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An overview of sport in modern India
Packianathan Chelladurai and Swarali Patil

Introduction
India is a constitutional republic comprised of 29 states and seven union territories. With a
population of 1.3 billion, India is the second most populous democracy in the world.1 With
approximately one-sixth of the world’s total population (17.50 percent), it is characterised by its
diversity in terms of religion, culture, language and ethnicity. There are 22 major languages in
India, written in 13 different scripts, with over 720 dialects.2 The Indian population is made up
of numerous regional ethnolinguistic groups, the majority of whom are Indo-Aryans (72 per-
cent) and Dravidians (25 percent). India is a religious nation, with 79.8 percent of the population
practicing Hinduism, followed by Islam (14.2 percent), Christianity (2.3 percent) and Sikhism
(1.7 percent).3 Though conflicts arise among different groups defined by religion, ethnicity,
language and caste, India thrives as a democracy where all segments of the society are respected.
The current value of the Indian economy is USD 2.30 trillion, the seventh largest in the
world. In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) the Indian economy ranks third in the world
and is pegged at USD 8.52 trillion.4 In contrast, India ranks 122nd in PPP per person at a measly
USD 7,783, as a result of its vast population.5
Currently, 50 percent of India’s population is below the age of 25 years and 65 percent of
its population is below the age of 35 years. In 2020, the Indian population is expected to have
an average age of 29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan.6 Economically, India’s
middle class is expected to comprise 40 percent of its population, accounting for more than
60 percent of its annual consumption.7 With a growing middle class and a young population,
there is no dearth of human capital to help India pursue sporting excellence.

India’s traditional sport

Like other ancient civilisations of the world, India has its own tradition of sport and physical
fitness. Hinduism, the religion of the majority of the population in the country, promotes the
virtues of physical perfection based on a clear understanding of the body and its functions. One
manifestation of this tradition is the practice of yoga,‘an ancient discipline designed to bring bal-
ance and health to the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual dimensions of the individual.’8
Yoga originated in India in approximately 2700 BCE, and is now practised worldwide because
of its focus on harmonising the mind and body.9 Sport indigenous to India include kabaddi
and kho kho, which are mostly played in community settings at the grassroots level. Kabaddi
has gained tremendous popularity in India, particularly with the success of the Pro Kabaddi
League.10

Sport in modern India

The Indian sporting landscape is dominated by cricket, but it has other major sport, such as field
hockey, football, badminton and tennis. Traditional sport such as kabaddi and kho kho are primar-
ily played at the grassroots level. A brief description of the major sport in India is provided here.
Cricket: Cricket, the most popular and profitable sport in India, was introduced to India by
the British in the early 1700s. India has won three World Cup trophies and is currently the
number one team in all three formats of the game (i.e. one-day test, five-day test, and T20 – a
version where the competition is restricted to 20 overs by each team. An over consists of six
consecutive balls bowled by a single player from one end of the pitch). The Board of Control for
Cricket in India (BCCI) organises popular national tournaments featuring athletes from differ-
ent regions of India. The BCCI introduced the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2008 – an eight-
team professional league featuring Indian and international cricketers.11 The IPL has achieved
tremendous commercial success and is valued at USD 6.3 billion.12
Badminton: Badminton was introduced to India by the British late in the first decade of the
twentieth century. The sport has gained popularity in recent years due to the success of young
Indian players, such as Saina Nehwal, P.V. Sindhu and K. Srikanth, on the international stage.
The Badminton Association of India has initiated a professional league comprised of six teams
located in six of the largest cities in India, with prize money of USD 1 million. The association
has also launched the Shuttle Time–India programme, encouraging youth from the six franchise
cities to compete in professional competitions.13
Field Hockey: Commonly known as hockey, it is India’s national game. Hockey was intro-
duced to India in the middle of the first decade of the twentieth century by the British. Hockey
is India’s most successful sport on the international stage. The Indian men’s Olympic hockey
team has won eight gold medals and the 1975 Men’s Hockey World Cup.
Football: Football was introduced to India by the British in the same time period as field
hockey was introduced. The Indian football team was the first A sian team to qualify for the
semi-finals at the 1956 Olympic Games.14
Tennis: Introduced by the British late in the first decade of the twentieth century, tennis is
governed by the All India Tennis Association and is a sport popular in the urban areas of India.
Popular and successful Indian tennis players include Leander Paes, Mahesh Bhupati, Sania Mirza
and Vijay Amritraj.
Gymnastics: Gymnastics is a relatively new sport in India. Ashish Kumar won the Bronze
medal in the 2010 Commonwealth Games held in India, which was India’s first medal in gym-
nastics in an international event.15 Similarly, Dipa Karamarkar won a bronze medal in the 2014
Commonwealth Games held in Scotland, becoming India’s first female gymnast to do so, and
she won a bronze medal in the 2015 Artistic Gymnastics Asian Championships.16 Given the lack
of popularity of gymnastics in India and the fact that the Gymnastics Federation of India has
been characterised as inefficient, the achievements of Kumar and Karamakar are praiseworthy.17
Other Sport: Sport such as basketball, chess, billiards, snooker and golf have a long history
in India, but they do not enjoy commercial success and popularity. Lack of success on the
international stage in recent years has likely resulted in public indifference towards these sport.
Table 26.1 India’s Medal Tally in Commonwealth, Asian and Olympic Games

