Electro Hydraulics

FESTECH Education

Electro Hydraulics

Published: May 16, 2008

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Fundamental principles of hydraulics ............................................ 5

1.1 Introduction to the hydraulics ......................................................................... 6
1.2 Physical quantity and unit .............................................................................. 6
1.3 Fundamental law of hydraulics ...................................................................... 7
1.4 Fluid power and efficiency ............................................................................. 8
1.5 Measurements in a circuit ........................................................................... 12
1.6 General safety recommendations ................................................................ 14

Chapter 2 Hydraulic symbols ......................................................................... 17

2.1 Pumps and motors ...................................................................................... 18
2.2 Directional control valves ............................................................................ 19
2.3 Methods of actuation ................................................................................... 21
2.4 Pressure valves ........................................................................................... 22
2.5 Flow control valves ....................................................................................... 25
2.6 Non-return valve .......................................................................................... 26
2.7 Cylinders ..................................................................................................... 27
2.8 Additional symbols of hydraulic circuit ....................................................... 29
2.9 Combination of devices ............................................................................. 31

Chapter 3 Electro-hydraulic control ............................................................... 35

3.1 Hydraulic circuit diagram ........................................................................... 36
3.2 Electrical circuit diagram ............................................................................. 39
3.3 Function diagram ...................................................................................... 42
3.4 Procedure for construction of an electro-hydraulic system .......................... 45

Chapter 4 Actuation of a single-acting cylinder ............................................ 51

4.1 Direct solenoid valve actuation .................................................................. 53
4.2 Indirect solenoid valve actuation ................................................................. 58
4.3 Boolean basic logic function ........................................................................ 62

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Chapter 5 Actuation of a double-acting cylinder .......................................... 69

5.1 Signal reversal ............................................................................................ 70

Chapter 6 Logic operation .............................................................................. 77

6.1 Conjunction(AND function) and negation(NOT function) ............................. 79
6.2 Disjunction(OR function) ............................................................................. 84
6.3 Exclusive OR(EXOR function) ..................................................................... 89

Chapter 7 Signal storage ................................................................................ 95

7.1 Signal storage in the hydraulic section ........................................................ 96
7.2 Signal storage in the electrical section ...................................................... 101
7.2 Speed control ............................................................................................ 107

Chapter 8 Sequence control system ............................................................ 115

8.1 Pressure- and path-dependent sequence control ...................................... 116
8.2 Sequence control with automatic operation ............................................... 123

Chapter 9 Electrical components ................................................................. 129

9.1 Power supply unit ...................................................................................... 130
9.2 Electrical input element ............................................................................. 131
9.3 Sensors ..................................................................................................... 134
9.4 Relay ......................................................................................................... 142
9.5 Solenoid .................................................................................................... 144
9.6 Voltage supply of an electro-hydraulic system ........................................... 148

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Chapter 1
Fundamental principles of
electro hydraulics

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Hydraulic systems are used wherever high power concentration, good heat dissipation
or extremely high forces are required.

Electro-hydraulic systems are made up of hydraulic and electrical components:

• The movements and forces are generated by hydraulic means (e.g. by cylinders).
• Signal input and signal processing, on the other hand, are effected by electrical and
electronic components (e.g. electromechanical switching elements or stored-program
controls).

1.1 Advantages of electro-hydraulics

The use of electrical and electronic components in the control of hydraulic systems is
advantageous for the following reasons:

• Electrical signals can be transmitted via cables quickly and easily and over great
distances. Mechanical signal transmission (linkages, cable-pulls) or hydraulic signal
transmission (tubes, pipes) are far more complex. This is the reason why electro-
hydraulic systems are being used increasingly frequently in aeroplanes, for example.
• In the field of automation, signal processing is generally effected by electrical means.
This enhances the options for the use of electro-hydraulic systems in automatic
production operations (e.g. in a fully automatic pressing line for the manufacture of car
wings).
• Many machines require complex control procedures (e.g. plastics processing).
In such cases, an electrical control is often less complex and more economical than a
mechanical or hydraulic control system.

1.2 Fields of application of electro-hydraulics

Over the last 25 years, there has been rapid progress in the field of electrical control
technology. The use of electrical controls has opened up many new fields of application
for hydraulics.

Electro-hydraulics are used in a wide range of sectors, such as:

• the machine construction sector (feed systems for machine tools, force generators for
presses and in the field of plastics processing),
• automobile construction (drive systems for production machines),

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• aeroplane construction (landing flap operation, rudder operation),

• in shipbuilding (rudder operation).

1.3 Design of an electro-hydraulic system

The following schematic diagram shows the two principal subassemblies in an electro-
hydraulic system:
• signal control section with signal input, signal processing and control energy supply
• hydraulic power section with power supply section, power control section and drive
section

Fig1.1 Schematic design of an electro-hydraulic system

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An electrical signal is generated in the signal control section, where it is processed and
then transmitted to the power section via the interface.
In the power section, this electrical energy is converted first into hydraulic and then
mechanical energy.

1.4 Basic principle of electrical engineering

1.4.1 Direct current and alternating current

A simple electrical circuit consists of a voltage source, a consuming device and a
connecting line (supply line and return line). In physical terms, what happens is that
negative charge carriers – the electrons – travel via the electrical conductor from the
negative terminal of the voltage source to the positive terminal.
This movement of charge carriers is called electric current. It should be noted that an
electric current can only flow in a closed conductor circuit.
A distinction is made between direct current and alternating current:
• if the voltage in a circuit always acts in the same direction, a current flows which also
always has the same direction. We call this a direct current or DC circuit.
• in the case of alternating current or in an alternating current circuit, the direction of the
voltage changes with a certain frequency. As a result, the current also changes its
direction and strength continuously.

Fig 1.2 Current strength over time

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1.4.2 DC circuit
The following illustration shows a simple DC circuit consisting of a voltage source,
electrical lines, a switch and a consumer (in this case a lamp).

Fig 1.3 DC circuit

Technical direction of current

If the switch contact in the above circuit is closed, a current I flows via the consumer.
The electrons travel from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the voltage
source. Before scientists became aware of the existence of electrons, the current
direction was described as from "plus" to "minus". This definition is still valid today – it
is termed the technical direction of current.

Electrical conductor
Electric current is the directional movement of charges. The charge carriers can be
electrons or ions. But current can only flow if the material used possesses a sufficient
number of mobile charge carriers; we then speak of an electrical conductor.

Source voltage
At the negative terminal of a voltage source there is an electron surplus, while at the
positive terminal there is a shortage of electrons. This results in a difference in electron
assignment between the two terminals. This condition is known as source voltage.

Electrical resistance
Every material puts up a certain level of resistance to electrical current. This resistance
depends on, among other things, the atomic density and the number of free electrons.
It is generated by the collision of the free mobile electrons with the atoms of the

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conductor material and the restriction of movement of the electrons caused by these
collisions. In the field of control technology, copper is the most frequently used
conductor material. The electrical resistance of copper is particularly low.

Ohm‘s law
The relationship between voltage, current strength and resistance is described by
Ohm‘s law. Ohm‘s law states that in a circuit with constant resistance the current
strength changes in proportion to the change in voltage:
• if the voltage increases, the current strength also increases.
• if the voltage falls, the current strength also decreases.

V=R•I

where, V = voltage[V: volt]

R = resistance[Ω: ohm]
I = current[A: ampere]

Electrical power
In the field of mechanical engineering, power can be defined in terms of the work
performed. The faster a task is performed, the greater the required power. Power
therefore means work per unit of time.
In the case of a consuming device in a circuit, electrical energy is converted into kinetic
energy (e.g. electrical motor), light radiation (e.g. electrical lamp) or thermal energy (e.g.
electrical heater, electrical lamp). The faster the energy is converted, the greater the
electrical power. In this case, therefore, power means converted energy per unit of time.
It increases with increasing current and increasing voltage.

V=R•I

where, V = voltage[V: volt]

P = power[W: watt]
I = current[A: ampere]

The electrical power of a consuming device is also called electrical power consumption.

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Diodes
Rectification is performed by semiconductor diodes. They allow the current to flow in
one direction and block it in the other. Their effect on electrical current can be
compared to the effect of a non-return valve on the pressure fluid in a hydraulic system.

Rectifier
Various diode circuit arrangements can be used for rectification. The most important
circuit is the bridge or Graetz circuit. For the supply of current to electronic controls
(PLCs) or if sensors are used, the direct voltage supplied by the rectifier must be
smoothed using a charge capacitor and, if necessary, downstream filters (chokes or
filter resistors).

Fig 1.4 Bridge rectifier circuit with charge capacitor

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1.5 Measurements in a circuit

The term "measurement" means the comparison of an unknown quantity with a known
quantity. Measuring instruments make it possible to perform this comparison with a
greater or lesser degree of precision. The accuracy of a measurement depends on the
precision of the measuring instrument.
When taking measurements in electrical circuits, the following rules should always be
observed:

Rules for measuring

• never knock measuring instruments.
• carry out a zero point check prior to measurement.
• when measuring direct voltage or direct current, note the polarity of the measuring
instrument (terminal "+" of the measuring instrument to positive terminal of the
voltage supply).
• select the largest measuring range before switching on the voltage.
• observe the needle and gradually switch to smaller measuring ranges. Read off
the value at maximum needle deflection.
• to avoid reading errors, always look at the needle vertically.

1.5.1 Voltage measurement

If current flows through a measuring instrument, there is a voltage drop via the
measuring instrument. This affects all currents and voltages in the circuit. The resulting
measurement is therefore falsified not only by the indicating error but also by the
influence of the measuring instrument on the circuit.
To measure electrical voltage, a suitable measuring instrument must be connected
parallel to the consuming device. To ensure that measuring inaccuracies are kept to a
minimum, only an extremely small current may flow through the voltmeter. Otherwise,
the current decreases due to the consuming device, as does the voltage drop, and the
measured voltage is too small. For this reason, a voltmeter with a maximum possible
resistance must be used.
This resistance is also called the internal resistance of the voltmeter.

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Fig 1.5 Voltage measurement

1.5.2 Current measurement

If the current in a circuit is to be measured, the entire current must be able to flow
through the measuring instrument. For this purpose, the current measuring instrument
(ammeter) is connected in series with the consuming device. Every current measuring
instrument possesses a specific internal resistance. This additional resistance reduces
the flow of current. The measured current is therefore smaller than the current which
flows in the circuit when no measuring instrument is connected. To keep the measuring
error as small as possible, only current measuring instruments with an extremely low
internal resistance may be used.

Fig 1.6 Current measurement

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1.6 General safety recommendations

High pressures, temperatures and forces occur in electro-hydraulic systems. Energy is

also stored, sometimes in large quantities. A whole series of safety measures is
necessary to rule out the possibility of danger to personnel and equipment during the
operation of electro-hydraulic systems. In particular, the valid safety regulations for
electro-hydraulic systems are to be observed!

Regulations and standards

The following safety regulations apply for the field of hydraulics:
• accident prevention regulations, directives, safety rules and the testing guidelines of
the employers‘ liability insurance associations,
• regulations on pressure vessels, pressurized gas vessels and filling systems
(pressure vessel regulations),
• Electro-hydraulic systems must comply not only with the regulations on hydraulic
systems but also with the regulations on electrical systems and components.

