Fundamentals of Tool Design, Sixth Edition

Lecture Slides

Chapter 2

Geometric Dimensioning
and Tolerancing
Dr. John G. Nee, CMfgE

© Copyright © 2010 Society of Manufacturing Engineers

Example

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 Dimensions and Tolerances

 Nominal size – The size we use in speaking of an element.

◦ Is not required to match the actual dimension
 Limits – The stated maximum and minimum dimensions
 Tolerance – The difference between the two limits
 Bilateral tolerance – The variation in both directions from the
basic dimension, e.g. 1.005 ± 0.002 in.
 Unilateral tolerance – The basic dimension is taken as one of the
limits, and variation is permitted in only one direction, e.g.

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 Dimensions and Tolerances

 Clearance – Refers to the difference in sizes of two mating cylindrical

parts such as a bolt and a hole.
◦ Assumes the internal member is smaller than the external member
◦ Diametral clearance – difference in the two diameters
◦ Radial clearance – difference in the two radii
 Interference – The opposite of clearance, when the internal member is
larger than the external member
 Allowance – The minimum stated clearance or the maximum stated
interference or mating parts
 Fit – The amount of clearance or interference between mating parts
 GD&T – Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing, a comprehensive
system of symbols, rules, and definitions for defining the theoretically
perfect geometry, along with the allowable variation.

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 Choice of Tolerances

 The designer is responsible for specifying tolerances for every

dimension.
 Consideration is given to functionality, fit, assembly,
manufacturing process ability, quality control, and cost.
 Excessive precision is a poor design choice, in that it limits
manufacturing options and drives up the cost.
 Less expensive manufacturing options should be selected, even
though the part may be less than perfect, so long as the needs are
satisfactorily met.

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 Choice of Dimensions

 Dimensioning a part is the designer’s responsibility.

 Include just enough dimensions
 Avoid extraneous information that can lead to confusion or
multiple interpretations.
 Example of over-specified dimensions. With +/– 1 tolerances,
two dimensions are incompatible.

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 Choice of Dimensions

 Four examples of which dimensions to specify

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 Coordinate Dimensioning System

 Traditional method
 Often used with limited production quantities
 Associates a plus/minus tolerance with each dimension

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 Coordinate Dimensioning System

 Little control of geometric issues of form and orientation

Fig. Geometric imperfections of a manufactured part

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 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)

 Defines nominal (theoretically perfect) geometry

 Defines allowable variation in size, location, orientation, and form

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 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)

 Comprehensive system of symbols, rules, and definitions

 Accurately represents the part for design, manufacture, and quality
control
 Especially needed for mass production, and for interchangeable
assembly

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 GD&T Standards

 Defined and controlled by standards

 ASME Y14.5-2009 Dimensioning and Tolerancing
◦ Most common in U.S.
◦ Emphasis on design intent
 International Organization of Standards (ISO)
◦ Most common in European countries
◦ Emphasis on measurement of the resulting part
 Both standards very similar
 Features of a Part
 Feature
◦ A clearly identifiable physical
portion of a part
◦ Examples – hole, counterbore,
pin, slot, surface, cylinder

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 Feature of Size
 Feature of Size
◦ A feature that can be measured across two opposing points
◦ Examples –
hole, cylinder,
slot
◦ Rule of thumb
– can usually
be measured
with the head
of a caliper
tool

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 Four Geometric Attributes of Features

 Four Geometric Attributes of features

◦ Size, location, orientation, and form
◦ Each must be considered to define the geometry of a feature

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 Geometric Attribute of Size

 The dimension of a feature of size

 Measured across opposing points
 The only geometric attribute that may be controlled with a
plus/minus tolerance
 To be distinguished from attribute of location

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 Geometric Attribute of Location

 A dimension that locates a feature with respect to an origin of

measurement

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 Geometric Attribute of Orientation

 A dimension that locates the angle of a feature or center-line of a

feature with respect to an origin of measurement
 Includes parallelism, perpendicularity, and angularity

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 Geometric Attribute of Form

 Refers to imperfections in the shape of a feature

 Includes straightness, flatness, circularity, and cylindricity

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 Symbolic Language

 International language of symbols

 Minimizes written notes on machine drawings
 Categories of symbols
◦ Geometric Characteristic (Table 1)
 Refinements of the geometric attributes (size, location,
orientation, and form)
 Used to control a geometric tolerance of a feature
◦ Modifying
 Dimensioning Modifiers (Table 2)
 Modifies or clarifies the meaning of a dimension
 Tolerance Modifiers (Table 3)
 Modifies or clarifies a tolerance specification

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Geometric Characteristic Controls and Symbols

Table 1 21
Dimensioning Modifiers and Symbols

Table 2 22
Tolerance Modifiers and Symbols

Table 3 23
 Datums

 Geometric characteristics of features are defined and measured by

relating them to datums.
 Datum – an origin from which location or orientation of part
features is established
◦ Note: Size and form control do not require an origin for
measurement, so are not referenced to a datum.

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 Datums
 Datum feature – a nonideal physical surface specified in order to
establish a theoretically exact datum
◦ Always a physical surface, not a centerline
◦ Not directly used for measurements
 Datum feature
simulator – a precision
embodiment (e.g.
surface plate, gauge
pin, machine tool bed)
of the datum described
by an imperfect datum
feature
 Datum – theoretically
exact point, axis, or
plane derived from the
datum feature
simulator
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 Datum Reference Frame

 Up to three mutually perpendicular datum planes defined as the

origin of measurement

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 Use of Datums

 Datum features are selected for best suitability for functionality,

manufacture, and inspection.
 Locations and orientations of features are defined with respect to
the datum reference frame.
 Features are manufactured with respect to a datum feature
simulator inherent in the manufacturing equipment (e.g. surface of
a milling machine).
 Features are measured for quality control with respect to a datum
feature simulator (e.g. granite surface plate).
 Measurements are never made with respect to the physical datum
feature itself.

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 Immobilization of the Part

 Selection of datum features determines which surfaces are put into

contact with the datum feature simulators to immobilize the part
for manufacture and inspection.
 Each datum constrains some of the 6 degrees of freedom to
immobilize the part in a precise, repeatable location.

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 Order of Datums

 The order of application of the datum planes is important to

uniquely immobilize the part.

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 Non-planar Datum Features
 Non-planar datum features can also be defined.
 Cylindrical features are often useful as datum features.
 Example
◦ Hole is selected as datum feature
◦ Physical surface of hole is datum feature
◦ Center axis of hole is datum
◦ Center axis defines intersection
of two perpendicular datum
planes

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 Actual Mating Envelope

 Need a way to determine a theoretically perfect datum axis from an

imperfect feature of size, such as a hole
 Actual Mating Envelope – a perfectly shaped counterpart of an
imperfect feature of size, which can be expanded within an internal
feature (or contracted about an external feature) so it contacts the
high points of the feature’s surface

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 Actual Mating Envelope

 Actual mating envelope of an internal feature (e.g. a hole)

Fig. (b)
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 Actual Mating Envelope

 Actual mating envelope of an external feature (e.g. pin)

Fig. (a)
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 Actual Mating Envelope

 Reference to the center axis of an imperfect feature of size (e.g. a

hole or a pin) actually means the theoretically perfect center axis of
the actual mating envelope.
 In practical implementation, the actual mating envelope of a hole is
determined by physically inserting precisely manufactured gauge
pins of increasing size until the largest one is found. The pin is the
datum feature simulator, whose center axis defines the datum axis.
 For an external feature (e.g. the surface of a shaft), the datum
feature simulator might be the jaws of a chuck that is closed on the
surface. The center axis of the chuck then defines the datum axis.

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 Actual Mating Envelope

 Two categories of actual mating envelopes

◦ Unrelated actual mating envelope
 Sized to fit the feature without any constraint to any datum
◦ Related actual mating envelope
 Sized to fit the feature while maintaining some constraint in
orientation or location with respect to a datum

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 Datum Feature Symbol

 Symbolic identification of a datum feature

◦ Capital letter enclosed in a square
◦ Attached to a leader line terminating at the datum feature with a
triangle
 Options for attachment of triangle
◦ Directly to the outline of the datum feature
◦ To leader line pointing to the datum feature
◦ To an extension
line to the surface

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 Datum Feature Symbol

 If the datum is an axis or center plane of a feature of size

◦ The datum triangle is placed in-line with the dimension line of
the feature of size (see Fig. a).

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 Datum Feature Symbol

 If the datum is an axis of a feature of size

◦ The datum triangle is placed in-line with the dimension line of
the feature of size (see Fig. a).

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 Datum Feature Symbol

 Other ways to designate the axis as a datum

◦ For a cylinder, the triangle may be attached directly on the
surface of the cylinder

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 Tolerance Zones

 Plus/minus tolerances are only applied directly to the dimension of

a feature of size.
 The geometric shape and location of all surfaces are first defined
with theoretically exact specifications.
 Then tolerance zones are defined with respect to the exact
specifications.
 The actual part surface may vary from the exact shape and
location, so long as it stays within the limiting boundaries of the
tolerance zone.

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 Limiting Material Conditions

 Maximum Material Condition (MMC) – the condition in which a

feature of size contains the maximum amount of material within
the stated limits of size
◦ For external feature (e.g. outer surface of a shaft), MMC is when
the shaft diameter is at its maximum value allowed by the
tolerance
◦ For internal feature (e.g. a hole), MMC is when the hole
diameter is at its smallest value allowed by the tolerance
 Least Material Condition (LMC) – the condition in which a feature
of size contains the least amount of material within the stated
limits of size
◦ For external feature (e.g. outer surface of a shaft), LMC is when
the shaft diameter is at its minimum value allowed by the
tolerance
◦ For internal feature (e.g. a hole), LMC is when the hole diameter
is at its largest value allowed by the tolerance
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 Envelope Principle
 Envelope Principle, also
referred to as Rule #1
◦ When only a tolerance
of size (i.e. plus/minus
tolerance) is specified
for a feature of size, the
limits of size prescribe
the extent of which
variation in its geometric
form are allowed.
◦ That is, the surface of a
feature of size may not
extend beyond an
envelope of perfect form
at MMC
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 Basic Dimensions

 Basic Dimension
◦ A theoretically exact dimension
◦ Does not have a tolerance directly associated with it
◦ Is associated with a geometric control of a tolerance zone
 Usually used to locate a feature
 The feature itself must include a geometric control that defines a
tolerance zone

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 Basic Dimensions

 Shown with a box around the dimension

 Or with a general note on the drawing indicating all untoleranced
dimensions are basic dimensions.

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 Feature Control Frames

 A rectangular box attached to a feature on a drawing, containing

the necessary information to define the tolerance zone of the
feature
 Subdivided into compartments

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Reading a Feature Control Frame

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Methods of Attaching a Feature Control Frame

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 Geometric Controls
 Each geometric characteristic
symbol in Table 1 is used to
define a tolerance zone
particular to a certain geometric
characteristic.
 The 14 geometric
characteristics are categorized
into 5 geometric control
categories
◦ Form
◦ Profile
◦ Orientation
◦ Location
◦ Runout
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 Form Controls

 Form Controls
◦ Straightness
◦ Flatness
◦ Circularity
◦ Cylindricity
 Form is independent of location or relationship to any other feature
 Never includes reference to datums
 Used as a further refinement of form control inherently provided
by any size tolerance (Rule #1).

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Form Control – Straightness

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 Form Control – Straightness

 Applied to an axis when attached to the dimension

 Cylindrical tolerance zone when diameter symbol is included

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Form Control – Flatness

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Form Control – Circularity

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Form Control – Cylindricity

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 Orientation Controls

 Orientation Controls
◦ Angularity
◦ Parallelism
◦ Perpendicularity
 Controls orientation of a feature with respect to one or more
datums
 Must include reference to at least one datum in the feature control
frame
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity are convenient subsets of
Angularity
 Most commonly used to orient a secondary datum with respect to
the primary datum plane

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Orientation – Angularity

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Orientation – Perpendicularity

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 Profile Controls

 Profile Controls
◦ Profile of a line (2D)
◦ Profile of a surface (3D)
 Defines a tolerance zone around a desired true profile that is
defined with basic dimensions
 Often used for irregularly shaped features, and for castings,
forgings, and stampings

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Profile of a Surface

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 Profile Controls

 Optionally can include a datum reference

 With a datum, profile controls size, form, orientation, and location
 Often specified as a default in a general note on the drawing.
Other controls are then only needed if a tighter control is desired.

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Profile of a Surface

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 Location Controls

 Location Controls
◦ Position
◦ Concentricity
◦ Symmetry
 Controls the location of a feature of size (e.g. hole, slot, boss, tab)
with respect to a datum or another feature

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 Location Control - Position

 Defines the allowed location (and orientation) of the axis, center

line, or center plane of a feature of size.
 Does not control size or form of the feature

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Location Control - Position

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 Position Control for Group of Features

 1st row: Pattern-Locating Tolerance Zone Framework (PLTZF)

 2nd row: Feature-Relating Tolerance Zone Framework (FRTZF)

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Position Control for Group of Features

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 Location Control – Concentricity and Symmetry

 Concentricity
◦ Nominally, the condition of the center axis of a surface of
revolution being congruent with a datum axis
◦ Technically, defined based on the median points of the surface of
revolution, rather than a single straight line axis
◦ Extremely difficult to measure, so is rarely used
◦ Preferred to control concentricity with position, profile, or
runout.
 Symmetry
◦ The condition where a feature has the same profile on either side
of a center plane
◦ Same difficulties as concentricity
◦ Preferred to control symmetry with position or profile.

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 Runout Controls

 Controls the surface variation on a feature as it rotates around a

datum axis
◦ Circular Runout – each circular section independently
◦ Total Runout – entire surface simultaneously

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Runout Controls

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 Material Condition Modifiers

 Maximum Material Condition (MMC) and Least Material

Condition (LMC) can be applied as modifiers to most geometric
controls that deal with a feature of size.
 When a geometric tolerance is modified with MMC, the stated
tolerance value applies when the feature is produced at its MMC
 If the feature is produced at a size with less material, the deviation
from MMC is added to the allowed tolerance, called a “bonus”
tolerance.
 So, the value of the tolerance is not constant, but depends on the
size of the actual produced part.
 This adds flexibility for the manufacturer.
 The default, with no modifier applied, is called Regardless of
Feature Size (RFS), in which the stated tolerance is applied
regardless of the size of the actual produced part.
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Application of MMC

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MMC Bonus Tolerance – External Feature

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MMC Bonus Tolerance – Internal Feature

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 Suggested Implementation Framework

1. Select the datum features.

2. Control the datum features.
3. Locate the features.
4. Size and locate the features of size.
5. Refine the orientation and the form of features, if needed.

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