors are generally vulnerable to the development of critical eddy current
and core losses, which promote the selection of low thickness and/or high silicon con-
centration laminations during design [146]. Moreover, a possibility to reduce losses is the
 Energies 2024, 17, 538 28 of 47

design of multi-phase motors. Their advantages are the generation of a field with less space
harmonics and therefore better efficiency, with reduced time harmonic content [147] thus
decreased torque oscillations at frequencies several times the fundamental frequency and
better fault tolerance [148], since in the event of a fault, the phase showing damage can
be isolated at the expense of slight degradation of the power generation capability of the
machine and small reduction in the starting capability [149]. Also, the multi-phase ma-
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW chines with concentrated windings, as the one shown in Figure 27, can increase that
29 oftorque
48
generating capacity by introducing appropriate higher harmonic current components from
the inverter [150].

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 48

Figure
Figure 27. 27. Concentrated
Concentrated winding
winding 5-phase
5-phase induction
induction machine
machine [149].
[149].
The power source is realized by using adequate power converters, so driving multi-
phase motors is feasible, provided that suitable power converters are designed [151]. The
need of electric vehicles for high power density (resulting in low weight and volume) has
led to the design of suitable inverters where the increase in power density will be realized
by using wide band gap semiconductor power devices such as SiC or GaN, mainly due
to their capabilities of being very small and capable of operating at high frequencies [152].
Multi-phase power converters have the additional advantages of improving the noise
characteristics and that for their configuration power electronics can be used with less rated
power than the corresponding three phase converter [153]. It may be noted that the number
Figure 27. Concentrated winding 5-phase induction machine [149].
of publications on multi-phase motors is growing recently, as shown in Figure 28 [154].

Figure 28. Number of publications on multi-phase motors.

In high-speed applications, rotor design involves trade-offs between opposing goals,

such as ensuring reduced flux leakage, reduced magnetic laminations losses and lower
rotating mass while maintaining increased magnetic drag torque [155]. Another key ob-
jective is to achieve a reduction in rotor mass, especially in areas where the flux density
shows significant saturation, such as in permanent magnet supports [156]. A special cate-
gory of modern motors are hysteresis motors where the output torque is produced
through the hysteresis effect of magnetic materials and the rotor is made of magnetic ma-
terial that exhibits hysteresis losses. The results are to develop hysteresis torque which is
FigureFigure 28. Number
28. Number of publications
of publications on multi-phase
on multi-phase motors.
motors.
constant at all speeds, but can be used in very small applications due to low efficiency,
power factor, and torque
In high-speed [30]. The main
applications, rotor advantages of itstrade-offs
design involves use are itsbetween
simple structure, its
opposing goals,
In high-speed applications, rotor design involves trade-offs between opposing goals,
operation
such asatensuring
high speeds, resistance
reduced to high temperatures,
flux leakage, reduced magnetic low noise and self-starting
laminations losses andabil-
lower
such as ensuring reduced flux leakage, reduced magnetic laminations losses and lower
ity.rotating
Its application
mass whileis quite limited in some
maintaining special
increased cases that
magnetic require
drag torque high speed
[155]. such askey
Another
rotating mass while maintaining increased magnetic drag torque [155]. Another key ob-
electric vehicles
objective is toand highastagnation
achieve reduction in [157].
rotorThe combination
mass, especiallyof in these
areas challenges can density
where the flux lead
jective is to achieve a reduction in rotor mass, especially in areas where the flux density
to unpredictable
shows significant critical deformations
saturation, such ofasthe
in rotor surface,
permanent resulting
magnet in a reduction
supports [156]. Aofspecial
the
shows significant saturation, such as in permanent magnet supports [156]. A special cate-
gap length and bringing about changes in inductances along the normal and vertical axes,
gory of modern motors are hysteresis motors where the output torque is produced
as well as torque oscillations. A not very common category of machines, but one that has
through the hysteresis effect of magnetic materials and the rotor is made of magnetic ma-
been the subject of much more research and has been developing in recent years, in the
terial that exhibits hysteresis losses. The results are to develop hysteresis torque which is
category of machines using a magnetic counterpart, the Magnetically Geared Machines
constant at all speeds, but can be used in very small applications due to low efficiency,
(MGMs), involving structures shown in Figure 29. This type of motor is capable of either
 Energies 2024, 17, 538 29 of 47

category of modern motors are hysteresis motors where the output torque is produced
through the hysteresis effect of magnetic materials and the rotor is made of magnetic
material that exhibits hysteresis losses. The results are to develop hysteresis torque which
is constant at all speeds, but can be used in very small applications due to low efficiency,
power factor, and torque [30]. The main advantages of its use are its simple structure,
its operation at high speeds, resistance to high temperatures, low noise and self-starting
ability. Its application is quite limited in some special cases that require high speed such as
electric vehicles and high stagnation [157]. The combination of these challenges can lead
to unpredictable critical deformations of the rotor surface, resulting in a reduction of the
gap length and bringing about changes in inductances along the normal and vertical axes,
as well as torque oscillations. A not very common category of machines, but one that has
been the subject of much more research and has been developing in recent years, in the
category of machines using a magnetic counterpart, the Magnetically Geared Machines
(MGMs), involving structures shown in Figure 29. This type of motor is capable of either
increasing or decreasing the revolutions per minute in order to respond to different load
Energies
Energies 2024, 2024, 17, x PEER
17, x FOR FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 30 of3048of 48
profiles, as in the case of mechanical gearboxes, but with physical isolation between rotating
components [158]. Some examples of Vernier machines are shown in Figure 30.

Figure
Figure
Figure Categories
29.Categories
29.
29. Categories ofconcentrated
of concentrated
of concentrated winding
winding
winding 5-phase
5-phase
5-phase induction
induction
induction machine
machine
machine [159].
[159].[159].