Commonwealth Games

Year Organising Gold Silver Bronze Total

Country

2010 India 38 27 36 101

2014 Scotland 15 30 19 64
2018 Australia 26 20 20 66
Asian Games
2010 China 14 17 34 65
2014 South Korea 11 10 36 57
2018 Indonesia 15 24 30 69
Olympic Games
2008 China 1 0 2 3
2012 United Kingdom 0 2 4 6
2016 Brazil 0 1 1 2

However, attention from popular international sport leagues interested in gaining viewership
and following in Asian nations has the potential to attract sport fans in India. For example, The
NBA Academy in India provides elite-level training to aspiring athletes and this may result in
the development of talented basketball players and help popularise the sport in the country.18
India’s Performance in International Competitions: As demonstrated in Table 26.1, the success of
Indian athletes at securing medals in the Olympic, Asian and Commonwealth Games has been
rather mediocre over the last three iterations of the events.

Sport policy and practice

Sport in India is delivered through government and non-government agencies that are inter-
connected and serve allied mandates.
Policy of Sports Authority of India: The Sports Authority of India (SAI), a unit of the Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Sports, was established in 1984 with the aim of promoting sport and games
in the country. The SAI also maintains various stadia in New Delhi, such as the Jawaharlal
Nehru Sports Complex, the Indira Gandhi Sports Complex and the Dr Karni Singh Shooting
Ranges.19 The objectives of the SAI include:

• identifying talent at the grassroots level and nurturing it towards excellence,

• providing aspiring athletes with training and opportunities to compete in international
events,
• supporting athlete training with appropriate equipment and licensed practitioners,
• assisting in the training and preparation of national teams,
• developing and maintaining sport infrastructure, and
• developing coaches and physical education professionals of the highest calibre in different
sport.20

To achieve these objectives, the SAI has established 12 SAI Regional Centres and Educa-
tional Institutes, 56 SAI Training Centres, 19 Special Area Games Centres and 11 Centres of
Excellence.21 The SAI has differentiated the processes of training coaches for the pursuit of
excellence in sport and training physical educators for the promotion of participation in sport.
The Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports (NSNIS) focuses largely on training coaches,
sport psychologists and experts in sport medicine. The NSNIS is affiliated w ith r ecognised
universities to offer graduate degrees, post graduate diplomas and certificates in sport coaching,
sport medicine, sport massage and grounds management. The SAI’s larger Lakshmibai College
of Physical Education in Gwalior was renamed as the Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical
Education (LNIPE) and is now deemed a university. It operates independently of the SAI but
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. The LNIPE is affiliated with
the University of Kerala and offers a master’s degree in physical education (MPE), a postgradu-
ate diploma in health and fitness management (PGDHFM) and a master of philosophy degree
(MPhil).