1.6.1 Safety recommendations for electro-hydraulic systems

Design of an electro-hydraulic system

• Install the EMERGENCY STOP push-button in a place where it can be easily reached.
• Use standardised parts only.
• Enter all alterations in the circuit diagram immediately.
• The rated pressure must be clearly visible.
• Check whether the installed equipment can be used at the maximum operating
pressure.
• The design of suction lines should ensure that no air can be drawn in.
• Check the oil temperature in the suction line to the pump. It must not exceed 60 °C.
• The piston rods of the cylinders must not be subjected to bending loads or lateral
forces. Protect piston rods from dirt and damage.

Start-up of an electro-hydraulic system

• Do not operate systems or actuate switches if you are not totally sure what function
they perform.

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• All setting values must be known.

• Do not switch on the power supply until all lines are connected.
Important: check that all return lines (leakage lines) lead to the tank.
• When starting up the system for the first time, open the system pressure relief
valve almost completely and gradually set the system to the operating pressure.
Pressure relief valves must be installed in such a way that they cannot become
ineffective.
• Carefully clean the system prior to start-up, then change the filter cartridge.
• Vent system and cylinders.
• In particular, the hydraulic lines to the reservoir are to be carefully vented. It is
generally possible to effect venting at the safety and shut-off block of the reservoir.
• Special care is needed when handling hydraulic reservoirs. Before the reservoirs
are started up, the regulations stipulated by the manufacturer are to be studied
carefully.

Repair and maintenance of an electro-hydraulic system

• Repair work may not be effected on hydraulic systems until the fluid pressure of the
reservoir has been vented. If possible, separate the reservoir from the system (using
a valve). Never drain the reservoir unthrottled! Installation and operation are governed
by the Technical Rules for Pressure Vessels (TRB).
• When repairs are completed effect a new start-up in line with the safety regulations
listed above.
• All hydraulic reservoirs are subject to the provisions of the pressure vessel
regulations and must be inspected at regular intervals.

1.6.2 Safety recommendations for electrical systems

Effect of electric current on the human body

When live parts of an electrical system are touched, electric current flows through the
human body. The effect of the current increases
• with increasing current and
• duration of contact

There are two threshold values:

• if the electric current is lower than the perceptibility threshold, it has no effect on

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human beings.
• up to the releasing threshold, an electric current is perceived, but the possibility of
injury or danger is unlikely.
• above the releasing threshold, the muscles contract and cardiac function is impaired.
• values above the fibrillating threshold lead to ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrest
as well as cessation of breathing and consciousness; lengthy contact also causes
serious burns. There is acute danger to life and limb!

EMERGENCY STOP switch

In the event of danger, it must be possible to shut down a machine immediately via an
EMERGENCY STOP switch to separate all equipment from the mains supply. The
following regulations apply to the EMERGENCY STOP circuit:

1. Necessary lighting must not be switched off using the EMERGENCY STOP
function.
2. Clamped workpieces must not be released by actuation of the EMERGENCY
STOP function.
3. Auxiliary and braking devices designed to perform functions such as rapid
shutdown of the machine must not be rendered ineffective.
4. Return movements must be initiated by actuation of the EMERGENCY STOP
function if this is necessary. They may, however, only be initiated if this does not
pose a risk to personnel.
5. The identification color of the EMERGENCY STOP switch is bright red; the area
below the manual actuating element must be in the contrasting color yellow.

Master switch
In addition, each machine must be equipped with a master switch via which the entire
electrical equipment can be switched off for the duration of cleaning, maintenance and
repair work and during lengthy down-times.

1. The master switch must be manually operated and may have only one Off and
On position with stops identified by 0 and 1.
2. In the Off position it should be possible to lock the switch in such a way that
manual and remote switch-on are prevented.
3. If there are several feed sources, it must be possible to interlock the master
switches in such a way that there is no risk or danger.

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Chapter 2
Hydraulic symbols

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Simple graphic and circuit symbols are used for individual components to enable
clear representation of hydraulic systems in diagrams.
A symbol identifies a component and its function, but it does not provide any
information about its design. The symbols to be used are laid down in DIN ISO 1219.
The most important symbols are dealt with in this chapter.

Note: An arrow drawn at an angle through the symbol indicates that setting possibilities
exist.

2.1 Pumps and motors

Hydraulic pumps and motors are represented by means of a circle which shows where
the drive or output shaft is located. Triangles within the circle give information about the
direction of flow. These triangles are filled in, since hydraulic fluids are used for
hydraulics. If a gaseous pressure medium were being used, as is the case in
pneumatics, the triangles would not be filled in. The symbols for hydraulic motors and
hydraulic pumps can only be distinguished from one another by the fact that the arrows
indicating the direction of flow are drawn pointing one way for the pumps and the other
for the motors.
Hydraulic pumps with fixed displacement

With one flow direction

With two flow directions

Hydraulic motors with fixed displacement

With single direction of rotation

With two direction of rotation

Fig 2.1 Fixed displacement hydraulic motors and pumps

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2.2 Directional control valves

Directional control valves are shown by means of several connected squares.

• The number of squares indicates the number of switching positions possible for a
valve.
• Arrows within the squares indicate the flow direction.
• Lines indicate how the ports are interconnected in the various switching positions.

There are two possible methods of port designation. One method is to use the letters
P, T, A, B and L, the other is to label ports alphabetically A, B, C, D, etc. The former
method is generally preferred. Ports should always be labelled with the valve in the rest
position. Where there is no rest position, they are allocated to the switching position
assumed by the valve when the system is in its initial position.

The rest position is defined as the position automatically assumed by the valve on
removal of the actuating force.

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When labelling directional control valves, it is first necessary to specify the number of
ports followed by the number of switching positions.
Directional control valves have at least two switching positions and at least two ports.
In such an instance, the valve would be designated a 2/2-way valve. The following
diagrams show other directional control valves and their circuit symbols.

2/2-way valve
(2 ports and
2 switching position)

3/2-way valve
(3 ports and
2 switching position)

4/2-way valve
(4 ports and
2 switching position)

4/3-way valve
(4 ports and
3 switching position)

P: pressure port
Port designations T: return port
A, B: power port

Fig 2.2 Directional control valves

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2.3 Methods of actuation

The switching position of a directional control valve can be changed by various

actuation methods. The symbol for the valve is elaborated by the addition of the symbol
indicating the actuation method. In the case of some of the actuation methods shown,
such as push button, pedal, lever with detent, a spring is always necessary for resetting.
Resetting may also be achieved by switching the valve a second time, e.g. in the case
of a valve with hand lever and detent setting.

Listed below are the symbols for the most important actuation methods. Refer to DIN
ISO 1219 for other methods of actuation.

General symbol with spring return

By push button with spring return

By lever

By lever with detent setting

By pedal and spring return

Fig 2.3 Manual actuation

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By stem or push button

By spring

By roller stem

Fig 2.4 Mechanical actuation

Solenoid with one winding

Solenoid with two opposing windings

Solenoid with manual override

Two-stage (pilot-actuated) valve;

the piloted directional control valve is
electromagnetically actuated

Fig 2.5 Electrical actuation

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2.4 Pressure valves

Pressure valves are represented using squares. The flow direction is indicated by an
arrow. The valve ports can be labelled P (pressure port) and T (tank connection) or A
and B.
The position of the valve within the square indicates whether the valve is normally open
or normally closed.

open flow from P to A closed

Fig 2.6 Pressure valves

A further distinction is made between set and adjustable pressure

valves. The latter are indicated by a diagonal arrow through the spring.

set adjustable

Fig 2.7 Pressure valves

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Pressure valves are divided into pressure relief valves and pressure regulators:

pressure relief valve 3-way pressure regulator

Fig 2.8 Pressure valves

Pressure relief valve

In the normally closed position the control pressure is detected at the input. This
pressure acts on a valve via the control passage coming from the input on a piston
surface which is held against the control pressure by a spring. If the force resulting
from the pressure and the effective piston surface exceeds the spring force, the valve
opens. In this way, it is possible to set the limiting pressure to a fixed value.

Pressure regulator
In the case of a normally open pressure regulator, the control pressure is detected at
the output. This pressure is effective in the valve via the control passage on a piston
surface and generates a force. This force works against a spring. The valve begins to
close when the output pressure is greater than the spring force. This closing process
causes a pressure drop from the input to the output of the valve (caused by the flow
control). When the output pressure reaches a specified value, the valve closes
completely. The specified maximum system pressure is set at the input of the valve,
the reduced system pressure at the output. Thus, the pressure regulator can only be
set to a smaller setting value than that set at the pressure relief valve.

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2.5 Flow control valves

In the case of flow control valves, a distinction is made between those affected by
viscosity and those unaffected. Flow control valves unaffected by viscosity are termed
orifices. Throttles constitute resistances in a hydraulic system.
The 2-way flow control valve consists of two restrictors, one setting restrictor
unaffected by viscosity (orifice) and one adjustable throttle. The adjustable throttle gap
is modified by changes in pressure. This adjustable throttle is also known as a pressure
balance. These valves are depicted as a rectangle into which are drawn the symbol for
the variable throttle and an arrow to represent the pressure balance. The diagonal
arrow running through the rectangle indicates that the valve is adjustable. There is a
special symbol to represent the 2-way flow control valve.

Throttle Orifice

set set

adjustable adjustable

Fig 2.9 Throttle and orifice

Fig 2.10 2-way flow control valve and its detail

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2.6 Non-return valves

The symbol for non-return valves is a ball which is pressed against a sealing seat. This
seat is drawn as an open triangle in which the ball rests. The point of the triangle
indicates the blocked direction and not the flow direction.
Pilot controlled non-return valves are shown as a square into which the symbol for the
non-return valve is drawn. The pilot control for the valve is indicated by a control
connection shown in the form of a broken line. The pilot port is labeled with the letter X.
Shut-off valves are shown in circuit diagrams as two triangles facing one another. They
are used to depressurize the systems manually or to relieve accumulators. In principle,
wherever lines have to be opened or closed manually.

B B

A A

spring unloaded spring loaded

Fig 2.11 Non-return valve

A B

shut-off valve pilot-controlled non-return valve

Fig 2.12 Shut-off valve and pilot-controlled non-return valve

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2.7 Cylinders

Cylinders are classified as either single-acting or double-acting.

Single acting cylinder

Single acting cylinders just have one port, i.e. only the full piston surface can be
pressurized with hydraulic fluid. These cylinders are returned either by the effect of
external forces – indicated by the symbol with the open bearing cap – or by a spring.
The spring is then also drawn into the symbol.

Single acting cylinder,

return by external force

Single acting cylinder,

with spring return

Single acting telescopic cylinder

Fig 2.13 Sing acting cylinder

Double acting cylinder

Double acting cylinders have two ports for supplying either side of the piston with
hydraulic fluid.
It can be seen from the symbol for a double acting cylinder with single piston rod that
the piston area is greater than the annular piston surface.
Conversely, the symbol for the cylinder with a through piston rod shows that these
areas are of the same size (synchronous cylinder).

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The symbol for the differential cylinder can be distinguished from that for the double-
acting cylinder by the two lines added to the end of the piston rod. The area ratio is 2:1.
Like single-acting telescopic cylinders, double-acting ones are symbolized by pistons
located one inside the other.
In the case of the double-acting cylinder with end position cushioning, the
cushioning piston is indicated in the symbol by a rectangle.

Double-acting cylinder

With single piston rod

Double-acting cylinder,

with through piston rod

Differential cylinder

double-acting telescopic cylinder

double-acting cylinder

with single end position cushioning

double-acting cylinder

with end position cushioning at both ends

double acting cylinder

with adjustable end position cushioning

Fig 2.14 Double acting cylinder

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2.8 Additional symbols of hydraulic circuit

The following symbols are used in circuit diagrams for energy transfer and conditioning
of the pressure medium.

electric motor

hydraulic pressure source

non-electric drive unit

pressure, power, return line

control (pilot) line

Flexible line

line connection

exhaust, continuous

lines crossing

Reservoir

Filter

Cooler

Heater

quick-acting coupling connected

with mechanically opening non-return valves

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pressure gauge

Thermometer

flow meter

filling level indicator

Fig 2.15 Symbols of hydraulic circuit

2.9 Combination of devices

If several devices are brought together in a single housing, the symbols for the
individual devices are placed into a box made up of broken lines from which the
connections are led away.

Fig 2.16 Hydraulic power pack

Fig 2.17 Pilot operated double non-return valve

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2.10 Electrical circuit symbols

The following electrical symbols are used in the circuit diagrams of this book:

direct voltage, direct current

alternating voltage, alternating current

rectifier (mains connection device)

permanent magnet

resistor, general

coil (inductance)

indicator light

capacitor

earthing, general

Fig 2.18 Electrical circuit symbols, general

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2.10.1 Switching elements

Switching elements are classified according to their basic functions as normally open,
normally closed and changeover contacts. The following illustration shows the symbols
required to denote these functions.

Fig 2.19 Switching elements

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2.10.2 Electromechanical switching elements

Electromechanical switching elements can, for example, be used to activate electric
motors or hydraulic valves. The symbols for the most important types are shown in the
following overview.

Fig 2.20 Electromechanical switching elements

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2.10.3 Proximity sensor

Proximity sensors react to the approach of an object by a change in electrical output
signal. They are represented by a block symbol, in which the mode of operation of the
proximity sensor can additionally be indicated.

Fig 2.21 Block symbols for proximity sensors

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Chapter 3
Electro-hydraulic control

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3.1 Hydraulic circuit diagram

The circuit diagram reproduces symbolically the design of a hydraulic system. With the
help of circuit and graphic symbols, it shows how the various components are
connected to one another.
To ensure that the circuit diagram is easy to follow, no account is taken of the spatial
location of the components.
Instead, the components are arranged in the direction of the energy flow. Their spatial
arrangement is shown in a separate positional sketch. Directional control valves should
be drawn horizontally where possible, whilst lines should be straight and uncrossed.

Fig 3.1 Energy flow in the hydraulic circuit

The hydraulic circuit diagram for an electro-hydraulic system is to be drawn in the

following position:
• hydraulic power switched on.
• electrical power switched off.
This means:
• electrically activated valves are in their normal position; the valves are not actuated.
• cylinders and power components adopt the position which results when all electrically
activated valves are in their normal position and the system is simultaneously supplied
with pressure.

Note:
• Manually activated hydraulic systems are drawn in their initial position (pressureless).

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The components are then in the condition required for commencement of the work
cycle.
• The condition in which the hydraulic circuit diagram of an electro-hydraulic system is
drawn does often not correspond to the initial position!

Control loop system

If the control is a complex control with several drive components, these components
should be divided up into individual control loop systems.
• One drive component and the corresponding power control section make up a control
loop system.
• Complex controls consist of several control loop systems. These control loop systems
are to be drawn next to one another in the circuit diagram and identified by an ordinal
number.
• Wherever possible, these control loop systems should be drawn next to one another
in the order in which they operate in the motion sequence.

Fig 3.2 Control loop system

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Designation of components in the hydraulic circuit diagram using numbers

In this textbook, the components in hydraulic circuit diagrams are given numbers.
The designation is made up of a group number and an equipment number.

The various control loop systems are consecutively numbered using the ordinal
numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. The power supply section is not assignable to any one control
loop system as it is responsible for several control loop systems. For this reason, it is
always designated by the ordinal number zero.

Group assignment
Group 0 all power supply elements
Group 1, 2, 3 ... designation of the individual control loop systems
(normally one group number per cylinder)

Each component in a control loop system is to be identified by an equipment number

made up of the ordinal number of the control loop system and a distinctive number.

Equipment numbering
.0 drive component, e.g. 1.0, 2.0
.1 final control elements, e.g. 1.1, 2.1
.2, .4 even numbers: all elements influencing the forward flow, e.g. 1.2, 2.4
.3, .5 uneven numbers: all elements influencing the return flow, e.g. 1.3, 2.3
.01, .02 elements between final control element and drive component,
e.g. throttle valve, e.g. 1.01, 1.02

In day-to-day operations, this designation system using group and equipment numbers
has the advantage that maintenance personnel are able to recognize the effect of a
signal by the number of the element in question. If, for example, a fault is ascertained
in cylinder 2.0, it can be assumed that the cause is to be sought in the 2nd group and,
therefore, in elements whose first number is 2.

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3.2 Electrical circuit diagram

3.2.1 Terminal designations for switching devices

In the electrical circuit diagram the connections of switching elements with single
contacts are designated by single digit numbers.
The normally closed contacts are assigned the function digits 1 and 2, and the normally
open contacts the function digits 3 and 4. The terminals of the changeover contacts are
designated by the function digits 1, 2 and 4.

Fig 3.3 Terminal designations for electrical switching elements

3.2.2 Terminal designations for relays

The terminals of auxiliary contacts (relay contacts) are designated by two digit
numbers:
• the first digit is the ordinal number,
• the second digit is the function number.

Fig 3.4 Relay terminal designations

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In the circuit diagrams, the relay coils are designated by K and a whole number;
e.g. K1, K2 etc. The coil terminals are designated by A1 and A2.

3.2.3 Solenoid coil activation

The solenoid coil of the valves forms the interface between the hydraulic power section
and the electrical signal section. The electrical circuit diagram – the so-called
schematic diagram – shows how these solenoid coils are activated.
It is possible to supply the solenoid coils of the valves with voltage directly via a switch
or indirectly via a relay. In the case of indirect activation, a distinction is made between
the control circuit (protective circuit of the relays) and the main circuit (protective circuit
of the valve solenoids).

Fig 3.5 Direct and indirect activation

3.2.4 Schematic diagram

The schematic diagram is a detailed illustration of a circuit in current paths with
components, lines and connection points. This diagram does not take account of the
spatial position and the mechanical interrelationships of the individual parts and
equipment.

In order to ensure that the schematic diagram of large-scale systems does not become

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too unwieldy, the overall schematic diagram should be broken down into smaller
schematic diagrams. Such a schematic diagram can be divided up, for example,
according to drive elements (cylinder 1, cylinder 2, ...), system parts (feed carriage,
drilling unit, ...) or functions (rapid traverse, feed, EMERGENCY-STOP, ...).

The schematic diagram contains horizontal voltage lines and vertical current paths
numbered from left to right. Switching elements are always shown in unpowered state
and are to be drawn in current path direction, in other words vertically. If other modes
of representation are unavoidable, it is essential that this is noted on the schematic
diagram.

3.2.5 Contact symbol diagram

The electrical circuit diagram shows the contact assignment of a relay in a contact
symbol diagram. The contact symbol diagram is located under the current path in
which the relay is situated. Break and make functions are identified by a distinctive
letter or by the corresponding circuit symbol. The numbers under the contact symbol
indicate the number of the current path in which the contacts are connected.

Fig 3.6 Types of contact symbols

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3.3 Function diagram

The function sequences of mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic and electrical controls are
shown in diagrams.

Displacement-Step diagram
The Displacement-Step diagram shows the operating sequence of the drive
components. The traversed path is plotted against the respective steps. In this
connection, a step is the change in the state of a drive component. If several working
components are present in a control system, these components are drawn in the same
way and below one another. The coherence of the operating sequence is created by
the steps.

Fig 3.7 Displacement-Step diagram

Displacement-Time diagram
In the Displacement-Time diagram, the path traversed by a component is plotted
against time. In contrast to the Displacement-Step diagram, the time t is plotted in scale
and creates the time-related connection between the individual drive components. This
means that the varying durations of the individual steps can be read off directly from
the diagram.

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Fig 3.8 Displacement-Time diagram

Control diagram
In the control diagram, the switching statuses of the signal input elements and signal
processing elements are plotted against the steps. The switching times are
considerably shorter than the traversing times of the drive components and are
therefore not taken into account in the diagram; in other words, the signal edges are
vertical. It is advisable to compile the control diagram in combination with the
Displacement-Step diagram.

Fig 3.9 Control diagram

Function diagram
In the function diagram
• the control diagrams for all signal input and signal processing elements as well as
• the Displacement-Time or Displacement-Step diagrams for all drive components are
drawn below one another. The function diagram therefore provides a good illustration
of the operating sequence of an overall electro-hydraulic system.

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Fig 3.10 Function diagram

In addition, the function diagram contains details of

• the points at which the signals from power controllers, push-buttons, limit switches,
pressure switches etc. intervene in the operating sequence
• and how the signal input, signal processing and drive333 components influence one
another.
The most important signalling elements and forms of signal logic for electrohydraulic
systems are shown in the two following diagrams.

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Fig 3.11 Signalling elements

Fig 3.12 Signal lines and signal logic operations

Reading of function diagrams is explained using the function diagram on the previous
page.
• As soon as the start button is pressed and the piston rod of the cylinder is in the
retracted end position (position 0) (limit switch S1 actuated), the directional control
valve is switched over.
• The piston rod of the cylinder advances.
• As soon as the piston rod has reached the forward end position (limit switch S2
actuated) or the pressure switch is actuated, the directional control valve is switched
back to its original position.
• The piston rod of the cylinder retracts.
• If the start button is pressed again, the operating cycle is repeated.

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3.4 Procedure for the construction of an electro-hydraulic system

What steps lie between the formulation of a theoretical control task and the
construction of an operational electro-hydraulic system?
Experience shows that this task is best solved by following a procedure consisting of 4
steps.

Fig 3.13 Procedure for the construction of an electro-hydraulic system

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Step 1:
Prior considerations
First, it must be ascertained which functions the control is to perform.
An exact knowledge of the desired functions is necessary to ensure that the control can
be properly constructed and function-tested.
The type of motions required of the drive components are to be laid down in the 1st
step:
• which type of motion is necessary – linear or rotating ?
• how many different movements need to be effected – how many power components
need to be used?
• how do the movements interact?
Once it is clear which motions need to be generated, the parameters of the system
should be laid down. To calculate these parameters, we start at the consumer (power
component) and work back towards the power supply unit to ascertain the required
forces/moments, speeds, flow rates and pressures.
It is then possible to select the appropriate hydraulic and electrical components for the
control.

Step 2:
Realisation
In the 2nd step, the diagrams, circuit diagrams and parts lists are compiled.
First, the graphic diagrams are drawn to provide a clear overview of the motion
sequences.
Drawing of graphic diagrams
• The Displacement-Step diagram shows the sequence of the power components
according to the respective steps.
• The displacement of the power components over time is plotted on the Displacement-
Time diagram.
• The function diagram to VDI guideline 3260 shows the function sequences of controls.

Adding technical equipment data to circuit diagrams

Before the control can be constructed, measuring equipment (depending on the
example), and technical data and numbering related to equipment, must be added to
the circuit diagrams. Then the equipment settings need to be entered in the circuit
diagrams.

