Course Title: Project Planning, Execution, and Control

Week 1: Introduction to Project Management

 Overview of project management principles

 Importance of effective project planning, execution, and control
 Key roles and responsibilities in project management

Week 2: Project Planning (Part 1)

 Work breakdown structure (WBS) and its importance

 Developing project schedules and timelines
 Resource allocation and management planning

Week 4: Project Planning (Part 2)

 Cost estimation and budgeting techniques

 Quality planning and assurance
 Communication planning and stakeholder engagement strategies

Week 5: Project Execution

 Implementing project plans effectively

 Team management and leadership in project execution
 Monitoring progress and managing changes

Week 6: Project Control

 Earned value management (EVM) and performance metrics

 Risk monitoring and control
 Handling issues and conflicts in project teams

Week 7: Project Closeout

 Finalizing deliverables and evaluating project outcomes

 Conducting post-project reviews and lessons learned sessions
 Handover and closure processes

Assessment:

 Quizzes and assignments throughout the course (20%)

 Mid-term exam covering theoretical concepts (70%)
 Participation and contribution to discussions (10%)
 Unit 1
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Definition of a Project:
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
Temporary implies a definite beginning and end, with a specific set of resources and scope.
Characteristics of Projects:
 Unique: Each project is distinct, with its own objectives and deliverables.
 Temporary: Projects have a finite duration, unlike ongoing operations.
 Cross-functional: Typically involves teams from different disciplines or departments.
 Progressive Elaboration: Project details are refined and elaborated upon as the project
progresses.
 Uncertainty: Projects often face uncertainties, such as risks and changes.

Importance of Project Management:

 Ensures projects are completed on time, within budget, and with the desired quality.
 Helps manage risks, resources, and stakeholder expectations effectively.
 Provides structure and methodologies to guide the project from initiation to closure.
Project Lifecycle:
 Initiation: Defining the project, establishing objectives, and securing approval.
 Planning: Developing a roadmap, setting goals, creating schedules, and allocating resources.
 Execution: Carrying out the project plan, coordinating people and resources, and managing
stakeholders.
 Monitoring and Controlling: Tracking progress, managing changes, and ensuring compliance
with project plans.
 Closure: Finalizing all activities, documenting lessons learned, and handing over deliverables.

Project Management Processes:

 Initiating Processes: Authorizing the project or phase.
 Planning Processes: Defining project scope, objectives, and course of action.
 Executing Processes: Coordinating people and resources, as well as integrating and
performing activities.
 Monitoring and Controlling Processes: Monitoring progress and performance, and identifying
changes or issues.
 Closing Processes: Finalizing all project activities and ensuring completion.
Project Constraints:
 Scope: What work will be done and what will not be done.
 Time: Project schedule, deadlines, and milestones.
  Cost: Budget, resources, and financial constraints.
 Quality: Meeting requirements and expectations.
 Risk: Uncertainties that may affect project objectives.
 Stakeholders: Individuals or groups impacted by the project and their interests.

Roles and Responsibilities:

Assignment:
Project Management Skills:
 Technical Skills: Knowledge of tools, techniques, and methodologies.
 Interpersonal Skills: Communication, leadership, and conflict resolution.
 Conceptual Skills: Strategic thinking and problem-solving.
Project Management Methodologies:
 Traditional/Waterfall: Sequential approach with distinct phases.
 Agile: Iterative and flexible approach, emphasizing collaboration and adaptability.
 Hybrid: Combines elements of both traditional and Agile approaches based on project
needs.
Challenges in Project Management:
 Balancing competing demands of scope, time, cost, quality, resources, and risks.
 Managing stakeholder expectations and communication effectively.
 Adapting to changes in project scope, requirements, or external factors.
Understanding these foundational concepts and principles is essential for anyone involved in
project management, as they provide a framework for effectively initiating, planning, executing,
monitoring, controlling, and closing projects of varying sizes and complexities.

1.1THE PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The principles of project management encompass fundamental concepts and guidelines that guide
the practice of effectively planning, executing, and managing projects. Here are the key principles
of project management:

 Clear Objectives and Scope Definition:

Projects should have well-defined objectives that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant,
and time-bound (SMART criteria).
Scope defines the boundaries of the project, specifying what is included and excluded.

 Project Constraints:
Every project operates within constraints of time, cost, scope, quality, resources, and risk (known
as the project management triangle or iron triangle).Balancing these constraints is crucial for
project success.
 Project Lifecycle:
Projects typically progress through phases from initiation, planning, execution,
monitoring/control, to closure.
Each phase has specific objectives and deliverables, and the project progresses through progressive
elaboration.

 Stakeholder Engagement and Management:

Identifying stakeholders, understanding their interests, expectations, and impact on the project.
Effective communication and managing stakeholder relationships throughout the project lifecycle.

 Risk Management:
Identifying potential risks that could impact the project's objectives.
Assessing risks in terms of probability and impact, and developing strategies to mitigate, avoid,
transfer, or accept risks.

