Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

To this point, we have restricted our attention to conduction problems in which the temperature gradient is significant for only one
coordinate direction. However, in many cases such problems are grossly oversimplified if a one-dimensional treatment is used, and
it is necessary to account for multidimensional effects. In this chapter, we consider several techniques for treating two-dimensional
systems under steady-state conditions.
We begin our consideration of two-dimensional, steady-state conduction by briefly reviewing alternative approaches to
determining temperatures and heat rates (Section 4.1). The approaches range from exact solutions, which may be obtained for
idealized conditions, to approximate methods of varying complexity and accuracy. In Section 4.2 we consider some of the
mathematical issues associated with obtaining an exact solution. In Section 4.3, we present compilations of existing exact solutions
for a variety of simple geometries. Our objective in Sections 4.4 and 4.5 is to show how, with the aid of a computer, numerical (
finite-difference or finite-element) methods may be used to accurately predict temperatures and heat rates within the medium and
at its boundaries.
4.1 Alternative Approaches
Consider a long, prismatic solid in which there is two-dimensional heat conduction (Figure 4.1). With two surfaces insulated and
the other surfaces maintained at different temperatures, T1 >T2, heat transfer by conduction occurs from surface 1 to 2. According
to Fourier’s law, Equation 2.3 or 2.4, the local heat flux in the solid is a vector that is everywhere perpendicular to lines of
constant temperature (isotherms). The directions of the heat flux vector are represented by the heat flow lines of Figure 4.1, and
the vector itself is the resultant of heat flux components in the x- and y-directions. These components are determined by Equation
2.6. Since the heat flow lines are, by definition, in the direction of heat flow, no heat can be conducted across a heat flow line ,
and they are therefore sometimes referred to as adiabats. Conversely, adiabatic surfaces (or symmetry lines) are heat flow lines.
Recall that, in any conduction analysis, there exist two major objectives. The first objective is to determine the temperature
distribution in the medium, which, for the present problem, necessitates determining T(x, y). This objective is achieved by solving
the appropriate form of the heat equation. For two-dimensional, steady-state conditions with no generation and constant thermal
conductivity, this form is, from Equation 2.22,

If Equation 4.1 can be solved for T(x, y), it is then a simple matter
to satisfy the second major objective, which is to determine the
heat flux components and by applying the rate equations (2.6).
Methods for solving Equation 4.1 include the use of analytical,
graphical, and numerical (finite-difference, finite-element or
boundary-element) approaches.
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

FIGURE 4.3 Isotherms and heat

flow lines for two-dimensional
conduction in a rectangular plate.
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE
A 5-m-long section of hot- and cold-water pipes run parallel to each
other in a thick concrete layer, as shown. The diameters of both pipes
are 5 cm, and the distance between the centerline of the pipes is 30 cm.
The surface temperatures of the hot and cold pipes are 70°C and 15°C,
respectively. Taking the thermal conductivity of the concrete to be k =
0.75 W/m·K, determine the rate of heat transfer between the pipes.
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
4.4 Finite-Difference Equations
4.4.1 The Nodal Network
In contrast to an analytical solution, which allows for
temperature determination at any point of interest in a medium, a
numerical solution enables determination of the temperature at
only discrete points. The first step in any numerical analysis
must therefore be to select these points. Referring to Figure 4.4,
this may be done by subdividing the medium of interest into a
number of small regions and assigning to each a reference point
that is at its center.
The reference point is frequently termed a nodal point (or simply
a node), and the aggregate of points is termed a nodal network,
grid, or mesh. The nodal points are designated by a numbering
scheme that, for a two-dimensional system, may take the form
shown in Figure 4.4a. The x and y locations are designated by
the m and n indices, respectively. Each node represents a certain
region, and its temperature is a measure of the average
temperature of the region. For example, the temperature of the
node (m, n) of Figure 4.4a may be viewed as the average
temperature of the surrounding shaded area. The selection of
nodal points is rarely arbitrary, depending often on matters such
as geometric convenience and the desired accuracy. The
numerical accuracy of the calculations depends strongly on the
number of designated nodal points. If this number is large (a fine
mesh ), accurate solutions can be obtained.
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
4.4.2 Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation
Determination of the temperature distribution numerically dictates that an appropriate conservation equation be written for each of the
nodal points of unknown temperature. The resulting set of equations may then be solved simultaneously for the temperature at each
node. For any interior node of a two-dimensional system with no generation and uniform thermal conductivity, the exact form of the
energy conservation requirement is given by the heat equation, Equation 4.1. However, if the system is characterized in terms of a
nodal network, it is necessary to work with an approximate, or finite-difference form of this equation. A finite-difference equation that
is suitable for the interior nodes of a two-dimensional system may be inferred directly from Equation 4.1. Consider the second
derivative, ∂2T/∂ x2. From Figure 4.4b, the value of this derivative at the (m, n) nodal point may be approximated as
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Using a network for which ∆ x =∆ y and substituting Equations 4.27 and 4.28 into Equation 4.1, we obtain

