°. 1 Ba © Zoforterd modulo 2 Port ska, (at)! = (a%)* = 1 (mod p) be. a a? a4 ate incongruent modulo p and each of these | satisfy x* —1 = 0 (modp) © 4, 4,..,a% sce the only solutions of » 4-1 = 0 (mod p) [By Theorem 8) ‘Any integer of order d modulo pis congroen to one ofthe integers a, a,....a%, But only $(@) of a, a,...,a% which satist (& d)= I have order émodutop. vd) = 9d). Hence ¥(d) = (DV dip —1 From (3), we get W(a) = $ (2) # 0 because otherwise LHS. of ill be strictly less than the RLS, lence the proof, Cer. 1F p is a prime then there ime then there are exactly g (p~ ritive roots ofp a 1) incongruent7038 Also 37 = 2187 = 37 (mod 43) 38 = 67) & ON =¢ =~ 7776 = 7 (enod 43), Hence 7 and 37 are of one 6 mad 43. Example Assuming that ris primitive root of odd prime p, prove the fllonig et Tre congruence r'F m= ~ 1 (mod p) holis i i any oer rive et ofp then nt a pimitve roovotp {it sac tate! 1 phe ia privet - Proot :f0/ ris a primitive rot ofp order of r modulo p = 9 (p)= p ~1 PRvarive Roors 0 IHC F = 1 (modp) Hence! isnot a primitive root ofp, 8 primitive root ofp = Also rr! = 1 (mod p) = (rr py).fusing 1) Q) [+ order of modulo p= pt > that the product of a ‘modulo p. HenSrecrwum AnatyTic NUMBER THEORY (P-L) 70 (0d p) a Case p= 110 Here m= (p-1)kforsomek € Z From (1), we bave P= g PMOD 5 a2" +4. -yteier rHe-402) on 9) % (emod p) (er? 1 (anod 2} = 0 (mod p) Hence the proof, Sol so. Panerve | camper if p= 1 (0d 4) then — ump 2h ise te fact ha cach prime p as a primitive r00t wo ven a ferent proof of Wilson's theorem. Weare o show that for ech prime p, (@~ 9! St (mode. The result is obvious forp=2. Lt p be an odd prime andr be a primitive root ofp, Tear Progr ae congrien t 1, 2, B ~ Lmao pin some order here 6} 12-3 al = o-mes {By examph fe pisos} (=) == 1 (med), cod prime p. Prove that p= 1 (0d 4) pedhtljkeZ Let ~ rhs order h modalo p = Cnt = 1 (aodp) “ > = 1 (mod) = ai (ody)yorces 23 ~ r=2m+1 forsomem ¢ Z aan bam + =A oe DH = I mod 8 [> m (m1) is even} if. as order k modo m then k |) i=p= Hence ~ ris also a primitive oot of. Numbers Having Primitive Roots that integer 2" hos primitive rots if ks 2 or at 28 pg gt = 21 mod 281) Result is tue for k=a+ 1. = 1 (mod 2*) [> order ofr modulo 2* = 24-1) ‘which is not ture, © Fork = 3, 2* has no primitive oot. Hence 2* has primitive root iff k < 2 a‘Sructnum ANALYTIC NUMBER THEORY (FLD ‘By Euler's theorem, we have form>2 oye 2 where k= (4m) Pasrive ROOTS AND INDICES = rt pr?? (aod 9 1 pr? (mod 2?) and (rp) pat =r = pr? s 0(mod p?) PP? (ood p?) #1 (0d p*) corm Bp ia opine and 2 ive ofp eh at 2) then show that? (vod phyA 22. mod p Let the result be true for k> 2 te P09 2 (mad pt) By Euler's thearem, we bave A 1 (mode) M1 (med p1 (mod ph) true fork 1 ‘ent by induction result ie true Wk > 2. ‘Theorem(adt sa od rie then show that p* asa primitive Vez odd prime, therefore, phas a primitive rot, say r {See theorem 12} 4 V(r p*) Wkz 2 [Seetheorem 13} 0) {See cor. Theorem 1} @ From (2) and (3), we get n= p™ (p—Vwhere 0 B.(mod p) where d= (2, pi) =2 = L(mod p) ee Set Gen congener ita! = be | tating era 2 = even number = 2m (5 i aber (ay) prdmtl p= 1 (mod 4), a the congruence x° = a (mod p) where p © Sis a Prove that then the congruence has either no solution or modulo p. then he congrence has #uigue slaton SOL DAp = 1 046) ten p 6m: me ‘ GB, 6m) = 3, given congruence has solution = 1 (mod p) ‘odd prime then x? = ~ (mod p) is AAP AAS AT SSISSSSSSSIS |ESE ST COC E 31a SPECTRUM ANALVFICNUMBER THEORY (LP.) 3A __Srecraum ananrnic Nummer THEORY (H.P.), a” 1 (modp), 10d p) then given congruence has no solution and it has d= 3 incongruent solutions modulo p. Bp = 5 (04 6) then p= 6m +5;me Z. 2 d= Gp 6me4y=1. ‘By Euler's criteria, given congruence has solution it which istrue by Fermat's theorem as (a, Hence given congruence has a uniques pel a! =1(modp) iff a?! = 1 modp EXERCISES |. Find the order of 2, 3 and 5 modulo 17 of 2, 3, $ modulo 23, Prove that if.@ has order n —1 modulo m then» isa prime. Show that there are infinitely many primes ofthe form 6k + 1 Hind : Similar to examples 7, 8 ‘Show that 2 is a primitive rt of 11 Find all primitive roots of 7 Ans. 3,5. 1. Find all primitive root of 8 ‘Ans. No pri 7 Show that if for n> 1, F, = 2 primitive root of F, + Lis prime then 2 is nota SMemanoonawnees as 15 9 Let r be a primitive rimitive root of m if isa Primi ot 04 i ! ‘ess than 43 having order 21 ‘modulo 43, “ Foot of oid prime p. Prove that fp = 3 (od 4) then ~ r has order 2-1 ) tas order modulo p Hint : Similar to example 21 23,27, 33, 37,49, 13, Find primitive root of 7%”, Hind : 3 isa primitive roots of 7 as 3? = 2, 33 = 6, 36 (mod 7), 2,39 36,36 =} Also 37! =729 # 1 (amod 72), 3isa primitive root of 7 Vk = 1 and hence of 77” 14, Solve the congruence 11" = 28 (mod 31) using 3 as primitive root of 31, Ans. 22, 18. Solve the congruence 2x3 = 23 (aod 31) using 3 a8 a rimitive rot of 31 ‘Ans. x= 3, 13,15. 16. Show thatthe congruence x} = 4 (mod 13) hs no solution, while 2° = 5 (mod 13) has thee in congruence solutions modulo 13, Hint : Similar example 31 | cesar ata ee