Paradigm Shifts:

Videogames as postmodern
media

By
Michael McKenny

Student Number: 0401588

Project supervisor: Martin Flanagan

Full Award Title: Business Studies joint with Film Studies

A dissertation presented for BA(hons) Film Studies

Department of Arts, Media and Education

The University of Bolton

May 2009
 Contents

INTRODUCTION......................................................................... 3
The ascent of videogames as a medium.................................................. 3

Videogames as postmodern media.......................................................... 3

The term: Videogame................................................................................. 4

POSTMODERNISM..................................................................... 5
An elusive concept..................................................................................... 5

An escape from modernity’s grand narratives........................................ 6

Simulation, hyperreality and postmodern identity.................................. 6

Baudrillard’s critics: A split in academia................................................. 7

Between the modern and the postmodern: A tool for change.............. 8

Postmodernism and videogames............................................................. 9

VIDEOGAME STUDIES.............................................................. 10
The debate between ‘narratolgy’ and ‘ludology’..................................... 10

Between the narrative and the ludic......................................................... 11

Videogames as ‘new media’: Convergence............................................. 13

A POSTMODERN READING OF NEO-GRAMSCIAN

HEGEMONY…………………………………………….................. 14
Hegemony’s relevance to new media....................................................... 15

Videogames’ contribution to postmodern hegemony............................ 16

VIDEOGAMES AS POSTMODERN MEDIA:

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES...................................................... 16
Identity in online gaming: Fragmented and multiple.............................. 17

The space between gaming: X-Box Live and Playstation Network.. 18

Resident Evil 5.................................................................................. 19

Identity play as liberation.................................................................. 20

1
Simulated worlds and moral ambiguity................................................... 20

Grand Theft Auto IV.......................................................................... 21

Fable II.............................................................................................. 21

The existing need for narratology: Comparing Fable II

and Grand Theft Auto IV................................................................... 22

METAL GEAR SOLID 2: SONS OF LIBERTY........................... 24

Introduction................................................................................................ 24

Plot synopsis............................................................................................. 25

The Hollywood videogame....................................................................... 26

Fragmented identity.................................................................................. 27

The player’s introjection.................................................................... 27

The characters.................................................................................. 27

Raiden’s multiple identities............................................................... 28

The individual’s little narrative................................................................. 29

Simulation.................................................................................................. 30

Self-reflexive criticism....................................................................... 30

The game’s interface........................................................................ 30

Colonel Campbell: An artificial intelligence....................................... 31

The ‘real’ world................................................................................. 31

The Patriots as grand narrative................................................................ 32

The digital age of postmodernity............................................................. 32

Morally ambiguous resolution.................................................................. 33

A postmodernism of resistance............................................................... 34

CONCLUSION............................................................................ 35

GAMEOGRAPHY....................................................................... 37

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................ 38

2
INTRODUCTION

The ascent of videogames as a medium

In this early part of the twenty first century, the medium of videogames appears to

be growing into a level of maturity as it moves out of the fringes of society and into

the realms of popular culture; this can be marked through the financial impact of

key tent pole releases in a similar way to the Hollywood film model (see Blakely

2007), or through statistical information regarding videogames’ increasing share of

society’s leisure time; this was noted in an unaccredited article in The

Independent: “In 2008, global revenue from computer games reached £22.2bn,

enough to overtake DVD sales for the first time” (18.03.2009). The evolution of

new such forms of communicating a narrative has profound implications for

society, as Marshall McLuhan speculates: “Societies have always been shaped

more by the nature of the media by which men [and women] communicate than by

the content of the communication” (McLuhan and Fiore 1996: 8). Just as the

inception of film or the mass adoption of television have now been highly

documented in terms of their impact on society, there is a growing trend in

academia to fully understand the impact and influence of ‘gaming’.1

Videogames as postmodern media

Miroslaw Filiciak declares that “[video]games are the medium that most perfectly

describe our existence and express the way the human ‘self’ functions in the

contemporary world” (2003: 101). The ‘contemporary world’ described here is one

Ga i g is the er gi e to the leisurel i tera tio of a i di idual a d a ideoga e, hi h a

1

encompass using, playing or consuming. It is comparable to viewing a film or reading a novel, yet of course
this is pro le ati as the ter readi g a e applied to a te t regardless of its ediu . It is suggested
by Barry Atkins in his book More Than a Game: The computer game as fictional form (2003) that a
videogame can be read as a text (referred to by Atkins as a game-fiction) in the same way as a novel or a
film.

3
of postmodernity, therefore postmodern theory will be consulted in order to

understand the significance of videogames as a medium. The limits of a

postmodern approach will be determined and possible solutions suggested. This

approach will be illustrated and clarified by consulting a number of factors to be

identified as inherent to videogames: fragmented identity, simulated worlds and

moral ambiguity. Further to this, a textual analysis of Hideo Kojima’s Metal Gear

Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (Konami 2001) will show how this videogame showcases

postmodern characteristics in its gameplay and utilises its narrative elements in

such a way that enable it to be defined as a postmodern text.2

The term: videogame

The terms ‘videogame’, ‘video game’ and ‘computer game’ are used

interchangeably throughout the academic field. This essay will use the term

‘videogame’, which is more specific to home console gaming, whereas ‘computer

game’ is more associated with PC gaming.3 This essay looks to study

videogames’ impact on popular culture and mass media; although PC usage has

become part of mass culture, PC gaming is still associated with subcultures, as

Steven Poole highlights: “PC-based videogames are far less popular than

consolebased [sic] ones” (2007: 345). The omission of a space between video and

game, although it is a subtle change, makes ‘videogame’ a more complete entity

and emphasises that it is its own medium.

2
Gameplay is the way in which the player interacts with the text.
3
Games consoles are machines that have the prime function of facilitating the play of videogames, as
opposed to personal computers (PCs) where playing a videogame is merely one of many functions.
Consoles are increasingly becoming multipurpose interactive hubs (this will be developed later), but at this
moment in time, their prime function is gaming.

4
POSTMODERNISM

An elusive concept

The concept of postmodernism has been highly contested in its short history; it

has been used in a wide variety of contexts and situations. Due to this widespread

use and its infection into so many discourses, it has been difficult to ground, which

John Storey (1998) explains, leads some to imply that it has no meaning; inspired

by Dick Hebdige, he believes quite the contrary to this: “When a term has entered

so many debates and discourses, it must be articulating something fundamental”

(1998: 345). In order to use the term with any degree of confidence and clarity in

this work, it is important to dissect what has been written about it; what seem to be

its fundamental values and in what way these values can be useful to the study of

videogames in contemporary society. Douglas Kellner articulates the difference

between some of the terms used when referring to the postmodern; differentiating

the terms from their modern equivalents, he distinguishes between “modernity and

postmodernity, as two different historical eras; between modernism and

postmodernism, as two different aesthetic and cultural styles; and between

modern and postmodern theory as two different theoretical discourses” (1995: 46).