Programmes of the Ministry for the Development of Sport and

Promotion of Physical Activity
The programmes (or schemes) initiated by the Ministry for the Development of Sport and Pro-
motion of Physical Activity are set out in detail here.
National Sports Development Fund: The National Sports Development Fund was established
in 1998 to (a) support specific sport and athletes, (b) provide training and coaching to sport
persons, (c) construct and maintain sport infrastructure, (d) identify research-based solutions
to barriers, (e) promote international cooperation and exchange programmes, and (f) provide
interest-free or low-interest loans for sport-related projects.22
Human Resources Development in Sports: In 2013, the Department of Sports established a pro-
gramme named the Scheme of Human Resources Development in Sports, which offers funds
for advanced graduate sport studies; organisation of seminars, workshops and conferences; invit-
ing qualified experts from other nations; training of referees and umpires, coaches and other sup-
port personnel; providing grants for research projects and publication of sport-related research;
and developing an online platform for dissemination of knowledge in different languages.23
Khelo India Scheme: The Khelo India (Let’s play, India) programme was established in 2017
with the vision of encouraging youth in the country to participate in sport indigenous to the
nation, to popularise them and bring them into the mainstream.24 This programme aims to
(a) develop playing fields, community coaches and state-level Khelo India centres, (b) identify
and develop aspiring athletes, (c) organise sport competitions, (d) maintain and upgrade sport
infrastructure, (e) provide support to national, regional and state academies, (f) encourage sport
and physical fitness in schools, and (g) promote sport as a medium of peace and development.
Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat: The Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat (One India, Great India) pro-
gramme was established in October 2015 to bring together the Indian states to carry out joint
ventures in sport, language, literature, cuisine and festivals.25 Each state is paired with another
state for the duration of a year to (a) celebrate the diversity of the nation, (b) promote the spirit
of national integration, (c) illustrate the rich culture and heritage of the nation, (d) establish
long-term engagements, and (e) share best-practices and experiences. Teams in competitions are
composed of players from both states to promote cultural understanding and harmony.
Programmes for International Competitions: In addition to the programmes just discussed, the
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, from time-to-time, establishes specific programmes to
enhance the performance of Indian athletes in international competitions. Some examples of
these programmes are the Scheme for Preparation of Indian Athletes for Commonwealth Games – 2010
and Operation Excellence for London Olympics – 2012. The amount spent in supporting teams and
athletes for these games ranged from INR 678 crore (approximately USD 96 million) and INR
135 crore (approximately USD 21 million).26 These efforts yielded remarkable results for the
country, as India won six medals (2 silver and 4 bronze) at the London 2012 Olympic Games
and 64 medals (15 gold, 30 silver, and 19 bronze) at the Commonwealth Games.27
Come and Play Scheme: Instituted in 2011 as part of the legacy plan, the scheme specifies that
the sport stadia and other facilities are to be used not only for the pursuit of excellence but also
for recreational purposes by the masses.28 This scheme provides youth and sport enthusiasts with
an opportunity to train with qualified coaches in well-maintained facilities and with the correct
equipment. Competitions are organised among teams within each age group, and athletes who
display talent during these events are encouraged to train and compete for higher-level training
schemes.
Community Connect: Established in 2014, the Community Connect Scheme encourages citizens
to participate in activities held in the infrastructure under the jurisdiction of the SAI.29 This
ensures the existing infrastructure is utilised in the promotion of a healthy lifestyle among the
population. The scheme has also created academies for football, cycling, swimming and shoot-
ing to develop talent. There is also a proposal to establish a national sport museum under this
scheme.
National Sports Talent Contest (NSTC) Scheme: Instituted in 1985, the National Sports Talent
Contest scheme is aimed at identifying talented sport persons in the age range of 8–14 years and