(a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c) (d) (d)

(e) (e) (f) (f) (g) (g) (h) (h)

Figure 30. Examples of Vernier machines: (a) Non-uniform FMP design; (b) Spoke-PM with double
FigureFigure 30. Examples
30. Examples of Vernier
of Vernier machines:
machines: (a) Non-uniform
(a) Non-uniform FMPFMP design;
design; (b) Spoke-PM
(b) Spoke-PM with with double
double
stator; (c) Alternating flux barrier scheme; (d) Stator-PM in slot-opening; (e) Stator-PM inserted in
stator;
stator; (c) Alternating
(c) Alternating flux barrier
flux barrier scheme;
scheme; (d) Stator-PM
(d) Stator-PM in slot-opening;
in slot-opening; (e) Stator-PM
(e) Stator-PM inserted
inserted in in
splittooth;
tooth;(f)(f)PM
PM mounted onon tooth surface; (g) Stator-PM inserted in teeth; (h) Assembly of a
split split
tooth; (f) PM mounted mounted
on toothtooth surface;
surface; (g) Stator-PM
(g) Stator-PM inserted
inserted in teeth;
in teeth; (h) Assembly
(h) Assembly of a mod-
of a mod-
modular
ular PMVM
ular PMVM PMVM
[159].[159].[159].

The mechanical stresses and deformations under the influence of centrifugal forces
The The mechanical
mechanical stresses
stresses and and deformations
deformations underunder the influence
the influence of centrifugal
of centrifugal forces
forces
of the runner blades can be analyzed using a 2-D triangular mesh. The stress limits of the
of runner
of the the runner blades
blades cananalyzed
can be be analyzed
usingusing
a 2Datriangular
2D triangular mesh.mesh.
The The stress
stress limitslimits of the
of the
tested materials can be based on manufacturer’s data and compared with the von Mises
tested
tested materials
materials canbased
can be be based on manufacturerʹs
on manufacturerʹs datadata
and and compared
compared withwith the von
the von MisesMises
stress calculation to check whether the laminations can withstand the stress developed by
stress
stress calculation
calculation to check
to check whether
whether the laminations
the laminations can withstand
can withstand the stress
the stress developed
developed by by
the radial forces [160]. The mass of the rotor and its ability to withstand centrifugal
the radial forces [160]. The mass of the rotor and its ability to withstand centrifugal forces forces
at maximum
at maximum speedspeed conditions
conditions canentered
can be be entered
into into an objective
an objective function
function of anofappropriate
an appropriate
evolutionary
evolutionary optimization
optimization algorithm
algorithm to obtain
to obtain the preliminary
the preliminary geometry
geometry forrotor
for the the rotor
de- de-
sign.sign.
The The electromagnetic
electromagnetic behavior
behavior can then
can then be investigated
be investigated by thebyFinite
the Finite Element
Element Method
Method
Energies 2024, 17, 538 30 of 47

the radial forces [160]. The mass of the rotor and its ability to withstand centrifugal forces
at maximum speed conditions can be entered into an objective function of an appropriate
evolutionary optimization algorithm to obtain the preliminary geometry for the rotor
design. The electromagnetic behavior can then be investigated by the Finite Element
Method with a non-linear Discrete Image Solver in the Time Domain from the previously
generated mesh. Sources [155,161] refer to investigations on the effect of stresses on the
relative permeability of iron which have been carried out, respectively, for the stator side,
due to the tight assembly as a way of mounting the stator [162].
In relevant studies, a combined mechanical and electromagnetic analysis has been
adopted and specific techniques for the weak coupling of the interdependent phenomena
have been proposed. Various types of mechanical eccentricities with respect to rotor
positioning can cause severe damage and reduce its ability to rotate at higher speeds.
Therefore, advanced finite wavelet techniques have been developed that allow the detection
of such eccentricities [163]. A variable magnetic resistance rotor shaft operating under
high-speed conditions is studied in the source [164], together with some characteristics
related to the machine drive inverter.

6.2. Mechanical Analysis in Electrical Machines

6.2.1. Vernier Machines
The energy losses introduced by the use of a gearbox where a proper interface with
the electric motor is required and significant reliability issues [165], due to thermal and
mechanical stresses, reduce the lifetime of the motor, thus prompting the exploration of
possible alternative applications [166]. Vernier machines are a solution to this problem for
low power applications and high torque requirements with direct motor drive, since for a
given volume, some topologies can produce torque two-three times higher in comparison
to a conventional motor. The main reason that this type of electric motor has gained great
interest in the last two decades is due to their high torque density, which is made possible
by the magnetic gearing effect [167]. The possibility of increased torque production (+40%
on average compared to traditional permanent magnet machines) is due to the interaction
phenomena of the harmonic content of the rotor magnets with the harmonic content of the
groove coils [168].
Some of the applications where Vernier machines (shown in Figure 30) are encountered
include traction systems [169], linear permanent magnet vernier generators manufactured
to harness the energy of sea waves [170], wind turbines [171], rotary vehicle motors [172],
axial flux autofocus lenses with ring magnets [173] and linear generators without pis-
tons [174]. The characteristic of the machines is the transmission ratio which is defined as
the ratio of the number of pole pairs of the rotor to the number of the stator. The three basic
characteristics of a Vernier machine are the rotor design, the flux modulation poles (FMPs)
and the winding configuration of the machine.

6.2.2. Flux-Switching Electrical Motors

As in the case of the Vernier machines discussed above, permanent magnet variable
flux machines, (topologies shown in Figure 30) have been of increasing interest in recent
years, due to their numerous advantages such as high flux density due to flux concentration
phenomena, good management of the heat generated, and magnets that can be placed
in the stator with relative safety in terms of demagnetization and suitability for high-
speed applications. An important role is played by the appropriate design of the rotor
as an iron body without the limitations introduced by centrifugal forces in conventional
machines [175].
Compared to other machines (topologies shown in Figure 31) with magnets in the
stator, alternating flux machines have better torque and power density and more sine-
wave anti-EMF. Disadvantages include reduced space for windings in the stator grooves
due to space occupied by the magnets, the higher cost of using quantity of magnets and
manufacturing difficulties due to the particular stator configuration. They also exhibit a
 body without the limitations introduced by centrifugal forces in conventional machines
[175].
Compared to other machines (topologies shown in Figure 31) with magnets in the
stator, alternating flux machines have better torque and power density and more sine-
Energies 2024, 17, 538 wave anti-EMF. Disadvantages include reduced space for windings in the stator grooves
31 of 47
due to space occupied by the magnets, the higher cost of using quantity of magnets and
manufacturing difficulties due to the particular stator configuration. They also exhibit a
high
hightorque
torqueripple
rippledue
duetotothe
thestructure
structuredouble-printing
double-printingstructure
structureand
anda ahigh
highflux
fluxdensity
density
with the occurrence of saturation phenomena in the magnetic circuit [176].
with the occurrence of saturation phenomena in the magnetic circuit [176].