Therefore in the context of videogames in contemporary society, it could be

argued that we are in an age of postmodernity; it is possible to see elements of

postmodernism in the medium of videogames; so the industry and individual texts

can be analysed using postmodern theory.

5
An escape from modernity’s grand narratives

Whilst separating these terms, Kellner is introducing the idea that the postmodern

is essentially a break from the modern - the value systems and structures that

have guided society and culture since the enlightenment. Jean-François Lyotard

(1979) explains that this era was dominated by imposing sets of values, which he

describes as grand narratives, or metanarratives. These grand narratives create

subjects out of individuals and force them to identify within their narrow

boundaries.4 He is explicit in his assertion that postmodern theory represents the

breakdown of these imposing sets of values: “I define postmodern as incredulity

toward metanarratives” (1979: xxiv). Lyotard proposes that in place of these

metanarratives are many little narratives that compete in the creation of culture

and meaning, leaving a greater possibility for a more equal society. This

‘incredulity toward metanarratives’ seems to be at the very heart of the

postmodern condition and informs many other definitions or interpretations.

Simulation, hyperreality and postmodern identity

Another postmodern pioneer from this early period was Jean Baudrillard, who

believes that a third-order simulacrum has created an implosion of the traditional

(modern) subject position: “The whole traditional model of causality is brought into

question... the distinction between cause and effect, between active and passive,

between subject and object, between ends and means” (1983: 55). He explains

that this occurs from the implosion of the two poles of object and subject - the rigid

system that defined the modern era. It is here where his views intersect with those

4
Lyotard gives, as examples of grand narratives: Organised religion such as Christianity; or the focal point of
his attacks: Marxism. These are simply two examples, but any system that imposes its values on society
would be regarded as a grand narrative.

6
of Lyotard; that postmodernity marks a new era, distanced from the fixed subject

position that grand narratives impose. The significance, in light of this implosion is

that individuals now possess a greater freedom to develop their own belief system

through free identity play, in order to create their own position (little narrative).

Baudrillard defines this third-order simulacrum as an implosion of meaning,

leaving only simulation: “Everywhere in whatever political, biological,

psychological, media domain, where the distinction between poles can no longer

be maintained, one enters into simulation” (1983: 57). He further defines

simulation as “the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a

hyperreal” (1983: 2).

Baudrillard’s critics: A split in academia

Baudrillard has been a significantly controversial figure in the postmodern debate;

the controversy is derived from his interpretation of the society that follows this

implosion of meaning. By suggesting that meaning implodes, he is proposing a flat

and empty society that has no space for political economy. He explains that during

modernity, political and economic discourse has become inseparable and

proposes that the two are now (in an age of postmodernity) also inseparable from

the (mass) media.

This convergence of language between the economic and the political

is furthermore what marks a society such as ours, where ‘political
economy’ is fully realised. It is also by the same token its end, since the
two spheres are abolished in an entirely separate reality, or
hyperreality, which is that of the media.

(Baudrillard 1983: 125)

7
Baudrillard’s conclusion that the hyperreality of the media is political economy’s

end, leads his vision of postmodernism toward nihilism and to a society void of

meaning. It is here where the rupture in academia occurs, as this view is

challenged in favour of the belief that an erosion of the traditional system is a new

opportunity for positive change. This criticism is not only directed toward

Baudrillard, but to the whole theory of an unfettered postmodernism. The use,

therefore, of postmodernism is questioned by Barbara Creed: “Any attempt to

speak from a ‘place’ is immediately rendered problematic by the fact that one of

the positions central to postmodernism is that there are no places left from which

to speak – there are no ‘Truths’, ‘Beliefs’, or ‘Positions’” (1998: 364). This

diminishes postmodern theory’s ability to lead somewhere or propose a change to

the system that its proponents claim it has eradicated, which would explain why

Baudrillard believed that it led to a flat and empty society. This problem of

postmodernism’s use was, in part, acknowledged by Lyotard’s ‘game theory’:5

“Game theory, we think, is useful, in the same sense that any sophisticated theory

is useful, namely as a generator of ideas” (Anatol Rapoport cited in Lyotard 1979:

60).

Between the modern and the postmodern: A tool for social change

This rupture is where the idea enters the discourse, that the explosive energy and

revolutionary fervour of postmodernism can be used to challenge (as opposed to

eradicate) established structures; it can inject new life into cultural theory that was

established during the modern era, creating a hybrid of modern and postmodern

theory. This was posited by Kellner’s (1995) interpretation of Antonio Gramsci’s

5
Lyotard (1979) insists that all language is constructed of games, where moves are made by different
players. The rules are constantly in flux and are set explicitly or implicitly by the interaction of the players.

8
theory of hegemony, which will be further developed later. Kellner was led to this

hybrid approach by a determination to use postmodern theory as a contributor to

social change, rather than merely a means for analysing image:

Against such a formalist and anti-hermeneutical postmodern type of

analysis connected with the postulation of a flat, postmodern image
culture, I would advocate a cultural studies which draws on postmodern
and other critical theories in order to analyze both image and meaning,
surface and depth.

(Kellner 1995: 236)

In light of this approach, Baudrillard’s conclusion that simulation leads to a flat and

empty society can be re-evaluated. Instead, a position can be taken whereby

simulation is recognised as a characteristic of postmodern society, but rather than

destroying meaning, it encourages individuals to embrace the simulated

hyperreality that they are presented with. Individuals are then free to play with their

identity, taking full advantage of the (steady) erosion of the oppressive subject-

object positions imposed throughout modernity.

Postmodernism and videogames

Simulation becomes important when analysing videogames, due to the interactive

worlds that players are presented with. The implosion of the subject-object

position, which this causes, along with Lyotard’s theory of grand narratives being

broken down, will inform the broad analysis of videogames as a medium and the

specific analysis of individual texts. Add to this the fusion with accepted,

established and helpful theories of cultural criticism (Kellner’s revision of neo-

Gramscian hegemony), and the importance of videogames to society can be

assessed.

