Lesson 5: X-ray Imaging System: Voltage Generator ❑ Only difference is amplitude, volts turn to

kilovolts and amperes into milliamperes.

Power Source of the X-ray Machine
RECTIFICATION
❑ The x-ray imaging system, like any other electronic Voltage Rectification
devices, electricity needs to flow through its circuitry
for its components to function. ❑ Rectifier: a device that allows current to flow in a
❑ Each component, however, can only take a single direction, direct current.
range of electrical power to perform properly. ❑ Rectification: the process of converting AC to DC;
❑ Involves appropriate electrical current, voltage, Ensure electrons flow from cathode to anode only.
and resistance. ❑ The x-ray tube requires a direct current to
function.
Role of the Transformer ❑ Accomplished though diodes.
❑ Transformer is a device found in the imaging system Types of Diodes Rectifiers
responsible for the controlling of voltage.
❑ Following the transformer law, a transformer ❑ Valve Tube: a type of vacuum tube capable of
has two sides, namely, the primary and resisting current flowing from an opposing
secondary side. direction.
❑ The primary side serves as the starting power, ❑ Solid State: a semiconductor made up of silicon
which will in-/decrease depending on its turn with a more complicated but compact setup,
ratio. Examples include:
❑ N-TYPE: has loosely bound electrons freely to
The Highs & Lows of Needed Power move
❑ P-TYPE: has spaces (HOLES) that lack on
❑ The turns ratio of the transformer dictates the
electros.
magnification factor of the secondary side, thus, has
a direct effect on voltage and current. P-N Junction
❑ If a system being supplied needs a high voltage,
the secondary side should have a higher turns ❑ Consists of an N-TYPE and P-TYPE placed in contract
ratio. with each other, allowing electric current to flow in
❑ If high current is needed, then the secondary side only one direction.
should have lower turns ratio. ❑ Flow of current only occurs when entering the
N-type material.
HIGH-VOLTAGE GENRATOR
Unrectified Voltage
The High-Voltage Generator
❑ The voltage waveform of the primary and
❑ Increases the output voltage from autotransformer secondary side is the same, but with greater
to the KVP necessary for x-ray production. amplitude in the secondary.
❑ Contains a special oil serving as an electric ❑ When x-rays are produced on an a selected kVp
insulator and thermal cushion. factor, they are not monoenergetic.
❑ Primary Components: High-Voltage ❑ The selected kVp indicates the maximum
Transformer, Filament Transformer, Rectifies. voltage.
❑ There will be x-ray that has lower energy than
HIGH-VOLTAGE GENERATOR
the maximum voltage.
The High-Voltage Transformer
Electrical Pulse
❑ A step-up transformer follows the transformer law.
❑ Pules: A change in intensity of voltage or current,
❑ Operates only on alternating current, voltage
occurring on short duration.
waveform on both sides are sinusoidal.
❑ Each pules ranges of no (0%) voltage to a
maximum (peak, 100%) voltage
 ❑ kVp: the maximum voltage supply. Three-Phase Power