Hence for the (m, n) node, the heat equation, which is an exact differential equation, is reduced to an approximate algebraic equation.
This approximate, finite-difference form of the heat equation may be applied to any interior node that is equidistant from its four
neighboring nodes. It requires simply that the temperature of an interior node be equal to the average of the temperatures of the four
neighboring nodes.
4.4.3 The Energy Balance Method
In many cases, it is desirable to develop the finite-difference equations by an alternative method called the energy balance method. As
will become evident, this approach enables one to analyze many different phenomena such as problems involving multiple materials,
embedded heat sources, or exposed surfaces that do not align with an axis of the coordinate system. In the energy balance method, the
finite-difference equation for a node is obtained by applying conservation of energy to a control volume about the nodal region. Since
the actual direction of heat flow (into or out of the node) is often unknown, it is convenient to formulate the energy balance by assuming
that all the heat flow is into the node. Such a condition is, of course, impossible, but if the rate equations are expressed in a manner
consistent with this assumption, the correct form of the finite-difference equation is obtained. For steady-state conditions with
generation, the appropriate form of Equation 1.12c is then

Consider applying Equation 4.30 to a control volume about the interior node (m, n) of Figure 4.5. For two-dimensional conditions,
energy exchange is influenced by conduction between (m, n) and its four adjoining nodes, as well as by generation. Hence Equation
4.30 reduces to
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

EXAMPLE 4.2
Using the energy balance method, derive the finite-difference equation for the (m, n) nodal
point located on a plane, insulated surface of a medium with uniform heat generation.
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions. 2. Two-dimensional conduction. 3. Constant properties.
4. Uniform internal heat generation
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
4.5 Solving the Finite-Difference Equations
Once the nodal network has been established and an appropriate finite-difference equation has been written for each node, the
temperature distribution may be determined. The problem reduces to one of solving a system of linear, algebraic equations. In this
section, we formulate the system of linear, algebraic equations as a matrix equation and briefly discuss its solution by the matrix
inversion method. We also present some considerations for verifying the accuracy of the solution.
4.5.1 Formulation as a Matrix Equation
Consider a system of N finite-difference equations corresponding to N unknown temperatures. Identifying the nodes by a single
integer subscript, rather than by the double subscript (m, n), the procedure for performing a matrix inversion begins by expressing
the equations as

The coefficient matrix [A] is square (NxN), and its elements are designated by a double subscript notation, for which the first and second
subscripts refer to rows and columns, respectively. The matrices [T] and [C] have a single column and are known as column vectors.
Typically, they are termed the solution and right-hand side vectors, respectively. If the matrix multiplication implied by the left-hand side
of Equation 4.48 is performed, Equations 4.47 are obtained.
Numerous mathematical methods are available for solving systems of linear, algebraic equations [11, 12], and many computational
software programs have the built-in capability to solve Equation 4.48 for the solution vector [T]. For small matrices, the solution can be
found using a programmable calculator or by hand. One method suitable for hand or computer calculation is the Gauss–Seidel method,
which is presented in Appendix D.
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

4.5.2 Verifying the Accuracy of the Solution

It is good practice to verify that a numerical solution has been correctly formulated by performing an energy balance
on a control surface surrounding all nodal regions whose temperatures have been evaluated. The temperatures
should be substituted into the energy balance equation, and if the balance is not satisfied to a high degree of
precision, the finite difference equations should be checked for errors.
Even when the finite-difference equations have been properly formulated and solved, the results may still represent a
coarse approximation to the actual temperature field. This behavior is a consequence of the finite spacings (∆x, ∆y)
between nodes and of finite-difference approximations, such as k(∆y.1)(Tm1,n-Tm,n)/ ∆x, to Fourier’s law of conduction,
k(dy .1)∂T/∂x. The finite-difference approximations become more accurate as the nodal network is refined (∆x and ∆y
are reduced). Hence, if accurate results are desired, grid studies should be performed, whereby results obtained for a
fine grid are compared with those obtained for a coarse grid. One could, for example, reduce ∆x and ∆y by a factor of
2, thereby increasing the number of nodes and finite-difference equations by a factor of 4. If the agreement is
unsatisfactory, further grid refinements could be made until the computed temperatures no longer depend
significantly on the choice of ∆x and ∆y. Such grid-independent results would provide an accurate solution to the
physical problem.
Another option for validating a numerical solution involves comparing results with those obtained from an exact
solution. For example, a finite-difference solution of the physical problem described in Figure 4.2 could be compared
with the exact solution given by Equation 4.19. However, this option is limited by the fact that we seldom seek
numerical solutions to problems for which there exist exact solutions. Nevertheless, if we seek a numerical solution to
a complex problem for which there is no exact solution, it is often useful to test our finite difference procedures by
applying them to a simpler version of the problem.
 Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
EXAMPLE 4.3
A major objective in advancing gas turbine engine technologies is to increase the temperature limit associated with operation of the gas
turbine blades. This limit determines the permissible turbine gas inlet temperature, which, in turn, strongly influences overall system
performance. In addition to fabricating turbine blades from special, high-temperature, high-strength super alloys, it is common to use
internal cooling by machining flow channels within the blades and routing air through the channels. We wish to assess the effect of such a
scheme by approximating the blade as a rectangular solid in which rectangular channels are machined. The blade, which has a thermal
conductivity of k =25 W/m K, is 6 mm thick, and each channel has a 2mm 6 mm rectangular cross section, with a 4-mm spacing between
adjoining channels. Under operating conditions for which ho = 1000 W/m2.K,
To =1700 K, hi = 200 W/m2.K, and Ti= 400 K, determine the temperature field
in the turbine blade and the rate of heat transfer per unit length to the channel.
At what location is the temperature a maximum?
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction