PE

Mechanical
HVAC &
Refrigeration

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Exam Textbook
April 2021 Exam Edition
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Updated for Latest CBT Exam
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Learn the key concepts and skills necessary to pass the PE Exam

by Justin Kauwale, P.E.

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Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook

by Justin Kauwale, PE

Published by Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

Honolulu, HI 96815
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www.engproguides.com

Copyright © 2012-2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form on by any means,
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electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, including information storage and

retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except as permitted by U.S.
copyright law.

October 2020 Edition

ISBN 978-0-9887372-4-2 (ebook)

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 HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook
How to pass the PE exam

Table of Contents
Section 1.0 ..................................................................................................... Introduction
Section 2.0 ........................................................... Principles - Basic Engineering Practice
Section 3.0 .......................................................................... Principles - Thermodynamics
Section 4.0 ............................................................................. Principles - Psychrometrics
Section 5.0 ................................................................................Principles - Heat Transfer

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Section 6.0 ............................................................................ Principles - Fluid Mechanics
Section 7.0 ................................................................. Principles - Energy/Mass Balances
Section 8.0 ..............................................................Applications - Heating/Cooling Loads

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Section 9.0 ........................................................ Applications - Equipment & Components
Section 10.0 ......................................................... Applications - Systems & Components
Section 11.0 ............................................................ Applications - Supportive Knowledge
Section 12.0 .................................................................................................... Conclusion
Section 13.0 ...................................................................................................... Checklists
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Section 14.0 ............................................................................................................. Index
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1 - Introduction

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How to Study for and Pass the PE Exam

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 Section 1.0 - Introduction
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Key Concepts and Skills ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Units .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Computer Based Test (CBT) ............................................................................................... 4
1.4 NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook .................................................................... 6
2.0 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... 6
3.0 How to use this Book .............................................................................................................. 7

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4.0 Sample exam tips ................................................................................................................... 8
5.0 Recommended References .................................................................................................. 10
5.1 ASHRAE Handbooks ........................................................................................................ 14

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5.2 ASHRAE Codes & Standards ........................................................................................... 15
5.3 NFPA Codes ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.4 Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook .............................................................. 16
5.5 Common Property Tables and Charts ............................................................................... 16
6.0 Quick Equation Constants .................................................................................................... 17
6.1 Power as a Function of Enthalpy for Equation .................................................................. 17
6.2 Power as a Function of Temperature for Air Equation ...................................................... 18
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6.3 Power as a Function of Humidity Ratio for Air Equation ................................................... 19

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6.4 Density Factors (Air) .......................................................................................................... 21
6.5 Power as a Function of Temperature for Water Equation ................................................. 22
7.0 Past Exam Surveys .......................................................................................................... 28
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important steps in an engineer's career is obtaining the professional
engineering (P.E.) license. It allows an individual to legally practice engineering in the state of
licensure. This credential can also help to obtain higher compensation and develop a credible
reputation. In order to obtain a P.E. license, the engineer must first meet the qualifications as
required by the state of licensure, including minimum experience, references and the passing of
the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) exam. Engineering
Pro Guides focuses on helping engineers pass the NCEES exam through the use of free
content on the website, http://www.engproguides.com and through the creation of books like
sample exams and guides that outline how to pass the PE exam.

The key to passing the PE exam is to learn the key concepts and skills that are tested on the
exam. There are several issues that make this key very difficult. First, the key concepts and

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skills are unknown to most engineers studying for the exam. Second, the key concepts and
skills are not contained in a single document. This technical guide teaches you the key
concepts and skills required to pass the Mechanical - HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical P.E.
Exam in a single document.

1.1 KEY CONCEPTS AND SKILLS PL

How are the key concepts and skills determined?

The key concepts and skills tested in the sample exams and taught in this technical study guide
were first developed through an analysis of the topics and information presented by NCEES.
NCEES indicates on their website that the P.E. Exam will cover an AM exam (4 hours) followed
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by a PM exam (4 hours) and that the exam will be 80 questions long, 40 questions in the
morning and 40 questions in the afternoon. The HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam will

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focus on the following topics as indicated by NCEES. (http://ncees.org/engineering/pe/):

A) Principles
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1 Basic Engineering Practice - (4-6 questions)

i) Units and conversions
ii) Economic analysis
iii) Electrical concepts (e.g., power consumption, motor ratings, heat output, amperage)
2 Thermodynamics - (4-6 questions)
i) Cycles
ii) Properties
iii) Compression Processes
3 Psychrometrics - (7-11 questions)
i) Heating/cooling cycles, humidification/dehumidification, heating/cooling loads, sea
level and other elevations
4 Heat Transfer - (6-9 questions)
5 Fluid Mechanics - (3-5 questions)
6 Energy/Mass Balances (4-6 questions)

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B) Applications

1 Heating/Cooling Loads - (7-11 questions)

2 Equipment and Components - (16-24 questions)
i) Cooling towers and fluid coolers
ii) Boilers and furnaces
iii) Heat exchangers
iv) Condensers/evaporators
v) Pumps/compressors/fans
vi) Cooling/heating coils
vii) Control systems components
viii) Refrigerants

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ix) Refrigeration components
3 Systems - (16-24 questions)
i) Air distribution
ii) fluid distribution

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iii) refrigeration
iv) energy recovery
v) control concepts
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Supportive Knowledge - (3-5 questions)
i) Codes and standards
ii) Air quality and ventilation
iii) Vibration control
iv) Acoustics, economic analysis, electrical concepts
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Each of these broad topics were investigated and filtered for concepts and skills that met the
following criteria:

(1) First, the concept and skill must be commonly used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
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For example, the Fluid Mechanics topic includes skills (e.g., determining the force on a surface
due to a jet and the siphon concept), that are not used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. In
comparison, pump and fan sizing, determining friction losses and calculating net positive suction
head are regular occurrences in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.

(2) Second, the skill and concept must be testable in roughly 6 minutes per problem.
There are (40) questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration afternoon exam and you will be provided
with 4 hours to complete the exam. This results in an average of 6 minutes per problem. This
criterion limits the complexity of the exam problems and the resulting solutions. For example,
pressure drop calculations are common in the HVAC & Refrigeration field, but the calculation is
often very lengthy because of the number of steps involved, especially if a unique fluid and flow
condition is used. Thus, common fluids like water/air and common pipe/duct materials are
used.

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(3) Third, the key concept and skill must be used by practicing HVAC & Refrigeration
engineers. This criterion is similar to the first criterion. However, this criterion filters the
concepts and skills further by limiting the field to material encountered and used by practicing
engineers. The HVAC & Refrigeration field is vast and there are many different avenues an
engineer can take. Two diverging paths are those engineers involved in research and those
who practice. Research engineers are pushing the boundaries of the field and are highly
focused in their specific area of the field. The Professional Engineering exam does not cover
innovative material or highly focused material.

(4) The P.E. Exam must test the application of the skill and concept and not the
background knowledge of the topic or concept. The exam also does not cover background
information on the NCEES topics. The P.E. Exam is meant to prove that the test taker is
minimally competent to practice in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. The exam is less concerned

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with theory and more with the application of the theory, skill or concept. For example, the P.E.
exam is less concerned with the theory of evaporation in a cooling tower and more with the
performance and selection of a cooling tower.

In summary, this book is intended to teach the necessary skills and concepts to develop a

following means:
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minimally competent, practicing professional engineer in the HVAC & Refrigeration field,
capable of passing the P.E. exam. This book and the sample exam do this through the

(1) Teaching commonly used skills and concepts in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.

(2) Providing sample problems that can be completed in roughly 6 minutes per problem.

(3) Teaching skills and concepts used by practicing HVAC & Refrigeration engineers.
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(4) Teaching the application of the skill and concept.

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1.2 UNITS
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The primary units that are used in the P.E. Exam are United States Customary System Units
(USCS). As such, this guide focuses exclusively on the USCS. However, it is recommended
that the test taker have a conversion book, because certain areas of the P.E. Exam may use the
International System of Units (SI).

1.3 COMPUTER BASED TEST (CBT)

As of April 2020, the exam will be converted from the paper-pencil/scantron testing method to a
computer based platform. This allows the test to be offered year round instead of twice per year.
This also means you will not have the same set of the questions as the next person. The style
of the testing interface will be very similar to the fundamentals of engineering (FE) exam that is
also administered by NCEES. If you have gone through the computer based version of the FE
exam, you should be familiar with the format. The main difference is the number and difficulty of

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2 - Basic Engineering Practice

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Units and Conversions | Economic Analysis | Electrical Concepts

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 Section 2.0 – Basic Engineering Practice

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Interest Rate & Time value of Money ............................................................................. 4
2.2 Annual value/Annuities ................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Equipment Type Questions ............................................................................................ 6
2.4 Convert to Present Value ............................................................................................... 8

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2.5 Convert to Future Value ................................................................................................. 9
2.6 Convert to Annualized Value .......................................................................................... 9
2.7 Factor Tables ................................................................................................................ 10
2.8 Convert to Rate of Return ............................................................................................. 12
2.9
2.10
2.11
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Break Even Analysis ..................................................................................................... 13
Simple Payback ............................................................................................................ 13
Depreciation ................................................................................................................. 13
2.11.1 Straight Line.............................................................................................................. 13
2.11.2 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) .......................................... 14
2.11.3 Sum of Years Digits (SYD) ....................................................................................... 15
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2.11.4 Depreciation Comparison ...................................................................................... 16

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4.0 Units and Conversions ..................................................................................................... 17
5.0 Electrical Concepts .......................................................................................................... 17
5.1 Current, Voltage and Resistance .................................................................................. 17
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5.2 Basic DC Circuits .......................................................................................................... 17

5.3 D/C Power .................................................................................................................... 21
5.4 A/C Power .................................................................................................................... 21
5.5 Mechanical Equipment Motor Rating ............................................................................ 22
5.6 Motor Ratings ............................................................................................................... 26
5.7 Mechanical Equipment Heat Output ............................................................................. 27
6.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 28
6.1 Problem 1 - Economics ................................................................................................ 28
6.2 Problem 2 - Economics ................................................................................................ 28
6.3 Problem 3 - Economics ................................................................................................ 29

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 6.4 Problem 4 - Economics ................................................................................................ 29
6.5 Problem 5 - Economics ................................................................................................ 30
6.6 Problem 6 – Unit Conversions ...................................................................................... 30
6.7 Problem 7 - Electrical ................................................................................................... 31
6.18 Problem 8 - Electrical ................................................................................................... 31
6.9 Problem 9 - Electrical ................................................................................................... 32
6.10 Problem 10 - Electrical ................................................................................................. 32
6.11 Problem 11 - Electrical ................................................................................................. 33
7.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 34
7.1 Solution 1 - Economics ................................................................................................. 34

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7.2 Solution 2 - Economics ................................................................................................. 35
7.3 Solution 3 - Economics ................................................................................................. 35
7.4 Solution 4 - Economics ................................................................................................. 36
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
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Solution 5 - Economics ................................................................................................. 37
Solution 6 – Unit Conversions ...................................................................................... 38
Solution 7 - Electrical .................................................................................................... 39
Solution 8 - Electrical .................................................................................................... 40
Solution 9 - Electrical .................................................................................................... 41
Solution 10 - Electrical .................................................................................................. 41
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7.11 Solution 11 - Electrical .................................................................................................. 42

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4-6 out of 80 problems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Basic Engineering Practice accounts for approximately 4‐6 questions on the HVAC &
Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.

The HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam is designed to ensure that a passing engineer is
minimally competent to practice engineering. Being minimally competent does include
understanding engineering unit conversions, performing basic economic analyses, and
understanding electrical concepts that are required for supporting mechanical equipment.
However, many of these tasks can be completed without an engineering background and thus
the PE exam should provide questions that are more complex than just questions in one of these
topics. The questions may include an economic analysis but also with thermodynamics. It may
include power consumption and integrate fluids first to size a pump or fan. You may also have to

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complete an energy-mass balance problem and convert units to match the selected answers.

Based on the above reasoning, you should focus your studying on other sections of this book,
with the exception of the Economic Analysis section. The skills learned in the Economic Analysis
and Electrical Concepts sections are necessary of a HVAC engineer.

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Economic
Basic Engineering Practice
4-6 questions

Units & Electrical Concepts

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Analysis Conversions

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 Present  Power/Energy
value Consumption
 Future value  Motor ratings
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 Annual value  Efficiencies/

 Rate of Losses
return  Part Load Curves
 Interest rate  Amperage
 Factor tables  Heat output

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2.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
As a professional engineer, you will be tasked with determining the course of action for a design.
Often times this will entail choosing one alternative instead of several other design alternatives.
Engineers need to be able to present engineering economic analysis to their clients in
order to justify why a certain alternative is more financially sound than another. The
following sub-sections will present the engineering economic concepts that should be understood
by the engineer for the PE exam and does not present a comprehensive look into the study of
engineering economics.

2.1 INTEREST RATE & TIME VALUE OF MONEY

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Before discussing interest rates, it is important that the engineer understands that money today
is worth more than money in the future. This is the concept of “time value of money.” For example,
if you were given the option to have $1,000 today or to have $1,000 10 years from now, you
should choose $1,000 today. Why is that? The reason $1,000 today is worth more is because


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of what you could have done with that money now. In the financial world this is the amount of
interest you could have earned with that money. If you took $1,000 today and invested it at 4%
per year, you would have $1,040 dollars at the end of the first year.

$1,000 ∗ 1

$1,040 ∗ 1
.04

.04
$1,040

If you kept the $1,040 in the investment for another year, then you would have $1,081.60.

$1,081.60
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 At the end of the 10 years the investment would have earned, $1,480.24.

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$1,000 ∗ 1 .04 ∗ 1.04 ∗ 1.04 … … $1,000 ∗ 1.04 $1,480.24

This means $1,000 today is worth $1,480.24 ten years from now, assuming a yearly
interest rate of 4%.
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 An important formula to remember is the Future Value (FV) is equal to the Present Value
(PV) multiplied by (1 + interest rate, 𝑖), raised to the number of years, 𝑛.

𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 𝑖 𝐹𝑉

 As an example, what would be the present value of $1,000, 10 years from now, if the
interest rate is 4%?

𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 .04 $1,000

𝑃𝑉 $675.46

 Thus in the previous example, receiving $1,000, 10 years from now, is only worth $675.46
today.

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It is important to understand present value because when analyzing engineering alternatives,
cash values will be presented at many different times. The best way to make a uniform analysis
is to first convert all values to consistent terms, like present value.

For example, if instead your options were $1,000 today or $1,500 in 10 years (interest rate at
4%), then it would be a much more difficult question than the previous one. With an understanding
of present value, you can derive that it is better to accept $1,500 10 years from now, because
$1,000 at present value is only worth $1,480 10 years from now, at 4% interest. In this example,
the $1,000 today was converted to the “future value,” 10 years from now. Once this value was
converted, it can then be compared to the future value that was given as $1,500, 10 years later.

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2.2 ANNUAL VALUE/ANNUITIES
The previous section described the difference between present value and future value. It also
showed how a lump sum given at certain times are worth different amounts in present terms. In
engineering, there are often times when annual sums are given in lieu of one time lump sums.
An example would be annual energy savings due to the implementation of a more efficient HVAC

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system. Thus, it is important for the engineer to be able to determine the present/future value of
future annual gains or losses.

For example, let's assume that a solar hot water project provides an annual savings of $200.
Using the equations from the previous section, each annual savings can be converted to either
present or future value. Then these values can be summed up to determine the future and present
value of annual savings of $200 for four years at an interest rate of 4%.
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 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 &

𝐴𝑉 $249.71 $4,497.06 $4,000 $ 247.35

For an even faster method on how to do these calculations with tables, see the following section:
Factor Tables.

2.7 FACTOR TABLES

When conducting engineering economic analyses, factor values are used in lieu of formulas.
Factor values are pre-calculated values that correspond to:

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(1) A specific equation (convert present value to annual, convert present value to future, etc.)

(2) An interest rate, 𝑖.

(3) Number of years, 𝑛.

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Looking up these values in a table is sometimes quicker than using the equations and lessens
the possibility of calculator error. It is recommended that the engineer practice using the factor
tables in the NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook . A summary of the factor values
are shown below.
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Conversion Formula Factor Value
(from table)

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Present Value to Future Value 𝐹𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 𝑖 Multiply PV by (F/P, i, n)

𝐹𝑉
Future Value to Present Value 𝑃𝑉 Multiply FV by (P/F, i, n)
1 𝑖
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𝑖∗ 1 𝑖
Present Value to Annual Value 𝐴𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ Multiply PV by (A/P, i, n)
1 𝑖 1

1 1 𝑖
Annual Value to Present Value 𝑃𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ∗ Multiply AV by (P/A, i, n)
𝑖

𝑖
Future Value to Annual Value 𝐴𝑉 𝐹𝑉 Multiply FV by (A/F, i, n)
1 𝑖 1

1 𝑖 1
Annual Value to Future Value 𝐹𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ∗ Multiply AV by (F/A, i, n)
𝑖

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4.0 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
Many of the problems on the PE exam will require you to convert units and will have incorrect
answers that use different units or wrong conversion techniques. Double check your work and
make sure you use the correct units. Make sure you are very familiar with the unit conversions
available in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.

5.0 ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS

Mechanical and electrical engineers work closely together and there is often a lot of coordination
between the two disciplines. Most of the equipment that a HVAC & Refrigeration engineer designs
will require power. It is important for the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer to understand the basics

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of electrical engineering.

5.1 CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

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There are three basic terms that mechanical engineers should understand about electrical
engineering, current, voltage and resistance.

Current is the measure of the flow of electrons and is measured in terms of amperes (A). Current
is represented by the variable (I).

Voltage is best described in mechanical terms as the pressure at which current (flow) is supplied.
Voltage is often represented by the variable (V).
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Resistance is the opposition to flow. It controls the amount of flow or voltage in a circuit.
Resistance is represented by the variable (R) and is measured in ohms ( ).

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These three terms are related by the following equation. In order to solve for another variable,
simply re-arrange the equation to solve for the desired variable. This equation is called Ohm's
Law.
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𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤: 𝑉 𝐼𝑅

5.2 BASIC DC CIRCUITS

A basic direct current circuit consists of a voltage source [battery] and a resistor. The voltage
source provides the "pressure" to drive the current (flow) through the circuit.

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 Figure 10: Basic dc circuit for equivalent resistance for resistors in parallel

5.3 D/C POWER

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The next important electrical equation to remember is the DC electric power equation as shown
below. Real power is typically expressed in units, Watts and apparent power is expressed in units
volt-amperes. Current is represented by the variable "I" and is expressed in amperes and voltage
is represented by the variable "V" and is expressed in volts.

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𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆
𝐼𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

𝐼𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ;

𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ;

Variations of the equation can be shown by substituting I and V, through the use of Ohm's law.

𝑉 𝑉
𝑃 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 ∗ 𝑃𝐹
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𝑅 𝑅

𝑃 𝐼 ∗ 𝐼𝑅 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑃𝐹

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5.4 A/C POWER
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The previous electrical sections have dealt with DC power or direct current electricity. This allows
for a basic understanding of common electrical terms. However, for the P.E. exam, the
mechanical engineer should also be aware of alternating current (AC) power terms and equations.