9
VIDEOGAME STUDIES

The debate between ‘narratology’ and ‘ludology’

The study of videogames has been largely dominated by a debate between

narratology and ludology; that is the debate surrounding whether videogames are

an evolution of established narrative forms, or if they are a revolutionary rupture

that demand an entirely new analytical model. This sounds distinctly reminiscent

of the argument laid out above, between the revolution/evolution of the

postmodern over the modern. Ganzala Frasca embodies the ludologist’s

approach: “Video games imply an enormous paradigm shift for our culture

because they represent the first complex simulational media for the masses”

(2003: 224). He expands upon his use of the term simulation, explaining that its

significance for videogame studies is that the player, unlike the fixed (modern)

subject, can influence the activity and therefore outcome of the action.6 By

proposing such a rupture, the ludologists claim that traditional narrative theories of

representation are redundant, and that a new approach is required to address the

issues of simulation. Julian Kücklich represents the emphasis on narratology and

believes that videogames are a different, evolved form of narrative text, but

narrative text none the less: “While it seems obvious that computer games fall into

the category of games, which is notoriously hard to define, many of them

Jan “i o s ade a i porta t poi t regardi g la guage: Mu h depe ds, of course, on your definitions
6

of arrati e a d si ulatio , hi h, i tur , depe d o the la guage ga e ou re i a d the o es ou

a t to ake . This as i respo se to the ludologists defi i g si ulatio as the a ilit to i flue e
the outcome of the game. Simons suggests that this is not necessarily a trait of simulation; that scientists
often use simulated situations, that o e i ple e ted are ot a ipulated. Further still, Baudrillard s
simulation is not as confined and limited as the ludologiest s i terpretatio ; for Baudrillard, si ulatio
encompasses all semiotic relations in a postmodern age of hyperreality.

10
transcend this category by virtue of their ability to tell a story” (2003).7 It is this

position that Frasca attacks, defining a ludologist as “someone who is against the

common assumption that videogames should be viewed as extensions of

narrative” (Frasca 2003: 222).

Between the narrative and the ludic

An unfettered ludic approach comes under the same criticism as does

postmodernism; Jan Simons attacks this position, stating that the ludologist’s

“arguments are ideologically motivated rather than theoretically grounded, and

don’t hold up against closer scrutiny” (2007). He concedes the benefits of a ludic

approach, but like Kellner for postmodernism, he insists that this does not mean

that established theories – in this case narrative analysis - are redundant. This

position would claim Frasca’s statement above, to be more appropriate if it read

‘against the common assumption that videogames should only be viewed as

extensions of narrative’. Simons scrutinises the limits of freedom that the

ludologists’ ‘simulation’ brings, proposing that narrative stories are confined by the

author, only “as much as computer-generated simulations are constrained by the

algorithms written by the designer of the model” (2007). This shows the limits of a

ludic approach and the limits to the (often proposed) freedom offered within

videogames.8 A similar conclusion to the one reached above, for postmodernism

becomes apparent; the unfettered ludic approach is essential for – like Lyotard’s

game theory - ‘generating ideas’. The ludologist’s move in this game is to disrupt

the status quo, which prompts a counter move from those fully in support of

7
It is important to note that this story (or narrative) may be very basic, but it is still a narrative. This is
highlighted by such examples as Space Invaders (Midway 1978), which tells the story of the need to destroy
invaders (the cultural other), and Pac-Man (Namco 1980) can be read as the incessant need to consume.
8
An increasing selling point for videogames is the freedom to explore the world that is constructed in the
gamespace. This will be analysed later in light of Grand Theft Auto IV and Fable II.

11
narrative theory. From this, a well rounded debate is facilitated, including

viewpoints between the extremes of the spectrum, which is the position taken by

Jon Dovey and Helen Kennedy:

[W]e are in some sense immersing ourselves in the simulated world.

Yet the simulated world deploys a representation as its fundamental
interface; representation is our means of accessing the simulation of
the rule-governed world.

(Dovey and Kennedy 2006: 10)

This is an example specific to videogames, yet is distinctly like how a hybrid of

modern/postmodern theory would access Baudrillard’s simulation and hyperreality

through the real;9 thus emphasising the parallels between the discourse of

postmodernism and that of videogame studies. As was the case in the postmodern

debate, this compromise is where the most useful approach is found; to appreciate

that videogames are a radical break from established narrative forms, but

established narrative theory must still be applied as videogames possess narrative

functions. This compromise was adopted by the critics of Cahiers du Cinema, itself

renowned for bringing youthful energy to established academia (particularly in the

1960s, in the era of the nouvelle vague). In a September 2002 issue dedicated to

videogames, Erwan Higiguinen and Charles Tesson illustrate this balance:

Video games are not only a social phenomena, they are the essential
cross roads of a redefinition of our relation to the narrative world in
images, prolonging what Godard had formulated (“A film: Between the
active and the passive, between the actor and the spectator”).

(Higiguinen and Tesson cited in Wolf and Perron 2003: 8)

9
If models only refer to other models, some model must have derived from the real. Alternatively, if there
really is only the hyperreal, then this becomes the new default; the new norm, and therefore the
equivalent of the real.

12
This statement appreciates that videogames represent a cross roads, signifying

that they are a new area to analyse, but rather than being an entirely new concept,

they represent an evolution of the active spectator that already exists in narrative

studies. This use of other media, to contextualise videogame studies is a common

approach and will be elaborated upon below.

Videogames as ‘new media’: Convergence

Seen as an extension of narrative theory’s active spectator, videogames and their

critical discourse have been embraced by ‘new media’. Espen Aarseth, a

ludologist, reads this embrace as an incarceration: “To make things more

confusing, the current pseudo-field of "new media" (primarily a strategy to claim

computer-based communication for visual media studies), wants to subsume

computer games as one of its objects” (2001). Henry Jenkins’ (2008) theory of

‘convergence culture’ justifies this ‘subsuming’, proposing that new media has not

made any attempt to claim computer-based communication; rather he suggests

that all media are ‘converging’:

Convergence represents a paradigm shift – a move from medium-

specific content toward content that flows across multiple media
channels, toward the increased interdependence of communications
systems, toward multiple ways of accessing media content, and toward
ever more complex relations between top-down corporate media and
bottom-up participatory culture.

(Jenkins 2008: 254)

He proposes that although convergence is brought about due to the pace of

technological development, it is fundamentally about people’s perceptions and

different ways of connecting; technology is merely the enabler. Jenkins

appreciates that this is a result of the transgression from modernity to

13
postmodernity; he cites the science-fiction writer Bruce Sterling, agreeing with his

remarks that “[t]he centralised, dinosaurian one-to-many media that roared and

trampled through the twentieth century are poorly adapted to the postmodern

technological environment” (Sterling cited in Jenkins 2008: 13).10

A POSTMODERN READING OF NEO-GRAMSCIAN HEGEMONY

The prevalence of this increasingly bottom-up participatory culture within the

production of media calls upon Kellner’s (1995) insistence on using postmodern

theory fused with established cultural studies in order to understand its

implications for society. In doing so, Kellner takes a neo-Gramscian position to

explain how an increasingly bottom-up creation of popular culture gives the

masses (as opposed to the privileged few) a greater influence – via hegemony -

on the creation of established culture. Dominic Strinati sets Gramsci’s theory of

hegemony apart from a traditional Marxist model of society, where classes are

clearly defined, rigid and non-negotiable:

[I]t is perhaps best to think of hegemony as a contested and shifting set

of ideas by means of which dominant groups strive to secure the
consent of subordinate groups to their leadership, rather than as a
consistent and functional ideology working in the interests of a ruling
class by indoctrinating subordinate groups.