to develop them into medal prospects.30 Students who perform well in district, state and national
level competitions are accepted into the scheme. Selected students are paid an annual stipend
of INR 4,150 (approximately USD 59) to support the costs of their sport equipment, insur-
ance and competition-related expenses, as well as an additional annual stipend of INR 3,000
(approximately USD 42). The educational institution is also provided an annual grant of INR
20,000 (approximately USD 282) to assist with the purchase of sport equipment.
Coaches trained at the SAI’s National Institute of Sports are assigned to academic institutions
that have performed well in sport events and have the use of good infrastructure.These coaches,
in turn, are expected to enable promising youth sportspersons to pursue excellence in sport.The
distinct feature of this programme is that talented youth are trained at their home institutions.
Currently, the scheme includes 14 schools for international sport and 10 schools for indigenous
sport and wrestling, which train 805 boys and 255 girls for a total of 1060 athletes.
SAI Training Centres: Established in 1995, the SAI Training Centres programme is a collabora-
tion between the SAI and state governments, where the state government provides the infra-
structure for the training of athletes between the ages of 12 and 18 years and the SAI provides
board and lodging, scientific training and equipment to the trainees.31 The trainees are chosen
from their performance in the NSTC Scheme discussed earlier. Currently, there are 56 such
centres across the country where 5,394 trainees (3,807 boys and 1,587 girls) are being trained.
Army Boys Sports Company Scheme: Established in collaboration with the Indian Army, the
scheme aims to utilise the army’s extensive sport infrastructure and ‘disciplined environment’ to
train young male athletes between the ages of 8 and 16 years.32 These young athletes are identi-
fied through their performances in state and national level competitions in archery, athletics,
basketball, boxing, diving, fencing, football, gymnastics, hockey, rowing, shooting, weightlifting
and wrestling. The programme provides for the board, lodging, equipment, competition, insur-
ance and medical expenses of over 1,000 youth who are training at 18 different army centres.
An additional benefit for the trainees is the opportunity to join the Indian Army around age 18.
Special Area Games Scheme:The Special Area Games Scheme (SAG) was established with the aim
of identifying talented sportspersons from inaccessible tribal, rural and coastal areas of the coun-
try.33 The programme aims to identify talented youth in the age range 12–18 years and provide
them with training and support. The SAI supports the budding athletes with their expenses for
board, lodgings, competition, education, insurance and equipment. Currently, there are 1,676
trainees (961 boys, 715 girls) at 19 SAG Centres.
Centre of Excellence Scheme: Athletes who have excelled in the aforementioned programmes
are recruited into the SAI’s Centres of Excellence, where they are provided with advanced tech-
nical training with all expenses borne by the SAI.34 Selection criteria include athletes between
the ages of 12 and 25 years who have won or placed second at national championship events.
Currently, there are 15 Centres of Excellence training 556 athletes (288 boys and 268 girls).
Vision 2020: The SAI’s ambitious plan labelled Vision 2020 has set the goal of winning 25–30
medals in the 2020 Olympic Games, and this plan is expected to cost INR 984 crore (approxi-
mately USD 139 million).35 The process involves identifying approximately 2,500 talented ath-
letes in various sport recognised by the IOC, grooming that talent in national coaching camps
and exposing them to international competitions. The cost includes a stipend of INR 3,000
(approximately USD 42) per month per individual and an incentive of INR 300,000 (approxi-
mately USD 4,234) for individuals who qualify for the 2020 Olympic Games or INR 150,000
(approximately USD 2,117) for members of sport teams that qualify for the same event.
Development of Coaches: Following the National Skill Development Corporation’s (NSDC)
forecast that the demand for sport coaches, nutritionists and physiotherapists would increase to
approximately 49 billion hours or 0.8 million persons by the year 2022, the Ministry instituted
programmes for training coaches. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Abhiyan (Rajiv Gandhi sport cam-
paign) aims to train community kridashrees (coaches) to serve as trainers in rural regions,36 and
the National Coaching Scheme deploys SAI trained coaches to serve in the SAI programmes
previously discussed.37