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Compilation of the parts list

Then the parts list is to be drawn up. This list contains all the equipment required for
construction along with the following details:
• item number
• quantity
• description

Step 3:
Constructing the system
When constructing the system, you should adhere to a systematic procedure to
minimise faults and errors:
• observe safety recommendations,
• make sure that circuit diagrams are to hand,
• prepare the equipment as listed in the parts list,
• adhere to the stipulated sequence during construction:
in the signal control section from signal input via signal processing and control power
supply to the power control section;
in the hydraulic power section from the power supply section via the power control
section to the drive section,
• identify the equipment already installed on the system in the circuit diagram step by
step,
• designate all equipment as well as pipelines, conduits and cables,
• observe the basic rules for the installation and connection of components.

Step 4:
Start-up of the system
When construction of the system is complete, the practical function test can be
performed. If the test is to comprise the function of the system as well as the recording
of the operating conditions, the necessary documentation (value tables, diagrams) is to
be prepared.
The system should not be started until the layout and the component connections have
been re-checked.
The best way to start up a system is as follows:
• check the oil level; top up with the correct type of oil if necessary (maximum level),
using a filter to filter out any impurities,
• vent the pump by filling it with oil,

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• check the direction of rotation of the electric drive motor,

• set all valves to their initial positions,
• set pressure valves and flow valves to the lowest possible setting – the same applies
to the pressure regulators of actuating pumps,
• if necessary start the system using a flushing oil, then change the filter,
• top up with fresh oil, vent the system once again,
• check the fluid level,
• check the electrical cables,
• check the terminal assignment of the individual components,
• perform the first function test at reduced pressure and flow rate,
• set the operating values laid down in the circuit diagrams (pressure, flow rate,
voltage).

Function test
The function test and the measurements can now begin. During the tests, the required
data are to be recorded and entered in tables. After the test is completed, the results
are to be evaluated and remarks formulated. It is advisable to draw up a test certificate.

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Chapter 4
Actuation of
a single-acting cylinder

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Preliminary remarks
Basic knowledge of hydraulic power packs is required to solve the following examples.
A hydraulic power pack consists of drive motor, hydraulic pump with suction filter,
safety pressure relief valve, oil tank and a pressure relief valve which can be adjusted
to the required system pressure.

Fig 4.1 Hydraulic power pack: detailed and simplified representation

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4.1 Direct solenoid valve actuation

Problem definition
In the cold rolling of steel plates, a station for straightening of the cold-worked parts is
required behind the pre-forming unit. There, each sheet is straightened by the intrinsic
weight of a pressure roller. To ensure that the incoming sheet does not collide with the
pressure roller, the roller must be lifted by a single-acting cylinder. This cylinder should
advance at the press of a button and retract through the weight of the roller when the
button is released.

Fig 4.2 Positional sketch

Hydraulic control
A single-acting cylinder and a magnetically actuated 3/2-way valve (3/2-way
electromagnetic valve) are used in this example.

Single-acting cylinder
In single-acting cylinders only the piston side is supplied with pressure fluid.
This is why these cylinders can only work in one direction. The fluid flowing into the
piston chamber builds up a pressure at the piston surface against external and internal
resistances. The resulting force moves the piston into the forward end position. The

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return stroke is effected by the external load of the roller. The pressure fluid flows back
from the cylinder into the tank.

Directional control valve

A 3/2-way valve with solenoid actuation and spring return is used to activate the
cylinder.
A 3/2-way valve has three ports:
• pressure port (P)
• tank port (T)
• power port (A)

and two switching positions:

• normal position:
return flow from the piston chamber of the cylinder to the power port (A) and then to the
tank; the pressure port 1(P) is blocked.
• actuated position:
flow from the pressure port (P) to the power port (A) and then to the piston chamber of
the cylinder; the tank port (T) is blocked.

Electrical control
(1) Solenoids
The directional control valve is actuated via a solenoid. When the preset voltage is
applied to the coil, a magnetic field is created. The resulting force at the armature
pushes the piston of the directional control valve against the return spring, thereby
actuating the valve. When the voltage is switched off, the magnetic field collapses and
no forces are active. The return spring moves the piston back into the normal position.
The most commonly used hydraulic valves have solenoids designed for 24 V D.C.

(2) Push-button
Push-buttons are designed to actuate contacts. The contacts can close or open the
current path or change between two current paths. When the push-button is released,
the contact is returned to its original position by the force of the spring. Only when it is
held down does the push-button revert to the desired switching position.

(3) Control switch

In contrast to push-buttons, control switches possess a detent mechanism. The

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switched position remains the same until the switch is pressed once again (signal
storage).

(4) Contacts
In the non-actuated state, a current circuit with normally open contacts is open.
When the contact is actuated, the current circuit is closed.
When the normally closed contact is in the normal position, the current circuit is closed.
When it is actuated, the current circuit is interrupted.
In changeover contacts, the functions "closing" and "opening" are accommodated in
one housing. When the push-button is pressed, the contact of the normally closed
contact is released and the current circuit is interrupted. At the same time, the current
circuit is closed at the normally open contact.

(5) Power supply unit

The components of the signal control section normally operate via a 24 V D.C. supply.
The alternating voltage of the mains supply therefore has to be transformed into direct
voltage using a power supply unit.

The symbol for a power supply unit is only shown in the circuit diagram in this example.
The subsequent examples show only the 24 volt and 0 volt supply bars.

(6) Master switch

Each machine (control) must be fitted with a master switch via which all the electrical
equipment can be shut down, for example for the duration of cleaning, maintenance
and repair work and for lengthy downtimes. This switch must be hand-operated and
may only possess an "On" and an "Off" position designated by 0 and 1. The Off
position must be lockable to prevent manual and remote switch-on. The S0 master
switch is generally fitted to all circuits described in this book. Operation of this switch is
taken for granted and is therefore not described beyond this point.

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Step 1: Drawing control circuit

Hydraulic circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram

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Function description
• If control switch S1 is actuated when the master switch is on, current flows through
the solenoid coil. The electromagnet energises, the directional control valve switches
over, and the piston rod of the cylinder advances.
• If the push-button is released, current no longer flows through the solenoid coil. The
coil is de-energised and the directional control valve switches back, and the piston rod
of the cylinder retracts due to the weight load.

Step 2: Selection of the push-button

For direct actuation of the solenoid valve, the push-button rating should be
such as to ensure that the push-button is not damaged by heating-up or contact
erosion, even when used in continuous operation.

The power consumption of the solenoid valve is 3 W. At a voltage of 24 V, the contacts

must be able to cope with a load of at least

As the control operates via a direct voltage supply, the current carrying capacity for
direct voltage (DC) is decisive. This means that push-buttons no. 2 and no. 3 could be
used.
As can be seen from the electrical circuit diagram, a normally open contact is needed
for this solution. As push-button no. 2 is not equipped with a normally open contact,
push-button no. 3 is the only suitable device.

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4.2 Indirect solenoid valve actuation

Problem definition
Direct activation of the solenoid valve as effected in 4.1 is only suitable for practice-
based operations under certain conditions. The relatively high current flowing in the coil
of the solenoid valve also flows through pushbuttons and cables. This means that
contacts and cables have to be designed to cope with this load.

In practice, it is preferable for signal input to be effected using a minimum of power, as

this allows the use of smaller contacts and thinner cables. To generate the high level of
current required for valve actuation, the signal then has to be amplified. For this
purpose, the electrical circuit in 4.1 has to be modified so that the start push-button
activates a relay, causing the contacts of the relay to energise the valve solenoid.

Reducing the return stroke speed

In the circuit in 4.1, the roller falls too heavily on the sheet when the pushbutton is
released. Therefore, you should add a further valve to the hydraulic circuit diagram to
reduce the flow rate during the return stroke. The advance stroke of the piston rod
should, however, still be effected at full speed.

Fig 4.3 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control
Hydraulic elements which influence the flow rate are called flow control valves. For this
application a valve of simple design – a throttle valve – is sufficient. In this example,
only the return stroke should be throttled; the advance stroke should remain unthrottled.
The throttle point therefore has to be bypassed during the advance stroke using a
check valve. Throttle and check valve are available as a single unit. This unit is called a
one-way flow control valve.

Electrical control
Electromagnetic switches consist of an electromagnet with a movable armature which
actuates a specific number of contacts (contact assembly), the number of contacts
actuated depending on the size of the armature. When current flows through the coil a
magnetic field is created which switches the armature.
If the flow of current is interrupted, the armature switches back to its original position
through the force of a spring. The contacts of the contact assembly can take the form
of normally open contacts, normally closed contacts or changeover contacts.

There are two types of electromagnetic switch:

• relays possess a clapper-type armature and are characterised by single contact
separation.
• contactors possess a lifting armature and are characterised by double contact
separation. Extremely large outputs are generally switched using contactors.

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Step 1: Drawing control circuit

Hydraulic circuit diagram

A one-way flow control valve is fitted to throttle the return stroke speed. It is advisable
to install the throttle valve as close as possible to the cylinder, as this prevents
oscillation of the piston and thus of the straightening roller. The directional control valve
is also a throttle point, although the extent of throttling can be ignored, since the cross
section of the directional control valve orifice is considerably greater than that of the
one-way flow control valve.

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Electrical circuit diagram, indirect actuation

• Current path 2 is the control circuit in the signal control section. The control circuit
contains push-button S1 (normally open contact) and relay K1.
• Current path 3 is the interface to the power control section and is the main circuit
(energy circuit).
• Master switch S0 is assigned to both circuits.

Function description
If master switch S0 is already switched on and push-button S1 is pressed, relay K1 in
current path 2 switches and the contact of K1 in current path 3 is closed. Solenoid coil
Y1 of the 3/2-way solenoid valve switches and the piston rod of the cylinder advances.

If the push-button is released, the magnetic field of relay K1 decays. Contact K1 opens
again. There is no longer voltage at the solenoid valve. The spring returns the valve to
the normal position. The piston rod retracts due to the weight of the roller.

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4.3 Boolean basic logic functions

Problem definition
Tanks are to be produced in a forming press:
• In the starting position of the press (I) the press ram is retracted – in other words in
the "up" position. The cushioned die is moved by a single-acting cylinder and is
advanced in its initial starting position.
• If the blank is inserted, the working sequence begins. The ram is lowered and
punches out the tank shape (II). The cushioned die is pressed downwards, as the force
of the press ram is greater than the force of the cushioning cylinder acting on the die.
• When the ram moves back up, the single-acting cushioning cylinder also drives the
die upwards. The finished tank can now be removed from the press (III).

Fig 4.4 Positional sketch

Actuation of the die cushioning cylinder

To facilitate setting operations, it must be possible to retract the die cushioning cylinder
– which is advanced in its initial position – by holding down a pushbutton.

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The die cushioning cylinder (single-acting cylinder) is actuated using a 3/2-way

solenoid valve. As the advanced piston rod retracts when a push-button is pressed, we
speak of reversal or negation of the input signal.
• In the first part of the example the input signal in the hydraulic section of the control is
to be reversed. The die should be advanced in its initial starting position. The normal
position of the control valve must be selected accordingly.
• In the second part of the example, signal reversal is to be effected electrically.
In this case, a 3/2-way solenoid valve is used with port P blocked and A to T open in
the normal position.