(Strinati 1995: 170-171)

The neo-Gramscian model’s move away from the dominance of grand narratives,

whilst appreciating political economy, illustrates the convergence of modern and

Jenkins takes slight issue with the articulation of this; he claims that the media is the information
10

produced, and that this has not changed. What has changed and cannot adapt is the delivery technology. A
contemporary example is that print papers (The Guardian) are in declining demand compared to their web
based equivalents (Guardian Unlimited), where anyone can comment on an article, thus promoting this
participatory culture (see Mayes 2006). Both deliver the same information, therefore are the same form of
media, yet they are implemented by different delivery technologies.

14
postmodern theory proposed by Kellner. He highlights hegemony’s relevance to

this approach:

[It] has no guarantees, no teleologies, no grand narrative of

emancipation, no totalizing or reductive discourses of politics... no
home or solid basis from which to struggle, but still holds on to the hope
that new solidarities, new forms of struggles, will emerge.

(Kellner 1995: 45)

These new solidarities and struggles will emerge because hegemony is – as

Strinati defined above - a ‘contested and shifting set of ideas’. Strinati explains

that this occurs because “[h]egemony operates culturally and ideologically through

the institutions of civil society which characterise liberal-democratic, capitalist

societies” (1995: 168).

Hegemony’s relevance to new media

This interpretation opens the contest of cultural creation to the many little

narratives of which ‘civil society’ is comprised. Further still, Strinati establishes that

mass-media and popular culture are increasingly dominant elements of ‘civil

society’, which in turn, it has been established is increasingly represented by the

participatory nature of new media (including videogames). To put this another

way; the masses of little narratives influence the creation of new media, which

comprises an increasing proportion of popular culture; through hegemony, this

popular culture (part of ‘civil society’) influences established culture, thus creating

a bottom-up as opposed to top-down creation of culture and meaning in society.

15
Videogames’ contribution to postmodern hegemony

Dovey and Kennedy’s position shows the relevance of videogames to this

process. They apply to them, Victor Turner’s anthropological theory of liminoid

spaces, which they define as “[t]he special time and space of play” (2006: 34).

They propose that this space is “not just a source of creativity but also a site for

the generation of alternative social orders, for political interventions, for utopian

imaginings” (2006: 35). Through this reading, not only are new media and

convergence culture making it easier for individuals to influence mass media,

individuals are, through videogame play, learning how to form their own positions

(little narratives). This utopian viewpoint is adopted by Jenkins: “Right now, we are

learning how to apply these new participatory skills through our relation to

commercial entertainment” (2008: 257); yet when these skills are developed, and

individuals come to expect their right to participate in the creation of meaning, then

“participation becomes an important political right” (2008: 268).

VIDEOGAMES AS POSTMODERN MEDIA: ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

It has already been established that postmodernism is such an abstract

phenomena that it is often difficult to ground and define, therefore it is helpful to

take Kellner’s advice (which is in turn influenced by Hebdige) that “‘it is only by

grounding our analysis in the study of particular images and objects’ that we can

overcome the limitations of the highly theoretical discourses of the past decades

and ‘the vertigo of postmodernism’ (Kellner 1995: 45). Therefore it is important to

take the theory that has been outlined above and illustrate its relevance with

examples taken from the videogame medium.

16
Identity in online gaming: Fragmented and multiple

The postmodern lifestyle is featured by lack of cohesion; it is

fragmented. The postmodern man’s [and woman’s] personality is not
quite definite, its final form is never reached, and it can be manipulated.
We receive no implied form of our ‘self’, but, instead, we construct it
incessantly.

(Bauman citied in Filiciak 2003: 94)

This evaluation of postmodern identity by Zygmunt Bauman, is supported by

Kellner’s belief that “[t]he notion of a ‘player’... provides clues to the nature of

postmodern identity (1995: 242). This need to ‘incessantly construct’ ones

‘fragmented’ identity through ‘play’, is clearly abundant in online gaming. Filiciak,

in his essay on ‘hyperidentity’ in ‘massively multiplayer online role-playing games’

(MMORPGs)11, stated that “[d]igital media, video games included, enable us – for

the first time in history on such a scale – to manipulate our ‘selves’ and to multiply

them indefinitely” (2003: 88). In videogames, the player (subject) is able to control

the avatar’s actions and the pace of the text; 12 functions which in film, would be

determined by the director, the cinematographer or the editor. Due to this control,

when considering how the subject (player) identifies with the characters, the

representation used in narrative theory must be elaborated upon. It was

established by Dovey and Kennedy that the space in which the game-fiction’s

narrative takes place is simulated and that simulation is presented through

representation. Filiciak gives his interpretation of the implications this has on

identification within videogames:

Fili iak defi es MMO‘PGs as a o puter et ork-mediated games in which at least one thousand
11

players are role-pla i g si ulta eousl i a graphi al e iro e t : .

12
The avatar is the character that the player controls within the gamespace.

17
 The process of secondary identification taking place in cinema theaters
depends paradoxically on distance while in the case of games we
encounter something more than just intimacy. Identification is replaced
by introjection... The subject (player) and the ‘other’ (the onscreen
avatar) do not stand at the opposite sides of the mirror anymore – they
become one.

(Filiciak 2003: 91)

The space between gaming: X-Box Live and Playstation

Network

Filiciak uses PC gaming in his work, yet as was established at the onset of this

essay, PC gaming is still relatively in the cultural fringes; this essay is concerned

with gaming’s impact on popular culture, therefore Filiciak’s views will be applied

to the mass adoption of online console gaming, which arrived with the third

generation home consoles.13 Two of the contributors are X-Box Live and

Playstation Network, which for their respective consoles, provide the user (which

is more appropriate than player at this point) with a variety of functions; the prime

objective is to facilitate the connection with other users in order to join online

games, but in terms of playing with ones identity, they offer more than this.

Playstation Home (part of Playstation Network) provides a three dimensional

simulated space for users to frequent, where they are represented by individually

created and personalised avatars. This personalisation is important to the

construction of postmodern identity, as Filiciak explains, when describing a similar

feature in Everquest (Verrant Interactive 1999): “A huge role is played here by the

ability to choose appearance, which has become an obsession in the

As this is written, these are the newest machine from each of the industry leaders: Ni te do s Wii, “o s
13

Playstation 3 a d Mi rosoft s X-Box 360. These are the dominant home consoles that are relevant to this
dis ussio , although the i porta e of Ni te do s ha dheld o sole: DS a d the e erge e of Apple s I-
Phone as an established gaming format must both be recognised.