(a)REVIEW
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER (b) (c) (d) 32 of 48

Figure
Figure31.
31.Topologies
Topologiesofofvariable
variableflux
fluxmachines:
machines:(a)(a)C-core;
C-core;(b)
(b)E-core;
E-core;(c)(c)Modular
Modularstator;
stator;(d)
(d)Multi-
Multi-
tooth [176].
tooth [176].
Figure 32 illustrates the operation of the machine as a generator. The operation as a
motor isFigure
based, 32
likeillustrates
in the Vernier machine of
the operation case,
theon the magnetic
machine differential
as a generator. Theeffect, whichas a
operation
is the
motor is based, like in the Vernier machine case, on the magnetic differential effect,tear
equivalent of a mechanical gear, with the advantage of not having the wear and which
thatisitthe
suffers but withofthe
equivalent disadvantage
a mechanical of increasing
gear, with the the cost. Theofaim
advantage notishaving
for a small
the move-
wear and
menttearofthat
the rotor to cause
it suffers a large
but with the change in the magnetic
disadvantage fluxthe
of increasing andcost.
a high
Thetorque
aim is output.
for a small
movementofofthe
Η interaction the rotor tomultiplies
magnets cause a large change
or divides, in the magnetic
respectively, flux and
the number a high torque
of revolutions
andoutput. Thebetween
the torque interaction
theof
twotherotating
magnets multiplies
parts [177]. or divides, respectively, the number of
revolutions and the torque between the two rotating parts [177].

Figure 32. Working

Figure principle
32. Working of variable
principle flux machines
of variable (flux linkage
flux machines (flux linkage Ψ, electromotive
Ψ, electromotive force eforce
and e and
current i shown at positions A, B, C and D, respectively) [176].
current i shown at positions A, B, C and D, respectively) [176].

6.2.3.
6.2.3. FluxFlux Reversal
Reversal Electrical
Electrical Motors
Motors
TheseThese machines
machines have,have, likevariable
like the the variable flux machines,
flux machines, magnets magnets in the stator.
in the stator. The dif-The
difference
ference is that is that
the the magnets
magnets are located
are located inside theinside
teeththeofteeth of theand,
the stator stator and,other
unlike unlike other
ma-
machines with magnets in the stator, in this case we have a simpler
chines with magnets in the stator, in this case we have a simpler and sturdier constructionand sturdier construction
withwith
easyeasy placement
placement of magnets
of the the magnets and without
and without reducingreducing the space
the space available
available for the for
ex- the
citation winding in the slots. The flux, generated by a pair of permanent magnets on a on
excitation winding in the slots. The flux, generated by a pair of permanent magnets
a tooth
tooth of theofFRM,
the FRM, is closed
is closed at theat stator
the stator
tooth tooth
and andalongalong
the the tooth,
tooth, respectively,
respectively, which
which
creates
creates a variable
a variable fluxflux connection.
connection. [178].
[178].
Figures
Figures 33 and
33 and 34 show
34 show howhow simple
simple the the rotor
rotor is and
is and howhow complex
complex the the stator
stator is this
is for for this
type of machine and, accordingly, their manufacturing
type of machine and, accordingly, their manufacturing process. process.
 with easy placement of the magnets and without reducing the space available for the ex-
citation winding in the slots. The flux, generated by a pair of permanent magnets on a
tooth of the FRM, is closed at the stator tooth and along the tooth, respectively, which
creates a variable flux connection. [178].
Energies 2024, 17, 538 Figures 33 and 34 show how simple the rotor is and how complex the stator is for this
32 of 47
type of machine and, accordingly, their manufacturing process.

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW

(a) (b) 33 of 48
Figure 33.33.
Figure Flux reversal
Flux machines:
reversal (a)(a)
machines: Stator; (b)(b)
Stator; Rotor [179].
Rotor [179].

Figure
Figure 34. Typical
34. Typical geometry
geometry flux flux reversal
reversal electrical
electrical motors
motors [179].
[179].

6.2.4. Special Electrical Motors

6.2.4. Special Electrical Motors
Electrical motors with more than one stator or rotor appear in the literature. These
Electrical motors with more than one stator or rotor appear in the literature. These
are variations of the main categories studied above and designed for specific applications
are variations of the main categories studied above and designed for specific applications
such as servo motors and universal electrical machines. Creating geometries with a more
such as servo motors and universal electrical machines. Creating geometries with a more
curious than usual design offers some improvement in certain desirable characteristics
curious than usual design offers some improvement in certain desirable characteristics
with the disadvantage of increasing complexity or degrading other features. Their main
with the disadvantage of increasing complexity or degrading other features. Their main
difference is in their design geometry which offers some improvement in certain desired
difference
functionalis incharacteristics
their design geometry
[177]. which offers some improvement in certain desired
functional characteristics [177].
In the work presented in [178], a machine is designed to increase the torque attributed
toInthe
thevolume
work presented
of magnetsin [178],
usedato machine is designed
implement to increase
a gearless the torque
motor with high attributed
torque at low
to the
speeds. The results showed the improvement of the average torquetorque
volume of magnets used to implement a gearless motor with high of the at low
proposed
speeds. The results showed the improvement of the average torque
machine. The competitiveness of the vernier machine was validated using 2-D finite of the proposed ma-
chine. The competitiveness
element analysis under the of the
same vernier
machinemachine
volumewasasvalidated using
that of the 2D finite machine.
conventional element
analysis Inunder the same machine volume as that of the conventional machine.
Vernier triple rotor axial-flux radial permanent magnet machines, (shown in
In Vernier
Figures triple
35 and 36),rotor axial-flux
a common radial permanent
phenomenon magnetmachines
in axial-flux machines,that (shown
is theincombina-
Fig-
urestion
35 and 36), a common phenomenon in axial-flux machines that is the combination
of more than one stator and rotor in order to increase the power and torque produced of
more than one stator and rotor in order to increase the power and torque
with a smaller increase in the final volume of the machine and without the need to create produced with
a smaller
severalincrease
designsinisthe final volume
exploited. of the machine
By appropriately and without
summing a basic the need design
machine to create sev-
two, three
eralor
designs is exploited.
more times By appropriately
the torque summing a basic
and power requirements machine The
are achieved. design
keytwo, three
feature ofor
these
more times the
machines torque
is to and power
eliminate requirements
disadvantages are achieved.
of Vernier machines Thewhile key feature of
providing these
high power
machines is to eliminate disadvantages of Vernier machines while providing
factor, high power and torque density, high copper utilization, and increased efficiency as a high power
factor, high power
consequence and torque density, high copper utilization, and increased efficiency as
[179,180].
a consequence [179,180].
 eral designs is exploited. By appropriately summing a basic machine design two, three or
more times the torque and power requirements are achieved. The key feature of these
machines is to eliminate disadvantages of Vernier machines while providing high power
factor, high power and torque density, high copper utilization, and increased efficiency as
Energies 2024, 17, 538 a consequence [179,180]. 33 of 47

Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 of 48

(a) (b)
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 of 48
Figure Figure
35. PMVM geometries
35. PMVM of radial
geometries oftype with
radial double
type air gap:air
with double (a)gap:
with(a)
iron body
with ironrotor;
body(b) without
rotor; (b) without
iron body
ironrotor
body[181].
rotor [181].

Figure 36. Triple rotor axial flux Vernier machine configuration [182].

Figure
Also,
Figure 36. Triple
in the
36. Triple rotor
work
rotor axial
flux flux
presented
axial Vernier
in [183]
Vernier machine configuration
an example
machine [182]. and implementation
of comparison
configuration [182].
of two motor rotor designs for an automotive application using ferrites is given. The in-
Also,
vestigation
Also, in in work
the theon
focused work
the presented
use
presentedof the in [183] an example
in non-magnetic
[183] material
an example ofincomparison
order toand
of comparison and
achieve implementation
a reduction
implementation
in of two motor rotor designs for an automotive application using ferrites is given. The
of demagnetization and an increase
two motor rotor designs in magnetic
for an automotive drag torque.
application Theferrites
using check of demagnetiza-
is given. The in-
investigation focused on the use of the non-magnetic material in order to achieve a reduction
tion, mechanical
vestigation strength,
focused torque
on the use of theripple with and without
non-magnetic materialainload,
orderastoshown
achieveinaFigure 37,
reduction
in demagnetization and an increase in magnetic drag torque. The check of demagnetization,
shows that the proposed
in demagnetization solution
and an increase using rare earthdrag
in magnetic free torque.
magnetsTheis feasible
check ofindemagnetiza-
real applica-
mechanical strength, torque ripple with and without a load, as shown in Figure 37, shows
tion.
tion, mechanical strength, torque ripple with and without a load, as shown in Figure 37,
that the proposed solution using rare earth free magnets is feasible in real application.
shows that the proposed solution using rare earth free magnets is feasible in real applica-
tion.

Figure 37. Comparison of the two types A and B in demagnetization effects in magnets and mechani-
Figure 37. Comparison of the two types A and B in demagnetization effects in magnets and mechan-
cal stress
ical stress in rotor
in the the rotor [183].
[183].
Figure
6.3.37.Case
Comparison of theBasic
Study Using two types A and B in demagnetization
2-D Mechanical Analysis effects in magnets and mechan-
6.3. Case Study
ical stress in the Using Basic 2-D Mechanical Analysis
rotor [183].
To investigate the effects of rotor deformation due to centrifugal forces, a mechanical
To investigate
static model hasthe effects
been of rotor
created whichdeformation due to centrifugal
is weakly coupled to a nonlinearforces, a mechanical
internal PM machine.
6.3. Case
static modelStudy Using
has been Basic 2-D Mechanical
created which is Analysis
weakly coupled to a nonlinear internal PMusing
ma- the
The deformations of the outer rays of the rotor are estimated in a first step
chine.To The deformations
investigate the of
effects theofouter
rotor rays of
deformationthe rotor
due are
to estimated
centrifugal in a
forces,
structural solver and then entered into the electromagnetic solver. There is a significant first
a step
mechanicalusing
the structural
static model
impact solver
onhas
thebeen and thendeformation
created
mechanical entered
which isinto ofthe
weaklytheelectromagnetic
coupledwhich
runner is solver.
to a nonlinear
due to theThere
internalis aPM
different signifi-
ma-
V-shaped
cant
chine.impact on the
The deformations
angles. The mechanical
higher of the
the deformation
outer rays
maximum ofofthe
therotor
deformation,runner
itare which iscorresponding
estimated
imposes dueintoa the
firstdifferent
step V-
using
mechanical
shaped angles.
the structural The
solver higher
and the
then maximum
entered
stresses on the magnetic bridges [184]. deformation,
into the it imposes
electromagnetic corresponding
solver. There is mechan-
a signifi-
ical
cantstresses
impact on the magnetic
mechanical bridges [184]. of the runner which is due to the different V-
deformation
shapedTheangles.
mapping Theof the variables
higher the maximum of thedeformation,
V vector to the curvatures
it imposes in the rotormechan-
corresponding cases is
shown in Figure
ical stresses on the38magnetic
where the geometry
bridges [184].of the motor studied is illustrated. It is worth
notingThethat in the structural
mapping analysisofmodel
of the variables the Vonly
vectorhalf
toofthea pole sectionin
curvatures needs to be cases
the rotor drawn, is
whereas
shown ininFigure
the electromagnetic
38 where the model it is necessary
geometry of the motor to consider
studied aispole section of
illustrated. It the rotor
is worth
geometry.
noting thatThe geometry
in the structuralof analysis
the rotormodel
is limited
only to only
half of aonepolepole, its partitioning
section needs to be drawn,is per-
 Energies 2024, 17, 538 34 of 47

The mapping of the variables of the V vector to the curvatures in the rotor cases is
shown in Figure 38 where the geometry of the motor studied is illustrated. It is worth
noting that in the structural analysis model only half of a pole section needs to be drawn,
whereas in the electromagnetic model it is necessary to consider a pole section of the rotor
geometry. The geometry of the rotor is limited to only one pole, its partitioning is performed
Energies
by finite element analysis (shown Figure 39), with meshing dense enough to obtain reliable
Energies 2024,
2024, 17,
17, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 35
35 of
of 48
48
results without excessive use of computational resources and the consequent requirement
for large computational time.

