TEACHING

Teaching is an intimate contact between the more mature personality

and a less mature one. —H C Morrison
❑Teaching is a face-to-face encounters between two or more persons,
one of whom (teacher) intends to effect certain changes in the other
participants (students). —Jackson
❑Teaching is an activity with three phases, a curriculum planning
phase, an instructing phase, and an evaluating phase. —J B Hough
and James K Duncan
TEACHING AND LEARNING
PROCESSES
Teaching and learning are complex processes
that involve the interaction between educators,
students, content, and various instructional
methods. Viewing teaching and learning as
a process helps educators better understand
how knowledge is transmitted, acquired, and
internalized.
Overview of the teaching and learning process
❖Preparation and Planning
❖Engagement and Introduction
❖Content Delivery
❖Active Learning
❖Feedback and Assessment
❖Reflection and Discussion
❖Application and Practice
❖Synthesis and Integration
❖Assessment and Evaluation
❖Reflection and Adaptation
❖Continual Improvement
❖Transfer of Learning
❖Lifelong Learning
 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING

❑Teaching is a total communal process. Teaching is for the society and it is not
possible to describe exact and permanent nature of teaching without society.
❑Teaching provides information and communication. Teaching enlightens
knowledge, awareness to the students cannot find out themselves.
❑Teaching is a useful interactive process between the student and the teacher. It
guides, supports and improves students.
❑Teaching is a process of growth and knowledge.
❑Teaching is a reason for the change in behavior of the student.
❑Teaching is an art and it calls for the exercise of talent and creativity.
❑Teaching is a science as it engages a collection of techniques, procedures and
skills.
❑Teaching is both mindful and an unconscious process.
❑Teaching is from memory level to thoughtful level.
❑Teaching is a continuum of training and instruction.
❑A good teacher put in creativity and motivation.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
 BARRIERS OF TEACHING
The majority of faculty members want to be effective teachers and to graduate
highly knowledgeable and capable professionals, but multiple and complex factors
such as curricular, cultural, environmental, and financial hamper their efforts.
Curricular Barriers
Unclear Learning Needs
Nursing education experts agree that major changes, rather than minor curricular
adjustments, are urgently required to effectively educate nurses for practice in this
century. Although implemented with good intentions, the scope of current curricular
changes does not sufficiently meet future nurses learning needs.
Goals and Objectives
Effective clinical teaching including role of clinical instructors are too often
expected to address. Clinical setting and limited time allotted but also the variability
of students prior knowledge and experiences to be considered.
Curriculum Sequencing
The traditional nursing student curriculum is structurally disorganized.
Basic science faculty often teaches the discipline-based courses
(anatomy, physiology, microbiology, etc.) with little coordination or
reference to clinical relevance. They note that basic science and clinical
faculty do not always know what the other faculty is teaching, which
leaves students to determine for themselves the content relationships
across domains and the relevance of various subjects to patient care.
Cultural Barriers
Cultural barriers to effective teaching refer to the attitudes, traditions, and mores of
nursing schools and stakeholders, including students, faculty, and medical school
and hospital leaders.
Students’ Attitudes
Students attitudes and expectations were the single greatest barrier to the
implementation of critical-thinking teaching strategies in that students prefer
lectures over instructional strategies that require active learning. Some students
expect faculty to deliver content through methods that make for easier
memorization, which some students feel is critical for passing information-dense
examinations.
Faculty Attitudes
Faculty member’s attitudes toward teaching and toward faculty
development for improving teaching skills are also barriers to effective
teaching. Some faculty members pursue an academic career because
they want to teach, whereas others see teaching more as a chore, an
adverse challenge, or a diversion from patient care or research.
Institutional Support
Some faculty may not value teaching or the need to develop their
teaching skills as much as they value research or patient care, but
medical schools do not always clearly communicate teaching
expectations and responsibilities or the standards that constitute
effective teaching.
Environmental and Financial Barriers
Environmental barriers are associated with the physical setting and
milieu in which medical education occurs, including limitations such as
time, space, and instructional, human, and technological resources.
Financial barriers include the revenue and resource needs in medical
education.
Time and Resources
The busy, complex setting of a teaching hospital is not an ideal
environment in which to teach all the competencies future physicians
need to master. Service needs soar as duty hours restrictions limit
resident availability, as documentation requires more faculty time, and
as clinical relative value unit targets increase.
 LEARNING
Learning is acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes. It
involves new ways of doing things in order to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It enables the person to
satisfy interests to attain goals. —Crow and Crow
Characteristics of learning

❖Learning is a Universal Process.

❖Learning is Purposive and Goal-oriented.
❖Learning is a Process of Progress and Development.
❖Learning is the Organization of Experiences.
❖Learning Occurs Due to Activity and Environment.
❖Learning is Change in Behavior.
❖Learning is a Continuous Process.
Steps in the learning process
Nature of Learning

❖Learning is a Process and not a Product.

❖Learning is Purposive or Goal Directed.
❖Learning Generally Involves Some Degree of Permanence.
❖Learning is Universal and Continuous.
❖Learning Prepares for Adjustment.
❖Learning is Comprehensive.
❖Learning is Change in Response or Behavior may be Favorable or
Unfavorable.
❖Learning is Organizing Experience.
❖Learning Perspectives and Approaches.
 Principles of Learning

Learning is a Students
process of actively construct
constructing knowledge and
knowledge. make it
meaningful in
Reflection is an terms of their
integral part of prior knowledge
learning. and experiences

Learning is
Learners have
enhanced when
different ways of
it takes place in a
knowing and
social and
representing
collaborative
knowledge.
environment.

Learners must see Students need to

themselves as continue to view
capable and learning as an
successful. integrated whole.
Barriers of Learning
Misunderstood Words
These are words heard or read that the mind does not fully understand. When words
are misunderstood, mind goes blank. Then the learner feels that of dumb.
Experiencing misunderstood words can make a people irritable and prone to
complaining.
Learn at too Steep of a Pace
If learning is done in step by step, it is easy. If steps are skipped, then there is a
complaint that a certain step is too difficult.
Lack of Visuals and Hands-on Learning
❑Eyes may hurt: Probably from strain from continuous reading and trying to
visualize the subject. To overcome this problem it is better to eye physician and
check for any visual problems and rectify it.
❑Heavy, weighted down feeling: probably from accumulation of vague,
incomplete images kept in mind.
Societal barriers
❑Severe poverty
❑Late enrollment
❑Gangs/violence in neighborhoods
❑Natural disasters and epidemic/pandemic like COVID
 LEARNING THEORIES

Theories in education did not begin in earnest until the early 20th
century, but curiosity about how humans learn dates back to the ancient
Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They explored
whether knowledge and truth could be found within oneself
(rationalism) or through external observation (empiricism). By the 19th
century, psychologists began to answer this question with scientific
studies.
Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorists were strongly influenced by the work of the Russian
Psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov’s experiment with the salivating dog
is a famous one. Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to
the food placed in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would
begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who
was bringing them the food. Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that
there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. For example,
dogs do not learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is
“hard-wired” into the dog.
Classical conditioning
Conditioned response
❖Unconditioned stimulus: The unconditioned stimulus is
automatically triggers a response. E.g., Food is an unconditioned
stimulus for salivation.
❖Unconditioned response: The unconditioned response is intentional
reaction that occurs when person is triggered by the unconditioned
stimulus, e.g., salivation is unconditioned response for food as
unconditioned stimulus.
❖Conditioned stimulus: The conditioned stimulus is the neutral signal
that after being paired with the unconditional stimulus triggers the
conditioned response. A bell or a tuning fork when presented as
stimulus along with food, and get conditioned for salivation, it is
conditioned stimulus.
❖Conditioned response: The conditioned response is learned response
to the neutral signal, e.g., salivation after ringing the bell or tuning
fork is a conditioned response.
Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning
❖Classical conditioning helps a teacher to associate positive
events with learning.
❖It helps in avoiding undesired behaviour also and helps
learners in recognizing the situations to discriminate and
generalize properly.
Cognitive Theory
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist was particularly concerned with the
way thinking develops in children from birth till they become young
adults. To understand the nature of this development, Piaget carefully
observed the behavior of his own three kids. He used to present
problems to them, observe responses slightly after the situations and
again observe their responses. Piaget called this method of exploring
development clinical interview. Piaget believed that humans also adapt
to their physical and social environments in which they live. The
process of adaptation begins since birth.
Piaget saw this adaptation in terms of two basic processes: Assimilation
and Accommodation.
Elements in Development of Cognitive Process
❖According to Piaget there are four basic elements in development:
❖Maturation.
❖Experience.
❖Social transmission (learning through language, schooling or teaching
by parents)
❖Equilibrium.
Stages of cognitive development
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory, Bandura describes how people can learn
something new by observing the behavior of other people and applying
rational mental behavior. Observational learning is the first step in the
social learning process. The famous Bobo doll experiment supported the
social learning theory of observational learning. The results of the
observational learning experiment showed that kids mimicked the
behavior of the adults they observed. Follow-up results also showed that
the children were more likely to learn the behavior where they saw the
adults were rewarded for aggressive or non-aggressive actions than
those that were punished for their aggression.
People desire approval in life, and therefore they function in ways to
receive approval. During the experiment, it was noted that the children
preferred repeating actions. of the models who gained approval by being
rewarded. They are also more likely to continue the behavior that results
in positive consequences than negative consequences. When kids
imitate a model, it may be one type of behavior they reproduce. Kids
may also identify with multiple models in their environment. Models
could be parents, teachers, siblings, friends, peers, cartoon characters, or
celebrities.
Bandura’s theory was based on three main ideas.
❖People learned through observing role models. He identified the
three types of models in his experiment: a live model physically
demonstrating an action, a live model using language to display a
behavior verbally, and a symbolic model showing behaviors in online
media, movies, television programs, and books.
❖Internal psychology influences the learning process. Intrinsic
reinforcements satisfy the psychological needs like a sense of
accomplishment, satisfaction, a form of success, or pride.
❖Learning a behavior does not automatically mean the person will
execute it. Changing or applying a new behavior must be of value to
the person to want to apply what they have learned.
Humanistic Learning Theory
The humanistic theory of teaching and learning is an educational theory
that believes in teaching the “whole” child. A humanist approach will
have a strong focus on students’ emotional wellbeing and eternally view
children as innately good “at the core.”
Maslow’s theory is based on the notion that experience is the primary
phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior. He placed
emphasis on choice, creativity, values, selfrealization, all distinctively
human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were
more important than objectivity. For Maslow, development of human
potential, dignity and worth are ultimate concerns.
Maslow rejected behaviorist views and Freud’s theories on the basis of
their reductionistic approaches. He felt Freud’s view of human nature
was negative, and he valued goodness, nobility and reason. Also, Freud
concentrated on the mentally ill, and Maslow was interested in healthy
human psychology.
 LATEST APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is pupil centering education in which students are
in control of their learning. Experiential learning is a learning method
where students “learn through doing” and then reflect on their
experience. It includes field trips and hands on laboratory exercises and
internships, as well as the field, clinical training and research such as
role playing, performances and simulations.
Definition
“The deliberate, active involvement of students in the opportunities to
acquire knowledge by doing and reflecting on those experiences that
allow students to apply their theoretical skills to real-world situations in
a myriad of contexts in and out of classes.” —John Dewey
(1938) and David Kolb (1984)
Elements of Learning through Experience
❖Gives learners the chance to acquire mirror images as well as critical
analysis, and synthesizing.
❖It gives learners the opportunity to get an idea, make the right choice,
and take responsibility for the results.
❖Gives learners the opportunity to be engaged academically, creatively
as well as socially or physically.
❖It gives learners the opportunity to gain knowledge by observing their
failures and achievements.
Stages of experiential learning
Reflective Learning
“Reflective learning is understood as a process that leads to reflection
on all sources of knowledge that may contribute to understanding a
situation, including personal sources and experience. Although
reflective education focused activities contribute significantly to
optimizing the impact of teaching.” —Mckenna, Yalvac, and Light,
2009
Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle
Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle was developed by Graham Gibbs in 1988 to
give structure to learning from experiences. It offers a framework for
examining experiences, and given its cyclic nature lends itself
particularly well to repeated experiences, allowing you to learn and plan
from things that either went well or did not go well. It covers 6 stages :
Gibbs’ reflective cycle
Teacher Role in Reflective Learning
• The balance between the didactic processes of teaching (information
giving and instruction) and facilitation of student learning through
reflection.
• The fostering of reflection in situations where there is limited
experience and which are overlaid by anxiety. This anxiety may stem
from a number of sources which include the nature of the work and the
student assessment process.
Scenario-based Learning
In scenario-based learning, students are typically posed a realistic
story or set of circumstances/ triggers, usually based on an ill-structured
or complex situation (or context) they are required to address/solve. In
the process, students must actively learn and integrate knowledge, skills
and attitudes, and analytical and critical thinking skills to make
decisions or solve issues at various points.
Steps for creating scenarios
❖Determine your learning objective
❖Identify your audience
❖Clarify the challenge or pain point
❖Choose the scenario structure
❖Write the story
❖Discover all possible scenario solutions
Role of Teacher
• Teacher works solely as a mediator who scaffolds information as
necessary.
• Teacher acts as a facilitator rather than the instructor leaving the
students in charge of their learning experiences.

Role of Student
• Challenges the student’s without overwhelming their mental capacity.
• Include as much interactivity as possible.
Simulation-based Learning
Definition
• “Simulation-based learning is a technique (not a technology) to
replace and amplify real experiences with guided ones, often
‘immersive’ in nature, that evoke or replicate substantial aspects of the
real world in a fully interactive fashion. ‘Immersive’ here implies that
participants are immersed in a task or setting as if it was the real
world”. —Glad S
Features of simulation:
❖The ability to provide feedback.
❖Repetitive practice.
❖Curriculum integration.
❖The ability to range the difficulty levels.

Role of a teacher:
❖Personalized learning.
❖Require remarkable communication abilities.
❖Require training multiple times whenever they feel the need.
Blended Learning
Definitions
• ‘Blended learning involves the combination of two fields of concern:
education and educational technology’. —Chew, Jones and Turner
• ‘The effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of
teaching and styles of learning’. —Procter
• ‘Blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with
computer-mediated instruction.’ —Graham
Role of Teachers in Blended Learning
❖The role of a teacher is to coach and guide students.
❖The encouragement as well as compassion and instruction are the
most important tasks of a teacher.
❖The teacher will help the student become active learners, who learn.
❖The teacher assists the student to develop self-confidence.
❖With more students working independently, there is more time for
teachers to offer face-to-face help and more individualized instruction
to more students, thus improving the quality of differentiation.