The role of non-governmental organisations and

the private sector
The non-governmental sport associations in India include national sport governing bodies
(NSGBs), including the Indian Olympic Association, and their respective members at the state,
regional and panchayat (town) levels. An NSGB is responsible for the governance and promotion
of its sport within the country, and its state associations are charged with the administration of
its sport within their respective jurisdictions.
A rather unique feature of sport in India is the participation and influence of the armed
forces and the Indian Railways in sport. The Railway Sports Promotion Board of the Indian
Railways and the Services Sports Control Board of the armed forces of India are also members
of most of the national sport governing bodies. The regional units of Indian Railways (e.g.
Southern Railways) and the Services Board field their own teams in various tournaments.
Private Academies: A growing trend in India is the entrepreneurial role of former athletes in
establishing sport academies in various sport such as cricket (e.g. Sehwag Cricket Academy),
tennis (e.g. Britannia Amritraj Academy, Bhupati Tennis Academy), badminton (e.g. Gopichand
Badminton Academy, Prakash Pudukone Academy) and football (Baichung Bhutia Football
School). The efforts of these academies have produced outstanding athletes and medal winners,
such as Tintu Luka (gold medal in the women’s 800 metres race at the 2015 Asian Athletics
Championships), tennis star Leander Paes and badminton star Saina Nehwal (ranked second in
the world in badminton).
Corporate Social Initiatives: Another emerging and encouraging feature of the Indian sport
scene is the involvement of industrial and business enterprises (e.g. Tata Steel, Vijaya Bank) in the
promotion of sport as one of their corporate social responsibility initiatives. For example, TATA
organises nationwide talent searches to identify talents and train them in its own sport acad-
emies, such as the TATA Archery Academy, TATA Athletics Academy and TATA Football Acad-
emy.38 TATA also sponsors other sport academies, such as the Prakash Pudukone Badminton
Academy.These efforts have produced several players who have represented India on its national
teams and earned medals in archery and badminton at the Commonwealth and Asian Games.

State sport authorities

The policies and programmes of the central government are replicated in the 29 states of the
Indian Union. For example, the state of Tamil Nadu, situated in the southernmost part of India
and one of the largest and most populous states, has its own Sports Development Authority of Tamil
Nadu (SDAT), which aims to promote sport and physical fitness throughout the state with a spe-
cial emphasis on talent identification and development, competition culture, sport infrastructure
and appropriate coaching methods.39 SDAT provides monetary support to the state level sport
organisations, organises and/or supports residential and non-residential coaching camps in vari-
ous sport, has established a talent identification scheme, offers cash incentives to high level per-
formers in sport and runs its own centres of excellence and sport hostels. SDAT has established
specialised academies for several sport, such as cricket, volleyball, diving, field hockey, table tennis,
swimming and squash. SDAT organises and/or supports competitions in various sport at the dis-
trict and state levels. Finally, the state body implements the programmes assigned to it by the SAI.
A unique way several states support sportspersons is through guarantees of admission into
highly coveted educational programmes, such as engineering, agriculture and medicine. Govern-
ment, non-government and private organisations also adopt this practice of promising employ-
ment to promising athletes. This is commonly referred to as the ‘sport quota’ in India, and has
proved to be an incentive for youngsters to pursue excellence in sport.

Conclusions
The considerable involvement of the Indian government in promoting sport and physical activ-
ity is laudable. However, youth athletics and sport in general are under the purview of state
governments in their respective states. To maximise a return on investment, coaching and tech-
nical education programmes may be delivered through the state level educational ministries
and/or through the state level sport authorities. An additional benefit of the involvement of the
state governments in promoting and channelling excellence in sport may lead to the growth of
interstate rivalries, which may kindle the enthusiastic support of the citizens of a state. Rivalries
between proximate and similar teams may contribute to higher levels of motivation, effort and
performance of team members.40 These rivalries may also have an impact on the involvement of
coaches, managers, sponsors and fans.
SAI may consider providing financial assistance to privately owned sport academies that have
been successful in producing champions. SAI may also pursue partnerships with private acade-
mies and educational institutions to leverage the diverse expertise among government, academic
and private enterprises to address the coaching and training needs of the nation. The emerging
public-private sport partnerships in Western nations may serve as a model for such a move in
India. SAI may also focus on encouraging women coaches to pursue training and education to
be eligible for high level coaching positions in Indian sport.
Sport consumption in India is expected to grow at a rate of 8.9 percent per annum to USD
6 billion in 2025 as a result of the increase in disposable income among households.41 With the
increased levels of education, travel and exposure through digital means, Indian consumers are
P

becoming aware of their physical health.42 The authors also note that the culture of the work-
place in India is evolving, and employee fitness is being promoted and facilitated.
Another encouraging feature is the growth of the middle class in India. Currently, 250 mil-
lion individuals are estimated to be middle class, and this figure is expected to climb to 600 mil-
lion individuals by 2030.43 With the abundance of discretionary income in the hands of the
middle class, the demand for excellence in sport is bound to rise. Taken together, these variables
should see games and physical activities prospering at the grassroots level, genuine and honest
efforts to hone greatness and the rise of world-class competitors in India.

Notes
1 “World Population Prospects:The 2017 Revision, Population Division,” United Nations, accessed Feb-
ruary 19, 2019, https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/.
2 “India: A Microcosm of Linguistic Unity in Diversity,” Mayflower Language Services, accessed Febru-
ary 19, 2019, www.mayflowerlanguages.com/india-microcosm-linguistic-unity-diversity/.
3 “CIA World Factbook,” CIA, accessed February 13, 2019, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/fields/print_2122.html.
4 Ibid., 1.
5 Ibid.
6 Kaushik Basu, “India’s Demographic Dividend,” BBC News: South Asia, accessed July 25, 2007, http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6911544.stm.
7 Abheek Singhi and Nimisha Jain, “The Rise of India’s Neo Middle Class,” Live Mint, accessed Octo-
ber 4, 2016, www.livemint.com/Politics/HY9TzjQzljCZNRHb2ejC2H/The-rise-of-Indias-neo-
middle-class.html.
8 Alyson Ross and Sue Thomas, “The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise: A Review of Comparison
Studies,” The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16, no. 1 (2010): 3–12.
9 Ishwar V. Basavaraddi, “Yoga: Its Origin, History and Development,” Ministry of External Affairs: Gov-
ernment of India, accessed April 23, 2015, www.mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?25096/Yoga+Its+Or
igin+History+and+Development.
10 “About Pro Kabaddi,” Vivo Pro Kabaddi League, accessed February 13, 2019, www.prokabaddi.com/
about-prokabaddi.
11 “About the Indian Premier League,” VIVO IPL, accessed February 13, 2019, www.iplt20.com/.
12 Gaurav Gupta, “Brand IPL Now Soars to $6.3 Billion,” Times of India, accessed August 8, 2018, https://
timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/ipl/top-stories/brand-ipl-now-soars-to-6-3-billion/arti
cleshow/65321837.cms.
13 “Shuttle Time: India,” Badminton Association of India, accessed February 19, 2019, www.badmin
tonindia.org/shuttle-time/.
14 “India’s Olympic Heroes: Babu Narayan Takes Us Through His 1956 and 1960 Experience,” Goal.com,
July 25, 2012, www.goal.com%2Fen-india%2Fnews%2F136%2Findia%2F2012%2F07%2F25%2F326
3069%2Findias-olympic-heroes-babu-narayan-takes-us-through-his-1956-and-&usg=AOvVaw1tpz-
IM77MY2MjlE9QwDHjR.
15 Press Trust of India, “I Could Have Won Gold Had Equipment Arrived Earlier: CWG Medalist
Ashish,” Hindustan Times, October 9, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20101218050807/www.
hindustantimes.com/I-could-have-got-gold-had-equipment-arrived-earlier-CWG-medallist-Ashish/
Article1-610455.aspx.
16 Shivani Naik,“After a Flight,a Landing:Why Dipa Karmakar’s Medal in Commonwealth Games Is Its Bravest
Bronze,” Indian Express, accessed April 18, 2016, https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/
after-a-flight-a-landing-why-dipa-karmakars-medal-in-commonwealth-games-is-its-bravest-bronze/.
17 Chander Shekar Luthra, “Indian Gymnasts’ CWG Participation in Doubt Over Selection Issues,”
DNA, accessed July 10, 2014, www.dnaindia.com/sport/report-indian-gymnasts-cwg-participation-
in-doubt-over-selection-issues-2000982.
18 “About the NBA Academy India,” NBA Academy India, accessed February 11, 2019, https://nba
academy.nba.com/location/india/.
19 “About SAI: Introduction,” Sports Authority of India, September 8, 2014, http://sportsauthorityof
india.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=54.
20 “Aims and Objectives,” Sports Authority of India, October 29, 2013, www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.