Hydraulic control
The die cushioning cylinder can also be retracted without using the force of the press
ram by switching off the pressure. The weight of the die is then sufficient to overcome
the remaining friction force.

If – as required in this example – the drive component has to achieve a specific end
position in the initial position of the system, valves with spring return action are used.
This ensures that the cylinder remains in (or drives to) the desired position when the
control is switched on. The normal position of the valve must be selected in line with
the task definition.

As the piston rod of the die cushioning cylinder is forced back by the press during the
forming process, the pump must be protected against the return oil flow by a non-return
valve. The oil then flows off via the pressure relief valve.
The pressure at the pressure relief valve should be set just high enough to ensure that
the die cushioning cylinder is pressed up and held in the "up" position with the blank.

Electrical control
In 4.1 and 4.2 the input signal of the push-button resulted in an output signal of
identical orientation. The corresponding logic function is called identity.

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Fig 4.5 Identity

This example requires reversal of the input signal. This function is called negation.
In the circuit symbol, negation is identified by a circle.

Fig 4.6 Negation

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Step 1: Drawing control circuit

1. Signal reversal, hydraulic

Hydraulic circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram

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The hydraulic circuit diagram is to be drawn in a position where the hydraulic assembly
is switched on, but where the electrical power supply to the signal control section is
switched off. As signal reversal is to be performed hydraulically, a valve with
throughflow in the normal position is to be selected. In this position, this valve connects
the cylinder chamber to the pressure circuit. The piston rod of the cylinder is therefore
to be drawn in the advanced position.

Function description
• In this circuit an unactuated push-button means: the relay coil does not energise, the
normally open contact in the main circuit remains open, and the valve is not actuated.
Reversal of the signal is achieved using a valve with switching positions which are the
exact opposite of those in the valve in the preceding task definition (throughflow in
normal position instead of blocked in normal position). This means that the cylinder
chamber is supplied with pressure when the valve is not actuated and that the piston
rod advances when the hydraulic power supply is switched on.
• When the push-button is pressed, the valve is supplied with current via the relay and
switches over. The piston rod retracts.

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2. Signal reversal, electrical

Hydraulic circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram

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As previously, the hydraulic circuit diagram is to be drawn in a position where the

electrical power supply is switched off. The valve is therefore not actuated.
The cylinder chamber is connected to the tank; as a result, there is no pressure and
thus no force acting on the piston. Accordingly, the piston rod is pushed back into the
cylinder by external force. It must therefore be drawn in the retracted position.

Function description
• As long as push-button S1 is not actuated, no current flows through relay coil K1 in
the control circuit. The normally closed contact in the control circuit is therefore closed.
Current flows through the solenoid and the valve is in the actuated position. The piston
rod advances or remains in the advanced position.
• If push-button S1 is pressed, relay K1 in the control circuit energises. The normally
closed contact of K1 interrupts the main circuit. The signal in the main circuit is
reversed compared to the signal in the control circuit. The solenoid coil is de-energised,
the valve switches back to the non-actuated position, and the piston rod retracts.

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Chapter 5
Actuation of
a double-acting cylinder

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5.1 Signal reversal

Problem definition
In the preceding example, (Chapter 4.3) the die was pushed up by a single-acting
cylinder. In this example, we will be looking at a press in which the force is not
sufficient to push the piston rod of the die cushioning cylinder back up. It is therefore
necessary to use a double-acting cylinder. The following conditions remain the same:
• at standstill and when the master switch is switched on (initial position), the die
cushioning cylinder should be in advanced position.
• during setting operations, a push-button (S1) must be pressed until the piston rod has
retracted.

The double-acting cylinder for actuation of the die is actuated by a 4/2-way solenoid
valve.
In this example, reversal of the input signal should first be effected in the electrical
section of the control. In a further example, the circuit diagrams for signal reversal in
the hydraulic section of the control are to be drawn.

Fig 5.1 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control
To allow the die cushioning cylinder to advance and retract and to operate hydraulically
in both directions, a double-acting cylinder is used. Direction reversal from advance to
retraction is effected by the switching of a 4/2-way solenoid valve. If, as required in this
example, the drive component is to be in a specific end position in the initial position of
the system, a valve with spring return motion is used.

Fig 5.2 4/2-way valve, electromagnetically actuated

The 4/2-way valve shown is activated electromechanically and returned by spring

action. The attached D.C. solenoid is a "magnet which switches in oil" (wet magnet).
The armature also operates in oil and ensures low wear, excellent heat dissipation and
a cushioned armature stop. The armature chamber is connected to the tank port. The
valve has two power ports A and B, a pressure port P, and a tank port T.

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1st step
Complete the hydraulic circuit diagram and draw the electrical circuit diagram.
Remember that in this part of the example signal reversal is to effected in the signal
control section.

Hydraulic circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram

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As the signal in the hydraulic circuit is not reversed, the valve should be connected in
such a way that the piston rod advances in the actuated position.
If the die cushioning cylinder of the press is pushed back, the oil in this circuit also
flows against the pumping direction in the circuit (see Example 3). If the flow rate is too
high, the oil cannot be directed away via the pressure relief valve. In this event, a check
valve must be installed to protect the assembly, as was the case in Example 3.
The signal control section fulfils the same functions as the section described in
Example 3 and is therefore of identical design.

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2nd step
Additional example

Signal reversal should now be effected hydraulically. Draw the hydraulic and electrical
circuit diagrams. As in the preceding problem, the directional control valve has the
following starting position: flow from P to B and from A to T.

Hydraulic circuit diagram

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Electrical circuit diagram

As the signal in this circuit is hydraulically reversed, the valve should be connected in
such a way that the piston rod retracts when the valve is actuated.
For the remainder, the same remarks apply as for electrical signal reversal.

3rd step
Failure of the supply voltage to the signal control section

Although the two circuits react in the same way under normal circumstances, they react
in different ways to a failure of the supply voltage to the signal control section:
• the piston rod retracts with electrical signal reversal,
• and the piston rod advances with hydraulic signal reversal.

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MEMO

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Chapter 6
Logic operation

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Basic logic functions of Boolean algebra

Logic operations are functions which link binary signals according to the rules of
Boolean algebra. Four basic logic operations are available for this purpose:

Identity Input and output signal have the same status.

Negation (NOT) The output signal has the opposite value to the input signal.
Conjunction (AND) The output signal only has the value 1, if all input signals have the
value 1.
Disjunction (OR) The output signal has the value 1, if at least one of the input signals
has the value 1.

All other operations, such as NAND, NOR, EXOR, EQUIVALENCE, ANTIVALENCE

etc. can be put together from these basic logic functions.

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6.1 Conjunction (AND function) and negation (NOT function)

Problem definition
In die-casting operations, extremely high pressures occur in the closed mould. To cope
with these pressures, the mould closure is fitted with a toggle fastener. The toggle
fastener is actuated via a double-acting cylinder.

Fig 6.1 Positional sketch

If a part is not present in the mould, the mould should close when push-button S1 is
held down. When the mould is closed, the automatic injection process begins. The
finished part actuates limit switch S2, and the mould opens again.
The process cannot be repeated until the part has been removed.

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The signals coming from the signal input elements

• "Push-button ON" (S1) and
• "Moulded part in place" (S2)
are to be interlinked in accordance with the task definition.

NOT function
The signal "Moulded part in place" is ascertained by limit switch S2. As startup is only
possible when no moulded part is in the mould, this signal must be reversed. The
reversal of a signal is also known as a NOT logic function (Negation) (see Example 3).
In the electrical section of the control, the NOT operation is effected by a normally
closed contact.

AND function
If two signals are interlinked with the result that a current only flows if both signals are
present (= 1), we speak of an AND logic function. In the field of electrical engineering,
this is effected by series connection of the corresponding input elements.

Fig 6.2 AND function

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram and identify the elements. Use a 4/2-way valve to
actuate the cylinder.

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2nd step
Draw up the parts list for the hydraulic control.

3rd step
Complete the truth table and add the symbol for the AND logic function

The mould may close only if push-button S1 is pressed and limit switch S2 is not
actuated. Signal K1 may therefore only be set under this condition.

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4th step
Complete the electrical circuit diagram on the basis of logic interlinking of signals S1
and S2 and the cylinder control described above!

To ensure reversal of signal S2, limit switch S2 is to be connected as a normally closed

contact.

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6.2 Disjunction (OR function)

Problem definition
To insert or remove workpieces, the boiler door of a hardening furnace has to be
opened for a short time. The door is opened and closed by a double-acting hydraulic
cylinder. Actuation of the cylinder should be possible both by a handoperated push-
button and a foot-operated button. After the appropriate pushbutton is released, the
cylinder should retract and close the boiler door.

Fig 6.3 Positional sketch

Hydraulic control
To ensure that the boiler door does not slam shut, it must be cushioned shortly before
final closure.
• This braking function can be performed by a shock absorber (see positional sketch).
• Alternatively, a cylinder with adjustable end position cushioning can be used.

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Fig 6.4 Cylinder with end position cushioning at both ends

Electrical control
In line with the task definition, two signal input elements (hand-operated pushbutton S1
and foot-operated button S2) are to be interlinked in such a way that the cylinder
advances when one of the two signal input elements or both pushbuttons are actuated.
This type of operation is carried out using an OR function.

For electrical realisation of the OR function, the two signal input elements are
connected in parallel (see diagram). It can be seen from the value table that current
flows through K1 if either one or both of the signal input elements are actuated.

Fig 6.5 OR function

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram. The cylinder should be equipped with adjustable
end position cushioning in the advanced position.

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2nd step
There are two circuit options for an OR circuit. Complete the circuit diagrams in the
illustrations accordingly!
Allocate the designation S1 to the hand-operated push-button and the designation S2
to the foot-operated button.

Circuit 1

Circuit 2

In both circuits the valve coil Y1 energises if either manual push-button S1, foot-
operated button S2 or both buttons are pressed.

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The second circuit has the advantage that push-button S1 only acts on coil K1, and
push-button S2 only on coil K2. This makes it possible to realise additional functions:
• further contacts of K1 can be used to switch the current paths which are designed to
react only to the manual push-button (e.g. warning light for manual push-button).
• further contacts of K2, on the other hand, switch the current paths which are
supposed to react only in dependence on S2 (e.g. warning light for foot-operated
button).

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6.3 Exclusive OR (EXOR function)

Problem definition
Two assembly lines travelling towards each other carry workpieces which are to be
alternately placed on a conveyor belt.

• It should be possible to effect the swivel motion of the switchover mechanism from
both workplaces via a control switch.
• The switchover mechanism is moved back and forth by a double-acting cylinder.

Fig 6.6 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control
A 4/2-way valve with spring return is used to actuate the double-acting cylinder.
The switching signal must be stored to ensure that the piston rod of the cylinder travels
into the forward or retracted end position. The easiest way to store the signal is to use
a control switch.
To ensure that it does not travel into the respective end position at full speed, the
piston rod of the cylinder must be cushioned. This is effected using a cylinder with end
position cushioning at both ends.

Electrical control
It should be possible to activate the swivel motion from two different points; this
requires the use of a two-way circuit.
• This two-way circuit can be realised using a switch with changeover contacts at each
of the two workplaces.
• Another way to achieve the same result is to use a switch with normally open and
normally closed contact at each of the workplaces.
• If the two-way circuit is equipped only with normally open contacts at the signal input
element, a relay circuit is additionally required.