Types of Rectification ❑ Three-phase power: multiple voltage waveforms

are superimposed to one another; maintaining
❑ Depending on the construction of the generator,
nearly constant high voltage, never reaching zero.
the voltage waveform is formed through its
❑ Six Pulse: uses 6 diodes, better than single
complex circuity. The voltage cycle can be done
phase; still produces harmonic distortion.
though:
❑ Twelve Pulse: uses two 6 six-pulse bridge
❑ Half-wave rectification
circuits; cancels many of the distortion in the
❑ Full-wave rectification
six-pulse.
Half-Wave Rectification
High Frequency Power
❑ The inverse voltage does not conduct, Thus Only
❑ High-Frequency produces nearly constant max
half of the cycle reaches the end of the circuit.
voltage waveforms, improving image quality and
❑ The voltage is prevented to swing negatively
patient dose; smaller and more efficient than 3-
during the negative half of the cycle.
phase power.
❑ Wastes half the power supply.
❑ Used in portable, mammography & spiral CT
❑ Equal to 6o pules/second.
systems.
Full-Wave Rectification ❑ High Frequency Generator: smaller in size, less
costly and more efficient.
❑ Rectifies the entire alternating current waveform. ❑ Makes use of inverters.
❑ Contains at least 4 diodes in the high-voltage
circuit. Inverter
❑ Exposure time is cut in half.
❑ Inverter: high speed switch (choppers) that convert
❑ Equal to pules 120/second.
DC into (AC like) series of square pulse.
GENERATOR ❑ Inverter Feature of HF generators.
❑ <1kHz: Thyristors.
Effect of Generated Power ❑ 10-100 kHz: Power-field affect transistor.
❑ Quality of power produced by the generator is Other Types of Generators
dependent on its efficiency to generate consistent
energy. ❑ Other than the previously mentioned, some
❑ This greatly affects the quality of the output generators are designed according to their
primary beam and detrimental to the image purpose. This includes:
quality. ❑ Capacitor Discharge generator.
❑ Falling-load generator.
Types of Generator ❑ Constant potential generator.
❑ Single-phase, Three-phase, High frequency Capacitor Discharged Generator
Single-Phase Power ❑ Operates by stacking(charging) a series of silicon-
❑ Result in a pulsating beam; swings from zero to max Controlled rectifies (SCR) from the DC voltage of a
power; x-rays near zero are of little diagnostic value NiCd Battery to obtain a very high voltage.
and low penetrability. ❑ X-ray emission is controlled (Terminated) by a
❑ Bridge rectifier circuit: directs the alternating grid-controlled x-ray tube or an automatic lead
flow of high-voltage electrons in only one (Pb) beam stopper.
direction. (from cathode to anode) ❑ Used in some portable imaging system.
❑ Used in dental radiography
 Falling-Load generators Lesson 6a: The X-Ray Tube: External Components