Figure
Figure
Figure 38.38.
38. Rotor
Rotor
Rotor geometry
geometry
geometry with
with
with mechanical
mechanical
mechanical boundary
boundary
boundary conditions
conditions
conditions applied
applied
applied along
along
along suitable
suitable
suitable lines.
lines.
lines.

Figure
Figure 39. Analysis
39.39.
Analysis of
of rotor
rotor geometry
geometry in
in finite
finite elements.
elements.
Figure Analysis of rotor geometry in finite elements.

6.3.1.
6.3.1. Formulation
6.3.1.
Formulation of
Formulationof the 2D
of the
the Model
2D2-DModel Modelfor
for Mechanical
for Analysis
Mechanical
Mechanical Analysis
Analysis
The
The structural
The analysis
structural
structural is
is carried
analysis
analysis out
out by
is carried
carried by developing
out aa mechanical
by developing
developing static
a mechanical
mechanical solver
static static in
in or-
solversolver
or- in
der order
to to examine
examine 2D 2-D
plane plane
stresses stresses
in in
isotropicisotropic materials.
materials. AccordingAccording
to the
der to examine 2D plane stresses in isotropic materials. According to the proposed meth- to the
proposed proposed
meth-
methodology,
odology,
odology, which which
which was
was wason
based
based based
on the on
the the Constant
Constant
Constant Stress Stress
Stress Triangle
Triangle
Triangle (CST)(CST)
(CST) concept,
concept,
concept, the the matri-
the matrices
matrices
representing
representing the Elasticity (D) and the mechanical stresses are derived by using the fol-
the Elasticity (D) and the mechanical stresses are derived by using the fol-
lowing
lowing equations:
equations:
11 𝜈𝜈 00
𝜈𝜈 11 00
[𝐷 =
[𝐷 = (14)
(14)
00 00
 Energies 2024, 17, 538 35 of 47

ces representing the Elasticity (D) and the mechanical stresses are derived by using the
following equations:  
1 ν 0
E ν 1
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW [D] = 0  36 of 48 (14)
(1 − v2 )
 
(1− ν )
0 0 2

dN1 dN2 dN3

εx = u1 + u2 + u3 (15)
ε = dx
v + dx
v + v dx (16)
dN1 dN2 dN3
εy = v + v2 + v3 (16)
dy 1 dy dy
Y = u + v + u + v + u + v (17)
dN1 dN1 dN2 dN2 dN3 dN3
Yxy = u + v + u2 + v2 + u3 + v3 (17)
dy 1 dx 1 dy dx dy dx
σ = [σ σ σ ] (18)
h
σ = σxx σyy σ xy ] T (18)
ε = [ε εh ε ] (19)
ε = ε xx εyy ε xy ] T (19)
σ = [𝐷]ε (20)
σ = [ D ]ε (20)
where, E is the Young modulus, ν is Poisson ratio, ε , ε and Y is denote mechanical
while E
strains,where, is the
ε is the deformation
Young modulus, ν isThe
matrix. Poisson
ith node ratio, ε x , εy and
coordinate Yxy isNdenote
function mechanical
i and respec-
strains, while ε is the deformation matrix.
tive displacements ui, vi are indicated in Figure 40. The i th node coordinate function N i and respective
displacements ui , vi are indicated in Figure 40.

Figure Figure 40. Position

40. Position vectorsvectors definition
definition ui ,coordinate
ui, vi and vi and coordinate functions
functions Niithofnode
Ni of the the ithofnode of the reference
the reference
constant strain triangle.
constant strain triangle.

This model can also support boundary conditions for the air gap slip zone. Such a
This model can also support boundary conditions for the air gap slip zone. Such a
boundary condition allows avoiding the redesign of the geometry during rotor rotation.
boundary condition allows avoiding the redesign of the geometry during rotor rotation.
The nodes on both the stator side and the rotor side are kept stationary and a zone in
The nodes on both the stator side and the rotor side are kept stationary and a zone in the
the air gap guarantees the inclusion of the motion. This technique constitutes a practical
air gap guarantees the inclusion of the motion. This technique constitutes a practical al-
alternative solution for taking into account the rotating mesh in the air gap, compared to
ternative solution for taking into account the rotating mesh in the air gap, compared to
analytical solutions of specific elements. In addition, the specific weakly coupled mechani-
analytical solutions of specific elements. In addition, the specific weakly coupled mechan-
cal 2-D electromagnetic finite element model can represent permanent magnet materials by
ical 2-D electromagnetic finite element model can represent permanent magnet materials
determining appropriate values of residual magnetization Br and relative permeability.
by determining appropriate values of residual magnetization Br and relative permeability.
The geometry shown in Figures 41 and 42 has a thin section that holds the iron section
The geometry shown in Figures 41 and 42 has a thin section that holds the iron section
in front of the magnet and iron-bridge positions that connects one pair of poles to the
in front of the magnet and iron-bridge positions that connects one pair of poles to the
adjacent one in order to limit magnetic scattering in the iron body. It appears that at
adjacent one
3000 in order
rpm togeometry
for this limit magnetic scattering
the maximum in the
stress is iron body.
27 MPa It appears
with a fracturethat at of
limit 3000
this type
rpm for this geometry
of iron is 470 MPa.the maximum stress is 27 MPa with a fracture limit of this type of
iron is 470 MPa.
Energies 2024,2024,
Energies 17, x 17,
FOR PEERPEER
x FOR REVIEW
REVIEW 37 of3748of 48
Energies 2024, 17, 538 36 of 47

Figure 41. Structural

Figure
Figure analysis
Structural
41. Structural
41. results
analysis
analysis representing
results
results VonVon
representing
representing Mises
Von stress
Mises
Mises distribution
stress
stress and and
respective
distribution
distribution and de- de-
respective
respective
formation under
deformation
formation maximum
under
under maximumspeed
maximum conditions
speed
speed (15000
conditions
conditions rpm)
(15,000
(15000 rpm).
rpm)

Figure
Figure 42. Displacement
42. Displacement
Figure of iron
of iron
42. Displacement of iron
due due to
to centrifugal
to centrifugal
due force.
force.
centrifugal force.
6.3.2. Formulation of the 2-D Model for Electromagnetic Analysis
6.3.2. Formulation
6.3.2. Formulation of the
of 2D
the Model
2D Modelfor Electromagnetic Analysis
for Electromagnetic Analysis
The proposed electromagnetic nonlinear weakly coupled mechanical 2-D electro-
TheThe
proposed electromagnetic nonlinear weakly coupled mechanical 2D electromag-
magneticproposed electromagnetic
finite element model hasnonlinear weakly coupled
been developed to work mechanical 2D electromag-
with 2-D triangular grids,
neticnetic
finite element model has has
beenbeen
developed to work withwith
2D triangular grids, consid-
considering a given single BH function of the initial magnetization curve grids,
finite element model developed to work 2D triangular consid-
that contains
ering a given
ering single
a given BH BH
single function of the
function of initial magnetization
the initial curve
magnetization thatthat
curve contains nonlinear
nonlinear relative permeability characteristics in each element. The contains nonlinear
application of the
relative permeability
relative permeabilitycharacteristics in
characteristics each
in element.
each The
element. application
The of the
application of Newton–
the Newton–
Newton–Raphson algorithm allows accelerating the convergence towards the solution
Raphson
Raphson algorithm allows accelerating the convergence towards the solution shown in
shown in algorithm
Figure 43. allows accelerating the convergence towards the solution shown in
Figure 43.
Figure 43.
 Energies
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Energies 2024,
2024,
2024, 17,
17,
17, x FOR
x 538
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 3838of of4848
37 of 47

Figure
Figure
Figure 43.
43.
43. EM-FEA
EM-FEA
EM-FEA solution
solution
solution results
results
results showing
showing flux
showing density
flux
flux module
density
density BBand
module
module B equipotential
and
and lines
equipotential
equipotential under
lines
lines for
under
under
◦
full
forfor loading
full
full and
loading
loading angle
and
and angle
angle 111°
111111°
. . .

6.3.3.
6.3.3. Optimization
Optimization of Rotor Mass and Leakage Flux
6.3.3. Optimization ofof Rotor
Rotor Mass
Mass andand Leakage
Leakage Flux
Flux
Mechanical optimization is performed by developing a certain evolutionary algorithm
Mechanicaloptimization
Mechanical optimizationis isperformed
performedbybydeveloping
developinga acertain certainevolutionary
evolutionaryalgo- algo-
that optimizes an appropriate objective function. In particular, a genetic algorithm (GA) of
rithm
rithm that
that optimizes
optimizes anan appropriate
appropriate objective
objective function.
function. InIn particular,
particular, a genetic
a genetic algorithm
algorithm
1000 generations with a population size of 100 each is employed. The specific population
(GA)
(GA) ofof 1000
1000 generations
generations with
with a population
a population size
size ofof100100 each
each is is employed.
employed. The
The specific
specific pop-
pop-
size ensures, the detection of the total minimum of the cost function for this application,
ulation size ensures, the detection of the total minimum of the
ulation size ensures, the detection of the total minimum of the cost function for this appli- cost function for this appli-
which also converges to 800 generations approximately. With the application of this
cation,which
cation, whichalso alsoconverges
convergestoto800 800generations
generationsapproximately.
approximately.With Withthe theapplication
applicationofof
algorithm, a better convergence of values is achieved, while the parallel application on
thisalgorithm,
this algorithm,a abetter betterconvergence
convergenceofofvalues valuesis isachieved,
achieved,while whilethetheparallel
parallelapplication
application
a computer system can provide a great reduction in computing time. In the case of the
on ona a computer
computer system
system can
can provide
provide a a great
great reduction
reduction inin computing
computing time.
time. InIn the
the case
case ofof
thethe
considered machine, a variation of the order of a few percent in torque can be obtained
consideredmachine,
considered machine,a avariation
variationofofthe theorder
orderofofa afew fewpercent
percentinintorque
torquecan canbebeobtained
obtained
under nominal operating conditions at 15,000 rpm. The exploration is designed in such
under nominal
under operating conditions atat 15,000 rpm. The exploration is is designed inin such aa
a waynominal
that weoperating
set boundaryconditionsvalues 15,000
of the rpm. The
optimization exploration
variables, designed
so that the such
genetic
waywaythatthatwe
algorithm
we setsetboundary
knows
boundary valuesofofthe
values
what boundaries
theoptimization
it will
optimization variables,soso
fall withinvariables,
in order to
thatthe
that
make
thesearch
genetic
the genetic
algo-
algo-
for the
rithm
rithm knows
knows what
what boundaries
boundaries it it will
will fall
fall within
within inin order
order toto make
make
optimal solution faster. The use of the algorithm to optimize the rotor characteristics and the
the search
search for
for thethe optimal
optimal
solution
solution
the faster.
faster.
curvature atThe
The the use
use ofof
tips the
of the algorithm
algorithm
the to
magnetstosleeves optimize
optimize canthe the
lead rotor
rotor characteristics
to acharacteristics
significant andand
improvement the
the cur-
cur- in
vature
vature atatthethe tips
tips of of the
the magnets
magnets sleeves
sleeves can
can lead
lead to to
a a significant
significant
the electromagnetic characteristics as shown in Figure 44 without any risk of mechanical improvement
improvement in in the
the elec-
elec-
tromagnetic
tromagnetic
resistance. characteristics
characteristics
In addition, by placingasasshown
shown ininFigure
auxiliary Figure 4444without
magnet withoutany
retaining any riskofon
risk
brackets ofmechanical
mechanical
the top side re-re-
of
sistance.
sistance. In In addition,
addition, by by placing
placing auxiliary
auxiliary
the magnets it helps to strengthen the rotor at higher speeds. magnet
magnet retaining
retaining brackets
brackets on on the
the top
top side
side ofof
thethe
magnets
magnets it it helps
helps toto strengthen
strengthen thethe rotor
rotor atat higher
higher speeds.
speeds.

(a)(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 44.
44.
44. Average
Average
Average torque
torque
torque graphs
graphs
graphs as
asas afunction
function
a afunction of:
of:
of:(a)(a) internal
internal
(a) torque
torque
internal torque angle;
angle;
angle; (b)
(b)
(b) operating
operating
operating current.
current.
current.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 39 of 48

Energies 2024, 17, 538 38 of 47

6.3.4. Spatial Harmonics in the Air Gap
Observed differences in the spatial distribution of the flux density and the corre-
6.3.4. Spatial Harmonics in the Air Gap
sponding harmonics can lead to different iron losses caused by the slot harmonics. The
proposedObserved
method differences in the spatial
uses the geometric distribution
distortion of theofrotor
the flux
near density
the gap and the correspond-
[185]. This par-
ing harmonics can lead to different iron losses caused by
ticular type of coupling between electromagnetic and mechanical phenomena results the slot harmonics. The proposed
in a
method uses the geometric distortion of the rotor near the gap
reliable numerical method in terms of numerical stability-convergence issues. In general, [185]. This particular type
of coupling between electromagnetic and mechanical phenomena
a large part of the losses of a modern electric motor is due to harmonic losses. By applying results in a reliable nu-
merical method in terms of numerical stability-convergence
an optimized model to visualize and calculate the harmonic iron losses in a IPMSM. The issues. In general, a large
partconclusions
main of the losses areofrelated
a modern electric motor
to harmonic currents is due
and to harmonic
voltage alonglosses. By applying
with saturation andan
cross-saturation occurrence phenomena. The proposed harmonic dq model includesmain
optimized model to visualize and calculate the harmonic iron losses in a IPMSM. The a
conclusions
harmonic ironarelossrelated
resistor totoharmonic
calculatecurrents
the losses andat voltage
differentalong
speeds withand saturation
loads. The and cross-
deter-
saturation occurrence phenomena. The proposed harmonic dq model includes a harmonic
mination of all the above elements highlighted both the accuracy of the model and the
iron loss resistor to calculate the losses at different speeds and loads. The determination of
more detailed representation of results compared to other conventional loss minimization
all the above elements highlighted both the accuracy of the model and the more detailed
and maximum torque per ampere techniques [186].
representation of results compared to other conventional loss minimization and maximum
Rotor deflection in high-speed regions is critical and must be taken into account at
torque per ampere techniques [186].
the design stage in order to avoid exceeding the maximum allowable leakage limit and
Rotor deflection in high-speed regions is critical and must be taken into account at
compromising the reliability of the motor. Particular attention should be paid in the anal-
the design stage in order to avoid exceeding the maximum allowable leakage limit and
ysis to the effect of the rotor radius on critical parameters such as air friction losses, rotor
compromising the reliability of the motor. Particular attention should be paid in the analysis
and stator heating [187]. In addition, in cases where the mechanical strength of the rotor
to the effect of the rotor radius on critical parameters such as air friction losses, rotor and
is not properly ordered by reducing the tensile strength relative to the compressive
stator heating [187]. In addition, in cases where the mechanical strength of the rotor is not
strength
properly [188], the reduction
ordered by reducing of its
themass
tensilecanstrength
lead to relative
deformations
to the that cause unmeasurable
compressive strength [188],
changes in the operating characteristics of the machine.
the reduction of its mass can lead to deformations that cause unmeasurable This analysis introducedchangesa meth-in
odology to analyze the effects of non-uniform gap deformation,
the operating characteristics of the machine. This analysis introduced a methodology on the characteristics ofto
the permanent magnet motor, due to rotor deformations under
analyze the effects of non-uniform gap deformation, on the characteristics of the permanent high-speed conditions.
This technique
magnet motor,isdue based on the
to rotor weak coupling
deformations under between mechanical
high-speed and electromagnetic
conditions. This technique is
analysis. It allows a detailed examination of the variations
based on the weak coupling between mechanical and electromagnetic analysis. in the harmonics of the Itspatial
allows
flux density, the entangled flux of the stator windings and the
a detailed examination of the variations in the harmonics of the spatial flux density, electromagnetic torque rip-
the
ples. It was applied to a machine with internal magnets in a V-type
entangled flux of the stator windings and the electromagnetic torque ripples. It was applied configuration [189].
to aBased
machine on thewithharmonic
internalanalysis
magnetsshown in Figures
in a V-type 45 and 46,
configuration respectively, an increase
[189].
in torque
Basedafteronoptimization
the harmonicby 20.9% can
analysis shown be observed.
in Figures Therefore, the dimensions
45 and 46, respectively, of the
an increase
machine
in torque canafter
be reduced,
optimizationnamelybyits20.9%
lengthcan by be20%observed.
in order toTherefore,
obtain the the required torque.of
dimensions
The
theadvantage
machine can of thebeproposed
reduced, method
namelyisitsbased length onby the20%
particular
in order weak coupling
to obtain theadopted
required
totorque.
study the interdependent phenomena in this way there
The advantage of the proposed method is based on the particular weak is no need to use very powerful
coupling
computational
adopted to study tools,thewhile its integration
interdependent into permanent
phenomena in thismagnet
way there motoris nodesign
needoptimiza-
to use very
tion procedures
powerful is relatively
computational simple.
tools, whileConsequently,
its integration great services can
into permanent be offered
magnet motortodesign
the
designer in terms
optimization of high reliability
procedures andsimple.
is relatively detailed determinationgreat
Consequently, of the variations
services can bein offered
oper-
ating characteristics
to the designer in terms at highof speeds. By reducing
high reliability the bridge
and detailed at the ends of
determination of the
thevariations
rotor overin
the magnetscharacteristics
operating causes a reduction at highin the scattering
speeds. flux andthe
By reducing an bridge
increase at in
thethe
endstorque of rotor
of the the
motor
over astheshown
magnets in Figure
causes 47.a reduction in the scattering flux and an increase in the torque of
the motor as shown in Figure 47.

Figure
Figure 45.45. Torque
Torque diagram
diagram atat maximum
maximum load
load asas a function
a function ofof rotorposition.
rotor position.
Energies
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2024,17,
17,xxFOR
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40ofof48
48
Energies 2024, 17, 538 39 of 47

Figure 46.
46.Harmonic
Figure
Figure Harmoniccontent
46. Harmonic
contentofofmachine
contentmachine torque
of machine before
torque
torque optimization.
before
before optimization.
optimization.