Power Factor: When electricity is supplied to a piece of equipment, it is supplied with a certain
amount of amps (current) at a designated voltage. However, not all of the power supplied
(apparent power) is useful. Some of its power is lost, because the current and voltage are out of
phase. [The explanation of phase is out of the scope of this section and is more representative
of the material found in the Electrical Power P.E. Exam] The degree at which the current and
voltage are out of phase is reported as the power factor. The total amount of real (useful) power
supplied to the equipment is found by multiplying the total power supplied (S = IV) by the power
factor. Typical power factors are around ~0.85.

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 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 → 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆 𝐼 ∗ 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃 𝐼 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

The above equations are only for single phase motors. The following sections will show the
difference for 3-phase motors.

5.5 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT MOTOR RATING

When selecting mechanical equipment, the mechanical engineer must coordinate the power
requirements with the electrical engineer. This is done through the following steps: (1) Determine

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Mechanical Horsepower, (2) Determine Fan/Pump Brake horsepower, (3a) Determine Motor
Horsepower, (3b) Determine Electrical Input Power, and finally (4) Apparent Power.

1) Determine Mechanical Horsepower. Mechanical HP is defined as the amount of power

required to meet the needs of the system in question. For example, if the mechanical equipment

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was a pump, then the mechanical HP would be the amount of power generated by a certain GPM
at a certain pressure. For a fan, the mechanical work would be the amount of power generated
by a certain amount of CFM at a certain pressure. These equations can be found below.

𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌,𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑯𝑷

ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑄
𝒉𝒇𝒕 ∗ 𝑸𝒈𝒑𝒎 ∗ 𝑺𝑮
𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟔

𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑝𝑚 , 𝑆𝐺

;

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑸𝒄𝒇𝒎 ∗ 𝑻𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒈
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𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌,𝒇𝒂𝒏 𝑯𝑷 ;
𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟔

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𝑇𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑔 , 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑓𝑚
SA

Figure 11: Determining mechanical horsepower

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4-6 out of 80 problems
6.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

6.1 PROBLEM 1 - ECONOMICS

Background: A client is contemplating on purchasing a new high efficiency pump and motor, with
an initial cost of $10,000. The pump has a lifetime of 15 years and is estimated to save
approximately $1,000 per year. There is an additional maintenance cost of $300 per year
associated with this new pump. The pump will have a salvage value of $0 at the end of its lifetime.
Assume the interest rate is 4%.

Problem: What is the annual value of the pump?

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(a) -$499

(b) -$199

(c) $199

(d) $499

6.2 PROBLEM 2 - ECONOMICS

PL
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Background: A client is contemplating between two separate turbines. Turbine 1 has a life of 25
years, an initial cost of $50,000, an ongoing maintenance/electricity cost totaling $1,000 per year.

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Turbine 2 has a life of 25 years, an initial cost of $35,000 and an ongoing maintenance/electricity
cost totaling $1,500 per year. Assume interest rate is equal to 4%.

Problem: What is the present worth of the two turbines?

SA

(a) Turbine 1 = -$48,099 ; Turbine 2 = -$39,651

(b) Turbine 1 = -$55,278 ; Turbine 2 = -$47,455

(c) Turbine 1 = -$61,222 ; Turbine 2 = -$49,469

(d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433

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6.9 PROBLEM 9 - ELECTRICAL
Background: A new electrical circuit has 3 resistors in series. Each resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.

Problem: What is the current through the circuit?

(a) 0.5 amps

(b) 1.0 amps

(c) 2.0 amps

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(d) 3.0 amps

6.10 PROBLEM 10 - ELECTRICAL

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Background: A new electrical circuit has 2 resistors in parallel. One resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The resistance of the other resistor is unknown. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.
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Problem: If the total current through the circuit is 8 amps, what is the resistance of the 2nd
resistor?

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(a) 1.2
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(b) 1.6

(c) 2.0

(d) 2.4

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7.0 SOLUTIONS
7.1 SOLUTION 1 - ECONOMICS
Background: A client is contemplating on purchasing a new high efficiency pump and motor, with
an initial cost of $10,000. The pump has a lifetime of 15 years and is estimated to save
approximately $1,000 per year. There is an additional maintenance cost of $300 per year
associated with this new pump. The pump will have a salvage value of $0 at the end of its lifetime.
Assume the interest rate is 4%.

Problem: What is the annual value of the pump?

First convert all terms to annual values.

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Maintenance cost and cost savings are already annual values.

𝐴 $300

𝐴 $1,000

PL
Convert initial cost (present value) to annual value.

𝐴 $10,000 ∗
𝐴
𝑃
, 4%, 15

Refer to the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for I= 4.0% economics table.
Then navigate down to n = 15 and then to the A/P term to convert P to A.
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𝐴 $10,000 ∗ .0899

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𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

𝐴 $300 $1,000 $899

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𝐴 $199

The correct answer is most nearly, (b) -$199.

(a) -$499

(b) -$199

(c) $199

(d) $499

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4-6 out of 80 problems
7.2 SOLUTION 2 - ECONOMICS
Background: A client is contemplating between two separate turbines. Turbine 1 has a life of 25
years, an initial cost of $50,000, an ongoing maintenance/electricity cost totaling $1,000 per year.
Turbine 2 has a life of 25 years, an initial cost of $35,000 and an ongoing maintenance/electricity
cost totaling $1,500 per year. Assume interest rate is equal to 4%.

Problem: What is the present value of the two turbines?

First convert all terms to present value, Turbine 1.

𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝐴 / ∗ , 4%, 25
𝐴

𝑃 $50,000 $1,000 ∗ 15.6221

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𝑃 $65,622

Second convert all terms to present value, Turbine 2.

𝑃PL 𝑃

𝑃
𝐴

$35,000
/ ∗
𝑃
𝐴

$1,500 ∗ 15.6221

$58,433
, 4%, 25

The correct answer is most nearly, (d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433.

(a) Turbine 1 = -$48,099 ; Turbine 2 = -$39,651

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(b) Turbine 1 = -$55,278 ; Turbine 2 = -$47,455

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(c) Turbine 1 = -$61,222 ; Turbine 2 = -$49,469

(d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433

SA

7.3 SOLUTION 3 - ECONOMICS

Background: An existing A/C control system is inefficient and you are researching whether or not
to replace system. You develop a new system that will cost $30,000 and require an ongoing
maintenance of $1,000 per year, but it will save $4,000 per year in energy savings. The new A/C
control system will have a lifetime of 30 years.

Problem: If the minimum rate of return is 8%, what will be the annual value of the new system?
Economically, should the new system be installed?

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4-6 out of 80 problems
A M
amperes ꞏ 31 Mechanical Equipment Heat Output ꞏ 27
annual value ꞏ 5, 34, 36 Mechanical Horsepower ꞏ 22
Annualized Value ꞏ 9 minimum attractive rate of return ꞏ 36, 38
Annuities ꞏ 5 minimum rate of return ꞏ 29, 35
Apparent power ꞏ 21, 25 Motor Horsepower ꞏ 23, 24
Motor Ratings ꞏ 26

B
N
boiler horsepower ꞏ 38
NEMA 4X ꞏ 27
NEMA standards ꞏ 27
C

E
Current ꞏ 17, 19 O
Ohm's Law ꞏ 17, 18
D
DC Circuits ꞏ 17

E
Economic Analysis ꞏ 4
efficiencies of motors ꞏ 24
efficiency of the Pump/Fan ꞏ 23
Electrical Power ꞏ 25
PL P
Power ꞏ 21
Power Factor ꞏ 21
present value ꞏ 35, 38
Present Value ꞏ 8

R
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Rate of Return ꞏ 12, 13
F Real power ꞏ 21, 25

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resistance ꞏ 41
Factor Tables ꞏ 10 Resistance ꞏ 17
Fan/Pump Brake horsepower ꞏ 22 resistors ꞏ 41
Fan/Pump Horsepower ꞏ 23 Resistors in Parallel ꞏ 20
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Future Value ꞏ 9 Resistors in Series ꞏ 20

I S

Interest Rate ꞏ 4 Salvage value ꞏ 6

simple payback ꞏ 36

K
T
kilowatt-hour ꞏ 40
Time value of Money ꞏ 4

L V
lifetime ꞏ 6, 29 Voltage ꞏ 17, 18

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3 - Thermodynamics

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Cycles | Properties | Compression Processes

PL Study Guide
www.engproguides.com
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SA

Engineering Pro Guides ©

 Section 3.0 – Principles Thermodynamics
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Thermodynamics Properties .............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Temperature ................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Enthalpy .......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Entropy ........................................................................................................................... 6

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2.4 Specific Heat .................................................................................................................. 7
3.0 Refrigerants........................................................................................................................ 8
4.0 Boiling Pressure/Temperature ........................................................................................... 8
5.0 Vapor Compression Cycle ............................................................................................... 10
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.0
6.1
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Evaporator .................................................................................................................... 10
Compressor .................................................................................................................. 12
Condenser .................................................................................................................... 12
Expansion Device ......................................................................................................... 13
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram ............................................................................................. 14
Refrigeration Cycle ....................................................................................................... 17
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6.1.1 Step 1 Evaporator ....................................................................................................... 18

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6.1.2 Step 2 Compressor ..................................................................................................... 21
6.1.3 Step 3 Condenser ....................................................................................................... 24
6.1.4 Step 4 Expansion Device ............................................................................................ 25
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6.1.5 Net Refrigeration/Condenser, Work and COP ............................................................ 26

7.0 Steam ............................................................................................................................... 29
7.1 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for Steam ......................................................................... 29
7.2 Steam Tables ............................................................................................................... 34
7.3 Mollier Diagram ............................................................................................................ 38
7.4 Determining Properties of Steam ................................................................................. 39
8.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 41
8.1 Problem 1 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 41
8.2 Problem 2 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 41
8.3 Problem 3 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 42

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 8.4 Problem 4 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 42
8.5 Problem 5 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 43
8.6 Problem 6 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 43
8.7 Problem 7 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 44
8.8 Problem 8 – Expansion Device .................................................................................... 44
8.9 Problem 9 – Expansion Device .................................................................................... 45
8.10 Problem 10 – COP ....................................................................................................... 45
8.11 Problem 11 – COP ....................................................................................................... 46
8.12 Problem 12 - Steam Production ................................................................................... 46
8.13 Problem 13 - Steam Air Coils ....................................................................................... 47

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8.14 Problem 14: Steam - Hot Water Coils .......................................................................... 47
9.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 48
9.1 Solution 1 - Evaporator ................................................................................................. 48
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
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Solution 2 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 49
Solution 3 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 49
Solution 4 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 50
Solution 5 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 51
Solution 6 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 52
Solution 7 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 53
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9.8 Solution 8 – Expansion Device ..................................................................................... 53
9.9 Solution 9 – Expansion Device ..................................................................................... 54

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9.10 Solution 10 – COP ........................................................................................................ 55
9.11 Solution 11 – COP ........................................................................................................ 55
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9.12 Solution 12 - Steam Production .................................................................................... 56

9.13 Solution 13 - Steam Air Coils ........................................................................................ 57
9.14 Solution 14 - Steam - Hot Water Coils .......................................................................... 58

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics accounts for approximately 4-6 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration
Mechanical PE exam.

Thermodynamics includes the principles used in the vapor compression cycle. Also the properties
discussed in this section are used in the sections, Heating/Cooling Loads, Equipment, Systems,
Psychrometrics and Energy/Mass Balance.

A professional engineer should be able to properly navigate a refrigeration diagram and have a
deep understanding of the vapor compression cycle. In addition, this guide also focuses on the
(4) main parts of refrigeration systems, which are the evaporator, compressor, condenser and
expansion device. The refrigerant used in this cycle is also discussed in this section.

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Also introduced in this section are the Thermodynamics properties, pressure, temperature,
enthalpy, entropy and specific heat. These properties are used throughout the vapor-
compression cycle and also in many other sections on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam.

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At the end of this section, steam is covered. Steam is used heavily in the HVAC & Refrigeration
field for heating. Although there is no specific category in the NCEES outline, you should be
familiar with the skills presented in this section since it may appear in a heating question.

Thermodynamics
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4-6 questions

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Cycles Properties Compression Process
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• Vapor-Compression • Pressure • Discussed in cycles

Cycle • Temperature
• Evaporator • Enthalpy
• Compressor • Entropy
• Condenser • Specific heat
• Expansion

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highest entropy in this example. At any given time, the configuration of the gas can be one of
many different configurations.

SSOLID < SLIQUID < SGAS

Figure 4: Entropy in a solid increases from solid to liquid to gas.

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Entropy is mostly known for its use in the 2nd law, which states that a system’s entropy never
decreases. Also entropy is used to describe thermodynamic transitions. If there is no change in

2.4 SPECIFIC HEAT

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entropy then the process is determined to be isentropic. Also a process is reversible if the entropy
is not increased and the process is irreversible if the entropy increases.

The specific heat describes the ease of a fluid or solid to increase in temperature, when heat is
applied. Specific heat is also known as heat capacitance and can be thought of as an objects
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ability to hold and gain heat. For solids and liquids, specific heat is shown as the variable.

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ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐
℉

Water has a specific heat of 1.0, while aluminum has a specific heat of 0.23. As heat is added
to water, water will increase in temperature at a slow rate. Since aluminum has a lower specific
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heat, it needs less energy to raise its temperature.

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the refrigerant. A refrigerant liquid’s boiling point is a function of the vapor pressure of the
refrigerant vapor that is in equilibrium with the refrigerant liquid. If the pressure is low, then there
is a smaller force acting upon the refrigerant liquid, thus it will take a lower temperature to boil the
refrigerant liquid. For example, water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere or 14.696 PSI will boil at
212°F. However, if the water was at a pressure of 0.122 PSI, then the water will boil at 40°F.
This principle is important to understand: Low pressure refrigerants boil at a lower
temperature, high pressure refrigerants condense at a higher temperature.

For more detail refer to the following table and figure.

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Water
Pressure
Temperature [F]
[PSI]
Boiling Point
212 14.696
190 9.340
160
130
100
70
40
10
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4.742
2.224
0.950
0.363
0.122
0.031
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Figure 6: Relationship between boiling point and pressure
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When a low pressure refrigerant changes from its liquid phase to a gas phase, it can absorb much
more heat than if it were to simply increase in temperature. The same is also true when a high
pressure refrigerant changes phase from its gas phase to a liquid phase; it releases much more
heat than if it were to decrease in temperature. The energy required to change the phase of a
liquid from a liquid to a gas is called the latent heat of evaporation. The energy released to change
the phase of a gas to a liquid is called the latent heat of condensation.

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The x-y axes of the P-H diagram are the pressure lines running from left to right. The enthalpy
lines are the vertical lines. The skeletal graph shown in the figure above shows the pressure-
enthalpy lines.

The next important lines on the pressure-enthalpy diagram are those describing lines of constant
entropy, which are used and discussed in section 6.1.2 Compressor.

6.1 REFRIGERATION CYCLE

One of the most important skills needed for the professional engineer in the HVAC & Refrigeration
field is navigating the refrigeration cycle on a pressure-enthalpy diagram. The following sections
will show each specific part of the refrigeration cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram and it will
also highlight the important points and calculations needed.

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Throughout this explanation the refrigerant R-134a is used as an example. It is recommended
that the engineer be familiar with the P-H diagram for R-134a and the other common refrigerants.
These diagrams can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. A sample R-

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134a diagram is shown below, with a sample refrigeration cycle, identifying (Step 1) Evaporator,
(Step 2) Compressor, (Step 3) Condenser and (Step 4) Expansion Device.
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SA

Figure 13: Sample R-134a P-H diagram

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6.1.3 Step 3 Condenser
The refrigerant entering the condenser is now a hot, high pressure refrigerant gas. The condenser
is shown on the pressure-enthalpy diagram as a horizontal line. This horizontal line is a line of
constant pressure, corresponding to the discharge pressure of the compressor. The condenser
proceeds from right to left in the following three steps:

(1) The superheated gas cools down to saturation temperature [C' 160 °F to D' 140 °F]. Cooling
takes place as heat flows from the hot refrigerant gas to the condenser cooling medium.

(2) Next, the100% saturated vapor at D' is converted to 100% saturated liquid at D''. Heat is lost
to the condenser cooling medium as the vapor is condensed to a liquid.

(3) Finally, the 100% saturated liquid is sub-cooled from D'' to D'''[140 °F to 115 °F]. In an ideal
condenser, no sub-cooling occurs. Once the refrigerant is a fully saturated liquid, any additional

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heat loss results in a decrease in temperature. This cooling of the saturated liquid is referred to
as sub-cooling. In this example, the refrigerant has gone through 25 °F of sub-cooling and
resulted in a sub-cooled temperature of 115 °F.

PL
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SA

Figure 20: R134a pressure-enthalpy diagram – condenser

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Equation 1: Evaporator Net Refrigeration Effect

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
Equation 2: Compressor Work

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏

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Equation 3: Net Condenser Effect

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟

Equation 4: Net Condenser Effect

𝑄
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𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑊
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑙𝑏
;𝐻

𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

The next term that the engineer should understand is Coefficient of Performance or COP. COP
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑙𝑏
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is the ratio of the amount of “Work Out” divided by the amount of “Work In”. In the refrigeration
cycle, “Work Out” is equal to the net refrigeration effect. “Work In” is equal to the Compressor

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Work, this is the only point at which outside work is put into the system.

Equation 5: COP
SA

𝑊 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑊 𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ

COP is a term used to describe the efficiency of a piece of equipment. Another common term is
the Energy Efficiency Ratio or EER. The EER term describes the ratio of the cooling capacity in
units [Btu/hr] to the input electrical power in units [Watts]. The conversion of COP to EER is
shown below.

Equation 6: Relationship between COP and EER

𝐸𝐸𝑅
𝐶𝑂𝑃
3.412

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7.0 STEAM
This section on steam provides background information on the steam pressure enthalpy diagram
and the Mollier Diagram and various pieces of steam equipment. The professional engineer in
the HVAC/R industry must have a deep understanding of steam systems, because it is often used
in the heating of both water and air. This guide teaches the key concepts and skills that are often
used in dealing with steam systems.

7.1 PRESSURE ENTHALPY DIAGRAM FOR STEAM

The pressure enthalpy diagram for steam is an excellent tool to gain an understanding of the
steam tables. The pressure-enthalpy diagram describes the liquid, vapor and mix region of water.
As shown in the following figure, the P-H diagram consists of Pressure (PSIA) on the y-axis and

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Enthalpy (Btu/lbm) on the x-axis. It is important to note that pressure is shown on a logarithmic
scale while enthalpy is shown in a normal scale. In the middle of the diagram is the vapor dome.
This dome separates the sub-cooled liquid (aka water) on the left side, super-heated vapor (aka
steam) on the right side and the liquid-vapor mix region (aka mixed region or wet region) in the
middle.

PL
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SA

Figure 23: Pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram: phases of water

The mixed region is cut by upward sloping lines that represent the percentage of vapor, as shown

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8.13 PROBLEM 13 - STEAM AIR COILS
50 lbm/hr of steam enters a heating coil at a pressure of 15 PSIA. 700 CFM of air enters the coil
at 60 F. Assume 100% efficient heat transfer. What is the resulting exiting temperature of the
air?

a) 105 ℉

b) 110 ℉

c) 115 ℉

d) 125 ℉

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PL
8.14 PROBLEM 14: STEAM - HOT WATER COILS
A hot water coil has an incoming water temperature of 70 F and an outgoing temperature of 140
F. Hot water is flowing through the coil at a rate of 40 GPM. What steam flow rate is required to
properly heat the water [lb/hr]? Assume saturated steam at a pressure of 15 PSIA, with no super
heat and sub-cooling and 100% effective heat exchange.
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a) 1,320

b) 1,440
SA

c) 1,560

d) 1,800

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9.0 SOLUTIONS

9.1 SOLUTION 1 - EVAPORATOR

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 107 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 54 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 107 54 ∗ 50 ∗ 60

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𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟

1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑄 159,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ ∗ 13.25 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
12,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ

PL
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SA

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 M
B
Mollier Diagram · 38

boiler · 57
boiling · 8
N
Brazed Plate · 12

net condenser effect · 27

net refrigeration effect · 26
C
Compressor · 12, 21, 50, 51
P
compressor work · 27
Condenser · 12, 24, 52, 53
Pressure · 4
condensing · 8
pressure-enthalpy · 14

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Constant entropy · 33
Properties of Steam · 39
constant temperature · 32
COP · 28, 55

Q
D
discharge · 22
dryness fraction/steam quality · 30

E
EER · 28
Enthalpy · 6, 12
enthalpy of evaporation · 58
PL quality · 15

R
Rankine · 5
Refrigeration Cycle · 17

S
M
enthalpy of vaporization · 31, 57
Entropy · 6, 12 Saturation Tables · 34
Shell and Tube · 11

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Evaporator · 10, 18, 48, 49
Expansion Device · 13, 25, 53, 54 Specific Heat · 7
specific volume · 34
Steam · 29, 56, 57
F Steam Tables · 34
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sub-cooled region · 15
suction · 22
Fahrenheit · 5
super-heated region · 15
Superheated Steam Tables · 34
H
T
heat capacity · 7
Hot Water Coils · 58
Temperature · 5
Thermodynamics Properties · 4
Tube in Tube · 11
I
TXV · 14

internal energy · 6
isentropic compression · 21
V
Vapor Compression Cycle · 10

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 W
work · 22

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4 - Psychrometrics

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Moist Air Properties | Movement on Chart | Various Elevations | Heating/Cooling |

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Humidification/Dehumidification

Study Guide
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 Section 4.0 – Principles Psychrometrics
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Psychrometric Chart ........................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Properties of Moist Air .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Dry Bulb Temperature ............................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Wet Bulb Temperature ............................................................................................ 6
2.1.3 Relative Humidity .................................................................................................... 7

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2.1.4 Humidity Ratio ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.5 Enthalpy ................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.6 Specific Volume ..................................................................................................... 11
2.1.7 Dew Point .............................................................................................................. 13
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.3
2.2.4
PL
Movement on Psychrometric Chart .............................................................................. 14
Sensible Heating/Cooling ...................................................................................... 14
Latent Heating/Cooling .......................................................................................... 17
Total Heating/Cooling ............................................................................................ 22
Sensible Heat Ratio ............................................................................................... 23
Mixing of Two Air Streams .................................................................................... 25
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2.3 Equipment & Psychrometrics ....................................................................................... 27

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2.3.1 (A) Cooling Coil ..................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2 (B) Heating Coil ..................................................................................................... 28
2.3.3 (C) Air Washer with Water Temperature Below Dew Point ................................... 29
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2.3.4 (D) Air Washer with Water Temperature Equal to Wet Bulb ................................. 30
2.3.5 (E) Air Washer with Water Temperature Above Wet Bulb..................................... 31
2.3.7 (F) Steam Humidifier ............................................................................................. 31
2.3.6 (G) Desiccant/Chemical Dehumidifier ................................................................... 33
3.0 Different Elevations .......................................................................................................... 33
4.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1 Problem 1 - Navigating Psychrometric Chart ............................................................... 36
4.2 Problem 2 - Condensation on Surfaces ........................................................................ 37
4.3 Problem 3 - Change in Enthalpy/Humidity Ratio .......................................................... 38
4.4 Problem 4 - Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 39

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 4.5 Problem 5 - Electric Heater .......................................................................................... 39
4.6 Problem 6 - Cooling Coil ............................................................................................... 40
4.7 Problem 7 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 40
4.8 Problem 8 – Dehumidifier ............................................................................................. 41
4.9 Problem 9 - Enthalpy Wheel ......................................................................................... 41
4.10 Problem 10 - Sensible Heat Ratio ................................................................................ 42
4.11 Problem 11 – Calculate Amount of Condensate .......................................................... 42
4.12 Problem 12– Relative Humidity .................................................................................... 43
4.13 Problem 13 – Air Mixtures ............................................................................................ 43
5.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 44

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5.1 Solution 1 - Navigating Psychrometric Chart ................................................................ 44
5.2 Solution 2 – Condensation on Surfaces. ...................................................................... 45
5.3 Solution 3 - Change in Enthalpy/Humidity Ratio ........................................................... 45
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
PL
Solution 4 - Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 46
Solution 5 - Electric Heater ........................................................................................... 46
Solution 6 - Cooling Coil ............................................................................................... 47
Solution 7 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 48
Solution 8 - Dehumidifier .............................................................................................. 49
Solution 9 - Enthalpy Wheel ......................................................................................... 50
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5.10 Solution 10 - Sensible Heat Ratio ................................................................................. 50
5.11 Solution 11 – Calculate Amount of Condensate ........................................................... 51

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5.12 Solution 12 – Relative Humidity .................................................................................... 51
5.13 Solution 13 – Air Mixtures ............................................................................................ 52
SA

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on the skills and concepts related to the Psychrometric Chart. The
Psychrometric Chart is a key tool used by HVAC & Refrigeration engineers in many situations.
It is used in calculating cooling loads and selecting mechanical equipment like enthalpy wheels,
heat exchangers (air), air handlers and fan coils. Psychrometrics counts for 7-11 questions
on the Mechanical HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam.

This guide focuses on constant atmospheric pressure at sea level, which is the most common
situation encountered by most Mechanical Engineers in the HVAC field. However, if a question
indicates a different pressure or extreme temperatures, then you will need to use the other
charts in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.

Exam Tip: Do not spend enormous amounts of time trying to interpolate the exact value on the

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psychrometric chart.

The psychrometric chart is provided as part of the NCEES exam, but the chart is small and
unclear compared to the ones typically used in practice. It is the opinion of the writer that this

PL
fact should indicate to the test taker that it is not important to get the values to the nearest
0.0001 (exaggeration) because it is impossible. In addition, the exam writer would not provide
possible multiple choice answers that are fairly close together because of the confusion that
would arise. You need to get used to using the psychrometric chart on a computer with the
Adobe PDF program.
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Psychrometrics
7-11 questions

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Moist Air Properties Movement on Chart Different Elevations
SA

• Dry bulb • Heating • Sea level

• Wet bulb • Cooling • Higher elevations
• Relative • Humidification
humidity • Dehumidification
• Dew point
• Humidity ratio
• Enthalpy

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Figure 14: Sensible heating example
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2.2.2 LATENT HEATING/COOLING

Latent heat energy is the amount of energy required to produce a phase change, water (liquid)
to water (vapor).

Latent heating and cooling is defined as the removal or addition of moisture (water vapor) to an
air mixture. Latent heating is more commonly known as humidification and latent cooling is
known as dehumidification. In HVAC, common latent heat sources include people, equipment
(kitchen or industrial equipment, steamers, anything that produced water vapor) and outdoor air.

Latent heating and cooling is calculated with the latent heat of vaporization, or the energy
required to change phases from liquid to vapor. It does not account for actual temperature

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2.2.3 SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is used when there is diagonal movement on the psychrometric
chart. Diagonal movement would indicate both sensible heating/cooling and latent heating/
cooling. SHR is defined as the ratio of sensible heat to total heat.

𝑆𝐻𝑅

The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is used in HVAC to describe the ratio of the sensible space
cooling to total cooling required for a space. Typically, there will be more sensible cooling
required than latent cooling. On the psychrometric chart it describes the slope of the line as
shown in the figure below. If the ratio is known, this slope can also be plotted using the
compass provided with the psychrometric chart. This slope is a tool to finding the final air

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conditions due to the cooling or heating loads.

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Figure 18: Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)

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transferred at a higher elevation will be less than at sea level for the same volumetric flow rate
(CFM).

Do not use the quick and easy key equations for higher elevations. The values assume the
standard density. In order to complete the psychrometric problems at higher elevations, you
must use the following equations and your NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for the
density, specific heat and latent heat of vaporization values. If only the density changes, the
density factor can be used to quickly adjust the quick equations for a given elevation. This data
can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook during the exam.

Sensible Heat Equation at all Conditions

E
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝜌 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ𝑟
∆𝑇 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑄
PL
𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄
𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡

Latent Heat Equation at all Conditions

;𝑐

𝜌 ∗ ∆ℎ
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑚𝑖𝑛
∗ 60
ℎ𝑟
∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑙𝑏 ∗ ℉
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𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
∆𝑊 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

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𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
∆ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ;
SA

Total Heat Equation at all Conditions

𝑚𝑖𝑛
Q 𝜌 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆h ∗ CFM
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ𝑟
∆h 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑙𝑏
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ;
𝑓𝑡

Quick Equations at Standard Temperature, Revised for Density

Q ,@ DF ∗ 4.5 ∗ CFM ∗ ∆h

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4.8 PROBLEM 8 – DEHUMIDIFIER
Background: A desiccant dehumidifier most often has a silica gel medium, which absorbs
moisture from air as it is passed over the medium. For the purposes of this problem, it is
assumed that the dry bulb temperature is not affected and the dehumidifier only provides latent
cooling (dehumidification).

1,000 CFM of air at 80°F DB/72°F WB passes through a de-humidifier with 10,000 Btu/h of
latent heat, assume that the de-humidifier is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?

(a) 80°F DB/.009 lbm H20/lbm dry air

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(b) 80°F DB/.011 lbm H20/lbm dry air

(c) 80°F DB/.013 lbm H20/lbm dry air

(d) 80°F DB/.015 lbm H20/lbm dry air

4.9
PL
PROBLEM 9 - ENTHALPY WHEEL
Background: An enthalpy wheel is used to transfer energy (enthalpy) from one air stream to
another. 2,000 CFM of air leaving a building at 80°F DB/69°F WB is used to pre-cool and pre-
dehumidify 2,000 CFM of air at 87°F DB/75°F WB prior to the air entering the building HVAC
M
system. Assume the enthalpy wheel is 80% effective. What is the resulting temperature of the
air entering the building HVAC system after the enthalpy wheel?

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80°F DB/ 69°F WB

Air leaving bldg.

SA

87°F DB/ 75°F WB

Air entering bldg.

??°F DB/ ??°Btu/lb

(a) 80°F DB/32.5 Btu/lb

(b) 81.4°F DB/34.2 Btu/lb

(c) 85.6°F DB/35.8 Btu/lb

(d) 87°F DB/37.1 Btu/lb

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5.2 SOLUTION 2 – CONDENSATION ON SURFACES.
(A) Given 55 °F DB, .007 ? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew
point of the air is approximately 47°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 50°F, then no
condensation will occur.

Answer: No.

(B) Given 60°F DB, 20 ? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of
the air is approximately 41°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 52°F, then no
condensation will occur.

Answer: No.

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(C) Given 80 °F DB, 60°F WB? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of the
air is approximately 45.5°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 40°F, then condensation will
occur.

Answer: Yes.

PL
(D) Given 75 °F DB, 50% RH? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of the
air is approximately 55°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 56°F, then no condensation
will occur.

Answer: No.
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5.3 SOLUTION 3 - CHANGE IN ENTHALPY/HUMIDITY RATIO
Enthalpy Change :
SA

∆𝒉 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

From psychrometric chart, 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔 ; 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 33.7 ;

𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
∆𝒉 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Answer - (b) –11.1

Humidity Ratio Change :

∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 𝑾𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

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 L
A
Latent Cooling · 17, 34
Air Mixtures · 46, 52 Latent Heating · 17
Air Washer · 29, 30, 31
Apparatus Dew Point · 27
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C Mixing · 25
Moist Air · 5
Condensate · 51
Condensation · 45
Cooling Coil · 27, 47 P
psychrometer · 6
D

E
Psychrometric Chart · 4

Dehumidification · 17
Dehumidifier · 49 R
Density · 12
Desiccant Dehumidifier · 33
Dew Point · 13
Different Elevations · 33
Dry Bulb Temperature · 5

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Electric Heater · 46
Enthalpy · 11, 44, 45
Enthalpy Mixing · 27
PL Relative Humidity · 7, 51

S
Sensible Cooling · 16, 34
sensible heat ratio · 23
Sensible Heat Ratio · 50
Sensible Heating · 14, 16
SHR · 23
M
Specific Volume · 11, 44
Enthalpy Wheel · 50
Steam Humidifier · 31

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H T
Heating Coil · 28
Total Cooling · 22, 34
Humidification · 17, 20
SA

Total Heating · 22
Humidifier · 48
Humidity Ratio · 9, 44, 45
Humidity Ratio Mixing · 27
W
Wet Bulb · 44
Wet Bulb Temperature · 6

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5 - Heat Transfer

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Conduction | Convection | Radiation

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 Section 5.0 – Principles Heat Transfer
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Conduction ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Thermal Conductivity ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 U-Factor .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 R-Value ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Cylinder .......................................................................................................................... 6

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3.0 Convection ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Heat Transfer For Pipes ................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Forced convective heat transfer in pipe flow .................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (heating) .......................................................... 10

4.0
4.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.4
PL
Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (cooling) .......................................................... 10
Laminar flow inside circular pipe (heating) ............................................................ 11
Laminar flow inside circular pipe (cooling) ............................................................ 11
Other situations ..................................................................................................... 11
Radiation .......................................................................................................................... 11
Radiative Heat from an Object ..................................................................................... 12
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4.2 Emissivity ...................................................................................................................... 12

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4.3 Radiative Heat to Surroundings .................................................................................... 13
4.4 Radiative Heat to Between Objects .............................................................................. 13
4.5 Incident Radiation ......................................................................................................... 14
SA

5.0 Calculating Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .................................................................. 15

5.1 Materials in Series ........................................................................................................ 17
5.2 Materials in Parallel ...................................................................................................... 18
6.0 Thermal Insulation............................................................................................................ 18
6.1 Flat Surface .................................................................................................................. 19
6.2 Radial Geometry ........................................................................................................... 20
7.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 21
7.1 Problem 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 21
7.2 Problem 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 22
7.3 Problem 3 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 23

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 7.4 Problem 4 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 23
7.5 Problem 5 – Pipe Resistances ..................................................................................... 24
7.6 Problem 6 – Pipe Resistances ..................................................................................... 24
8.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 25
8.1 Solution 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 25
8.2 Solution 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 25
8.3 Solution 3 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 26
8.4 Solution 4 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 27
8.5 Solution 5 – Pipe Resistances ...................................................................................... 29
8.6 Solution 6 – Pipe Resistances ...................................................................................... 30

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PL
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1.0 Introduction
Heat transfer is the topic centering on the movement of heat from one system to the next system.
In this section, the three modes of heat transfer will first be discussed in order to give a
background into the concepts of heat transfer. The three modes of heat transfer are (1)
Conduction, (2) Convection and (3) Radiation. This section leads to determining overall heat
transfer coefficients, which is an important and practical skill and can be used for determining the
resistances of walls and roofs. Following this discussion, this section will delve into the thermal
insulation topic.

It is important to note that this section discusses the basic principles of heat transfer. The
application of these principles and the incorporation of factors to estimate the additional elements
at play in real life situations are further discussed in the heating and cooling load section. The
best resources for Heat Transfer is ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017, Chapter 4 Heat Transfer and

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Chapter 23 Insulation.

•
•
Conduction

U-value
R-value
PL •
Heat Transfer
6-9 questions

Convection

Find convective heat

transfer coefficient
•
•
Radiation

Radiative heat
Radiative heat
M
• Overall heat transfer • Convective heat between objects
coefficient

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• Temperature
transitions through
materials
• Required insulation
SA

• Conductive heat

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 E
Figure 3: Example of natural convection

PL
Convective heat transfer has a similar equation to conductive heat transfer, except the U-Factor
or R-Value is replaced with the convective heat transfer coefficient. This convective heat transfer
coefficient characterizes the moving fluid by taking into account its viscosity, thermal
conductance, temperature, velocity and it also characterizes the surface that the fluid is moving
upon. The derivation of this coefficient for various situations is not part of the scope of this section
and is more suited to the Thermal and Fluids Depth Exam.
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Convective Heat Transfer Equation

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𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇

𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
SA

𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡

∆𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 ℉

This equation is used in the Heating/Cooling Loads section. It is used to determine the convective
heating/cooling load that affects a building.

3.1 Heat Transfer For Pipes

When including the convective heat transfer in pipes with the conductive heat transfer, add
into the denominator of the conductive heat transfer equation for pipes. The resulting heat

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transfer (conductive + convective) through pipes is found by the following equation.

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠

2𝜋𝐿 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln ln ln
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝟏 𝟏
⋯
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓

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PL
Figure 4: Conductive and convective heat transfer through pipe
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The following discussion describes how to find the convective coefficient and will most likely not

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be on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam, because it is too detailed and not normally encountered
in practice. Please do not spend a lot of time on the following discussion, it is only provided here
in the very rare situation that the PE exam will have one question on the convective heat transfer
in the pipes of a heat exchanger.
SA

3.2 Forced convective heat transfer in pipe flow

To find the convective heat transfer coefficient for fluids inside the pipe, several factors must first
be determined to know which equation to use. The first step in finding the convective heat transfer
coefficient is to find the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces
to the viscous forces. The Reynolds number describes whether or not a fluid is turbulent or
laminar. A higher number implies a turbulent flow, typically above 2,300.

𝐷∗𝑣
𝑅𝑒
𝜈
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 (𝑓𝑡); 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;𝜈 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠 𝑠

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7.2 Problem 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for the following wall conditions.

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a) 0.06

b) .11
∗
∗ ∗℉

∗℉
PL
M
c). 21
∗ ∗℉

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d) 15
∗ ∗℉
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The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 650,000 W.

(a) 50,000 W

(b) 300,000 W

(c) 650,000 W

(d) 1,520,000 W

8.5 Solution 5 – Pipe Resistances

A pipe has an outer diameter of 1.315 inches and an inner diameter of 1.049 inches. The thermal

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conductivity of the pipe material is 20 Btu/h-ft-°F. The inner convective heat transfer coefficient
between the fluid within the pipe and the inner pipe walls is 150 Btu/h-ft2-°F. The outer convective
heat transfer coefficient between the outer pipe wall and ambient air is 50 Btu/h-ft2-°F. What is
the overall heat transfer coefficient? What is the overall heat transfer coefficient per length of
pipe?

𝑅
PL
The heat transfer area changes with the pipe radius. Therefore, the area is kept integral to each
layer of pipe and the composite heat transfer coefficient is taken over a generic area, U*A. The
question is asking for the heat transfer coefficient per length of pipe, so solve for U*A/L.

First, convert all heat transfer coefficients to resistances.

,
1
150
0.0067
ℎ 𝑓𝑡
𝐵𝑡𝑢
°𝐹
M
1 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹

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𝑅 , 0.02
50 𝐵𝑡𝑢

For the conductivity through the pipe, you need the equivalent thickness of a pipe.
SA

1.315 𝑖𝑛
𝑟 1.315 𝑖𝑛 2
𝑡 𝑟 ln ln 0.1486 𝑖𝑛 0.01238 𝑓𝑡
𝑟 2 1.049 𝑖𝑛
2

0.01238 𝑓𝑡 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
𝑅 , 0.000619
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
20
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹

Finally, add up all the resistances, since all the materials are in series. You need to be sure to
multiply the resistance by the inverse of the applicable area per unit length of pipe.

1
𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ (0.5245 𝑖𝑛) (1 𝑓𝑡) 0.275 𝑓𝑡 /𝑓𝑡
12

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C
O
Conduction · 4
Controlling Surface Temperature · 19 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient · 15, 25
Convection · 7
Convective Heat Transfer · 8
P
E parallel · 16
Prandtl · 10
Emissivity · 12

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F
Radial · 20
Flat Surface · 19 Radiation · 11
Forced convective · 9 Radiative Heat · 12
Reynolds number · 10

H
Heat Transfer For Pipes · 8

I
Insulation · 18
PL R-Value · 6, 17, 18

S
series · 16

T
M
Thermal Conductivity · 5
N

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natural convection · 7 U
Nusselt · 10
U-Factor · 5
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6 - Fluid Mechanics

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Fluid Properties

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 Section 6.0 – Principles Fluid Mechanics
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Fluid Properties .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Density/Specific Volume ................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Viscosity ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity .................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity ................................................................................................. 5

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2.3 Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Temperature ................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Reynolds Number ........................................................................................................... 7

2.7
2.6.1
2.6.2

2.7.1
2.7.2
2.7.3
PL
Laminar Flow ........................................................................................................... 8
Turbulent Flow ......................................................................................................... 9
Ideal Gas Law ................................................................................................................. 9
Gay-Lussac’s Law ................................................................................................... 9
Charles’ Law ............................................................................................................ 9
Boyle’s Law ........................................................................................................... 10
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2.7.4 Avogadro’s Law ..................................................................................................... 10

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2.7.5 Gas Constant ........................................................................................................ 10
2.7.6 Ideal Gas Law ....................................................................................................... 10
3.0 Fluid Statics ...................................................................................................................... 11
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3.1 Pressure Due To A Fluid .............................................................................................. 11

3.2 Manometers .................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Forces on Submerged Surfaces ................................................................................... 14
3.4 Buoyancy ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.0 Incompressible Fluids ...................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Bernoulli’s Equation ...................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Friction Loss: Darcy Weisbach ..................................................................................... 18
4.2.1 Inner diameter tables of common pipe materials and sizes .................................. 19
4.2.2 Flow unit conversions. ........................................................................................... 19
4.2.3 Inner Area table of common pipe materials and sizes. ........................................ 19

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 4.2.4 Kinematic viscosity tables of common fluids at various temperatures................... 19
4.2.5 Pipe Roughness .................................................................................................... 20
4.2.6 Moody Diagram. .................................................................................................... 20
4.2.7 Fittings ................................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Friction Loss: Hazen-Williams Equation ....................................................................... 22
4.3.1 Friction Loss Tables .............................................................................................. 23
4.4 Lift ................................................................................................................................. 24
4.5 Drag .............................................................................................................................. 24
4.6 Pitot Tube ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.7 Venturi Meters .............................................................................................................. 28

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5.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 31
5.1 Problem 1 - Reynolds Number ..................................................................................... 31
5.2 Problem 2 - Reynolds Number ..................................................................................... 31
5.3
5.4
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
PL
Problem 3 – Pitot Tube ................................................................................................. 32
Problem 4 – Venturi Meter ............................................................................................ 32
Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 33
Solution 1 - Reynolds Number ...................................................................................... 33
Solution 2 - Reynolds Number ...................................................................................... 33
Solution 3 – Pitot Tube ................................................................................................. 34
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6.4 Solution 4 – Venturi Meter ............................................................................................ 35

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 𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔

4.0 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

The HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam focuses only on incompressible fluids and primarily covers
pressure drop & friction loss through ducts and pipes. This discussion on friction loss is
included in the Systems & Components section. This section will cover some basic Fluid
Mechanics topics under incompressible fluids, besides friction loss.

You do not need to study compressible fluids, since this topic is not regularly covered in practice
in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. The Thermal & Fluids PE exam covers compressible fluids,
since compressed air is a common topic in the Thermal & Fluids field.

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Incompressible fluids do not occur in the real world. Incompressible fluids were created to
describe a range of fluids, in order to make calculations simpler. The calculations are simpler
because incompressible fluids are assumed. An incompressible fluid is a fluid that does not
change in volume of the fluid due to external pressure. Most of the basic calculations done in

PL
fluid mechanics are done assuming the fluid is incompressible. The approximation of
incompressibility is acceptable for most of the liquids as their compressibility is very low.
However, the compressibility of gases is high, so gases cannot be approximated as
incompressible fluids. The compressibility of an incompressible fluid is always zero.

4.1 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

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The fundamental equation for incompressible, steady flow fluids, is Bernoulli’s equation, which
essentially says that the energy will be conserved between two points in a system. The fluid

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energy will either be present as pressure, kinetic, or potential energy. The total energy in state
1 will equal the energy in state 2 plus any losses due to friction in the fluid.

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

SA

Figure 11: Illustration of Bernoulli’s Principle. Energy in state 1 is conserved in state 2 in the
form of pressure, kinetic, or potential energy after any losses due to friction.

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This equation and its principles are the basis of many equations used in this chapter. The full
equation is written out as follows. The exam and this book will focus on the English units (IP)
version.

𝑃 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝑆𝐼
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃𝑔 𝑣 𝑃𝑔 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝐼𝑃
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Notice that the IP version requires the gravitational constant conversion factor, gc, in order to
convert lbf in the pressure units (lbf/in2) to lbm in the density units (lbm/ft3). Since g=32.2 ft/s2
and gc=32.2 (lbm/lbf)*(ft/s2), the g term essentially cancels out to P/ρ.

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𝑃 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝐼𝑃, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜌 2𝑔 𝜌 2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑖𝑛 , 𝜌 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡

PL
However, for completeness the gc values will be written out in this book.

4.2 FRICTION LOSS: DARCY WEISBACH

Friction loss in a fluid system, the hf term in the Bernoulli’s equation, is found through the use of
either the Darcy Weisbach equation or the Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy Weisbach
equation is slightly more involved and will be explained below, starting with the equation. The
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Hazen-Williams equation is explained in an upcoming topic.

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𝑓𝐿𝑣
ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝐷𝑔

𝑓𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ; 𝑓 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ,
SA

𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 32.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐

For laminar flow through a circular tube, the friction factor is simply found as 64 divided by the
Reynold’s number.

64
𝑓 ,
𝑅𝑒

For turbulent flow, the calculations require a few more steps and are discussed below. During
the exam, in order to quickly complete a friction loss question using the Darcy Weisbach
Equation, know where all the necessary tables, graphs, and equations are in the NCEES
Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.

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5.3 PROBLEM 3 – PITOT TUBE
A duct with air flowing at 0.075 lb/ft3 has a pitot tube connected to a manometer. The
manometer liquid has a density of 900 kg/m3. The pressure differential is measured as a height
of 4 centimeters. What is the velocity of air in the duct?

(a) 27 m/s

(b) 41 m/s

(c) 57 m/s

(d) 81 m/s

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5.4
PL
PROBLEM 4 – VENTURI METER
A Venturi meter has the following diameters, D1 = 200 mm and D2 = 100 mm. A manometer is
connected between the two locations. The manometer has a delta reading of 100 mm. The
density of the manometer liquid is 5,000 kg/m3. What is the volumetric flow rate of water
(density = 1,000 kg/m3) through the meter?
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(a) 1.056
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(b) 0.194

(c) 0.059

(d) 0.0254

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A I
Incompressible ꞏ 17
absolute pressure ꞏ 7

K
B
kinematic viscosity ꞏ 4
Bernoulli’s Equation ꞏ 17 Kinematic Viscosity ꞏ 5, 19
Buoyancy ꞏ 15

L
C
Laminar Flow ꞏ 8
centipoises ꞏ 4 Lift ꞏ 24
Compressible Fluids ꞏ 11

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M
D
Manometer ꞏ 13
Darcy Weisbach ꞏ 18 Moody Diagram ꞏ 20
Density ꞏ 4
Drag ꞏ 24
Dynamic Viscosity ꞏ 4

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Equivalent Length Method ꞏ 21
PL P
pipe roughness factors, ε ꞏ 20
Pitot Tube ꞏ 25, 27
Pressure ꞏ 7

R
F
M
Rankine ꞏ 6
Fahrenheit ꞏ 6 Reynolds Number ꞏ 7, 9, 33, 34, 35

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Fluid Pressure ꞏ 11
Fluid Properties ꞏ 3
Fluid Statics ꞏ 11 S
Friction Coefficient, K-factor ꞏ 22
SA

Friction Loss Tables ꞏ 23 Specific Gravity ꞏ 6

Specific Volume ꞏ 4
Stagnation Pressure ꞏ 26
G Submerged Surface ꞏ 14

gauge pressure ꞏ 7
Gravitational Constant ꞏ 4 T
Temperature ꞏ 6
H Turbulent Flow ꞏ 9

Hazen-Williams Equation ꞏ 22
Hydraulic Diameter ꞏ 22 V
Hydraulic Radius ꞏ 23 Venturi Meter ꞏ 28
Viscosity ꞏ 4

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7 - Energy Mass Balance

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Evaporation | Condensation | Dehumidification | Mixing

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 Section 7.0 – Principles Energy/Mass Balance
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Conservation of Mass ........................................................................................................ 3
3.0 Conservation of Energy ...................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Turbines, Pumps & Compressors: .................................................................................. 4
3.2 Boilers, Condensers, Evaporators: ................................................................................. 4
3.3 Heat exchangers ............................................................................................................ 5

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3.4 Mixing ............................................................................................................................. 5
4.0 Evaporation ........................................................................................................................ 5
4.1 Latent heat of evaporation .............................................................................................. 5
4.2 Convert liquid to vapor .................................................................................................... 6
5.0
6.0
7.0
7.1
7.2
PL
Condensation ..................................................................................................................... 6
Dehumidification & Humidification ...................................................................................... 6
Mixing ................................................................................................................................. 7
Gas-gas mixing mass balance ....................................................................................... 8
Liquid-liquid mixing mass balance ................................................................................ 10
8.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 11
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8.1 Problem 1 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 11

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8.2 Problem 2 – Dehumidifier ............................................................................................. 11
8.3 Problem 3 – Air Mixtures .............................................................................................. 12
8.7 Problem 4 – Condensation ........................................................................................... 12
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9.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 13

9.1 Solution 1 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 13
9.2 Solution 2 - Dehumidifier .............................................................................................. 14
9.3 Solution 3 – Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 14
9.4 Solution 4 – Condensation ........................................................................................... 14

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4-6 out of 80 problems
2.0 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass is a law in nature and states that mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, when transfers of states or changes in phases occur in a system, a mass balance
equation can be created to solve for the unknown properties in a system or cycle.

Essentially, the equations are derived from the law that

mass mass

Similarly the flow of mass entering the system will be equal to the flow leaving the system, like
in a condenser or a boiler.

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Figure 1: This figure shows one pound of steam entering a condenser and leaving as one
pound of water.

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Figure 2: This figure shows one pound of water entering a boiler and leaving as one pound of
steam.

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4-6 out of 80 problems
8.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
8.1 PROBLEM 1 - HUMIDIFIER
Background: An evaporative humidifier works by blowing air over a wet medium, evaporating
the water in the medium into the air, thereby increasing the humidity ratio of the air. This will
reduce the dry bulb temperature of the air since the air lost heat to evaporate the water in the
medium. For the purposes of this problem, this effect will not be taken into account.

1,000 CFM of air at 75°F DB/20% relative humidity passes through a humidifier with 8,000 Btu/h
of latent heat, assume that the humidifier is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?

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(a) 70°F DB/22.4% Relative Humidity

(b) 72°F DB/33.2% Relative Humidity

(c) 75°F DB/29.3% Relative Humidity

8.2
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(d) 75°F DB/35.1% Relative Humidity

PROBLEM 2 – DEHUMIDIFIER
Background: A desiccant dehumidifier most often has a silica gel medium, which absorbs
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moisture from air as it is passed over the medium. For the purposes of this problem, it is
assumed that the dry bulb temperature is not affected and the dehumidifier only provides latent

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cooling (dehumidification).

1,000 CFM of air at 80°F DB/72°F WB passes through a de-humidifier with 10,000 Btu/h of
latent heat, assume that the de-humidifier is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?
SA

(a) 80°F DB/.009 lbm H20/lbm dry air

(b) 80°F DB/.011 lbm H20/lbm dry air

(c) 80°F DB/.013 lbm H20/lbm dry air

(d) 80°F DB/.015 lbm H20/lbm dry air

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4-6 out of 80 problems
A
G
Air Mixtures · 14
Gas-gas mixing · 8

B
H
Boilers · 4
Heat exchangers · 5
Humidification · 6
C Humidifier · 13

E
compressors · 4
Condensation · 6, 14 L
condensers · 4
Conservation of Energy · 4 Latent heat of evaporation · 5
Conservation of Mass · 3 Liquid-liquid mixing · 10

D
Dehumidification · 6
Dehumidifier · 14

E
Evaporation · 5
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Mixing · 5, 7

P
Pumps · 4
M
evaporators · 4
T

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F Turbines · 4

feedwater heaters · 5
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4-6 out of 80 problems
8 - Heating & Cooling Loads

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Envelope | Fenestration | People | Lighting | Miscellaneous | Ventilation

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 Section 8.0 – Application Heating & Cooling Loads
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Cooling Load Calculations ................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Thermal Mass & Time Lag Factor .................................................................................. 4
2.2 Uncertainty ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Roof & Wall ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Skylight & Window .......................................................................................................... 6

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2.4.1 Conductive Loads .................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Solar Radiation Loads ............................................................................................. 7
2.5 People ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Lighting ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.7

2.8
2.9
2.7.1
2.7.2

2.8.1
PL
Miscellaneous Equipment ............................................................................................. 11
Motors ................................................................................................................... 11
Appliances/Kitchen Equipment .............................................................................. 14
Ducts, Pipes & Equipment Surfaces ............................................................................. 15
Infiltration ...................................................................................................................... 15
Factors Affecting Infiltration ................................................................................... 16
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2.10 Ventilation Air ............................................................................................................... 18

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3.0 Heating Load Calculations ............................................................................................... 19
3.1 Envelope Loads ............................................................................................................ 20
3.2 Ventilation Loads .......................................................................................................... 20
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3.3 Indoor Conditions ......................................................................................................... 20

4.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 21
4.1 Problem 1 - Calculate Heat Load Through Wall ........................................................... 21
4.2 Problem 2 - Calculating Heat Load From People ......................................................... 21
4.3 Problem 3 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors ......................................................... 22
4.4 Problem 4 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors ......................................................... 22
4.5 Problem 5 - Calculating Heat Load From Windows ...................................................... 23
4.6 Problem 6 – Cooling Load Calculation ......................................................................... 23
4.7 Problem 7 – Cooling Load Calculations ....................................................................... 24
4.8 Problem 8 – Cooling Load Calculation ......................................................................... 24

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7-11 out of 80 problems
5.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 25
5.1 Solution 1 - Calculate Heat Load Through Wall ........................................................... 25
5.2 Solution 2 - Calculating Heat Load From People ......................................................... 25
5.3 Solution 3 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors .......................................................... 26
4.4 Solution 4 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors .......................................................... 26
4.5 Solution 5 - Calculating Heat Load From Windows ...................................................... 27
5.6 Solution 6 – Cooling Load Calculation .......................................................................... 28
5.7 Solution 7 – Cooling Load Calculation .......................................................................... 28
5.8 Solution 8 – Cooling Load Calculation .......................................................................... 29

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Calculating heating and cooling loads is one of the first skills that a practicing HVAC engineer
learns on the job. A cooling and heating load calculation serves as the basis for the selection of

PL
all key HVAC equipment like, cooling/heating coils, pumps, cooling towers, chillers, etc.

On the PE exam you should be able to complete a cooling and heating load calculation. This
involves understanding the key aspects that make up the cooling and heating loads. The following
are the loads from external sources, roof, wall, skylight and windows. Internal loads include
people, lighting and miscellaneous equipment. The final two loads are from ventilation and
infiltration. Each of these loads will be discussed in detail in this section.
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Heating & Cooling Loads

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7-11 questions

Cooling Loads Heating Loads

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• Roof/wall • Roof/wall
• Skylight/window • Skylight/window
• People • Ventilation/infiltration
• Lighting
• Miscellaneous
equipment
• Ventilation/infiltration

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7-11 out of 80 problems
 𝑈 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴
𝑈 ,
𝐴 ,

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑈 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝑈 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝑈 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

In the above equation, there are three different areas of heat transfer rates. The center of glass,
Ucenter, uses the properties of the glass. The edge of glass, Uedge, takes into account the heat from
the frame that is conductively transferred to the outer edge of the glass. This value based on the
frame and glass type. Finally, the frame material will have its own heat transfer rate.

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Figure 4: The overall U-value calculation for fenestration includes the frame, glass, and outer
edge of the glass in parallel. The frame will affect the heat transfer rate through the outer edge
of the glass.

2.4.2 SOLAR RADIATION LOADS

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The radiant time series method is used to calculate the solar radiation, i.e. solar transmission

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loads through a window or skylight. Normally the radiant time series method can be lengthy, but
if enough variables are provided for you in the problem, the calculation can be simplified. The
solar radiation is calculated by multiplying the area of the window or skylight by the total incident
irradiance (Et) , the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), and the indoor solar attenuating factor
SA

(IAC), which is used if there is interior shading. The IAC is optional, and may be excluded if it is
not indicated in the problem.

𝑄 , 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐼𝐴𝐶

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒/𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔;

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐸 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ; 𝐼𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
ℎ 𝑓𝑡

The SHGC, Et, and IAC all vary based on the solar incident angle, θ, which is the angle that the
sun is hitting the window or skylight. The solar incident angle varies by building orientation,
latitude of the earth, the day, and the time. Thus, the SHGC, Et, and IAC be unique for each wall
direction, location, and time, and must be given.

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7-11 out of 80 problems
5.0 SOLUTIONS
5.1 SOLUTION 1 - CALCULATE HEAT LOAD THROUGH WALL

An east facing exterior wall consists of 8” concrete (R-Value = 2.0), with 2” insulation (R-Value =
8.0) and 5/8” gypsum board (R-Value = 0.8). The wall has dimensions of 8’ height by 20’ long. If
the CLTD at peak load is 20 F, calculate the total heat load through the wall. The indoor
temperature is 75 F and the outdoor temperature is 87 F.

First calculate the U-Value

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1
𝑈
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 .093

Second calculate the area.

Third calculate the heat.

PL 2

𝑄
8 0.8

8 𝑋 20 160 𝑓𝑡

𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ (𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷)
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
M
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 0.093 ∗ 160 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 20℉
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉

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𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 296
ℎ𝑟
SA

5.2 SOLUTION 2 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM PEOPLE

An office is maintained at space conditions of 75 °F and 50% RH. There are fifteen office workers
located in a 2,000 SF office building. Each worker has their own computer with flat screen. What
is the total heat load from the people to the space?

The total load from each individual person depends on the person's activity level. Refer to
ASHRAE Fundamentals to find the total heat gain from an office worker.

𝐵𝑡𝑢
450
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

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7-11 out of 80 problems
 M
C
Miscellaneous Equipment · 11
CLF · 4 Motor Equipment Heat Gain · 13
CLTD · 4, 5 Motor Heat Gain · 11, 13
Condensation Resistance · 9 Motor Heat Gain to Space · 13
conduction · 3 Motor Total Heat Gain · 12
Cooling Load · 3
Cooling Load Calculation · 28
Cooling Load Temperature Difference · 5 N
neutral pressure level · 18
D NFRC · 9
NPL · 18
Duct Heat Gain · 15

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O
E
outside air · 3
ENVELOPE LOAD - HEATING · 20
Equipment Surface Heat Gain · 15
External loads · 3

H
Heat Load From Motors · 26
Heat Load From People · 25
Heat Load From Windows · 27
Heat Load Through Wall · 25
PL P
People · 9
Pipe Heat Gain · 15
Pressure Difference · 16

R
Heating Loads · 19
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Radiant Time Series · 4
Radiant Time Series Method · 7
radiation · 3

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I
Infiltration · 15 S
Internal loads · 3
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SCL · 4
Sensible Heat Gain · 4
K Sensible loads · 9
Skylights · 6
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT · 14 Stack Effect · 17
Kitchen Equipment Hooded Appliance · 14
Kitchen Equipment Unhooded Appliance · 14
T
L Thermal Mass · 4
Time Lag Factor · 4
Latent Heat Gain · 4 Total Equivalent Time Difference · 4
Lighting · 9
Lighting Space Fraction · 10
Lighting Special Allowance Factor · 10
Lighting Usage Factor · 10

Heating/Cooling Loads - 30 www.engproguides.com

7-11 out of 80 problems
 Window Center of Glass · 7
U
Window Conduction · 6
Window Edge of Glass · 7
Uncertainty · 4
Window Indoor Solar Attenuating Factor (IAC) · 7
Window SCL method · 8
Window Shading Coefficient (SC) · 8
V
Window SHGF method · 9
Window Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) · 7
Ventilation Air: Heating Load · 20
Window Solar Incident Angle, θ · 7
Ventilation Air Cooling Load · 18
Window Solar Radiation · 7
Visible Transmittance · 9
Window Total Incident Irradiance (Et) · 7
Windows · 6
W
Wind Velocity · 17

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PL
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SA

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7-11 out of 80 problems
9 - Equipment and Components

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Cooling Towers/Fluid Coolers | Boilers/Furnaces | Heat Exchangers |

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Condensers/Evaporators | Pumps/Compressors/Fans | Cooling/Heating Coils |
Control System Components | Refrigerants | Refrigeration Components

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 Section 9.0 – Application Equipment & Components
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.0 Cooling Towers .................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Characterizing Cooling Towers ...................................................................................... 8
2.2 Cooling Tower Performance ......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Cooling Tower Water Loss and Make-up ..................................................................... 12
2.4 Cooling Tower Psychrometrics ..................................................................................... 13

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2.5 Cooling Tower Heat Transfer ....................................................................................... 14
2.6 Nominal Cooling Tower Ton ......................................................................................... 14
3.0 Fluid Coolers .................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Evaporative Fluid Cooler .............................................................................................. 15
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
4.1
4.2
PL
Dry Fluid Cooler ............................................................................................................ 16
Hybrid Fluid Cooler ....................................................................................................... 16
Adiabatic Fluid Cooler .................................................................................................. 17
Boilers & Furnaces ........................................................................................................... 17
Steam Boilers ............................................................................................................... 17
Types of Boilers ............................................................................................................ 19
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4.3 Electric Boilers .............................................................................................................. 21

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4.4 Boiler Energy Balance .................................................................................................. 21
4.5 Furnaces ....................................................................................................................... 22
4.5.1 Types of Furnaces ................................................................................................. 22
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4.5.2 Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 22

4.6 Combustion .................................................................................................................. 23
4.6.1 Fuel ....................................................................................................................... 23
4.6.2 Air .......................................................................................................................... 24
4.6.3 Stoichiometry ......................................................................................................... 24
4.6.4 Air to Fuel Ratio ..................................................................................................... 25
4.6.5 Excess Air ............................................................................................................. 26
5.0 Heat Exchangers.............................................................................................................. 27
5.1 Types ............................................................................................................................ 28
5.1.2 Shell and Tube ...................................................................................................... 28

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16-24 out of 80 problems
 5.1.3 Plate and Frame ......................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) ................................................................. 30
5.2.1 Correction Factor ................................................................................................... 31
5.3 NTU Method ................................................................................................................. 32
5.4 Heat Balance ................................................................................................................ 34
5.5 Fouling .......................................................................................................................... 34
6.0 Condensers & Evaporators .............................................................................................. 36
6.1 Chillers .......................................................................................................................... 36
6.1.1 Absorption Chiller .................................................................................................. 38
6.2 Variable Refrigerant Flow ............................................................................................. 42

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6.3 Heat Pump .................................................................................................................... 43
6.5 Types of Condensers & Evaporators ............................................................................ 45
7.0 Pumps .............................................................................................................................. 45
7.1
7.2
7.3

7.3.3
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Important Terms ........................................................................................................... 46
Types of Pumps ............................................................................................................ 46
Pump and System Curves ............................................................................................ 48
7.3.1 Pump Curve ................................................................................................................ 48
7.3.2 System Curve ........................................................................................................ 50
Operation Point ..................................................................................................... 51
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7.4 Pump Affinity Laws ....................................................................................................... 52
7.4.1 Pump Similarity Laws ................................................................................................. 53

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7.5 Pump with a Modulating Valve ..................................................................................... 53
7.6 Pump with a VFD .......................................................................................................... 54
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7.7 Multiple Pumps ............................................................................................................. 55

7.7.1 Pumps in Parallel .................................................................................................. 55
7.7.2 Pumps in Series .................................................................................................... 57
8.0 Fans ................................................................................................................................. 59
8.1 Important Terms ........................................................................................................... 59
8.2 Types of Fans ............................................................................................................... 60
8.2.1 Axial Fans .............................................................................................................. 60
8.2.2 Propeller Fans ....................................................................................................... 60
8.2.3 Tube-Axial Fans .................................................................................................... 61
8.2.4 Centrifugal Fans .................................................................................................... 62

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16-24 out of 80 problems
 8.3 Fan Curves ................................................................................................................... 64
8.4 Fan Affinity Laws .......................................................................................................... 66
8.4.1 Fan Similarity Laws..................................................................................................... 66
8.5 Multiple Fans ................................................................................................................ 67
8.5.1 Fans in parallel ...................................................................................................... 67
8.5.2 Fans in series ........................................................................................................ 68
9.0 Compressors .................................................................................................................... 68
9.1 Compressor Types ....................................................................................................... 69
9.2 Chiller Compressor ....................................................................................................... 70
9.2 Compressor work ......................................................................................................... 70

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9.3 Compressor efficiency .................................................................................................. 70
10.0 Cooling/Heating coils ....................................................................................................... 71
10.1 Cooling & Heating Coils ................................................................................................ 71
10.2
10.3
10.4

10.5
10.4.1
10.4.2
PL
Cooling & Heating Coil Fluids ....................................................................................... 72
Cooling & Heating Coil Terms ...................................................................................... 73
Chilled Beams .............................................................................................................. 74
Types of Chilled Beams ........................................................................................ 76
Sizing a Chilled Beam ........................................................................................... 77
Steam Heating Coils ..................................................................................................... 78
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10.6 Humidification & Dehumidification Systems ................................................................. 79
10.7 Humidifiers .................................................................................................................... 80

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10.8 De-Humidifiers .............................................................................................................. 81
11.0 Control System Components ........................................................................................... 83
SA

11.1 Control Valves .............................................................................................................. 83

11.1.1 Flow characteristics ............................................................................................... 85
11.1.2 Sizing for liquids .................................................................................................... 86
11.1.3 Sizing for gases ..................................................................................................... 87
11.1.4 Critical point........................................................................................................... 87
11.2 Control Dampers ............................................................................................................. 87
11.2.1 Damper Authority .................................................................................................. 88
12.0 Refrigerants...................................................................................................................... 90
12.1 Hydrocarbons ............................................................................................................... 91
12.2 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) ......................................................................................... 91

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16-24 out of 80 problems
 12.3 Hydroclurofluorocarbons (HCFCs) ............................................................................... 91
12.4 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) .......................................................................................... 91
12.5 Refrigerant Summary ................................................................................................... 91
13.0 Refrigerant Components .................................................................................................. 93
13.1 Expansion Valve ........................................................................................................... 94
13.2 Accumulator .................................................................................................................. 94
13.3 Filter.............................................................................................................................. 94
13.4 Oil Separator ................................................................................................................ 94
13.5 Hot Gas Bypass Valve .................................................................................................. 94
13.6 Receiver ....................................................................................................................... 95

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13.7 Filter/Dryer .................................................................................................................... 95
13.8 Solenoid Valve .............................................................................................................. 95
13.8 Sight Glass ................................................................................................................... 95
14.0
14.1
14.3
14.3
14.4
14.5
PL
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 96
Problem 1 – Fans ......................................................................................................... 96
Problem 2 – Fans ......................................................................................................... 96
Problem 3 – Coils ......................................................................................................... 97
Problem 4 – Coils ......................................................................................................... 97
Problem 5 – Humidifier ................................................................................................. 98
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14.6 Problem 6 – Pumps ...................................................................................................... 98
14.7 Problem 7 – Cooling Towers ........................................................................................ 99

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14.8 Problem 8 – Air Washer ............................................................................................... 99
14.9 Problem 9 – Absorption Chiller ................................................................................... 100
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14.10 Problem 10 – Absorption Chiller ............................................................................. 100

14.11 Problem 11 – Cooling Tower .................................................................................. 101
14.12 Problem 12 – Refrigerants ...................................................................................... 101
15.0 Solutions ........................................................................................................................ 102
15.1 Solution 1 – Fans ........................................................................................................ 102
15.2 Solution 2 – Fans ........................................................................................................ 103
15.3 Solution 3 – Coils ........................................................................................................ 104
15.4 Solution 4 – Coils ........................................................................................................ 104
15.5 Solution 5 – Humidifier ............................................................................................... 105
15.6 Solution 6 – Pumps .................................................................................................... 105

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16-24 out of 80 problems
15.7 Solution 7 – Cooling Towers ....................................................................................... 105
15.8 Solution 8 – Air Washer .............................................................................................. 106
15.9 Solution 9 – Absorption Chiller ................................................................................... 106
15.10 Solution 10 – Absorption Chiller .............................................................................. 106
15.11 Solution 11 – Cooling Tower ................................................................................... 107
15.12 Solution 12 – Refrigerants ...................................................................................... 108

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PL
M

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16-24 out of 80 problems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section of the exam guide book focuses on the Mechanical Equipment and Components
used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. This section accounts for approximately 16‐24 questions
on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.

The equipment discussed in this section includes the most common pieces of equipment and
systems that are on the PE exam. The next section uses the equipment and components and
puts them together into various systems.

Air handling and distribution equipment: fans, dampers, cooling/heating coils and heat
exchangers.

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Fluid handling and distribution equipment: pumps, cooling towers, fluid coolers, heat exchangers
and valves.

Refrigerant handling and distribution equipment: chillers, condensers, evaporators and

compressors.

PL
Heating handling and distribution equipment: boilers and furnaces.

Equipment & Components

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16-24 questions

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Cooling Towers Boilers and Heat Exchangers Condensers/
SA

and Fluid Coolers Furnaces Evaporators

Pumps Fans Compressors Cooling/Heating

Coils

Control System Refrigerants Refrigeration

Components Components

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2.0 COOLING TOWERS
Cooling towers are mechanical pieces of equipment that function on the principle of evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling is the process by which a liquid is cooled to a lower temperature by
evaporating a small portion of the liquid into an airstream. Relatively dry air moves through a
falling liquid and as the air moves it picks up water vapor from the liquid, thereby increasing the
air’s moisture content. In order for the liquid to evaporate, the liquid needs a heat source to meet
the latent heat of vaporization. This heat source is the sensible heat loss from the remaining
liquid. The fluid running through the cooling tower is cooled either by direct or indirect contact
with the evaporation process. In this section, direct contact, also known as open circuit cooling
towers, is described. Indirect contact is discussed in the fluid cooler section at the end of this
topic.

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An open circuit cooling tower consists of two fluid flows, the air flow and the water flow. The water
flow starts from the top of the cooling tower. Warm water is pumped to a series of nozzles. The
nozzles’ purpose is to break up the water into tiny droplets to increase the surface area of the
water that is in contact with the air stream. The droplets then fall through a fill material, which
also serves to break up the droplets further to increase the surface area of the water. As the

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water moves downward it steadily decreases in temperature as heat is lost due to evaporation.
Finally, the water collects at the basin, where it is sucked out and distributed to its required
location.

The air flow starts at the bottom of the tower, where cold dry air is brought into the cooling tower
where it comes into contact with the water droplets. As the air moves upward through the tower
it picks up water vapor and slightly increases in temperature. Prior to exiting the cooling tower,
the air must travel through the drift eliminators, which is a series of baffles. The purpose of the
M
drift eliminators is to catch any suspended water droplets in the air stream and return them to the
fill.

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Figure 1: Cooling tower schematic

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 E
PL
Figure 37: Heat Pump Vapor Compression Cycle

Heat pumps are also commonly integrated within the VRF system, allowing the units to switch
between heating and cooling. A four way valve, called the reversing valve, will redirect the
refrigerant flow to swap the outdoor and indoor coils between condenser and evaporator modes,
effectively switching the indoor unit between a heating and cooling coil.
M

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SA

Figure 38: The VRF is set to heat pump, heating mode. The four way reversing valve directs
the refrigerant to flow from the compressor to the indoor coil, setting the indoor coil acts as the
condenser and the outdoor coil as the evaporator.

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 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑁
; 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑁

7.4.1 PUMP SIMILARITY LAWS

You may come across these formulas, if you encounter a question that compares two similar
pumps. These formulas are called the similarity laws. These laws compare similar pumps within
the same series of pumps. The previous formulas compared the original condition and new
condition of the same pump. These formulas compare two similar pumps, with different
diameters. In order to best understand what is meant by same series of pumps, visit a
manufacturer’s website and you will see various pump series that have varying sizes within the
same series. Within a series of pumps, a pump with “x” diameter impeller and “y” diameter volute

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can be compared to another pump in the same series of pumps, but with “2x” diameter impeller
and “2y” diameter volute. The second pump is similar but has twice the diameter of the first pump.

𝑄 𝐷 𝑁
=
𝑄

PL 𝐻
𝐻
𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑄
𝑄
𝑁
=

=
𝐷
𝐷
𝐷
𝐷
𝐷

𝐷
𝐷
𝐷
𝑁
𝑁
𝑁
𝑁
𝑁

𝐻
𝐻
𝐻 .
𝜌
𝜌
.

𝑁 𝐷 𝐻
M
𝐵𝐻𝑃 .
𝐷 𝐻 𝜌
=
𝐵𝐻𝑃

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𝐷 𝐻 𝜌
𝑁 𝐷 𝑄
=
𝑁 𝐷 𝑄
𝐻 𝐷 𝑄
=
SA

𝐻 𝐷 𝑄
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
=
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑁 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝐻 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

7.5 PUMP WITH A MODULATING VALVE

A pump with a modulating valve will change the system resistance curve but it will not change the
pump curve. The decrease and increase of system pressure as the modulating valve opens and
closes, respectively, causes the system curve to change as shown in the figure below.

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and Powell Valves. However another good source is at the control valve webpage at Emerson
Process’s website. If the link is not functional, please email me. You will find my contact
information at the end of this book and the beginning of this book. Please read through these
resources to increase you knowledge, so you can answer the experience type problems on the
actual exam.

http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.com/groups/public/documents/book/cvh99.pdf

The various types of valves are good to understand but they are difficult to test on an exam, the
sizing of the valves and the flow characteristics of a control valve is something that does fit this
type of exam.

 Globe valve
A globe valve consists of a plug and a seat. The plug is raised and lowered to increase

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and decrease flow through the valve.

PL
Figure 83: A section view of a globe valve. As the valve is closed, the plug is lowered into the
seat, which blocks the fluid flow from moving up and to the right of the valve.
M

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 Ball valve
A ball valve is called a ball valve due to the ball shape in the center of the valve. This ball
has an opening on sides 180 degrees opposite of each other. The rest of the valve is
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solid. When the valve is aligned such that the openings are in line with the fluid flow, then
the valve is 100% open. When the valve is aligned such that the openings are
perpendicular to the fluid flow, then it is 100% closed.

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15.0 SOLUTIONS
15.1 SOLUTION 1 – FANS
Background: Two fans are placed in parallel. Each fan has the following performance, 2,000
CFM at 1.5 in. wg. If the fans are combined into a single 26” X 12” duct, then what is the resulting
pressure at the end of an equivalent length of duct of 100’?

Assume standard conditions, density = 0.075 lbm/ft^3 and roughness factor of 0.0007 ft.
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 1.5 𝑥10

First calculate the equivalent diameter of the duct:

.

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1.30 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
𝐷
𝑎 𝑏 .
.
1.30 ∗ 12" ∗ 26"
𝐷
12" 26" .

PL 𝐷 19" 1.5833 𝑓𝑡

Next recognize that the fans are in parallel, thus the resulting flow rate is 4,000 CFM. Also the
pressure at the outlet of the fan is assumed to be 1.5 in. wg.

On the PE exam, you will not have access to ASHRAE Fundamentals, so the other way to
complete this problem is to use the equation from the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook.
M
12𝑓 𝑣
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝜌
𝐷 1097

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First, you need to find the friction factor from the Moody Diagram.

𝑓𝑡 𝜋𝐷 𝑓𝑡 𝜋1.5833 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
SA

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 4,000 4,000 2,032 33.88

𝑚𝑖𝑛 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠

𝑓𝑡
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1.5 𝑥10
𝑠
𝑓𝑡
33.88 𝑥1.5833
𝑅𝑒 𝑠 357,565
𝑓𝑡
1.5 𝑥 10
𝑠
𝜀 0.0007 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 0.00044
𝐷 19"/12

From the Moody Diagram, you will see that the friction factor is equal to .018

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 cooling humidifiers ꞏ 81
A Cooling tower ton ꞏ 14
Cooling Towers ꞏ 7, 105
Absorption Chiller ꞏ 38 Counter-flow ꞏ 8, 27
Absorption Cycle ꞏ 39 Critical point ꞏ 87
Accumulator ꞏ 94, 95 Cross-flow ꞏ 8
Adiabatic fluid coolers ꞏ 17
adiabatic humidifiers ꞏ 81
ADP ꞏ 73 D
Affinity Laws ꞏ 52
AFUE ꞏ 22 Damper Authority ꞏ 88
Air ꞏ 24 De-Humidifiers ꞏ 81
Air cooled chillers ꞏ 37 Desiccant de-humidifiers ꞏ 82
Air to Fuel Ratio ꞏ 25 drift ꞏ 13
Air Washer ꞏ 106 Dry type fluid cooler ꞏ 16

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Air-Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration Institute ꞏ 37
Airfoil ꞏ 63
Apparatus Dew Point ꞏ 73 E
approach ꞏ 10
Axial Fans ꞏ 60 Effective Surface Temperature ꞏ 73
Efficiency of a boiler ꞏ 18

B
Backward inclined ꞏ 62
Ball valve ꞏ 84
blow-down ꞏ 13
Boiler energy balance ꞏ 21
Brake Horsepower ꞏ 46, 59
Butterfly valve ꞏ 85
bypass factor ꞏ 73
PL Electric boilers ꞏ 21
Electrical Power ꞏ 46, 60
End-Suction Pump ꞏ 47
Evaporative cooling ꞏ 7
Evaporative fluid cooler ꞏ 15
Evaporative Humidifiers ꞏ 81
Excess Air ꞏ 26
Expansion Valve ꞏ 94

F
M
C Fan Affinity Laws ꞏ 66

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Fan Curves ꞏ 64
Centrifugal ꞏ 69 Fans ꞏ 102, 103
Centrifugal Fans ꞏ 62 Fans in parallel ꞏ 67
Centrifugal Pump ꞏ 47 Fans in series ꞏ 68
SA

CFCs ꞏ 91 feed-water system ꞏ 17

Chilled Beam: Active ꞏ 76; Passive ꞏ 76 Filter/Dryer ꞏ 95
Chilled Beams ꞏ 74 Firetube ꞏ 19
Chillers ꞏ 36 Fluid coolers ꞏ 14
Coils ꞏ 104 Forced Draft ꞏ 8
Combustion ꞏ 23 Forward Curved ꞏ 62
combustion system ꞏ 18 Fouling ꞏ 34
Compressor efficiency ꞏ 70 Fuel ꞏ 23
Compressors ꞏ 68 Furnaces ꞏ 22
Condensers ꞏ 36
Condensing boiler ꞏ 20
contact factor ꞏ 74 G
Control Dampers ꞏ 87
Control Valves ꞏ 83 Globe valve ꞏ 84
Cooling & Heating Coil ꞏ 73 GWP ꞏ 92
Cooling & Heating Coils ꞏ 71

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H O
HCFCs ꞏ 91 ODP ꞏ 92
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness ꞏ 33 Open Drive ꞏ 70
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance ꞏ 34
Heat Exchanger Plate and Frame ꞏ 29
Heat Exchanger Shell and Tube ꞏ 28 P
Heat Exchangers ꞏ 27
Heat Pump ꞏ 43 parallel and opposed blade dampers ꞏ 88
Heating Coil ꞏ 72 parallel flow ꞏ 27
Heating Value ꞏ 23 Propeller Fans ꞏ 60
Hermetic ꞏ 70 Pump Curves ꞏ 48
HFCs ꞏ 91 Pump Operation Point ꞏ 51
Higher heating value ꞏ 18, 24 Pump VFD ꞏ 54
Humidifier ꞏ 105 Pump with Modulating Valve ꞏ 53

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Humidifiers ꞏ 80 pumps ꞏ 46
Hybrid fluid cooler ꞏ 16 Pumps ꞏ 105
Hydrocarbons ꞏ 91 Pumps in Parallel ꞏ 55
Pumps in Series ꞏ 57

I
Induced ꞏ 8
In-Line Pump ꞏ 47
IPLV ꞏ 37
isothermal humidifiers ꞏ 80

L
Li-Cl ꞏ 83
PL R
Radial ꞏ 63
range ꞏ 10
Reciprocating ꞏ 69
Refrigerant Components ꞏ 93
Refrigerants ꞏ 90
Rotary ꞏ 69
M
Lithium bromide (LiBr) ꞏ 40 S
Lithium-Chloride ꞏ 83

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LMTD ꞏ 30 Screw ꞏ 69
LMTD Correction Factor ꞏ 31 Scroll ꞏ 69
Lower heating value ꞏ 24 Semi-Hermetic ꞏ 70
Sight Glass ꞏ 95
SA

Similarity Laws ꞏ 53, 66

M Solenoid Valve ꞏ 95
Static Pressure ꞏ 60
Make-up ꞏ 12 Steam Boilers ꞏ 17
Mechanical ꞏ 8 Steam heating coils ꞏ 78
Mechanical Horsepower ꞏ 46, 59 Steam Humidifiers ꞏ 80
Motor Horsepower ꞏ 46, 60 steam system ꞏ 18
Multiple Fans ꞏ 67 Stoichiometry ꞏ 24
System Curve ꞏ 50
system resistance curve ꞏ 64
N
Natural Draft ꞏ 8 T
Non-condensing boiler ꞏ 19
NPLV ꞏ 37 TDS ꞏ 13
NTU Method ꞏ 32 Total Pressure ꞏ 60
Tube-Axial Fans ꞏ 61

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V W
Valve: Flow characteristics ꞏ 85 Water Cooled Chiller ꞏ 37
Valve Coefficient ꞏ 86 Water Loss ꞏ 12
Variable Refrigerant Flow ꞏ 42 Watertube ꞏ 19
Velocity Pressure ꞏ 60
VRF ꞏ 43

E
PL
M

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10 - Systems and Components

E
Air Distribution | Fluid Distribution | Refrigeration | Energy Recovery | Basic Control
Concepts

PL Study Guide
www.engproguides.com
M
SA

Engineering Pro Guides ©

 Section 10.0 – Application Systems & Components
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 5

2.0 Air Distribution .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Air Handling Units ........................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Fan/Duct ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Darcy Weisbach Equation ....................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Determining Velocity in Ducts for Pressure Calculations. ....................................... 8

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2.2.3 Determining Diameter of Duct ................................................................................. 8
2.2.4 Determining Volumetric Flow Rate .......................................................................... 9
2.2.5 Determining Total Static Pressure ......................................................................... 10
2.3 Terminal Units .............................................................................................................. 12
2.4

2.5
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3

2.5.1
PL
Supply Air Diffusers ...................................................................................................... 13
Method I – Selection by Noise Criteria .................................................................. 13
Method II – Selection by Throws ........................................................................... 13
Method III – Selection by ADPI ............................................................................. 14
Duct Design .................................................................................................................. 16
Constant Volume System ...................................................................................... 16
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2.5.2 Variable Volume System ....................................................................................... 18

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3.0 Fluid Distribution (Hydronic) ............................................................................................. 22
3.1 Pumps .......................................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Determining Total Head or Pressure Loss ................................................................... 23
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3.2.1 Open Systems ....................................................................................................... 24

3.2.2 Closed Systems .................................................................................................... 25
3.2.3 Friction Losses ...................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Determining Net Positive Suction Head Available ........................................................ 30
3.4 Pipe Design .................................................................................................................. 33
3.5 Hydronic Chilled Water System .................................................................................... 36
3.5.1 Air Cooled, Constant Flow Chilled Water System ................................................. 36
3.5.2 Water Cooled, Constant Flow Chilled Water System ............................................ 38
3.5.3 Variable-Primary Chilled Water Flow .................................................................... 40
3.5.4 Primary-Secondary Chilled Water Flow................................................................. 41

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 3.5.5 Direct-Return vs. Reverse-Return ......................................................................... 42
3.6 Hydronic Hot Water System ......................................................................................... 44
3.7 Dual Temperature System ............................................................................................ 45
3.7.1 Two Pipe, Dual Temperature System ................................................................... 45
3.7.2 Four Pipe Combined, Dual Temperature System.................................................. 46
3.7.1 Four Pipe Separate, Dual Temperature System ................................................... 47
4.0 Fluid Distribution (Oil) ....................................................................................................... 48
5.0 Fluid Distribution (Fuel Gas) ............................................................................................ 48
5.1 Longest Length Method ................................................................................................ 49
5.2 Branch Length Method ................................................................................................. 50

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6.0 Fluid Distribution (Compressed Air) ................................................................................. 50
7.0 Fluid Distribution (Steam) ................................................................................................. 51
8.0 Refrigeration..................................................................................................................... 53
9.0
9.1

9.2
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
PL
Energy Recovery Devices ................................................................................................ 54
Types of Problems ........................................................................................................ 54
Effectiveness ......................................................................................................... 54
Actual Heat Transfer ............................................................................................. 55
Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 55
Rotary Sensible Wheel ................................................................................................. 56
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9.3 Rotary Enthalpy Wheel ................................................................................................. 57
9.4 Wrap-Around Heat Pipe ............................................................................................... 57

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9.5 Run-Around Loop ......................................................................................................... 59
9.6 Air-Side Economizer ..................................................................................................... 60
SA

9.7 Other Energy Recovery Devices .................................................................................. 61

6.0 Basic Control Concepts .................................................................................................... 62
6.1 DDC Systems ............................................................................................................... 62
6.2 Economizer ................................................................................................................... 63
6.3 Temperature reset ........................................................................................................ 63
7.0 Practice problems ............................................................................................................ 65
7.1 Problem 1 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 65
7.2 Problem 2 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 65
7.3 Problem 3 – Diffusers ................................................................................................... 66
7.4 Problem 4 – Energy Recovery Device .......................................................................... 66

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 7.5 Problem 5 – Pressure loss ........................................................................................... 67
7.6 Problem 6 – Steam Piping ............................................................................................ 67
7.7 Problem 7 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 68
7.8 Problem 8 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 68
7.9 Problem 9 – Net Positive Suction Head ....................................................................... 69
7.10 Problem 10 – Duct Construction ................................................................................... 69
7.11 Problem 11 – Air Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 70
7.12 Problem 12 – Air Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 70
7.13 Problem 13 – Controls .................................................................................................. 71
7.14 Problem 14 – Controls .................................................................................................. 71

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7.15 Problem 15 – Duct Systems ......................................................................................... 72
7.16 Problem 16 – Duct Systems ......................................................................................... 72
7.17 Problem 17 – Controls .................................................................................................. 73
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
8.0
8.1
PL
Problem 18 – Controls .................................................................................................. 73
Problem 19 – Steam Systems ...................................................................................... 74
Problem 20 – Controls .................................................................................................. 74
Problem 21 – Controls .................................................................................................. 75
Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 76
Solution 1 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 76
M
8.2 Solution 2 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 76
8.3 Solution 3 – Diffusers ................................................................................................... 77

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8.4 Solution 4 – Energy Recovery Device .......................................................................... 78
8.5 Solution 5 – Pressure loss ............................................................................................ 78
SA

8.6 Solution 6 – Steam Piping ............................................................................................ 79

8.7 Solution 7 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 79
8.8 Solution 8 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 80
8.9 Solution 9 – Net Positive Suction Head ........................................................................ 81
8.10 Solution 10 – Duct Construction ................................................................................... 82
8.11 Solution 11 – Air Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 82
8.12 Solution 12 – Air Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 83
8.13 Solution 13 – Controls .................................................................................................. 83
8.14 Solution 14 – Controls .................................................................................................. 84
8.15 Solution 15 – Duct Systems ......................................................................................... 84

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8.16 Solution 16 – Duct Systems ......................................................................................... 84
8.17 Solution 17 – Controls .................................................................................................. 85
8.18 Solution 18 – Controls .................................................................................................. 85
8.19 Solution 19 – Steam Systems ...................................................................................... 86
8.20 Solution 20 – Controls .................................................................................................. 86
8.21 Solution 21 – Controls .................................................................................................. 87

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PL
M

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section of the exam guide book focuses on the Mechanical Systems used in the HVAC &
Refrigeration field. The systems and components section accounts for approximately 16-
24 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.

The systems discussed in this section include the most common systems that are on the PE
exam. The previous section described the equipment that make up these systems in more
detail. Also at the end of this section is a brief discussion on controls.

Air Distribution Systems: The air distribution systems consist of an air handler (coil and fan),
ducting, air, and terminal devices.

Fluid Distribution Systems: A fluid distribution system consists of a pump, piping and the

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fluid.

Refrigeration Systems: Refrigeration systems are primarily used to cool and freeze food.

Energy Recovery: Energy recovery systems are additions onto an air distribution or fluid

Air Distribution
PL
distribution system that make the air or fluid distribution system more efficient.

Systems & Components

16-24 questions

Fluid Distribution Refrigeration Energy

Systems Systems Systems Recovery
M

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• Air handlers • Hydronic • Food storage • Enthalpy
• Duct design • Oil • Cooling wheels
• System type • Fuel gas • Freezing • Heat pipes
•
SA

• Terminal • Compressed Run-around

devices air systems
• Steam
• System type

Basic control
concepts

• Economizer
• Temperature
reset

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2.0 AIR DISTRIBUTION
In the HVAC field, air distribution systems are used to supply cold/hot air to various spaces to
keep the occupants comfortable and/or to keep equipment at optimum conditions. Fresh air is
also provided through the air distribution system to provide appropriate ventilation levels, in
order to alleviate carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.

An air distribution system consists of a supply air system, return air system, outside air and
exhaust air system. The supply air system consists of an air handling unit, supply ducting,
dampers, terminal units and diffusers. An air handling unit is a fan with cooling/heating coils.
The air handling unit cools/heats supply air and then distributes it through the ducting system,
which consists of ducts, dampers and duct fittings. Once the air reaches the space, it is then
directed to a terminal unit, which controls the amount and conditions of air distributed to that
specific space. Next the air is delivered to the space through a supply air diffuser, this piece of

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equipment controls the way the air is distributed throughout the space. The return air system
consists of return air registers, ducts, dampers and duct fittings. The return air system also
exhausts air via the exhaust air system, before sending the return air back to the air handler,
where the cycle begins again. At the air handling unit, the exhaust air is replaced with new
outside air.

PL
M

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SA

Figure 1: A typical air distribution system has an outside air and return air system that supply
air to the air handler. The air handler will cool or heat and filter the air. Humidification may also
be provided if needed at the air handler. The fan at the air handler will push the air through the
supply air ducting system. Dampers and terminal units will be provided to control the airflow, in
order to ensure that just the right amount of air is provided to each diffuser. Supply diffusers are
provided to ensure proper distribution within the space.

2.1 AIR HANDLING UNITS

Air handling units or AHUs are a common piece of equipment in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
An AHU is a built-up, air moving and conditioning device. It is typically constructed of metal
framing with a multitude of individual air handling components. Each of the individual

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 E
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Figure 18: The typical closed system in the HVAC field is the chilled water system. In these
types of systems, there is typically an expansion tank which is the location of constant pressure.
You typically take this point and then calculate the suction pressure and the discharge pressure,
in order to determine the total dynamic head or total pressure that the pump must provide.

The typical example of a closed system in the HVAC & Refrigeration field is the chilled water
system serving the air handlers and chillers. The pump moves chilled water to and from the
chiller and through the air handlers. The total dynamic head required at the pump accounts for
only the friction head through the piping, chiller, fittings, other equipment and appurtenances.
There is no static/elevation head because the system is closed.

Systems & Components - 26 www.engproguides.com

16-24 out of 80 problems
7.21 PROBLEM 21 – CONTROLS
A cooling tower relief control scheme accomplishes which of the following?

(A) Increases condenser water temperature to the chiller, in order to relieve the cooling tower.

(B) Decreases condenser water temperature to the chiller, in order to relive the chiller.

(C) Cycles cooling tower fans off, to relieve the stress on the cooling tower.

(D) Decreasing condenser water flow rate, in order to relieve the cooling tower.

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16-24 out of 80 problems
 Expansion · 35
A
absolute pressure · 31 F
ADPI · 13, 14
Air Distribution · 6 Fluid Distribution · 22
Air Filter · 7 freezing food · 53
Air Handling Units · 6 Friction Charts · 8
Air-Cooled Chiller · 36 Friction head · 25
Air-Side Economizer · 60 Friction Loss · 79, 80
Analog · 63 Fuel Gas Distribution · 48
Anchors · 35

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B
Heating control · 62
Branch Length Method · 50 HHV · 49
Humidifier · 7
Hydronic Hot Water System · 44
C
cavitation · 30
Chilled Water System · 36
Closed system · 26
CO2 · 6
Coil · 7
Constant Volume System · 16
PL I
Inner Diameter tables · 28

K
Kinematic viscosity tables · 28
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D
L

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Darcy Equation · 8
Darcy Weisbach Equation · 8
DDC · 62 L-Bend · 35
Dehumidifier · 7 LHV · 49
Diffusers · 77
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Digital · 63
Direct digital control (DDC) · 62 M
Direct-Return · 42
Dual temperature systems · 45 Miscellaneous Equipment Friction Losses · 12
Duct Design · 16, 76 Mixing Box · 7
Duct Fitting Losses · 11 Moody Diagram · 29
Duct Friction Losses · 10

N
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NC · 13
Economizer · 63 Net Positive Suction Head · 81
Economizer cycle · 62 Net Positive Suction Head Available · 30
Effectiveness · 54 Noise Criteria · 13
Energy Recovery Device · 7, 78
Energy Recovery Devices · 54, 55, 61

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16-24 out of 80 problems
 Terminal Units · 12
O
thermal expansion coefficient · 34
Throws · 13
Open system · 24
total dynamic head · 23
Total Head · 23
TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE · 10
P
Pipe Roughness · 29 U
pressure loss · 23
Pressure loss · 78
U-Bend · 36
Primary-Secondary System · 41
Pumps · 22
V
R

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Variable Volume System · 18
Variable-Primary System · 40
Refrigeration · 53
VAV · 12
Reheat System · 18
VAV cooling · 62
Reverse-Return · 43
VAV cooling with reheat · 62
Reynold's number · 29
velocity head pressure · 33
Rotary Enthalpy Wheel · 57
rotary sensible wheel · 56
Rotary Sensible Wheel · 56
Run-Around Loop · 59

S
specific heat · 53
static head · 24
PL Velocity in Ducts · 8
VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE · 9

W
Water Cooled System · 38
Wrap-Around Heat Pipe · 57
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Steam Piping · 79
Z
Steam System · 51
Supply Air Diffusers · 13

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Z-Bend · 36

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Temperature reset · 63

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11 - Supportive Knowledge

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Codes and Standards | Air Quality and Ventilation | Vibration Control | Acoustics

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Engineering Pro Guides ©

 Section 11.0 – Supportive Knowledge
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Codes/Standards ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1 ASHRAE 15 .......................................................................................................... 4
2.2 ASHRAE 34 .......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 ASHRAE 55 .......................................................................................................... 7
2.4 ASHRAE 62.1 ....................................................................................................... 8

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2.5 ASHRAE 90.1 ..................................................................................................... 10
2.6 NFPA 90A ........................................................................................................... 10
2.7 NFPA 90B ........................................................................................................... 11
2.8 NFPA 96 ............................................................................................................. 12
2.9
3.0
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
PL
Montreal Protocol ................................................................................................ 12
Air Quality and Ventilation ................................................................................................ 13
Vibration Control .............................................................................................................. 14
Spring Systems ................................................................................................... 15
Natural Frequency ............................................................................................... 16
Forced Vibration .................................................................................................. 17
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4.4 Damping Ratio .................................................................................................... 19

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4.4.1 Undamped ............................................................................................................. 20
4.4.2 Underdamped ........................................................................................................ 20
4.4.3 Critically Damped .................................................................................................. 20
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4.4.4 Overdamped .......................................................................................................... 21

4.5 Transmissibility ................................................................................................... 21
4.6 Magnification Factor ............................................................................................ 23
4.7 Vibration Isolation ............................................................................................... 24
5.0 Acoustics .......................................................................................................................... 27
5.1 Sound Fundamentals .......................................................................................... 27
5.1.1 Decibel Level as a Function of Sound Power ........................................................ 28
5.1.2 Decibel Level as a Function of Sound Pressure ................................................... 28
5.1.3 Relationship Between Sound Power and Pressure ............................................... 28
5.1.4 Sound Frequency .................................................................................................. 29

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3-5 out of 80 problems
 5.2 Indoor Equipment Sound Calculations ................................................................. 29
5.2.1 Combining Multiple Noise Sources ....................................................................... 30
5.2.2 Reducing Sound Levels ........................................................................................ 31
5.2.3 NC Rating .............................................................................................................. 31
5.2.4 Sample Calculation ............................................................................................... 33
5.3 Outdoor Equipment Sound Calculations .............................................................. 34
5.4 Indoor Turbulence Sound Calculations ................................................................ 37
6.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 39
6.1 Problem 1 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 39
6.2 Problem 2 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 39

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6.3 Problem 3 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 40
6.4 Problem 4 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 40
6.5 Problem 5 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 41
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
PL
Problem 6 – Refrigeration Codes ........................................................................ 41
Problem 7 – Refrigerants .................................................................................... 42
Problem 8 – Sound .............................................................................................. 42
Problem 9 – Vibration .......................................................................................... 43
6.10 Problem 10 – Vibration ........................................................................................ 43
7.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 44
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7.1 Solution 1 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 44
7.2 Solution 2 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 44

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7.3 Solution 3 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 45
7.4 Solution 4 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 45
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7.5 Solution 5 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 46

7.6 Solution 6 – Refrigeration Codes ......................................................................... 46
7.7 Solution 7 – Refrigerants ..................................................................................... 46
7.8 Solution 8 – Sound .............................................................................................. 47
7.9 Solution 9 – Vibration .......................................................................................... 48
7.10 Solution 10 – Vibration ........................................................................................ 48

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3-5 out of 80 problems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In engineering many design issues are regulated by codes and references. These codes
govern the minimum requirements for mechanical design and the engineer must be familiar with
these codes in order to avoid making a legal mistake. Also the engineer should keep handy a
set of references to solve typically encountered problems. This section will introduce the
engineer to the must-have references for the HVAC & Refrigeration Engineer.

This section accounts for approximately 3-5 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical
PE exam.

Additionally, HVAC design requires an understanding of supplementary concepts that include

air quality, vibration and noise. These supportive tools are necessary for the health and comfort
of the building occupant. In mechanically conditioned buildings, air quality is an essential

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design component to ensure proper ventilation of CO2 or hazardous substances and an overall
safe building environment. It is also important to understand how to mitigate the noise and
vibrations from rotating equipment and the sound transmissions through ductwork for privacy or
security reasons.

PL
Since the Mechanical PE Exam is computer based, you will not be allowed to bring in these
references to the exam. So you will need to have these codes memorized. This section, along
with the other Application based problems gives engineers with more experience an advantage.
If you don’t have experience, I suggest reading the recommended references and using flash
cards to remember the general concepts, names and descriptions of codes. The equations for
acoustics and vibration are included in the handbook.
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Supportive Knowledge

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3-5 questions

Codes and Air Quality and Vibration Control Acoustics

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Standards Ventilation

• ASHRAE • Filtration • Transmission • Sound control

• NFPA • Dilution effect • Absorption
• Montreal • Isolation • Attenuators
Protocol • Noise-level
criteria

Supportive Knowledge - 3 www.engproguides.com

3-5 out of 80 problems
2.0 CODES/STANDARDS
An engineer should be aware of the codes/standards that apply to their line of work. The
primary codes and standards that apply to the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer revolve around
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning (ASHRAE). The primary focus
of the ASHRAE Standards are in mechanical building equipment and systems, like cooling
towers, air handlers, boilers, chillers, air distribution, water distribution, etc.. The standards
govern minimum requirements for these systems and equipment in the areas of energy
efficiency (ASHRAE 90.1), indoor air quality (ASHRAE 62.1), thermal comfort (ASHRAE 55) and
refrigeration safety (ASHRAE 15 & ASHRAE 34).

The following sections go into more detail in the specific ASHRAE standards. It is
recommended that the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer be familiar with each of the codes and

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standards listed below at a minimum.

2.1 ASHRAE 15

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ASHRAE 15 is titled, "Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems". Refrigerants are dangerous
and in some cases highly flammable and toxic. This standard recognizes the danger that
refrigerants pose to humans and the environment. It creates minimum safety requirements for
Refrigeration Systems and the locations of these systems. The HVAC & Refrigeration engineer
should be familiar with the ventilation requirements for evacuating a refrigerant leak. There are
also other safety requirements of a room that hold refrigerant, like a mechanical chiller room.

Table 1: ASHRAE 15 Table of Contents and brief descriptions of each chapter.

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Chapter Description

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Purpose - Safe design, construction, installation operation of a refrigeration
1
system.
2 Scope – Compressor and absorption refrigerant systems
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3 Definitions
4 Occupancy Classifications – Institutional, Commercial, Residential, etc.
5 Refrigerating System Classifications – Direct or indirect. High or low probability.
6 Refrigerant Safety Classifications – Single compound or blend.
7 Restrictions on Refrigerant Use – Limit pounds in occupied spaces, ducts, etc.
8 Installation Restrictions – Minimize safety concerns, damage to pipes/seals, etc.
Design & Construction of Equipment & Systems – Materials are chemically
9
compatible, can withstand system pressure, pressure relief safely,
10 Operation & Testing – Conduct pressure tests.
General Requirements – Safeguard the equipment during maintenance and secure
11
access.
12 Precedence with Conflicting Requirements – No applicable information.

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3-5 out of 80 problems
 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 𝜁 = 1

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑒 +𝑡∗𝐶 𝑒

𝑟 = 𝜔 ; 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

4.4.4 OVERDAMPED
The final classification occurs when the damping ratio is greater than 1. The machine design
system will decay exponentially back to equilibrium but not as fast as the critically damped
classification.

𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 𝜁 > 1

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𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒

𝑟 = − 𝜁 − 𝜁 − 1 𝜔 ; 𝑟 = −(𝜁 + 𝜁 − 1)𝜔 ;

PL 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

The equations for the constants are not shown because this would make the equations take
longer than 6 minutes to solve on the PE exam. The constants are a function of initial
displacement and velocity. In most problems, you will be given the constants in order to focus
on the more critical concepts in these equations like damping ratio, natural frequency and
damped frequency.
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Figure 5: There are four classifications of damped systems that depend on the damping ratio.
This graph shows the different effects of the different damping classifications.

4.5 TRANSMISSIBILITY
Transmissibility is a term used to describe the effectiveness of the damping. Transmissibility is
the ratio of the vibrational force that is measured after damping to the ratio of the vibrational

Supportive Knowledge - 21 www.engproguides.com

3-5 out of 80 problems
6.7 PROBLEM 7 – REFRIGERANTS
Problem: Which of the following best ranks refrigerants from most to least harmful to the ozone,
from left to right?

(a) R-11 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-22

(b) R-11 - R-134a - R-22 - Ammonia

(c) R-22 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-11

(d) R11 - R-22 - R-134a – Ammonia

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6.8 PROBLEM 8 – SOUND
PL
The current sound level is 90 decibels. If the sound pressure is halved, then what will be the
new sound level?
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(a) 45 dB

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(b) 75 dB
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(c) 84 dB

(d) 87 dB

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3-5 out of 80 problems
R-11 is the most harmful refrigerant because it is a CFC and was banned, R-134a is a HFC and
does not contain chlorine and has an ODP of 0, however R-22 does contain chlorine since it is a
HCFC. Thus this ranking is incorrect.

(c) R-22 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-11

R-22 is a HCFC and contains chlorine. Ammonia and R-134a both do not contain chlorine and
both have an ODP of 0. However, R-11 is a CFC and has a high ODP. Thus this ranking is
incorrect.

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(d) R11 - R-22 - R-134a - Ammonia

R-11 is the most harmful refrigerant because it contains chlorine, R-22 does contain chlorine
since it is a HCFC, but to a lesser extent than R-11. Ammonia and R-134a both do not contain

7.8 SOLUTION 8 – SOUND

PL
chlorine and both have an ODP of 0. Thus this ranking is correct.

Correct Answer: D

The current sound level is 90 decibels. If the sound pressure is halved, then what will be the
M
new sound level?

Copyright © 2020 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
First, find the sound pressure, with the decibel equation.

𝑃
20 log = 90 𝑑𝐵
𝑃
SA

𝑃
= 10
𝑃

𝑃 = 31,622.8 𝑃

After the sound pressure is halved, then find the new decibel level.

𝑃 = 15,811 𝑃

15,811 𝑃
20 log = 84 𝑑𝐵
𝑃

Supportive Knowledge - 47 www.engproguides.com

3-5 out of 80 problems
A
N
Acoustics · 27
Air Quality · 13 Natural Frequency · 16
ASHRAE · 4 NC Rating · 31, 34
ASHRAE 15 · 4 NFPA 90A · 10
ASHRAE 34 · 5 NFPA 90B · 11
ASHRAE 55 · 7 NFPA 96 · 12
ASHRAE 62.1 · 8
ASHRAE 90.1 · 10
O
C

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Overdamped · 21

CFC's · 12
Combining Multiple Noise Sources · 30 R
Coulomb Damping · 18
critical damping · 19 Reducing Sound Levels · 31
Critically Damped · 20

D
Damping Ratio · 19

F
PL S
Sound Level as a Function of Distance · 34, 38
Spring · 15
stiffness · 15

T
M
Forced Vibration · 17
total energy · 16

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Transmissibility · 21
H
HCFC's · 12 U
Hysteresis · 18
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Undamped · 20
Underdamped · 20
I
Inherent Damping · 18 V
Ventilation · 13
M Vibration · 14
Vibration Isolation · 24
Magnification Factor · 23 Viscous Damping · 19
Montreal Protocol · 12

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3-5 out of 80 problems
12 - Conclusion

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12.0 CONCLUSION
If you have any questions on this product or any other Engineering Pro Guides product, then
please contact me at any of the websites or at my email address below.

Justin Kauwale at contact@engproguides.com

Company Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/engineeringproguides/

Company LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/engineering-pro-guides/

Person LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/justin-kauwale/

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Personal Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/justin.kauwale

I also make updates and changes to this product and all other Engineering Pro Guides

PL
products. The errata for this product is located at the following webpage.

https://www.engproguides.com/hvacguideerrata.pdf

Hi. My name is Justin Kauwale, the creator of Engineering Pro Guides. I will be happy to
answer any questions you may have about the PE exam. Good luck on your studying! I hope
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you pass the exam and I wish you the best in your career. Thank you for your purchase!

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13 - Checklists

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PL Study Guide
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Engineering Pro Guides ©

 COMMON MISTAKES
Double check before you submit your exam!

 Answer all questions before submitting

 Check your units!
 Inches vs Feet
 Minutes vs Hour: GPM, CFM, ACH, lb/min, lb/hr, Btu/h
 Month vs Year: Economics questions
 lbm vs lbf vs slugs
 Correct decimal place?

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 Diameter vs Radius
 Insulation Thickness + Radius ‐ OR ‐ 2x Insulation Thickness + Diameter
 Calculating Area/Flow rate/Velocity
 Absolute vs Relative

PL
 PSIA vs PSIG – NPSH in PSIA
 Fahrenheit vs Rankine – Reynolds # in Rankine
 Refrigeration Charts
 Did you use the correct refrigerant?
 Lookup with Temperature or Pressure column
 hf vs hfg
 Psychrometric Chart
 Correct Density (other than STP, 60F & 14.7 psia)
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 Correct Elevation
 Heat Transfer
 K value (conductivity, use thickness) vs R value (thickness included)
 K value per inch or per ft

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 Windows – Conductive + Radiative Heat
SA

 Does your answer make logical sense?

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 Review the Basics!

I. Principles (28‐43)
A. Basic Engineering Practice (4‐6)
1. Units and conversions
∙
 Gravitational Constant: 𝑔 32.2
∙
 Convert between lbm and lbf
 Common conversions
 12,000 Btuh = 1 cooling ton
 15,000 Btuh = 1 nominal cooling tower ton

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 3.412 Btuh = 1 Watt
 1 gallon = 8.34 pound water
 1 HP = 0.7457 kW
 1 psi = 2.31 ft head

PL
 Common Constants
 Air density @STP = 0.075 lb/ft^3
 STP of Air: 60F, 14.7 psia
 Specific Heat Capacity
o 𝑐
o 𝑐
o 𝑐
,

,
1.0
0.240
0.171
∗

∗
@constant pressure
@constant volume (less used)
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2. Economic analysis
 Interest Rate Table
 Simple Payback
 Straight Line Depreciation

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 MACRS
3. Electrical concepts (e.g., power consumption, motor ratings, heat output, amperage)
SA

 Power Consumption:
 Demand (kW) * hours = Energy (kWh)
 Building Energy Indices:
 Energy Utilization Index (EUI) = Total Yearly Energy/Building Area
 Cost Utilization Index (CUI) = Total Yearly Energy Cost/Building Area
 Motor Ratings
 Power (comes in set increments): 0.5 HP, 0.75 HP, 1 HP, 2 HP, 3 HP, 5 HP,
7.5 HP, 10 HP, 15, HP 20 HP, 25 HP, 30 HP, 40 HP, 50 HP, 60 HP, 75 HP, 100
HP
 Amperage
o FLA = Full Load Current (Operating Amps, use in apparent power
calc)
o RLA = Running Load Amps (Similar to FLA)
o LRA = Locked Rotor Amps (startup current, disconnect sizing)

Exam Day Checklists - 3 www.engproguides.com

14 - Index

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Engineering Pro Guides ©

 A
absolute pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
absolute pressure HVAC Systems - 31
Absorption Chiller HVAC Equipment - 38
Absorption Cycle HVAC Equipment - 39
Accumulator HVAC Equipment - 94, 95
Acoustics Supportive Knowledge - 27
Adiabatic fluid coolers HVAC Equipment - 17
adiabatic humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
ADP HVAC Equipment - 73

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ADPI HVAC Systems - 13, 14
Affinity Laws HVAC Equipment - 52
AFUE HVAC Equipment - 22
Air HVAC Equipment - 24
air Class
Air cooled chillers
Air Distribution
Air Filter
Air Handling Units
Air Mixtures
Air Mixtures
Air Quality
PL Supportive Knowledge
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Systems
HVAC Systems
HVAC Systems
Psychrometrics
Energy/Mass Balance
Supportive Knowledge
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
37
6
7
6
46, 52
14
13
Air to Fuel Ratio HVAC Equipment - 25
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Air Washer Psychrometrics - 29, 30, 31
Air Washer HVAC Equipment - 106
Air-Conditioning, Heating &
37
Refrigeration Institute HVAC Equipment -
Air-Cooled Chiller HVAC Systems - 36
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Airfoil HVAC Equipment - 63

Air-Side Economizer HVAC Systems - 60
amperes Basic Engineering Practice - 31
Analog HVAC Systems - 63
Anchors HVAC Systems - 35
annual value Basic Engineering Practice - 5, 34, 36
Annualized Value Basic Engineering Practice - 9
Annuities Basic Engineering Practice - 5
Apparatus Dew Point Psychrometrics - 27
Apparatus Dew Point HVAC Equipment - 73
Apparent power Basic Engineering Practice - 21, 25
approach HVAC Equipment - 10
ASHRAE Supportive Knowledge - 4

Index - 1 www.engproguides.com
ASHRAE 15 Supportive Knowledge - 4
ASHRAE 34 Supportive Knowledge - 5
ASHRAE 55 Supportive Knowledge - 7
ASHRAE 62.1 Supportive Knowledge - 8
ASHRAE 90.1 Supportive Knowledge - 10
Axial Fans HVAC Equipment - 60

B
Backward inclined HVAC Equipment - 62
Ball valve HVAC Equipment - 84
Bernoulli’s Equation Fluid Mechanics - 17

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blow-down HVAC Equipment - 13
boiler Thermodynamics - 57
Boiler energy balance HVAC Equipment - 21
boiler horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 38
Boilers
boiling
Brake Horsepower
Branch Length Method
Brazed Plate
Buoyancy
Butterfly valve
bypass factor
PL Energy/Mass Balance
Thermodynamics
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Systems
Thermodynamics
Fluid Mechanics
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
8
46, 59
50
12
15
85
73
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C
cavitation HVAC Systems - 30
centipoises Fluid Mechanics - 4
Centrifugal HVAC Equipment - 69
Centrifugal Fans HVAC Equipment - 62
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Centrifugal Pump HVAC Equipment - 47

CFCs HVAC Equipment - 91
CFC's Supportive Knowledge - 12
Chilled Beam: Active/Passive HVAC Equipment - 76
Chilled Beams HVAC Equipment - 74
Chilled Water System HVAC Systems - 36
Chillers HVAC Equipment - 36
CLF Heating/Cooling Loads - 4
clo Supportive Knowledge - 7
Closed system HVAC Systems - 26
CLTD Heating/Cooling Loads - 4, 5
CO2 HVAC Systems - 6
Coil HVAC Systems - 7

Index - 2 www.engproguides.com
 Coils HVAC Equipment - 104
Combining Multiple Noise Sources Supportive Knowledge - 30
Combustion HVAC Equipment - 23
combustion system HVAC Equipment - 18
Compressible Fluids Fluid Mechanics - 11
Compressor Thermodynamics - 12, 21, 50, 51
Compressor efficiency HVAC Equipment - 70
compressor work Thermodynamics - 27
compressors Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Compressors HVAC Equipment - 68
Condensate Psychrometrics - 51

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Condensation Psychrometrics - 45
Condensation Energy/Mass Balance - 6, 14
Condensation Resistance Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Condenser Thermodynamics - 12, 24, 52, 53
condensers -
Condensers
condensing
Condensing boiler
Conduction
conduction
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Mass
Constant entropy
PL Energy/Mass Balance
HVAC Equipment
Thermodynamics
HVAC Equipment
Heat Transfer
Heating/Cooling Loads
Energy/Mass Balance
Energy/Mass Balance
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
36
8
20
4
3
4
3
33
Thermodynamics
M
constant temperature Thermodynamics - 32
Constant Volume System HVAC Systems - 16
contact factor HVAC Equipment - 74
Control Dampers HVAC Equipment - 87
Control Valves HVAC Equipment - 83
SA

Controlling Surface Temperature Heat Transfer - 19

Convection Heat Transfer - 7
Convective Heat Transfer Heat Transfer - 8
Cooling & Heating Coil HVAC Equipment - 73
Cooling & Heating Coils HVAC Equipment - 71
Cooling Coil Psychrometrics - 27, 47
cooling humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Cooling Load Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
Cooling Load Calculation Heating/Cooling Loads - 28
Cooling Load Temperature
Heating/Cooling Loads -
Difference 5
Cooling tower ton HVAC Equipment - 14
Cooling Towers HVAC Equipment - 7, 106
COP Thermodynamics - 28, 55

Index - 3 www.engproguides.com
Coulomb Damping Supportive Knowledge - 18
Counter-flow HVAC Equipment - 8, 27
critical damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
Critical point HVAC Equipment - 87
Critically Damped Supportive Knowledge - 21
Cross-flow HVAC Equipment - 8
Current Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 19
C-weighting Supportive Knowledge - 30

D
Damper Authority HVAC Equipment - 88

E
Damping Ratio Supportive Knowledge - 19
Darcy Equation HVAC Systems - 8
Darcy Weisbach Fluid Mechanics - 18
Darcy Weisbach Equation HVAC Systems - 8
DBA values
DC Circuits
DDC
decibels
deflection
Dehumidification
Dehumidification
Dehumidifier
PL Supportive Knowledge
Basic Engineering Practice
HVAC Systems
Supportive Knowledge
Supportive Knowledge
Psychrometrics
Energy/Mass Balance
Psychrometrics
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
17
62
28
27
17
6
49
Dehumidifier Energy/Mass Balance - 14
M
Dehumidifier HVAC Systems - 7
De-Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Density Psychrometrics - 12
Density Fluid Mechanics - 4
Desiccant Dehumidifier Psychrometrics - 33
SA

Desiccant de-humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 82

Dew Point Psychrometrics - 13
Different Elevations Psychrometrics - 33
Diffusers HVAC Systems - 77
Digital HVAC Systems - 63
Direct digital control (DDC) HVAC Systems - 62
Direct-Return HVAC Systems - 42
discharge Thermodynamics - 22
Drag Fluid Mechanics - 24
drift HVAC Equipment - 13
Dry Bulb Temperature Psychrometrics - 5
Dry type fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 16
dryness fraction/steam quality Thermodynamics - 30

Index - 4 www.engproguides.com
Dual temperature systems HVAC Systems - 45
Duct Design HVAC Systems - 16, 76
Duct Fitting Losses HVAC Systems - 11
Duct Friction Losses HVAC Systems - 10
Duct Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Dynamic Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4

E
Economic Analysis Basic Engineering Practice - 4
Economizer HVAC Systems - 63
Economizer cycle HVAC Systems - 62

E
EER Thermodynamics - 28
Effective Surface Temperature HVAC Equipment - 73
Effectiveness HVAC Systems - 54
efficiencies of motors Basic Engineering Practice - 24
Efficiency of a boiler

Electric boilers
Electric Heater
Electrical Power
Electrical Power
Emissivity
End-Suction Pump
PL
efficiency of the Pump/Fan
HVAC Equipment
Basic Engineering Practice
HVAC Equipment
Psychrometrics
Basic Engineering Practice
HVAC Equipment
Heat Transfer
HVAC Equipment
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
23
21
46
25
46, 60
12
47
Energy Recovery Device HVAC Systems - 7, 78
M
Energy Recovery Devices HVAC Systems - 54, 55, 61
Enthalpy Thermodynamics - 6, 12
Enthalpy Psychrometrics - 11, 44, 45
Enthalpy Mixing Psychrometrics - 27
enthalpy of evaporation Thermodynamics - 58
SA

enthalpy of vaporization Thermodynamics - 31, 57

Enthalpy Wheel Psychrometrics - 50
Entropy Thermodynamics - 6, 12
ENVELOPE LOAD - HEATING Heating/Cooling Loads - 20
Equipment sound Supportive Knowledge - 29
Equipment Surface Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Equivalent Length Method Fluid Mechanics - 21
Evaporation Energy/Mass Balance - 5
Evaporative cooling HVAC Equipment - 7
Evaporative fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 15
Evaporative Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Evaporator Thermodynamics - 10, 18, 48, 49
evaporators Energy/Mass Balance - 4

Index - 5 www.engproguides.com
Excess Air HVAC Equipment - 26
Expansion HVAC Systems - 35
Expansion Device Thermodynamics - 13, 25, 53, 54
Expansion Valve HVAC Equipment - 94
External loads Heating/Cooling Loads - 3

F
Factor Tables Basic Engineering Practice - 10
Fahrenheit Thermodynamics - 5
Fahrenheit Fluid Mechanics - 6
Fan Affinity Laws HVAC Equipment - 66

E
Fan Curves HVAC Equipment - 64
Fan/Pump Brake horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 22
Fan/Pump Horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 23
Fans HVAC Equipment - 102, 103
Fans in parallel
Fans in series
feedwater heaters
feed-water system
Filter/Dryer
Firetube
Flat Surface
Fluid coolers
PL HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
Energy/Mass Balance
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
Heat Transfer
HVAC Equipment
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
67
68
5
17
95
19
19
14
Fluid Distribution HVAC Systems - 22
M
Fluid Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 11
Fluid Properties Fluid Mechanics - 3
Fluid Statics Fluid Mechanics - 11
Forced convective Heat Transfer - 9
Forced Draft HVAC Equipment - 8
SA

Forced Vibration Supportive Knowledge - 18

Forward Curved HVAC Equipment - 62
Fouling HVAC Equipment - 34
freezing food HVAC Systems - 53
Friction Charts HVAC Systems - 8
Friction Coefficient, K-factor Fluid Mechanics - 22
Friction head HVAC Systems - 25
Friction Loss HVAC Systems - 79, 80
Friction Loss Tables Fluid Mechanics - 23
Fuel HVAC Equipment - 23
Fuel Gas Distribution HVAC Systems - 48
Furnaces HVAC Equipment - 22
Future Value Basic Engineering Practice - 9

Index - 6 www.engproguides.com
 G
Gas-gas mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 8
gauge pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
Globe valve HVAC Equipment - 84
Gravitational Constant Fluid Mechanics - 4
GWP HVAC Equipment - 92

H
Hazen-Williams Equation Fluid Mechanics - 22
HCFCs HVAC Equipment - 91

E
HCFC's Supportive Knowledge - 12
heat capacity Thermodynamics - 7
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness HVAC Equipment - 33
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance HVAC Equipment - 34

Heat exchangers
Heat Exchangers
Heat Load From Motors
Heat Load From People
Heat Load From Windows
Heat Load Through Wall
PL
Heat Exchanger Plate and Frame
Heat Exchanger Shell and Tube
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
Energy/Mass Balance
HVAC Equipment
Heating/Cooling Loads
Heating/Cooling Loads
Heating/Cooling Loads
Heating/Cooling Loads
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
29
28
5
27
26
25
27
25
M
Heat Pump HVAC Equipment - 43
Heat Transfer For Pipes Heat Transfer - 8
Heating Coil Psychrometrics - 28
Heating Coil HVAC Equipment - 72
Heating control HVAC Systems - 62
Heating Loads Heating/Cooling Loads - 19
SA

Heating Value HVAC Equipment - 23

Hermetic HVAC Equipment - 70
HFCs HVAC Equipment - 91
HHV HVAC Systems - 49
Higher heating value HVAC Equipment - 18, 24
Hot Water Coils Thermodynamics - 58
Humidification Psychrometrics - 17, 20
Humidification Energy/Mass Balance - 6
Humidifier Psychrometrics - 48
Humidifier Energy/Mass Balance - 13
Humidifier HVAC Equipment - 105
Humidifier HVAC Systems - 7
Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 80

Index - 7 www.engproguides.com
 Humidity Ratio Psychrometrics - 9, 44, 45
Humidity Ratio Mixing Psychrometrics - 27
Hybrid fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 16
Hydraulic Diameter Fluid Mechanics - 22
Hydraulic Radius Fluid Mechanics - 23
Hydrocarbons HVAC Equipment - 91
Hydronic Hot Water System HVAC Systems - 44
Hysteresis Supportive Knowledge - 19

I
Incompressible Fluid Mechanics - 17

E
Indoor turbulence sound calculations Supportive Knowledge - 37
Induced HVAC Equipment - 8
Infiltration Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Inherent Damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
In-Line Pump
Inner Diameter tables
Insulation
Interest Rate
internal energy
Internal loads
IPLV
isentropic compression
PL HVAC Equipment
HVAC Systems
Heat Transfer
Basic Engineering Practice
Thermodynamics
Heating/Cooling Loads
HVAC Equipment
Thermodynamics
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
47
28
18
4
6
3
37
21
isothermal humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 80
M
K
kilowatt-hour Basic Engineering Practice - 40
kinematic viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4
Kinematic Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 5, 19
SA

Kinematic viscosity tables HVAC Systems - 28

KITCHEN EQUIPMENT Heating/Cooling Loads - 14
Kitchen Equipment Hooded
Heating/Cooling Loads -
Appliance 14
Kitchen Equipment Unhooded
Heating/Cooling Loads -
Appliance 14

L
Laminar Flow Fluid Mechanics - 8
Latent Cooling Psychrometrics - 17, 34
Latent Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 4
Latent heat of evaporation Energy/Mass Balance - 5
Latent Heating Psychrometrics - 17
L-Bend HVAC Systems - 35

Index - 8 www.engproguides.com
 LFL Supportive Knowledge - 6
LHV HVAC Systems - 49
Li-Cl HVAC Equipment - 83
lifetime Basic Engineering Practice - 6, 29
Lift Fluid Mechanics - 24
Lighting Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Lighting Space Fraction Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Lighting Special Allowance Factor Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Lighting Usage Factor Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Liquid-liquid mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 10
Lithium bromide (LiBr) HVAC Equipment - 40

E
Lithium-Chloride HVAC Equipment - 83
LMTD HVAC Equipment - 30
LMTD Correction Factor HVAC Equipment - 31
Lower heating value HVAC Equipment - 24

M
Magnification Factor
Make-up
Manometer
Mechanical
PL
Mechanical Equipment Heat Output
Mechanical Horsepower
Supportive Knowledge
HVAC Equipment
Fluid Mechanics
HVAC Equipment
Basic Engineering Practice
Basic Engineering Practice
-
-
-
-
-
-
23
12
13
8
27
22
Mechanical Horsepower HVAC Equipment - 46, 59
M
MERV Supportive Knowledge - 14
minimum attractive rate of return Basic Engineering Practice - 36, 38
minimum rate of return Basic Engineering Practice - 29, 35
Miscellaneous Equipment Heating/Cooling Loads - 11
Miscellaneous Equipment Friction
SA

Losses HVAC Systems - 12

Mixing Psychrometrics - 25
Mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 5, 7
Mixing Box HVAC Systems - 7
Moist Air Psychrometrics - 5
Mollier Diagram Thermodynamics - 38
Montreal Protocol Supportive Knowledge - 12
Moody Diagram Fluid Mechanics - 20
Moody Diagram HVAC Systems - 29
Motor Equipment Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 13
Motor Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 11, 13
Motor Heat Gain to Space Heating/Cooling Loads - 13
Motor Horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 23, 24
Motor Horsepower HVAC Equipment - 46, 60

Index - 9 www.engproguides.com
Motor Ratings Basic Engineering Practice - 26
Motor Total Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 12
Multiple Fans HVAC Equipment - 67

N
natural convection Heat Transfer - 7
Natural Draft HVAC Equipment - 8
Natural Frequency Supportive Knowledge - 16
NC HVAC Systems - 13
NC Rating Supportive Knowledge - 32, 34
NEMA 4X Basic Engineering Practice - 27

E
NEMA standards Basic Engineering Practice - 27
net condenser effect Thermodynamics - 27
Net Positive Suction Head HVAC Systems - 81
Net Positive Suction Head Available HVAC Systems - 30
net refrigeration effect
neutral pressure level
NFPA 90A
NFPA 90B
NFPA 96
NFRC
Noise Criteria
Noise Rating Curves (NR)
PL Thermodynamics
Heating/Cooling Loads
Supportive Knowledge
Supportive Knowledge
Supportive Knowledge
Heating/Cooling Loads
HVAC Systems
Supportive Knowledge
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
26
18
10
11
12
9
13
32
Non-condensing boiler HVAC Equipment - 19
M
NPL Heating/Cooling Loads - 18
NPLV HVAC Equipment - 37
NTU Method HVAC Equipment - 32
Nusselt Heat Transfer - 10

O
SA

ODP HVAC Equipment - 92

OEL Supportive Knowledge - 6
Ohm's Law Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 18
Open Drive HVAC Equipment - 70
Open system HVAC Systems - 24
outside air Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Heat Transfer - 15, 25
Overdamped Supportive Knowledge - 21

P
parallel Heat Transfer - 16
parallel and opposed blade dampers HVAC Equipment - 87

Index - 10 www.engproguides.com
parallel flow HVAC Equipment - 27
People Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Pipe Roughness HVAC Systems - 29
pipe roughness factors Fluid Mechanics - 20
Pitot Tube Fluid Mechanics - 25, 27
Power Basic Engineering Practice - 21
Power Factor Basic Engineering Practice - 21
Prandtl Heat Transfer - 10
present value Basic Engineering Practice - 35, 38
Present Value Basic Engineering Practice - 8
Pressure Thermodynamics - 4

E
Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
pressure loss HVAC Systems - 23
Pressure loss HVAC Systems - 78
pressure-enthalpy Thermodynamics - 14
Primary-Secondary System
Propeller Fans
Properties of Steam
psychrometer
Psychrometric Chart
Pump Curves
Pump Operation Point
Pump VFD
PL
Pump with Modulating Valve
HVAC Systems
HVAC Equipment
Thermodynamics
Psychrometrics
Psychrometrics
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
41
60
39
6
4
48
51
54
HVAC Equipment - 53
M
Pumps Energy/Mass Balance - 4
pumps HVAC Equipment - 46
Pumps HVAC Equipment - 105
Pumps HVAC Systems - 22
Pumps in Parallel HVAC Equipment - 55
SA

Pumps in Series HVAC Equipment - 57

Q
quality Thermodynamics - 15

R
Radial Heat Transfer - 20
Radial HVAC Equipment - 63
Radiation Heat Transfer - 11
Radiative Heat Heat Transfer - 12
range HVAC Equipment - 10
Rankine Thermodynamics - 5
Rankine Fluid Mechanics - 6

Index - 11 www.engproguides.com
Rate of Return Basic Engineering Practice - 12, 13
Real power Basic Engineering Practice - 21, 25
Reciprocating HVAC Equipment - 69
Reducing Sound Levels Supportive Knowledge - 31
Refrigerant Components HVAC Equipment - 93
Refrigerants HVAC Equipment - 90
Refrigeration HVAC Systems - 53
Refrigeration Cycle Thermodynamics - 17
Reheat System HVAC Systems - 18
Relative Humidity Psychrometrics - 7, 51
resistance Basic Engineering Practice - 41

E
Resistance Basic Engineering Practice - 17
resistors Basic Engineering Practice - 41
Resistors in Parallel Basic Engineering Practice - 20
Resistors in Series Basic Engineering Practice - 20
Reverse-Return
Reynolds number
Reynolds Number
Reynold's number PL
Room Criteria Curves (RC)
Rotary
Rotary Enthalpy Wheel
rotary sensible wheel
Rotary Sensible Wheel
HVAC Systems
Heat Transfer
Fluid Mechanics
HVAC Systems
Supportive Knowledge
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Systems
HVAC Systems
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
43
10
7, 9, 33, 34, 35
29
32
69
57
56
HVAC Systems - 56
M
Run-Around Loop HVAC Systems - 59
R-Value Heat Transfer - 6, 17, 18

S
Salvage value Basic Engineering Practice - 6
SA

Saturation Tables Thermodynamics - 34

Screw HVAC Equipment - 69
Scroll HVAC Equipment - 69
Semi-Hermetic HVAC Equipment - 70
Sensible Cooling Psychrometrics - 16, 34
sensible heat ratio Psychrometrics - 23
Sensible Heat Ratio Psychrometrics - 50
Sensible Heating Psychrometrics - 14, 16
series Heat Transfer - 16
Shell and Tube Thermodynamics - 11
SHR Psychrometrics - 23
Sight Glass HVAC Equipment - 95
Similarity Laws HVAC Equipment - 53, 66

Index - 12 www.engproguides.com
 simple payback Basic Engineering Practice - 36
Solenoid Valve HVAC Equipment - 95
Sound frequencies Supportive Knowledge - 29
Sound Level as a Function of
-
Distance Supportive Knowledge 34, 38
Sound power Supportive Knowledge - 28
Sound pressure Supportive Knowledge - 28
Specific Gravity Fluid Mechanics - 6
Specific Heat Thermodynamics - 7
specific heat HVAC Systems - 53
specific volume Thermodynamics - 34

E
Specific Volume Psychrometrics - 11, 44
Specific Volume Fluid Mechanics - 4
Spring Supportive Knowledge - 15
Stagnation Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 26
static head HVAC Systems - 24
Static Pressure
Steam
Steam Boilers
Steam heating coils
Steam Humidifier
Steam Humidifiers
Steam Piping
steam system
PL HVAC Equipment
Thermodynamics
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Equipment
Psychrometrics
HVAC Equipment
HVAC Systems
HVAC Equipment
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
60
29, 56, 57
17
78
31
80
79
18
M
Steam System HVAC Systems - 51
Steam Tables Thermodynamics - 34
stiffness Supportive Knowledge - 15
Stiffness Supportive Knowledge - 26
Stoichiometry HVAC Equipment - 24
sub-cooled region - 15
SA

Thermodynamics
Submerged Surface Fluid Mechanics - 14
suction Thermodynamics - 22
super-heated region Thermodynamics - 15
Superheated Steam Tables Thermodynamics - 34
Supply Air Diffusers HVAC Systems - 13
System Curve HVAC Equipment - 50
system resistance curve HVAC Equipment - 64

T
TDS HVAC Equipment - 13
Temperature Thermodynamics - 5
Temperature Fluid Mechanics - 6
Temperature reset HVAC Systems - 63

Index - 13 www.engproguides.com
Terminal Units HVAC Systems - 12
Thermal Conductivity Heat Transfer - 5
thermal expansion coefficient HVAC Systems - 34
Thermodynamics Properties Thermodynamics - 4
Throws HVAC Systems - 13
Time value of Money Basic Engineering Practice - 4
Total Cooling Psychrometrics - 22, 34
total dynamic head HVAC Systems - 23
total energy Supportive Knowledge - 16
Total Head HVAC Systems - 23
Total Heating Psychrometrics - 22

E
Total Pressure HVAC Equipment - 60
TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE HVAC Systems - 10
transmissibility Supportive Knowledge - 25
Transmissibility Supportive Knowledge - 22
Tube in Tube - 11
Tube-Axial Fans
Turbines
Turbulent Flow
TXV

U
U-Bend
PL Thermodynamics
HVAC Equipment
Energy/Mass Balance
Fluid Mechanics
Thermodynamics

HVAC Systems
-
-
-
-

-
61
4
9
14

36
U-Factor Heat Transfer - 5
M
Undamped Supportive Knowledge - 20
Underdamped Supportive Knowledge - 20

V
Valve Coefficient HVAC Equipment - 86
SA

Valve: Flow characteristics HVAC Equipment - 85

Vapor Compression Cycle Thermodynamics - 10
Variable Refrigerant Flow HVAC Equipment - 42
Variable Volume System HVAC Systems - 18
Variable-Primary System HVAC Systems - 40
VAV HVAC Systems - 12
VAV cooling HVAC Systems - 62
VAV cooling with reheat HVAC Systems - 62
velocity head pressure HVAC Systems - 33
Velocity in Ducts HVAC Systems - 8
Velocity Pressure HVAC Equipment - 60
Ventilation Supportive Knowledge - 13
Venturi Meter Fluid Mechanics - 28

Index - 14 www.engproguides.com
Vibration Supportive Knowledge - 15
vibration control Supportive Knowledge - 15
Vibration Isolation Supportive Knowledge - 24
Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4
Viscous Damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
Voltage Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 18
Volumetric flow rate HVAC Systems - 9
VRF HVAC Equipment - 43

W
Water Cooled Chiller HVAC Equipment - 37

E
Water Cooled System HVAC Systems - 38
Water Loss HVAC Equipment - 12
Watertube HVAC Equipment - 19
Watertube HVAC Equipment - 19
Wet Bulb
Wet Bulb Temperature
work
Wrap-Around Heat Pipe

Z
Z-Bend
PL Psychrometrics
Psychrometrics
Thermodynamics
HVAC Systems

HVAC Systems
-
-
-
-

-
44
6
22
57

36
M
SA

Index - 15 www.engproguides.com