The basic logic operation for each of these two-way circuits is an exclusive OR.

Fig 6.7 Exclusive OR

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To facilitate the drawing of the electrical circuit diagram, the operation must be divided
into the three basic logic functions: conjunction (AND), disjunction (OR) and negation
(NOT). The Boolean equation and the corresponding logic diagram can be derived
from the truth table:
• first, the input signals are negated (NOT).
• then, the input signals and the negation are interlinked via AND.
• finally, these two expressions are interlinked using OR.

Fig 6.8 Logic diagram Exclusive OR

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram first. In place of the hydraulic assembly, draw only
the symbol for the pressure source.

2nd step
Initially draw the electrical circuit diagram with two control switches equipped with
changeover contacts.

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3rd step
Now draw the electrical circuit diagram with two control switches equipped with only
one normally open contact each.

Solenoid valve coil Y1 may be installed in current path 4 in place of relay K3.
Relay K3 and current path 6 are then no longer necessary.

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MEMO

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Chapter 7
Signal storage

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A signal can be generated electrically, hydraulically or pneumatically. If the signal is

only present for a short time, it must be stored for further processing.
In electro-hydraulic systems, signal storage can be effected in two ways:
• in the hydraulic power section using double solenoid valves which store the
respective position via notch or friction,
• and in the electrical signal control section using control switches or latching circuits.

7.1 Signal storage in the hydraulic section

Problem definition
In production systems, workpieces are clamped with the help of hydraulic devices.
Easy operation and rapid workpiece change are the two chief requirements. The
positional sketch shows a clamping device of the type used in, for example, drilling and
milling operations.
The workpieces are clamped using a double-acting cylinder. The operator should
control opening and closing of the clamping device via a push-button.
When the push-button is released, the piston rod should proceed to the selected end
position or on to the workpiece. For safety reasons the valve must not change its
switching position in the event of a power failure. If the close or open push-button is
pressed, the inverse signal must not become effective.
The push-buttons must therefore be interlocked.

Fig 7.1 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control

If the piston rod of the cylinder is also to advance to the selected end position when the
push-button is released, the switching signal must be stored. Signal storage should be
effected in the directional control valve in line with the task definition. A 4/2-way double
solenoid valve is used to activate the double-acting cylinder.

Fig 7.2 Graphic symbol 4/2-way double solenoid valve

Double solenoid valves require an electrical switchover pulse for each switching
position. The switching position is stored via friction or notch. The valve does not switch
back until an electrical pulse acts on the opposing solenoid coil. If the double solenoid
valve is activated by both switching signals, the signal applied first has priority. Double
solenoid valves are used wherever it is important that the valve position is retained in
the event of control voltage failure (e.g. in clamping devices).

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Electrical control

To ensure that only one coil of the solenoid is actuated, the two input signals must be
interlocked. Interlocking can be effected via the pushbutton contacts or via the relay
contacts (contactor contacts).

Fig 7.3 Latching via push-button contacts and relay contacts

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram with the additional condition that the speed of the
closing motion can be altered. The opening speed remains unchanged.

Speed throttling only takes place during advance of the piston rod. During retraction,
the throttle is bridged by the non-return valve. The one-way flow control valve can be
installed in two places:
• either as shown in the above circuit diagram,
• or in the line between valve port B and the cylinder chamber on the piston rod side.

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2nd step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram. Electrical activation should be effected indirectly.
In addition, the input signals should be interlocked via the push-button and relay
contacts.

Function description
• Pressing push-button S1 energises relay K1. The piston rod advances.
• If push-button S2 is pressed, relay K2 energises. The piston rod retracts.
• If both push-buttons are pressed one after the other, the relay which was
switched first de-energises, but the other relay is not switched. Both relays are thus in
the de-energised state, and the double solenoid valve remains in the switching position
it adopted first.

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7.2 Signal storage in the electrical section

In the preceding examples, we saw that the piston rod of a cylinder only moved into the
respective end position if the switching signal was stored. With the double solenoid
valve, the signal is stored in the valve. If, however, a spring-return 4/2-way solenoid
valve is used and the switching signal is given via a push-button, the signal must be
stored in the signal control section. If the clamping device is to open again, a second
push-button is pressed which deletes the stored data.
Using the clamping device from the preceding example, it is not possible to adjust the
clamping pressure to different values without altering the system pressure. A reduction
in system pressure can, however, mean that other consumers in the system – e.g.
machining stations – no longer operate reliably. To adjust the clamping pressure to a
level lower than the system pressure, a pressure regulator is installed upstream of the
clamping device.

Fig 7.4 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control

Pressure regulators are used if different pressures are required in a system.

Fig 7.5 Pressure regulator

Using a 2-way pressure regulator, the supply pressure is reduced to a lower adjustable
initial pressure.
• The valve is open in normal position.
• The control pressure (port B) acts via the control line to the valve piston.
• If the force generated at the valve piston exceeds the set spring force, the valve starts
to close. The pressure at port B decreases to the set value, whilst the system pressure
at port A is unaffected.

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Electrical control

If a relay or a contactor is activated via a push-button, the coil receives current and the
contacts are switched. When the push-button is released, the contacts immediately
switch back to their initial position.

Latching
If the contacts are to be prevented from switching back when the push-button is
released, the relay coil must be supplied with current until another signal interrupts the
power supply. This condition is realised via the latching circuit (signal storage).

Fig 7.6 Electrical latching, dominant setting

If the ON push-button S1 is pressed, current flows to the relay coil. The contacts switch
over and contact K1 closes. If push-button S1 is released, the relay coil is supplied with
current via contact K1 and reverts to latching. The input signal is therefore stored. If
push-button S2 is pressed, the flow of current to the coil is interrupted, and contacts K1
open. If push-button S2 is released once again, the relay remains without current. If,
therefore, neither of the two push-buttons is pressed, the previous switching status of
the relay is retained, depending on contact K1.
If both push-buttons are pressed simultaneously in this circuit, coil K1 and its contacts
are switched (K1 = 1). This circuit is therefore termed dominant setting.
For safety reasons, circuits with the condition dominant resetting are used for
clamping devices. This condition is fulfilled if the relay contacts are not switched when
both push-buttons are pressed (K1 = 0).

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram. Stipulate the point at which the pressure regulator is
to be installed and give reasons for your decision.

The pressure relief valve can be installed either between directional control valve and
cylinder (see illustration) or between assembly and directional control valve.
• If the pressure regulator is between directional control valve and cylinder, a non-
return valve must be parallel-connected to allow retraction of the piston rod. During the
retraction motion, the annular piston surface is subjected to the full system pressure.
• If the pressure regulator is between assembly and directional control valve, a non-
return valve is not required. With this circuit design, it should be noted that the pressure
is also reduced during the return stroke. The force of the retracting cylinder is therefore
less than in the first circuit arrangement.

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2nd step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram for actuation of the hydraulic system by developing a
latching circuit with "dominant resetting" characteristics.

Function description
• Latching is set by pressing push-button S1; the valve switches to the actuated
position. The piston rod advances.
• Pressing push-button S2 releases latching and the valve switches to the non-actuated
position. The piston rod retracts.
• If both push-buttons (S1 and S2) are pressed, the output receives no signal – and
latching is not set.

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3rd step
Draw the logic diagram for this circuit.

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7.3 Speed control

The speed of the piston in a hydraulic cylinder increases together with the flow rate.
The flow rate can be controlled in two ways:

Throttle control
• with throttle control, the flow rate is regulated via valves, for example via flow control
valves. If the constant flow rate delivered by the pump exceeds the required flow rate,
part of the pressure fluid flows back into the tank via a pressure relief valve. This
results in considerable power loss.

Displacement control
• a far more favourable solution from the point of view of power consumption is control
of the flow rate via a control pump which generates the flow rate required. This type of
control is known as displacement control. One disadvantage of this method is the
inferior dynamic performance.

This book only deals with throttle control using flow valves.

Problem definition
Pre-drilled workpieces are finished using a reaming machine. The feed motion is
performed by a double-acting cylinder. The advance and return stroke are to be
effected at the same speed. Moreover, the speed should be adjustable. It must also
always be kept exactly constant regardless of the load. The return stroke should be
effected after a limit switch has been reached. A 4/2-way solenoid valve with spring
return is to be used for actuation of the cylinder.

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Fig 7.7 Positional sketch

Hydraulic control

(1) Cylinder with single-ended piston rod

In a double-acting cylinder with single-ended piston rod, the surface area on
the piston side is greater than that of the piston rod side. With a constant pump
delivery rate, therefore, the piston rod retracts faster than it advances.

(2) Cylinder with through-rod (Synchronous cylinder)

The following illustration shows a double-acting cylinder with two piston rods of
the same diameter. With this cylinder design, the two piston surfaces are the
same size. The advance and return stroke speeds are therefore also identical.
This cylinder is called a synchronous cylinder.

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Fig 7.8 Synchronous cylinder

(3) Differential circuit

If, due to lack of space, only a cylinder with one piston rod can be used, a
differential or bypass circuit should be used.

Fig 7.9 Bypass or differential circuit

This circuit increases the advance stroke speed of the piston rod. If, as required in this
example, the advance and return strokes are to be performed at the same speed, the
surface ratio of piston surface to piston rod surface must be 2:1.

(4) Speed control using flow valves

Flow valves are used to reduce the flow rate to the drive component. Due to its
relatively small orifice cross-section, the flow valve has a high flow resistance.
This results in a high pressure drop via the flow valve and thus also a high pressure
level in the hydraulic circuit. The pressure relief valve opens and the constant flow rate
of the pump (Q0) is divided into two branches. As a result, the partial flow Q1 flows to
the drive component.

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Fig 7.10 Influence of a flow valve

The action of flow control valves is load-dependent; in other words, the traversing
speed changes with changes in the force acting on the piston rod.
Flow regulators operate on an almost load-independent basis. This means that the
traversing speed of the piston rod remains constant even if the force acting on the
piston rod changes.

(5) Counter-pressure valve

In this example the feed cylinder is arranged in such a way that the piston rod
advances vertically. Due to the hanging weight of the reaming tool, a tensile load acts
on the piston rod. The tensile load can generate a (partial) vacuum in the upper
chamber. Uniform feed is then no longer possible and the piston rod is pulled jerkily out
of the cylinder. To prevent this, a pressure relief valve is installed in the return flow line
and adjusted in line with this load. A pressure relief valve installed in this manner is
called a counter-pressure valve.

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Electrical control

Limit switch
A mechanically actuated limit switch is required as a further electrical signal input
element. Limit switches are actuated by a cam or a guide plate. They are mainly used
to ascertain the position of cylinder pistons. Limit switches can be used, for example, to
ascertain when an end position or any other desired position has been reached. Limit
switches can be connected as normally closed contacts, normally open contacts or
changeover contacts.

The following should be noted for this problem definition.

• The piston rod should advance if the ON push-button is pressed and the piston is in
the retracted end position. To this end, a limit switch is used to monitor the retracted
end position. The position of the limit switch is incorporated into the current path of the
ON push-button as a start condition.
• After having reached the forward end position, the piston rod should immediately
drive back into the starting position. For control of this motion, a further limit switch is
used to monitor the forward end position.

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram with a synchronous cylinder, taking into account the
conditions laid out in the conclusions. Note that no flow can take place against the
counter-pressure valve (pressure relief valve). The position of the limit switch (S1
retracted end position, S2 forward end position) is indicated by a vertical line in the
circuit diagram (|).