18
postindustrial societies” (2003: 90). Playstation Home is marketed as “your very

own home away from home [...where you can] chat to new people, watch videos

and trailers... shop for clothes and items [for your avatar], or just chill out in your

own personally decorated and customisable apartment” (official Playstation

website 2009). X-Box Live offers similar features, although is not a simulated three

dimensional world. It provides a customizable X-Box Live ID, which has the same

emphasis on your ‘ability to choose appearance’. This ID is also represented by a

customizable avatar and is comprised of features such as personal details,

biography, games played and achievements gained.14

Resident Evil 5

To put this into context, Resident Evil 5 (Capcom 2009) will be analysed in terms

of a how a player presents a fragmented postmodern identity. The game can be

described as a survival horror, third-person action adventure game.15 It has been

designed to complement its online co-operative functions, wherein Chris Redfield

and Sheva Alomar are faced with hordes of infected creatures that resemble

zombies. The player’s identity will be presented to their co-player through the

introjection that occurs between them and the avatar; therefore this identity will be

a convergence of the player’s choices and the predetermined rules of the

character and the gamespace. This may take the form of weapon preference;

whether to run frantically through the game or to creep slowly - taking advantage

of the atmospheric conditions; whether to offer support to their partner or to look

14
Every X-Box 360 game has achievement points that can be gained by completing certain objectives that
are o pletel re o ed fro the diegeti ele e ts of the te t s halle ges a d re ards. These are used to
encourage gamers to utilise the whole game, rather than staying within the confines of the essential story
or plot. These achievement points then function as a status symbol on your X-Box Live ID.
15
Genre definitions function in a similar way as they do in other mediums; their use here will be to give an
impression of the aesthetic quality (survival-horror) and the games rules/method of control (third-person -
which gives the player a third-person perspective of the avatar and the gamespace).

19
out only for them self; these actions will all indicate the identity that the player is

projecting. Identity is alternatively and simultaneously represented by the player’s

personalised X-Box Live ID, which is accessible to their co-player. Further to this

the player has the option of speaking to their co-player via a (microphone-

earphone) headset; therefore invoking the kind of identity projection associated

with a telephone conversation.16

Identity play as liberation

It is this act of projecting multiple identities; switching freely and constantly

between different versions of one’s ‘self’, that causes fragmentation and leads to

Baudrillrd’s implosion of meaning. This need not have the negative effect on

individuals and societies that he implies; Filiciak agrees with this: “The possibility

to negotiate our ‘self’ minimizes the control that social institutions wield over

human beings. It does not need to mean chaos, but on the contrary it can mean

liberation” (2003: 100). Videogames, seen in this light are at the forefront of this

liberation. The ability to negotiate one’s ‘self’ in order to break from the domination

of grand narratives will be further elaborated upon in the textual analysis of Metal

Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty.

Simulated worlds and moral ambiguity

Fable II (Lionhead 2008) is of the third-person fantasy role-play genre and Grand

Theft Auto IV (GTA4) (Rockstar Games 2008) is of the third-person action

gangster genre. Both videogames utilise the medium’s ability to create a navigable

world, yet both present their worlds and characters differently.

It is important here, ot to fall i to the trap of elie i g that this is loser to their true ide tit , as the
16

postmodern identity is constantly in flux, never fixed.

20
 Grand Theft Auto IV

This text presents the player with Liberty City to explore, where the player can

undertake a great deal of essential or nonessential missions and activities.17

Some of these can result in a gain for the character, such as acquiring money or

establishing relationships with other characters, which can then assist them at a

later point. Some of the activities though, seem to have little productive use; like

visiting a bar, where once the character leaves, the game’s interface alters its

established rules for navigating the gamespace, simulating the effect of being

drunk, making walking and driving extremely difficult.18 These are ludic elements

of identity play, but they also contribute narrative significance, as the player,

through ‘introjection’, is developing the character’s personality.

Fable II

The simulated world presented by this text is Albion (reminiscent of a fantasy

world such as JRR Tolkien’s Middle Earth). Within Albion the player can choose to

take part in a wide variety of tasks that do not further the plot.19 These are more

than single tasks; one example is taking part in Albion’s property market, as any

house can be bought and then sold or rented out; property prices will depend on

the neighbourhood they are in, so if the player takes time to rid the area of street

crime, a property they own will increase in value. It is important to stress that this

17
The game progresses through the completion of missions that are set by other characters within the text;
there are missions that must be completed to further the story, but there are many that the player is not
obliged to undertake.
18
The interface is the connection between the text and the player; it may include the visual elements, the
audio elements or the e ha i s of the o trol s ste . Wolf a d Perro defi e it as a ju tio poi t
et ee i put a d output... the portal through hi h pla er a ti it o urs : .
19
This is assuming that the plot is considered the established story, as opposed to encompassing a
complete understanding of the world you inhabit. This is a matter too complex to be further discussed
here; plot will be used to refer to the essential story.

21
process can be entirely bypassed in order to complete the game.20 This freedom

in Fable II allows the player to make choices regarding the character’s morals and

ethics; the player can control a male or female avatar, facilitate a relationship, get

married (including to the same sex) and even have children if they do not practice

safe sex. Again, this part of the game can be completely bypassed.

The existing need for narratology: Comparing Fable II

and Grand Theft Auto IV

These additional activities in Fable II, allow the player to have such an input into

the character, that traditional theories of identification presented in ‘one to many

media’ - with fixed subject positions - lose their authority. The player’s input also

exists in GTA4, but to a much lesser degree; here, traditional theories of

representation are still valid and appropriate. The narrative is told from the

perspective of an Eastern European immigrant; despite the freedom granted,

there are missions and tasks that are essential to progress the story. Within these

missions, the character undertakes specific actions and says specific things that

are out of the player’s control, therefore forcing the player to relate with the

motivations of that character. Under these circumstances, the game developer

(individual or team) can be seen in the image of an author or a director, placing

objects and personalities within the text and forcing the player to take a position.

Here, rather than being freed from a forced subject position, it is further

strengthened as the player must act it out. Although there are essential tasks in

Fable II, the character never speaks and the player can react in a variety of

A si ilar pro le o urs here, as ith dis ussi g the plot; o plete ould encompass investigating the
20

entire game, completing all of its essential missions, or even collecting all the achievements, (as discussed
above in relation to X-Box Live). For this essa o plete ill ea to pla through the esse tial stor .

22
different ways at many junctions of the games plot; choices that are made as a

child have a profound and varied impact on the presentation and politics of Albion

when the game skips forward to the character’s adulthood. This comparison

emphasises the need for both a ludic and a narrative approach to videogame

analysis, as the ludic elements of Fable II – and GTA4 to an extent – display the

kind of non linear story and freedom to explore a simulated world, which is unique

to the medium. This encourages identity play, allows the individual to make their

own moral decisions and encourages them to discover things for themselves. This

is far removed from a culture where grand narratives create a position then force

the subject to identify with it. In contrast to this, a narrative reading of GTA4 would

show that the game far from suppresses dominant ideology, as the game revolves

around the dominant capitalist values of individual attainment of money and

power. Alternatively, there is the possibility of a narrative reading that takes

account of the videogame medium’s unique interactivity; the fact that the game

forces the player into this situation, may be encouraging them to associate with an

Eastern European immigrant forced to integrate into a corrupt western capitalist

society.

23
METAL GEAR SOLID 2: SONS OF LIBERTY

Introduction

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (MGS2) (Konami 2001) is a third-person

stealth-action game released on the Playstation 2.21 On its release, it was the

latest game in the Metal Gear series; its predecessors were Metal Gear Solid

(MGS) (Konami 1998) for the Playstation, Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake (Konami

1990) and Metal Gear (Konami 1987), both for the Japanese MSX console. These

videogames have been acclaimed as artistically significant texts, following the

emerging trend to apply the term ‘auteur’ to the videogame industry. This is

recognised by James Newman: “A recent trend in the marketing and criticism of

games has seen the emergence of something akin to auteurism... Each of the two

titles in the Metal Gear Solid series are publicised... as ‘a Hideo Kojima game’”

(2004: 12-13).22 Two approaches will be taken to identify this as a postmodern

text; the first is to identify the postmodern themes that are presented by the

narrative; the second is to see how the medium is used to exemplify these

themes. This approach to a postmodern analysis is not confined to videogames,

as a postmodern reading of a filmtext would look to establish how the medium of

film is used; yet it is the extent to which the videogame’s player interaction – the

videogame’s unique characteristic - is utilised that will be significant. In order to

make this easier to follow, a brief plot synopsis will be given.

It is defined as stealth-action because the gameplay is structured around not being seen, so the ga e s
21

rules provide the player with functions for hiding and creeping up on enemies. This gameplay element also
adds to the narrative, as it helps to create a tense atmosphere, which complements the espionage plot.
22
Newman only mentions the newer Metal Gear Solid games; this is possibly because the earlier two were
not marketed as Hideo Kajima games, or that Newman did not have access to their marketing material.

24
Plot synopsis

A prequel stage serves as an introduction to key characters from MGS, for the

benefit of those that did not play it or as a reminder to those that did. The player

controls Solid Snake (Snake), the protagonist from all the previous games; he is

investigating the existence of a new metal gear: Metal Gear Ray23. This stage also

introduces Revolver Ocelot (Ocelot), who was one of the antagonists from MGS;

Ocelot is partially possessed – via an arm transplant - by the believed to be dead,

lead antagonist from MGS: Liquid Snake (Liquid); Snakes ‘clone-brother’24. After

the prequel stage, the player takes control of Raiden (the significance of this

change of character will be discussed below). A terrorist group called Dead Cell

have hijacked an offshore decontamination facility, holding the president hostage;

Raiden’s mission is to rescue him. This simple plot, which plays on gamers’

existing expectations, through genre conventions of other videogames or

Hollywood blockbuster films, soon unravels into one with much more depth. The

contamination facility is revealed to be Arsenal Gear; more than just a metal gear,

it is a superstructure with access to the military’s tactical network and is guarded

by ‘hordes’ of Metal Gear Rays. Aboard Arsenal Gear is GW; a data processing

system, which has the ability to control all digital information. Arsenal Gear is

controlled by a secret organisation called the Patriots. The president explains that

the Patriots are the real power in the United States; they control economics,

politics and the military; democracy is merely a charade. They are attempting to

launch GW in order to censor and create all digital information; therefore create

culture and define history as they please. The designer of the system, Emma

A etal gear is a large, ar oured, alki g super eapo ; Metal Gear ‘a is o e espe iall de eloped
23

for use under water.

24
The plot of MGS centred on the human genome project and the creation of a clone army. Liquid and
Snake are both clones of Big Dadd a d are referred to as lo e- rothers ithi the te t.

25
Emmerich, explains that “GW is a system that allows the Patriots to decide what

will be recorded in tomorrow’s history”. The ‘terrorist’ group that you were sent to

defeat are actually freedom fighters, led by Solidus Snake (Solidus), another

clone-brother of Snake and Liquid, who is an ex-Patriot trying to disrupt or destroy

the Patriots’ power.

The Hollywood videogame

MGS2 has been defined as ‘the Hollywood videogame’ (see Keane 2007); it

utilises cut-scenes through continuity editing;25 it bears many references to

popular culture and has a cinematic, orchestrated soundtrack produced by Harry

Gregson-Williams, who is known for producing soundtracks for Hollywood films.26

This self-reflexive recognition (that it has been influenced by Hollywood) is a trait

of postmodernism, as it is an example of Baudrillard’s simulation, where models

represent models; there is no real, only the hyperreal. Further to this, MGS2 does

not utilise the ludic elements discussed above that are strictly unique to

videogames: online multiple identity; a free open world; or your own moral

ambiguity. It does although; use disruptive ludic techniques to dislocate the player

from the text (breaking the fourth wall), and offering morally ambiguous characters

to identify with.27 Due to this, Keane’s simple reduction of this text to a ‘Hollywood

videogame’ seems distinctly shallow and makes no attempt to uncover the unique

elements of the narrative or the gameplay.

25
Cut-scenes are scenes that break away from the gameplay to present the story in an edited filmic format.
26
Examples include Enemy of the State (Tony Scott 1998), Kingdom of Heaven (Ridley Scott 2005) and
Phone Booth (Joel Schumacher 2002).
27
These techniques can be used, and are used in postmodern film or literature texts, but it is the way in
which they are implemented in this example, which displays videogames as more capable of offering
postmodern sensibilities.

26
Fragmented identity

The notion of a fixed identity is almost completely absent in this game; both in how

the player identifies with the avatar and through the characters presented in the

text.

The player’s introjection

The player switches from controlling Snake; the confident, Hollywood modelled

action hero - who is believed to have died at the end of the prequel stage - to

controlling Raiden; a young “rookie” who is unsure of himself and has very little

knowledge of the ‘real’ situation of his mission. By doing this, the text instantly

disrupts the way the player identifies with the characters, as the player is forced to

identify with both Raiden and Snake. The relationship between the two becomes

more interconnected when it is revealed that Raiden has been trained, through

‘simulations’ (the significance of simulations is discussed blow) to be just like

Snake.

The characters

Fixed identity is further disrupted with the constant rediscovery, or changing of

characters’ identities throughout the text. Snake for instance, returns to the

narrative posing as Pliskin, the leader of the special unit also sent to rescue the

president. At this point, the player knows it is Snake but Raiden does not, which

puts further distance between the ‘introjection’ of player and character and does

not allow the player’s identification to settle. Another example is that to begin with,

Raiden - and the player at this point - is told that the leader of Dead Cell is Solid

Snake (who Raiden knows of from his training), but is actually Solidus posing as

27
Snake. Ocelot literally presents dual identities as Liquid occasionally takes

possession of his body and even the reconstruction facility that you enter has an

undisclosed identity as it is actually Arsenal Gear. The multitude of examples of

fragmented or multiple identities (as there are many more) constantly remind the

player that identity is always in flux; to question identities that are presented to

them and to understand that their own identity is not fixed.

Raiden’s multiple identities

Raiden undergoes a number of identity changes; the character enters the game in

a full body diving suit and is referred to as Snake (playing on the player’s

expectations that they will be controlling the established protagonist), yet when the

mask is removed it is revealed that Snake was his code name, which is now being

changed to Raiden.28 Further to this, details of his personal life as Jack are

steadily released through his conversations with Rose, where it is constantly

eluded to that he does not remember much of his life.29 This is addressed toward

the end of the text, as it turns out that Raiden was raised as a child soldier by

Solidus and was known by many names including Jack the Ripper and White

Devil.

28
The fact that his identity is constantly in flux, makes referring to him problematic. Throughout this
analysis he will be referred to as Raiden unless specifically stated.
Rose is the character that offers technical support and advice; she fu tio s to the arrati e as ‘aide s
29

lo e i terest a d to the ga epla as the hara ter that ‘aide speaks to i order to sa e the ga e s
progress. Hideo Kojima explains that the character names: Jack and Rose, are a reference to popular
culture; to the Hollywood film Titanic (James Cameron 1997) (see Metal Gear Solid 2 – Making of the
Hollywood Game (Nicolas Beugle 2002)).

28
The individual’s little narrative

The fact that Raiden was forced into this life at six years old, illustrates that he was

forced into a position by powers out of his control, just as grand narratives do to

their subjects. The constant identity changes of himself and everyone around him

prompt Raiden to break down, becoming unsure of who he is or whether reality is

even real. In reply to his question, “who am I?” Snake says to him (and the player):

“there’s no such thing in the world as actual reality... no one quite knows who or

what they are... You can find your own name and your own future... choose your

own legacy, it’s for you to decide, it’s up to you”. This passage is explicit about the

power of the individual in forming their own little narrative (the use of reality within

the same passage further enhances its postmodern resonance). The text defines

the ‘real’ as what the individual experiences; what the individual feels; how the

information is presented is not important, it is the feelings invoked that are always

real. This embraces hyperreality as a means of experiencing things, which once

experienced, become real; this is in opposition to the implosion of meaning that

Baudrillard suggests. This rhetoric further champions the power of the individual

and states that only from their individual little narrative can they truly find what is

‘real’ to them.

29
Simulation

Self-reflexive criticism

A point is made of the fact that Raiden has had no field experience; 30 he has been

fully trained in the VR (Virtual Reality) training simulator.31 Snake refers to this as

the production of a “generation of video game soldiers”. This speaks directly to the

player and encourages them to question the amount of violence in popular culture;

a clearly self-reflexive move, as the game is essentially attacking its own

existence. This point is further reiterated later in the text when Raiden is

remembering his life as a child soldier; he recalls that “they made us watch loads

of Hollywood action movies, the ones with men firing big guns”.

The game’s interface

The simulation that is the game itself, is used as an important tool in the

construction of its meaning. Raiden and Snake upload a virus to GW in order to

stop the Patriots from seizing control of the world’s digital information. As a result,

the game’s interface is severely affected - as it is itself, digital technology. The

map that is displayed in the corner of the screen, for the players benefit, begins to

show random images; a child or a lady lying on a sofa for instance. Another

reaction is that the ‘game over’ animation sequence plays, even though Raiden is

still alive. This animation usually shows the words ‘mission failed’, along with a

small screen showing Raiden’s dead body; in this instance, the words read ‘fission

30
At this point in the plot he does not remember that he was a child soldier.
31
The inclusion of this VR training in the plot is a self-reflexive recognition of the simulator that introduces
the player to the controls and functions of the game in MGS.

30
mailed’ and the small screen still contains the game’s action; the player must use

this small screen to continue playing.

Colonel Campbell: An artificial intelligence

Another consequence of the virus reveals the fragmented identity of your mentor

throughout the game: Colonel Campbell (the Colonel). Raiden communicates with

him via a ‘codec’.32 After the virus is uploaded the Colonel begins to act out of

character, speaking in incomprehensible sentences and making statements like

“Raiden, turn the games console off NOW... it is just a game!” and “Don’t you have

anything else to do with your time?” It becomes clear that he never existed; that he

was a simulation; an ‘artificial intelligence’ created by the Patriots, communicating

via the digital codec. As he was nothing more than digital information, he too was

corrupted by the virus. This instance of ‘hyperreality’ serves two functions; it

disrupts the player, taking them out of the comfort of simply consuming the text;

prompting them to realise that no text is only a text; it is having an effect on them

and they are experiencing it - so it is real. At the same time, it is showing the

player how fragile and corruptible the system of transmitting information is, and

that this should not be taken for granted or left unchallenged.

The ‘real’ world

Another technique employed to disrupt the player, is the occasional use of ‘real’

world footage in the cut-scenes. One such instance occurs whilst explaining that

the software to make all computers compatible with GW was installed along with

‘the Y2K countermeasure’. As this game was released in 2001, the ‘millennium
32
A codec functions like a radio, but is a tiny digital device that utilises nanotechnology (microscopic
machines). The device is pla ed i the user s ear so that o u i atio a e esta lished se di g
vibrations directly to the receiver and therefore cannot be heard by anybody else.

31
bug’ problem (which the Y2K countermeasure was designed to solve) would still

be firmly in the mind of the player as something ‘real’.33 All these instances of

simulation are used in order to constantly prompt the player to question the ‘real’

that is placed in front of them, so that they can understand what is presented and

then form their own position (little narrative) based on this understanding.

The Patriots as grand narrative

The Patriots explicitly represent grand narratives, as they are an oppressive top-

down system of generating culture and meaning within society. Solidus wishes to

discover the identity of the twelve remaining members so that he can kill them and

destroy their power, but after the game’s end credits it is revealed that these

individuals died over a hundred years ago. The Patriots, therefore truly represent a

hyperreal system of control, as their values circulate and create more values and

systems with no return to the real except through their implementation. This is

eluded to in the text as the Colonel (now revealed to be an artificial intelligence

representing the Patriots) declares: “over the past two hundred years a kind of

consciousness formed layer by layer in the crucible of the white house... we’re

formless, we are the very discipline and morality that Americans invoke so often”.