❑ Ensure the shortest possible exposure time in all

Computing Power Ratings of the tube
procedure, compensated by high beam intensity.
❑ Initial tube loading is high but drops during ❑ A way to identify Transformers and high voltage
exposure. generators, measured in kilowatts (kW).
❑ Principally used in interventional radiology. ❑ Formula: Power (kW) = Current (mA) x Potential (kV)
❑ 3-Phase & HF: kW – (mA x KVp)/1000
Constant Potential Generators ❑ Single-Phase: kW = (0.7) [(mA x kVp)/1000]
❑ Provide a nearly constant voltage across the x-ray Sample Problem 01
tube.
❑ Expensive, requires more space, also used in ❑ What is the power rating of the machine being, you
interventional radiology. say if it is in high frequency power, with 500mA max
current and 140 kVp max voltage?
VOLTAGE RIPPLE ❑ Formula: Power (kW) = (mA x kVp)/1000
Voltage Ripple ❑ Current:500 mA
❑ Voltage: 140 kVp
❑ Voltage ripple: the variation in the voltage; another
way to characterize voltage wave forms. Electric Power is Supplied to the Tube
❑ Most voltage ripples in diagnostic radiology ❑ The technologist selects the appropriate exposure
matches are relatively small (<10%) factors in the console, which will be followed by the
❑ For this reason, kV & kVp are numerically generator.
similar. ❑ Behavior of the beam is dependent on the power
provided by the Transformers.
❑ 100% ripple: voltage falls from max voltage to zero; ❑ HV Transformer: high voltage for x-ray energy.
single phase power. ❑ Filament Transformer: high current for x ray
❑ 14% ripple: does not falls below 68% of max intensity.
voltage; 3-wave, 6-pules.
❑ 4% ripple: does not fall below 96% of max voltage; EXTERNAL COMPONENTS
3-wave, 12-pules.
Characteristics of the X-ray Tube
❑ <1%ripple: very little variance of max power; high
frequency. ❑ Energy converter: functions to convert electrical
energy into photons (bundles of electromagnetic
Relation of Ripple & Power energy).
❑ Less ripple indicates greater radiation quantity & ❑ Diode: a special diode that contains two electrodes,
quality. the cathode (-) and anode (+).
❑ Reduced low energy photons will be present in ❑ Heart of the imaging system: lacking/damaging the
the beam, thus, less contributor to patient dose. tube renders the system useless.
❑ A homogenized power supply results in a more
External Components of the X-ray Tube
effective x-ray beam.
❑ The external parts of the tube function to protect the
Power Rating
internal components and provide it with an
❑ A way to identify transformers and HV generators, environment to perform appropriately. This includes:
measure in kilowatts. ❑ Support System
❑ Power = current x potential (watts = Amperes and ❑ Protective Housing
volts) ❑ Enclosure
❑ For three-phase and HF: kW = (mA X kVp)/ 1000.
❑ For Single-phase: kW = (0.7) [(mA X kVp)]/1000.
 Types of Support Systems for the Tube ❑ 100mR/hr @ 1meter: leakage radiation
reduction of a properly designed housing.
❑ The X-ray tube’s support should maintain the
positioning of the tube while the exposure is being Functions of the Tube Housing
done, while providing a easy mobility while
❑ Guards the patient against excessive radiation
positioning. It can be:
exposure by absorbing the majority of the produced
❑ Ceiling Support
X-rays.
❑ Floor-Ceiling Support
❑ Protects the technologist from electric shock, by
❑ C-Arm Support
being coated with insulation.
Ceiling Support System ❑ Provide mechanical support for the tube, by
maintaining the position of the tube.
❑ The most frequently used and consisting of two
perpendicular sets of ceiling-mounted rails. Oil in the Housing
❑ Has a means of control to remove all locks
❑ The mechanism of the housing contains oil that
allowing the tube to “float”.
serves as a thermal cushion and electrical insulator.
❑ Preferred Detent Position: tube is centered above
❑ The oil in the housing expands when heated,
the examination table at preferred source receptor
activating a bellows like microswitch.
distance (SID).
❑ The switch prevents the tube from being used
Floor-Ceiling Support System until it cools.

❑ Consists of a single column attached to 2 mounted Introduction of the Vacuum Tube

rails, one from the ceiling and one to the floor.
❑ Crookes Tube (1869 – 1875): a partially evacuated
❑ Constructed in a way the tube can be directed
tube containing a (controlled) amount of gas.
along the long axis of the examination table.
❑ When you use it as an X-ray tube, results in a
❑ The common support system used.
decreased and generated X-rays and increased
C-Arm Support System heat.
❑ Coolidge Tube (1913): a (vacuum) tube that contains
❑ Shaped like a letter “C”, allows very flexible tube
no air, a more efficient alternative venues as an X-ray
positioning, usually for specialized imaging
tube.
applications.
❑ Causes more electrons to reach the anode.
❑ Best suited for Angio interventional radiology
❑ This results to more x-rays, less heat, and longer
❑ Variations: L-Arm, U-Arm
tube life.
Characteristic of X-ray Emission
Enclosure
❑ Isotropic emission: X radiation is produced with
❑ Size: 30 – 50cm long, 20cm diameter
equal density in all directions.
❑ Can be made up of glass or metal.
❑ Anode Target: the actual point of origin of X-rays
within the x-ray tube. Functions of the Enclosure
❑ As electrons hit the target, their kinetic energy
❑ Provide and maintain a vacuum environment for the
is converted into electromagnetic energy.
internal components.
Two Types of X-rays Exiting the Tube ❑ Holds the anode and cathode into place.
❑ Absorb some low energy stary x-rays.
❑ Useful Beam: x-rays that are emitted through the
window. Glass Enclosure
❑ Leakage radiation: x rays that escape through the
❑ Made of Pyrex glass, able to withstand tremendous
protective housing; Contributed no diagnostic
heat.
information; Unnecessary exposure to patient and
personnel.
 ❑ Borosilicate Glass: contains 80%SiO2 and Filament
12.6% B2O3 able to resist tremendous heat
❑ The component that emits and provides electrons to
stress generated by the tube.
be accelerated towards the anode.
❑ Vaporized Tungsten: produces arcing, altering the
❑ Specs: 2mm diameter, 1-2cm long.
electrical properties of tube.
❑ Voltage/Current across the cathode: 10 volts, 4
❑ Arcing: straying of tube current and interacting
amperes.
with the enclosure.
❑ Power dissipated in filament: 40 watts.
Metal Enclosure
Thermionic Emission
❑ Used in Ceramic Super Rolatix Tubes
❑ The emission of electrons (ion) from a heated
❑ Grounded: allows electrical safety.
filament; then filament gets so hot it boils off
❑ 3 Ceramic Insulators: used to attach high
electrons; The hotter the filament, the more
voltage transmission lines.
electrons.
❑ Advantages: less off-focus radiation, longer tube life,
❑ Current flowing through filament causes it to
higher tube currents, allowance for higher tube
increase in temperature.
loading.
❑ This boils off electrons in its vicinity and creates
Tube Window a space charge.

❑ An area of the enclosure that is thinner than the Thoriated Tungsten

other areas of the enclosure.
❑ Materials:98% Tungsten, 2& Thorium
❑ Allows maximum emission and less absorption
❑ Used for the construction of x-ray tube filaments.
of X-rays.
❑ Tungsten for high melting point (3410°C) and
❑ Approximately an area of 5cm2, usually on the
resistance for vaporization.
side where the collimator is attached.
❑ Thorium is added for more efficient thermionic
Lesson 6b: Internal Components emission and longer tube life.

INTERNAL COMPONETS Notes on the Filament

Internal Components of the X-Ray Tube ❑ High thermal resistance of the filament makes it
capable to rise beyond temperatures greater than
❑ The internal components of the troop are small and
2200°C.
delicate parts but performs the most important role
❑ Resulting in the (thermionic) emission of
is.
electrons.
❑ The tube itself is a type of diode, meaning it has two
❑ Vaporized tungsten deposit on the inside of the
electrodes. These are:
enclosure.
❑ Cathode
❑ One of the most common causes of tube failure.
❑ Anode
❑ Usually occurs in glass enclosures.
Cathode
Focusing Cup
❑ The negative side of the X-ray tube.
❑ Function: electrostatically confines the electron
❑ Location where electrons are produced and
beam to a small area of the anode.
confined.
❑ Grid: acts as a “grid”, the exposure switch of
❑ Consists of two parts:
grid-controlled tubes.
❑ Filament
❑ Material: Nickel or Molybdenum.
❑ Focusing cup
 Filament Current Lage Focal Spot

❑ Space Charge effect: more electrons result in ❑ Size Range: 0.3 – 2.0mm
stronger electrostatic repulsion, usually occurring in ❑ mA Selection: 400mA & above
currents exceeding 1000mA. ❑ Condition of Use
❑ Space Charge: AKA an electron cloud; a ❑ Selection of techniques that produce more heat.
collection of electrons in the vicinity of the ❑ Imaging of large body parts (abdomen, pelvis)
filament.
ANODE OF THE TUBE
❑ Requires an adequate space charge
compensating device. The Anode
Saturation Current ❑ The positive side: attracts negatively charged
particles.
❑ Occurs when kVp can no longer increase with mA
❑ Conduct electricity: accepts the bombarded
because all of the available electrons have already
electrons.
been used.
❑ Radiates heat: helps remove heat from the anode.
❑ Further increase in voltage will no longer
❑ Contains the target.
increase the tube current.
❑ Target: the area where electrons are
❑ Indicates the maximum current of the tube, in
bombarded.
accordance with the selected amperage.
❑ Emission limited: if unable to reach saturation Modes of Heat Transfer
current.
❑ When accelerated electrons interact with the anode,
Space Charge Limitation 99% of the kinetic energy is converted into thermal
(heat)energy. Heat can be dissipated by:
❑ Happens when the electric potential used is
❑ Conduction: by touching
insufficient to cause all electrons to be pulled away
❑ Convection: by transfer of hot air or water
from the filament.
❑ Radiation: through emission of infrared
❑ Causes residual space charge to remain around
radiation.
the vicinity filament.
❑ Occurs when current cannot exceed its Types of Anode
maximum value.
❑ Stationary Anode
Dual-Focus X-ray Tube ❑ Primarily used for examination or high tube
current and power is required (dental, some
❑ In a dual focus tube, focus spot size is controlled by
portable).
heating one of the two filaments.
❑ Rotating anode
❑ Small FSS is associated with the small filament.
❑ Primarily used for examinations requiring high
❑ Large FSS is associated with the large filament.
intensity X-ray beams; used in general purpose
❑ Selection of which focal spot to be used is made with
systems.
the mA station selector.
Functions of the Anode
Small Focal Spot
❑ Electrical conductor: receives the electrons from
❑ Size Range: 0.1 – 1.0mm
cathode and conducts them back to the high voltage
❑ mA Selection: 50mA, 100mA, 200mS, 300mA
generator through cables.
❑ Condition of Use
❑ Mechanical support: hold the target into place.
❑ Better spatial resolution is required.
❑ Thermal Dissipater: removes the heat generated by
❑ Imaging of small body parts (hand, forearm)
its interaction with the cathode.
 Common Anode Materials Induction Motor

❑ Anode: conducts the electricity from the cathode. ❑ The rotating anode is powered by an EM Induction
❑ Copper, Molybdenum, Graphite. Motor.
❑ Electromagnetic Induction: Explained in
Common Target Materials
Faraday’s Law, a conductor placed in a changing
❑ Target: the area of the anode struck by electrons. magnetic field (or a conductor moving through
❑ Tungsten, Rhenium. a stationary magnetic field) causes the
production of a voltage across the conductor.
The Anode Target ❑ Parts of the Induction Motor:
❑ Stationary Anode: the target embedded in the ❑ Stator (Stationary part): located outside.
anode; Copper anode, Tungsten target. ❑ Rotor (Rotating part): located inside the
❑ Rotating Anode: target is the rotating disc; Copper enclosure.
anode, Molybdenum stem, Graphite disc base, ❑ Coast Time: time needed to bring the rotating anode
Rheniated Tungsten target. to a full stop; 60 seconds in new x-ray tubes.
❑ Mammography Anode: uses Molybdenum or ❑ Coast time is longer for older tubes due to the
Rhodium targets for lower Z and low K-shell x-ray wear/damage on the rotor bearings.
energy (20keV), increasing contrast,

Rheniated Tungsten

❑ Rheniated Tungsten = 90% Tungsten, 10% Rhenium

❑ Rhenium is added to increase mechanical
strength, resistance to rotational stress and
repetitive expansion/ contraction.
❑ Molybdenum & Graphite is layered under the
target to make the anode lighter and easier to
rotate, due to their low density.

Tungsten (Wolfram) as Target Material

❑ High Atomic Number (74): results to higher x-ray

production efficiency and x-ray energy.
❑ Excellent Thermal Conductivity: better capability to
dissipate of heat.
❑ High Meting Point (3400°C): has better resistance to
high tube current without pitting and bubbling.

Rotating Anode

❑ Advantage: allows the electron beam to interact with

a much longer target area (500x more than
stationary); higher heat capacity; higher tube
current, shorter exposure time.
❑ Specs: 150mm disc diameter, approx. 1800mm2
target area (4mm2 in stationary).
❑ Rotation: 3400 rpm for standard, 10,000rpm for
high-capacity x-ray tubes.