In this example, the machining speed is to be precisely maintained even under varying
loads. This requires the use of a flow regulator.
The flow regulator regulates the flow in one flow direction only. To render it effective for
both directions, it must be installed between directional control valve and hydraulic
assembly.
The back-pressure valve is bridged by a non-return valve during the return stroke.

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2nd step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram with the starting condition that the retracted end
position of the piston rod is monitored and the start button is not pressed.

To allow generation of the latching function, limit switch S2 is connected as a normally

closed contact. Limit switch S1 is connected as a normally open contact.
An actuated normally open contact is shown in the circuit diagram as a normally closed
contact with an arrow. In addition, the contacts are identified by numbers according to
standard. This provides a further indication of how the limit switch is connected.

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MEMO

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Chapter 8
Sequence control system

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A sequence control system is a control with forced step-by-step sequence.

Switching to the next step is achieved in the following examples through position
monitoring using limit switches.

8.1 Pressure- and path-dependent sequence control

Problem definition
Hardened bearing rings are pressed into
grey cast iron blocks using a hydraulic
press.

• As starting conditions, the master switch

must be switched on and the retracted end
position of the piston rod monitored via a
limit switch. Pressing must take place at
low, adjustable speed.
• If pressing is performed correctly, the
return stroke is effected when a limit switch
is reached. The return stroke should be
unthrottled.
• If the maximum admissible pressing force
is exceeded (e.g. if a ring is bent), the
piston rod must retract and an optical signal
must be given for safety reasons. The
cylinder cannot recommence its operating
cycle until an acknowledgement button has
been pressed.

Fig 8.1 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control

This example does not require precise feed control. The use of a flow control valve (e.g.
a throttle valve) is sufficient to reduce the speed. A flow regulator is not required.
Throttle valves can be installed at the inflow or the outflow of the cylinder. If the valve is
installed at the outflow (outflow throttling), a counterpressure valve is no longer
required.
In this circuit, the piston rod should advance slowly and return quickly. It is for this
reason that a one-way flow control valve is used.

Fig 8.2 Example: outflow throttling

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To ensure that outflow throttling results in flow separation and therefore in a reduction
in speed, the throttle must be closed far enough to ensure that the system pressure
relief valve opens. In the present example, the pressure at the system pressure relief
valve is 60 bar. Due to the pressure transmission, the pressure in front of the one-way
flow control valve is increased in the ratio of the piston surface to the piston rod surface.
With a surface ratio of 2:1, the pressure in front of the throttle is approx. 120 bar (not
taking into account the cylinder friction and the load). The cylinder, the pipes and the
one-way flow control valve in this circuit must be designed to withstand a pressure of
120 bar, even if the supply pressure is only 60 bar.

Electrical control
Pressure switches switch electrical contacts when a set pressure is reached. A
pressure switch can be connected as a normally closed contact, a normally open
contact or a changeover contact. The switching point is set by prestressing a spring.

1st step
Complete the function diagram. Pay attention to the starting conditions listed in the
problem definition. Designate the limit switch which monitors the retracted end position
as S1, the switch for the forward end position as S2.

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• Step 1:
The directional control valve is switched into the actuated position when the following
conditions are met:
• the master switch is switched on,
• the piston rod is in the retracted position
• and the start push-button is pressed.

• Step 2:
If the actual pressure exceeds the set limit pressure, or if the piston rod reaches the
forward end position, the valve is reversed. The piston rod retracts.

• End of cycle:
The cycle is complete when the piston rod reaches the retracted end position.

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2nd step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram.
• Use a spring return 4/2-way solenoid valve for actuation of the cylinder.
• Speed reduction should not be effected via an outflow throttle but via an inflow throttle.
• Note also that the weight of the press ram acts as a tensile load on the piston rod.
• The position of the limit switch is indicated in the circuit diagram by a vertical line (|).

The pressure switch must be installed between throttle valve and cylinder.
Pressure gauges are to be installed for adjustment of the pressure switch and the
counter-pressure valve.

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3rd step
The maximum pressure is 60 bar, and thus far lower than with outflow throttling.
The hydraulic components need only be designed for operation with pressures up to 60
bar.

4th step
Adjustment of the pressure switch
If 20 bar is set at the counter-pressure valve, only 10 bar (not taking into account the
friction in the cylinder) are needed to overcome this resistance on the piston side on
account of the surface ratio.

The following pressure is additionally required for pressing operations:

The pressure switch should therefore be set to:

10 bar + 30.6 bar = 40.6 bar ≅ 40 bar

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5th step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram.

Relay positions:
K1 energised: directional control valve is switched, piston rod advances
K2 energised: piston in retracted end position
K3 energised: overpressure
K4 energised: piston rod retracts

6th step
Explain the mode of operation of the electro-hydraulic system.

Normal movement:
when start push-button S3 is pressed, the piston rod advances up to limit switch S2. K4
energises and reverts to latching. The normally closed contact of K4 in current path 2
releases the latching of relay K1.

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Malfunction:
if the pressure exceeds 40 bar when the piston rod advances, pressure switch B1
switches relay K3 to latching. The first contact of K3 releases the latching of relay K1 in
current path 2. The piston rod retracts. The second contact closes current path 7, and
the optical indicator lights up. Acknowledgement push-button S4 releases the latching
of relay K3. The light goes out and startup can be effected.

The actual pressure should not exceed the maximum pressure during retraction of the
piston rod. The pressure switch must therefore be rendered inoperative during
retraction. To this end, the contact of K4 blocks current path 5 until the piston rod is in
its starting position. Limit switch S1 is actuated and relay K2 releases the latching of K4.

A further contact of K2 is located in current path 2. This means that the pressing
process cannot begin until the piston rod is retracted – only then are the start
conditions fulfilled.

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8.2 Sequence control with automatic operation

Problem definition
Clamped workpieces are surface-milled on a milling machine.
• A hydraulic cylinder (A) with a piston rod coupled to the milling table performs the
working motion.
• The cylinder is activated by a 4/3-way solenoid valve with closed mid-position (spring-
centred). If the valve is switched to mid-position during the advance or return
movement of the milling table, the table stops even if the end stop has not been
reached.
• The milling table should advance at an adjustable feed speed and return
automatically in rapid motion after a limit switch (S2) has been reached.
• The control can be switched off by actuating a switch (normally closed contact).
The 4/3-way valve then switches to the mid-position and the piston rod stops moving.
• If the milling machine is to be restarted after the control is switched off, the piston rod
must first be driven into the starting position (S1). To achieve this, the piston rod must
be brought into the end position manually, i.e. by holding down a push-button.

Fig 8.3 Positional sketch

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Hydraulic control
In the no-load condition, the 4/3-way solenoid valve switches to the mid-position.
In this mid-position all ports are blocked. This valve possesses no storage capability.

Fig 8.4 4/3-way soleniod valve

Electrical control

Manual operation
As the valve does not store the switching position, a latching circuit with relay must be
installed in the electrical section of the control. If the latching function is switched off
during the advance or return stroke, the piston rod stops in its momentary position
(EMERGENCY stop). In this event, the piston rod can no longer be actuated, as the
condition "Limit switch S1 actuated" is no longer fulfilled. It is therefore necessary to
develop a circuit which can drive the piston rod back into its starting position after it has
stopped. This return motion is activated via a push-button which – when held down –
switches on the 4/3-way valve for the return stroke. However, this push-button must not
take effect unless the switch "Automatic-Manual" was also pressed beforehand
(interlock).
This interlock function can also be effected electrically via a push-button and a further
relay.

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1st step
Draw the hydraulic circuit diagram.
• Note that tensile loads can also occur during milling.
• Note also that in the opposite direction the flow regulator only acts as a throttle, and
that some designs do not allow any flow at all.

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2nd step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram. The switchover from automatic to manual operation
should be effected via a control switch.

Automatic operation:
relay K1 energised: piston rod advances
relay K2 energised: piston rod in retracted end position
relay K3 energised: piston rod retracts

Manual operation:
after switchover of S4 to manual operation, the piston rod retracts as long as push-
button S5 is held down.

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3rd step
Draw the electrical circuit diagram. The switchover from automatic to manual operation
should now be effected via a push-button and a relay.

Automatic operation:
relay K1 energised: automatic operation
relay K2 energised: piston rod advances
relay K3 energised: piston in retracted end position
relay K4 energised: piston rod retracts

Manual operation:
pressing push-button S5 releases the latching of relay K1. This causes normally closed
contact K1 in current path 12 to close; the piston rod retracts as long as push-button S6
is held down.

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Chapter 9
Electrical components

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The signal control section in electro-hydraulic systems is made up of electrical or

electronic components. Depending on the task to be performed, the signal control
section can vary in design:
• relatively simple controls use either electro-mechanical components with contacts
(e.g. relays) or a combination of components with contacts and electronic
components without contacts.
• for complex tasks, on the other hand, stored-program controls (PLC’s) are mostly
used.
• The circuit examples and explanations in this textbook are primarily based on
electro-mechanical components, but also describe certain contactless components.

9.1 Power supply unit

Electro-hydraulic control systems are generally supplied with electricity not from their
own voltage sources (e.g. batteries) but from the mains supply via a power supply unit.

Fig 9.1 Industrial power supply for DIN rail attachment

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Fig 9.2 Modules of a power supply unit

A power supply unit consists of the following modules:

• the mains transformer which transforms the alternating voltage of the mains
supply (e.g. 220 V) into the output voltage (mostly 24 V).
• a smoothed direct voltage is generated by the rectifier G and the capacitor C.
• the direct voltage is then stabilized by the in-phase regulator.

9.2 Electrical input elements

Switches are installed in a circuit to open or close the flow of current to the consuming
device. These switches are divided into the two main groups "pushbutton switches"
(push-buttons) and "control switches". Both switch types are available for operation
with normally closed contacts, normally open contacts or changeover contacts.

Control switch
• In control switches, the two switching positions are mechanically interlocked. A
switching position is maintained until the switch is activated once again.

Push-button
• A push-button only opens or closes a current circuit for a short time. The selected
switching position is only active while the push-button is pressed.

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Fig 9.3 Pushbutton switch and switch module

Normally open contact

In the normally open version, the circuit is open when the push-button is in the normal
position; i.e. not pressed. The circuit is closed when the control stem is actuated;
current then flows to the consuming device. When the control stem is released, the
push-button is returned to its original position by spring pressure, and the circuit is then
interrupted.

Fig 9.4 Normally open contact: sectional view and circuit symbol

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Normally closed contact

In the normally closed version, the circuit is closed when the push-button is in normal
position. The spring action ensures that the contacts remain closed until the push-
button is pressed. When the push-button is pressed, the switching contact is opened
against the spring pressure. The flow of current to the consuming device is interrupted.

Fig 9.5 Normally closed contact: sectional view and circuit symbol

Changeover contact
The third variation is the changeover contact. These contacts combine the functions of
normally closed and normally open contacts in one unit. Changeover contacts are used
to close one circuit and simultaneously open another. It should be noted, however, that
both circuits are momentarily interrupted during changeover.

Fig 9.6 Changeover contact: sectional view and circuit symbol

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9.3 Sensors

Sensors are used to record information about the status of a system and to pass this
information on to the control. In electro-hydraulic systems, sensors are mainly used for
the following tasks:
• measurement and monitoring of pressure and temperature of the pressure fluid,
• recording the proximity i.e. the position or the end position of drive components.