The digital age of postmodernity

The text ends with this system having not been defeated, in order to prompt the

player to consider the grand narratives that control their life. A simple vanquishing

of this power, which may be expected through the Hollywood genre conventions

33
The millennium bug was a world wide problem in 1999; it was described by Mark Tran of The Guardian as
a ter to des ri e the i a ilit of o puters to re og ise the ear . The pro le arises fro the use
of software which stores dates in two-digit for a d hi h a i terpret " " as rather tha
(1999).

32
that the game self-reflexively acknowledges, would not have the same effect. The

real victory is that their power is waning and that they are scared of the

democratization of information in this ‘digital age’; a term frequently used

throughout the text. ‘Digital age’ can be read as a synonym for postmodernity, as it

is diminishing the power of the Patriots, just as Postmodernism is diminishing the

power of grand narratives. The Colonel illustrates the Patriots’ fear, admitting that

“the age of digitized information has given even more power to the individual; too

much power for an immature species”. The text recognises the dangers of this

technology by showing that dominant grand narratives can attempt to utilise it, but

ultimately shows that their controlling, autocratic nature is not compatible with the

co-creative, democratic nature of postmodernity. The digital age is presented as

capable of instigating the creation and sharing of individuals’ little narratives that

can gradually erode these grand narratives.

Morally ambiguous resolution

The final battle embodies the preference of the individual’s own position. The

battle is between Raiden and Solidus and leads to a morally ambiguous ending,

as Solidus was intending to do what the text had presented to be the greater

good; to destroy the power of the Patriots. It is Raiden’s personal motivations that

lead him to kill Solidus, as Solidus revealed that not only had he raised Raiden as

a child soldier, he had killed his real parents. Therefore, although this was the

Patriot’s bidding, seemingly making Raiden their pawn, he was motivated for his

own reasons.

33
A postmodernism of resistance

Best and Kellner define the term ’postmodernism of resistance’ as a specific form

of postmodernism; they explain that it “acknowledges its reflexive appropriation of

traditional literary forms, but also seeks to engage political issues and to change

culture and society” (2001: 24-25). Under this criteria (replacing literary with

videogame), MGS2 exemplifies a ‘postmodernism of resistance’. It employs a self-

reflexive position by attacking its own existence as a violent videogame and by

disrupting the interface that connects the player to the text. This forces the player

to understand that they are being told a story and that this story has a motive, as

do all stories (narratives); do not simply consume them without understanding and

questioning them. The game affirms political resistance by empowering the player

as an individual; it tells them that they choose their own legacy; suggesting that all

they have to do is understand and question what is presented to them and then

they can create their own position. This echoes Marshall McLuhan’s sentiment:

“There is absolutely no inevitability as long as there is a willingness to contemplate

what is happening” (McLuhan and Fiore 1996: 25). The text hails the digital age as

something that will empower individuals to join together rather than be alienated;

that this takes power away from grand narratives’ dominance over the creation of

culture and subject positions. This is reiterated and clarified after the end credits;

Snake speaks over ‘real’ world footage, this time explicitly speaking to the player:

Life isn’t just about passing on your genes, we can leave behind much
more than just our DNA; through speech, music, literature and movies,
what we’ve seen heard and felt: anger, joy and sorrow, these are the
things I will pass on; that’s what I’ve lived for. We need to pass the
torch and let our children read our sad and messy history in all its light;
we have all the magic of the digital age to do that with.

(Solid Snake)

34
CONCLUSION

As the twenty first century wears on, the expectation of individuals to influence

what they experience - driven by the vast amount of interactive and co-creative

‘new media’ available - is increasing. Videogame players influence and co-

produce the narratives they are presented with, facilitating a shift from a top-down,

to a bottom-up system of creating meaning. As online features become an

essential part of videogames, players will become accustomed to the free flow of

their fragmented and multiple identities, rather than one that is fixed and

predetermined. These same videogames can offer simulated worlds where the

player can find their own narrative and their own meaning; in many cases being

able to make decisions that they deem as morally ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, rather than

being told what the ‘right’ moral decision is.

This fundamental change in the creation and consumption of media follows an

even greater paradigm shift in society: the growing relevance of postmodernism’s

little narratives in comparison to modernism’s grand narratives. The unfettered

postmodernism that was prevalent at the term’s inception, has since come under

criticism for not offering anything in place of the systems of modernity that it was

propagating the demise of. In light of this, postmodernism became more of an

evolution than a revolution; it had not eradicated cultural criticism derived from

modernity, but offered it new life and new ways of reading culture and society.

This compromise is also found in the study of videogames; they are a drastic

change from traditional forms of narrative such as film and literature, but they are

still a narrative based medium, therefore previously established theory is still

relevant and useful. Further still, rather than being fundamentally different, the

35
active player – influencing the action in the narrative - can be seen as an

extension of the active spectator – questioning the action in the narrative. The

active spectator was the beginning of the demise of modernism’s demanding

subject positions and the active player will continue this trend.

Jenkins (2008) believes that the freedom offered within the liminoid spaces of new

media, will lead to individuals finding it unacceptable to have a subject position

thrust upon them, leading to the rejection of top-down systems of politics,

economics and management. It must be stressed that this is a gradual process, as

was highlighted in the analysis of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty; grand

narratives (The Patriots) will not be brought down immediately, but this new age of

postmodernity can offer the tools and the mindset required to promote a more

equal society wherein the creation of culture comes from the bargaining of little

narratives as opposed to the demanding of grand narratives.

36
 Gameography

Everquest (1999) Verant Interactive. On PC (Windows).

Fable II (2008) Lionhead Studios. On Microsoft X-Box 360.

Grand Theft Auto IV (2008) Rockstar Games. On Microsoft X-Box 360.

Metal Gear (1987) Konami Digital Entertainment. On Sony MSX.

Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake (1990) Konami Digital Entertainment. On Sony MSX.

Metal Gear Solid (1998) Konami Digital Entertainment. On Sony Playstation.

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001) Konami Digital Entertainment. On Sony
Playstation 2.

Pac-Man (1980) Namco (Now Bandai Namco). On Coin-operated arcade.

Resident Evil 5 (2009) Capcom Entertainment. On Microsoft X-Box 360.

Space Invaders (1978) Midway Games. On Coin-operated arcade.

37
 Bibliography

Aarseth, E (2001) ‘Computer game studies, year one’ in Gamestudies.org. Vol. 1

No. 1 (July) [online] available at http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/editorial.html
accessed on 28.04.2009

Atkins, B (2003) More Than a Game: The Computer Game as Fictional Form.
Manchester: Manchester University Press

Atkins, B and Krzywinska, T (2007) Videogame, Player, Text. Manchester:

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