Figure 47.
47.Harmonic
Figure
Figure Harmoniccontent
47. Harmonic
contentofofmachine
content torque
of machine
machine after
torque
torque optimization.
afterafter optimization.
optimization.
7. Conclusions
7.7.Conclusions
Conclusions
The The main conclusions drawn from literature
this literature survey concernalready
the already assessed
Themainmainconclusions
conclusionsdrawn drawnfromfromthisthis literaturesurvey surveyconcernconcernthe the alreadyassessed
assessed
permanent magnet
permanent motor dominant role inpowerlow power applications, which is actually
permanentmagnet magnetmotor motordominant
dominantrole roleininlow low powerapplications,
applications,which whichisisactually
actuallyex- ex-
extended to modern greater power implementations favoring higher speed operation;
tended
tended to modern
to modern greater power
greatermagnet implementations
power material
implementations favoring
favoring higher
higher speed operation;
speed operation; how-
how-
however, permanent characteristics present significant variations when
ever,
ever, permanent
permanent magnet
magnet material
material characteristics
characteristics present
present significant
significant variations
variations when
when op-
op-
operating under harsh conditions and are affected both by temperature rise and mechanical
erating
erating under
under harsh conditions and
andareareaffected both by temperature rise andandmechanical
stresses. Inharsh conditions
that respect, demagnetizationaffected both
risks byincreased
are temperature andrise
detailed mechanical
loss handling
stresses.
stresses. In
Inthat
that respect,
respect, demagnetization
demagnetization risks
risks are
are increased
increased and
and detailed
detailed loss
loss handling
handling
has to be considered at the design stage. Consequently, it is necessary to account for the
has
hasto to be
be considered
considered atatthe
the design
design stage.
stage. Consequently,
Consequently, ititisisnecessary
necessary totoaccount
account for
forthe
the
losses in permanent magnets due to high frequency effects caused by space harmonics
losses
losses in permanent
in permanent magnets
magnets due to high
duespeeds frequency
to highasfrequency effects
effects caused
caused by space
by space harmonics
harmonics inin
in case of high rotor rotation well as by higher harmonic content of converter
case of high
casesupplies. rotor
of high rotor rotation speeds
rotation speeds as well as
as well ashave by higher
by higher harmonic
harmonic content of
content offor converter
converter sup-
sup-
Appropriate methodologies already been developed analysis of the
plies.
plies. Appropriate
Appropriate methodologies
methodologies have
have already
already been
been developed
developed for
for analysis
analysis ofofthe
the respec-
respec-
respective machine operating characteristics, including detailed representation of harmonic
tive machine
tivelosses
machine operating characteristics, including detailed representation ofof harmonic
in theoperating
permanent characteristics,
magnets and including
the surrounding detailed representation
ferromagnetic laminated harmonic
magnetic
losses
losses ininthe permanent magnets and the surrounding ferromagnetic laminated magnetic
circuits, as well as combined consideration of the electromagnetic, thermal, andmagnetic
the permanent magnets and the surrounding ferromagnetic laminated mechanical
circuits,
circuits, as
aswell
phenomena wellas as combined
combined
involved. consideration
consideration
Respective ofofthe
accurate the electromagnetic,
electromagnetic,
simulations can bethermal,
thermal,
achieved and
andbymechani-
mechani-
appropriate
cal phenomena
cal weak
phenomenacouplinginvolved.
involved. Respective
techniquesRespective accurate simulations
accurate simulations
using methodologies based on can
can be achieved
thebefinite
achieved
elementby appropriate
by appropriate
method. It may
weak
weak becoupling
coupling
noted that techniques
techniques using methodologies
usingpermanent
the appropriate methodologies magnet based
based ononthe
material the finite
finiteelement
elementplays
implementation method.
method. a keyItItrole
may
mayinbebe noted
each noted that
thatthe
application, theappropriate
appropriate
as permanent
permanentmagnet
Neodymium-Iron-Boron magnet
alloys,material
material
exhibiting implementation
implementation
higher remanence plays
plays aa
values,
key role
roleininfrom
keysuffer each application,
eachsignificant
application, as
asNeodymium-Iron-Boron
Neodymium-Iron-Boron alloys,
alloys, exhibiting
exhibiting
decrease of magnetization with temperature rise, with respect to higher
higher rema-
rema-
nence
nence values,
values,suffer
Samarium–Cobalt sufferfrom alloysignificant
from significant decrease
decrease
rivals, presenting ofofmagnetization
lower magnetization with
withtemperature
saturation magnetization temperature rise,
rise,
but presenting
with
with respect
respect
much to Samarium–Cobalt
to Samarium–Cobalt
better alloy rivals,
alloy rivals,
temperature rise withstand. presenting
Inpresenting lower saturation
lower saturation
particular applications, magnetization
magnetization
suitable combinations
but
butpresenting
of differentmuch
presenting typesbetter
much better temperature
temperature
of permanent rise
risewithstand.
magnet materialsIn
withstand. In
mayparticular
particular
provide applications,
applications, suitable
suitable
effective configuration
combinations
solutions. of
combinations ofdifferent
different
Finally, types
typesofof
appropriate permanent
permanent
coupled magnet
magnetmaterials
two-dimensional materials may
mayprovide
provideeffective
finite element—equivalent effectivecircuit
Energies 2024, 17, 538 40 of 47

equation techniques enable consideration of edge effects in permanent magnet machines by

means of reduced computational means, facilitating integration in geometry optimization
algorithms, and efficient motor design methodologies development.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.I.V. and A.G.K.; methodology, V.I.V. and A.G.K.; soft-
ware, G.K.S. and F.P.X.; validation, V.I.V., G.K.S., F.P.X., M.S.C.P., T.D.K., M.A.T. and A.G.K.; formal
analysis, V.I.V. and A.G.K.; investigation, V.I.V., G.K.S., F.P.X., M.S.C.P., T.D.K., M.A.T. and A.G.K.;
data curation, V.I.V., G.K.S., F.P.X., M.S.C.P., T.D.K., M.A.T. and A.G.K.; writing—original draft
preparation, V.I.V.; writing—review and editing, A.G.K.; visualization, V.I.V. and A.G.K.; supervision,
A.G.K.; project administration, A.G.K.; funding acquisition, V.I.V., G.K.S., M.S.C.P., T.D.K. and A.G.K.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the European Regional Development Fund of the European
Union and Greek National Funds through the Operational Program Competitiveness, Entrepreneur-
ship and Innovation, under the Call RESEARCH-CREATE-INNOVATE under Project T2EDK-00421.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Themistoklis D. Kefalas was employed by the company Hellenic
Electricity Distribution Network Operator HEDNO S.A. Author Marina A. Tsili was employed by
the company Independent Power Transmission Operation (IPTO-ADMIE). The remaining authors
declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships
that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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