Fig 9.7 Sensors and workpieces

9.3.1 Limit switch

A mechanical limit switch is an electrical switch which is activated when a machine part
or a workpiece is in a certain position. Activation is generally effected by a cam
activating a movable operating lever. Limit switches are normally equipped with
changeover contacts capable of performing closing, opening or changeover of circuits.

Fig 9.8 Limit switch with 4mm socket and mounting clamp

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Fig 9.9 Mechanical limit switch: sectional view and circuit symbol

9.3.2 Pressure switch

Pressure switches are used as control or monitoring devices. They can be used to
open, close or change between circuits when a preset pressure is reached. The supply
pressure acts on a piston surface. The resulting force acts against an adjustable spring
pressure. If the pressure is greater than the force of the spring, the piston is moved and
actuates the contact assembly.
In pressure switches with mechanically actuated contact assemblies, a diaphragm, a
bellows or a Bourdon spring can be used in place of the helical spring.

Fig 9.10 Pressure switch with 4mm socket and mounting clamp

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Fig 9.11 Piston pressure switch: sectional view and circuit symbol

Recently, increasing use has been made of diaphragm pressure switches, where the
contact is no longer mechanically actuated but electronically switched. This also
requires the use of pressure- or force-sensitive sensors which exploit one of the
following physical effects:
• the resistance effect (diaphragm with strain gauge, change in electrical resistance
with shape change),
• the piezoresistive effect (change in electrical resistance with change in
mechanical tension),
• the piezoelectric effect (generation of an electrical charge through mechanical
stress),
• the capacitive effect (change in capacitance with change in mechanical stress).

The pressure-sensitive element in this process is created through diffusion, vapour-

depositing or etching on the diaphragm. A suitable protective electronic circuit supplies
an amplified analogue signal. This signal can be used for pressure indication or for
further switching operations.

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9.3.3 Proximity sensors

Non-contacting proximity sensors differ from mechanically actuated limit switches by
virtue of the means of actuation, without external mechanical actuating force. A
distinction is made between the following groups of proximity sensors:
• magnetically activated proximity sensors (Reed switch),
• inductive proximity sensors,
• capacitive proximity sensors and
• optical proximity sensors.

Reed switches
Reed switches are magnetically actuated proximity switches. They consist of two
contact reeds housed in a glass tube filled with inert gas. When the switch enters a
magnetic field e.g. the magnet on a cylinder piston, the reeds are closed and output an
electrical signal. The opening function of reed contacts can be achieved by pre-
stressing the contact reeds using small magnets. This initial stress is overcome by the
considerably stronger switching magnets.
Reed switches are characterised by the following properties:
• long service life,
• maintenance-free,
• switching time 0.2 ms,
• limited response sensitivity,
• unsuitable for areas with strong magnetic fields

Fig 9.12 Reed switch, normally open contact

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Inductive proximity sensors

Fig 9.13 Inductive proximity sensor with connector

An inductive proximity sensor consists of an oscillating circuit (1), a triggering stage (2)
and an amplifier (3). When a voltage is applied to the terminals, the oscillating circuit
generates a high-frequency electro-magnetic field which is emitted from the end face of
the proximity sensor. If a good electrical conductor is introduced into this oscillating
magnetic field, the oscillating circuit is dampened. The downstream triggering stage
evaluates the oscillating circuit signal and activates the switching output via the
amplifier.

Fig 9.14 Inductive proximity sensor

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Inductive proximity sensors are characterized by the following properties:

• all materials with good electrical conductivity are recognized by inductive proximity
sensors. Their function is confined to neither magnetisable materials nor metals; they
also recognize graphite, for example.
• objects can be detected either moving or stationary.
• objects with large surface areas are recognized more readily than objects which are
small compared to the sensor area (e.g. metal).
• they are chiefly used as digital sensors.

Capacitive proximity sensors

Capacitive proximity sensors measure the change in capacitance in the electrical field
of a capacitor caused by the approach of an object. The proximity sensor consists of an
ohmic resistor, a capacitor (RC oscillating circuit) and an electronic circuit.
An electrostatic field is built up in the space between active electrode and earth
electrode. If an object is then introduced into this stray field, the capacitance of the
capacitor increases, thus detecting not only highly conductive materials, but also all
insulators which possess a high dielectric constant. Materials such as plastics, glass,
ceramics, liquids and wood, for example.

Fig 9.15 Capacitive proximity sensor

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Through-beam sensor
The through-beam sensor consists of spatially separated transmitter and receiver units.
The components are mounted in such a way that the transmitter is aimed directly at the
receiver. If the light beam is interrupted, the contacts open or close.

Fig 9.16 Through-beam sensor

Retro-reflective sensor
In retro-reflective sensors, the transmitter and the receiver are mounted side by side in
a common housing. For the correct function of these sensors, a reflector must be
mounted in such a way that the light beam emitted by the transmitter is more or less
totally reflected onto the receiver. Interruption of the light beam causes the sensor to
switch.

Fig 9.17 Retro-reflective sensor

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Diffuse sensor
The transmitter and receiver of the diffuse sensor are mounted in a similar way to that
of the retro-reflective sensor. If the transmitter is aimed at a reflecting object, the
reflected light is absorbed by the receiver and a switching signal is generated. The
greater the reflection properties of the object in question, the more reliably the object
can be detected.

Fig 9.18 Diffuse sensor

Fig 9.19 Diffuse sensor(optical sensor)

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9.4 Relay

Relays are electromagnetically actuated switches. They consist of housing with

electromagnet and movable contacts. An electromagnetic field is created when a
voltage is applied to the coil of the electromagnet. This results in attraction of the
movable armature to the coil core. The armature actuates the contact assembly. This
contact assembly can open or close a specific number of contacts by mechanical
means. If the flow of current through the coil is interrupted, a spring returns the
armature to its original position.

Fig 9.20 Relay: sectional view and circuit symbol

Application examples
There are various types of relay; e.g. time-delay relays and counter relays. Relays can
be used for various regulating, control and monitoring functions:
• as interfaces between control circuits and load circuits,
• for signal multiplication,
• for separation of direct current and alternating current circuits,
• for delaying, generating and converting signals and
• for linking information.

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Fig 9.21 Relay: sectional view and circuit symbol

Terminal designations and circuit symbols

Depending on design, relays possess varying numbers of normally closed contacts,
normally open contacts, changeover contacts, delayed normally closed contacts,
delayed normally open contacts and delayed changeover contacts.
• relays are designated K1, K2, K3 etc.
• the coil terminals are designated A1 and A2.
• the contacts switched by the relay are also designated K1, K2 etc. in circuit
diagrams.
• There are additionally two-digit identification numbers for the switching contacts.
The first digit is for numbering of all existing contacts (ordinal number), while the
second digit denotes the type of contact (function number).

Fig 9.22 Circuit symbols and terminal designations of a relay

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9.5 Solenoids

In electro-hydraulics, valves are actuated via solenoids. An iron core – the armature –
is installed in the coil winding of the solenoid. A non-magnetic plunger is embedded in
this armature. If the coil is then supplied with current, a magnetic field is formed which
energizes the armature. The plunger connected to the armature then switches the
valve gate (see illustration on next page).
Solenoids have two end positions.
• The first end position is achieved during conductive continuity (solenoid energizes,
position C),
• while the second end position is achieved in de-energized state via a return spring
(electro-magnetic decay, position A).
In each switching operation, the plunger additionally presses against the return
spring of the valve, thus reducing its force in the direction of attraction.
• At the beginning of the travel movement the magnetic force is small. The motion
of the armature therefore begins with a small idling stroke (position A).
• The control gate of the directional control valve is not switched (position B) until a
greater magnetic force has been reached.

Fig 9.23 Stroke/force characteristic of a DC solenoid

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DC and AC solenoids
There are solenoids for direct current or alternating current. AC solenoids for 230 V are
used less and less frequently for reasons of safety (dangerous touch voltage).

Arcing
When a solenoid is switched off, the flow of current is interrupted. The collapse of the
magnetic field creates a voltage peak in the opposite direction. A protective spark
suppression circuit is essential to prevent damage to the solenoids or the contacts.

Types
DC solenoids are produced as wet or dry designs, whereas AC solenoids are always
dry solenoids.

Wet solenoid
In wet solenoids, the armature chamber of the solenoid contains hydraulic oil, in which
the solenoid switches. The housings of these solenoids have to be seal-tight (towards
the outside). The armature chamber is connected to the tank port to prevent high
pressures on the solenoid. The advantages of this nowadays common type of solenoid
are:
• absolute seal-tightness and low friction due to the absence of a dynamically
stressed seal at the plunger,
• greatly reduced corrosion inside the housing and
• cushioning of switching operations.

Fig 9.24 Wet solenoid

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Dry solenoid
The term "dry solenoid" means that the solenoid is isolated from the oil. The plunger is
sealed off from the oil in the valve body by a seal. Therefore, in addition to the spring
force and the friction of the control gate, the solenoid has to overcome the friction
between plunger and seal.

Fig 9.25 Dry solenoid

Spark suppression in solenoid valves

The inductivity of solenoid coils causes electro-magnetic energy to be stored when the
circuit is switched on. The faster switch-off is effected, the faster the energy is
discharged and the higher the induced voltage peak. This can cause insulation
breakdown in the circuit or destroy the switching contact as a result of an arc (contact-
breaking spark).

To avoid damage to the contacts or the coil, the energy stored in the coil must be
discharged gradually after switch-off. A spark suppression circuit is required for this
purpose. Various kinds of spark suppression circuit are suitable for this purpose. What
is common to all spark suppression circuits, however, is that, after switch-off, the
change in the current strength is not sudden but slow and regulated.
The two most common circuits are shown in the following illustrations:
• circuit with one diode,
• circuit with one capacitor and one resistor.

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When effecting spark suppression using a diode, care should be taken to ensure that
the diode is polarized in the direction of blocking when the contact is closed.

Fig 9.26 Suppressor circuit using diode

In DC solenoids, the polarity of the supply voltage is fixed. This allows connection of an
LED parallel to the coil for switching status display. The most practical solution is to
install the protective circuit and the switching status display in an adapter which is
plugged directly onto the solenoid coil below the connecting plug. They can also be
directly incorporated into the connecting plug.

Fig 9.27 Suppressor circuit using capacitor and resistor

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9.6 Voltage supply of an electro-hydraulic system

A supply voltage of 24 V DC is required for the signal and power control sections. The
power supply section consisting of hydro pump and electric drive motor requires either
220 V or 380 V AC. The example shown is the circuit of the electrical drive motor for a
hydraulic pump.

where,
L1, L2, L3 = rotary current phases
N = neutral conductor
PE = protective conductor
F1 = motor fuses
F2 = motor protection relay(thermal overcurrent relay)
F3 = fuses
T= transformer

Fig 9.28 Voltage supply for an electric motor (3-phase)

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Only suitably qualified electricians may perform work on electrical systems with
voltages exceeding 50 volts AC/120 volts DC. It is strictly forbidden for others to
perform work on such systems (danger to life and limb!).

Safety note
The controls shown here all use a safe low voltage of 24 V DC. Safety voltages are voltages
rated up to 50 V AC or 120 V DC. The use of these voltages rules out the possibility of coming
into contact with dangerous voltages.

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MEMO

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