in/index1.asp?ls_id=91.
21 “SAI Training Centres–STC,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sportsauthority
ofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=629.
22 “National Sports Development Fund,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, June 11, 2018, https://yas.
nic.in/sports/national-sports-development-fund-0.
23 “Department of Sports: Scheme of Human Resources Development in Sports,” Ministry ofYouth Affairs
and Sports, May 22, 2019, https://yas.nic.in/sports/scheme-human-resources-development-sports-0.
24 “Department of Sports: National Sports Development Fund,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports,
November 13, 2018, https://yas.nic.in/sites/default/files/Operational%20Guidelines%20-%20Promo-
tion%20of%20rural%20and%20indigenoustribal%20games.pdf.
25 “Department of Sports: Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat Programme,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports,
January 24, 2019, https://yas.nic.in/sports/ek-bharat-shreshtha-bharat-programme.
26 Nikhilesh Bhattacharya, “India’s Olympic Program Under Spotlight Again,” New York Times,
accessed August 13, 2012, https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/indias-olympic-program-
under-spotlight-again/.
27 “Year End Review: OPEX 2012,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, December 14, 2012, http://pib.
nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=90676.
28 “Come and Play Scheme,” Sports Authority of India, June 12, 2019, www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.
in/index1.asp?ls_id=5708.
29 “Sports Minister Jitendra Singh launches the Community Connect Scheme to Include Sports and
Recreational Facilities in Stadia,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, March 5, 2014, http://pib.nic.
in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104492.
30 “National Sports Talent Contest Scheme–NSTC,” Sports Authority of India, accessed February 24,
2019, http://sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=628.
31 Ibid., 21.
32 “Army Boys Sports Company Scheme–ABSC,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://
sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=626.
33 “Special Areas Games Scheme–SAG,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sports
authorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=630.
34 “Centre of Excellence Scheme–COE,” Sports Authority of India, November 10, 2014, http://sports
authorityofindia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=627.
35 Press Trust of India, “SAI Expedites Efforts to Make ‘Vision 2020’ a Reality,” Times of India, May 19,
2013, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/SAI-expedites-efforts-to-make-
Vision-2020-a-reality/articleshow/20134525.cms.
36 “Rajiv Gandhi Khel Abhiyan,” Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, May 26, 2015, http://pib.nic.in/
newsite/mbErel.aspx?relid=122013.
37 “Impact of National Coaching Scheme of Sports Authority of India,” Planning Commission, New
Delhi, December 1, 2002, http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/stdy_ncsprts.pdf.
38 Amit Kumar Srivastava et al., “Corporate Social Responsibility: A Case Study of TATA Group,” IOSR
Journal of Business and Management 3, no. 5 (2012): 17–27.
39 “Youth Welfare and Sports Development Department: About Us,” Sports Development Authority of
Tamil Nadu, accessed February 16, 2019, www.sdat.tn.gov.in/about_us.php?token=about.
40 Gavin J. Kilduff, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw, “The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relation-
ally Dependent Analysis of Competition,” Academy of Management Journal 53, no. 5 (2010): 943–69.
41 Arpita Mukherjee, “Sports Retailing in India: Opportunities, Constraints and Way Forward” (Work-
ing Paper No. 250, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER),
2010).
42 Ibid., 41.
43 Homi Kharas, “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries” (OECD Development Centre
Working Papers No. 285, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2010), https://doi.org/10.1787/18151949.

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