 Quality Management:
Planning for quality by defining quality standards, metrics, and processes.
Monitoring and controlling quality throughout the project to ensure deliverables meet
requirements.
 Change Management:
Establishing procedures for managing change requests and assessing their impact on project scope,
schedule, cost, and resources.
Ensuring changes are approved and implemented effectively.

 Team Management and Leadership:

Defining roles, responsibilities, and reporting structures within the project team.
Motivating and supporting team members, fostering collaboration, and resolving conflicts.

 Communication:
Developing a communication plan that outlines who needs what information, when, and through
which channels.
Ensuring clear, timely, and relevant communication among stakeholders.

 Integration Management:
Coordinating and integrating all project activities and deliverables.
Ensuring alignment with organizational goals and strategies.

 Procurement and Contract Management (if applicable):

Planning and managing procurement activities, including selecting vendors, negotiating contracts,
and administering contracts to ensure delivery meets project requirements.
 Continuous Improvement and Lessons Learned:
Conducting post-project reviews and capturing lessons learned to improve future project
performance.
Emphasizing continuous improvement in project management practices and methodologies.
Ethical Considerations:
Conducting projects with honesty, integrity, fairness, and transparency. Respecting confidentiality
and privacy of stakeholders and sensitive project information.
These principles provide a comprehensive framework for project managers and teams to
effectively plan, execute, monitor/control, and close projects while meeting stakeholder
expectations and achieving desired outcomes. Applying these principles helps ensure projects are
completed successfully, delivering value to stakeholders and contributing to organizational goals.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING, EXECUTION AND CONTROL

1.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT PLANNING

1. Clarity of Objectives: Planning helps define clear project objectives, scope, and deliverables,
ensuring everyone understands what needs to be achieved.
2. Resource Allocation: Proper planning allocates resources (human, financial, material)
efficiently, minimizing waste and optimizing utilization.
3. Risk Management: Identifying potential risks and developing mitigation strategies early in
the planning phase reduces the likelihood of issues derailing the project later.
4. Time Management: Developing a project schedule during planning ensures tasks are
sequenced logically and deadlines are realistic, improving overall time management.
5. Cost Control: Budgeting and cost estimation during planning prevent overspending and allow
for effective financial management throughout the project lifecycle.
6. Stakeholder Engagement: Planning includes identifying stakeholders and determining
communication strategies, ensuring their expectations are managed and their needs are met.

1.2 .2 IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT EXECUTION

1. Implementation of Plans: Execution turns project plans into action, ensuring tasks are
performed according to schedule and within budget.
2. Team Coordination: Effective execution requires clear communication, collaboration, and
motivation within the project team, enhancing productivity and morale.
3. Monitoring Progress: Regular monitoring during execution allows for timely identification
of issues or deviations from the plan, enabling corrective actions to be taken promptly.
4. Quality Assurance: Executing quality control measures ensures deliverables meet predefined
standards and stakeholder expectations, enhancing project outcomes.
5. Risk Response: Implementing risk response strategies developed during planning minimizes
the impact of unforeseen events on project progress and objectives.
6. Adaptability: Effective execution includes the ability to adapt to changes, making necessary
adjustments while keeping the project on track towards its goals.

1.2.3IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT CONTROL

1. Performance Monitoring: Control involves monitoring project performance against

established baselines (schedule, budget, and quality), providing insights into project health
and progress.
2 Issue Identification: Control facilitates early detection of issues or deviations from the plan,
allowing for timely corrective actions to prevent negative impacts on project outcomes.
3 Change Management: Control processes manage change requests systematically, evaluating
their impact and ensuring changes are implemented smoothly while maintaining project
integrity.
4 Communication: Control includes effective communication of project status, issues, and
changes to stakeholders, maintaining transparency and managing expectations.
5 Documentation and Reporting: Control involves maintaining accurate project
documentation and generating reports to track performance, support decision-making, and
ensure accountability.
6 Closure and Evaluation: Control oversees the closure phase, ensuring all project activities
are completed, lessons learned are documented, and final deliverables are handed over to
stakeholders.

1.3 PROJECT MANAGER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

PMs juggle a variety of core responsibilities to lead a project through hurdles and changes.
Mastery in each of these areas contributes to a smoother experience from the perspective of
both team members and stakeholders:
He is a figure head, He is an entrepreneur, He is a liaison, He is a spokesperson, He monitors
He negotiates etc other roles are:
 Project planning: PMs initiate the planning process, clearly defining the project's scope,
goals, and objectives. They develop detailed plans outlining tasks, resources, timelines, and
deliverables, creating a solid foundation for project execution.
 Team coordination: Project managers assemble and direct project teams, assigning tasks
based on members' skills and experience. PMs focus and unify team efforts by promoting
collaboration, resolving conflicts, and leading effective team meetings.
 Risk management: PMs identify potential risks early, analyze their possible impact, and
develop mitigation strategies. This proactive approach minimizes disruptions to the project’s
schedule, quality, and budget.
 Budget oversight: PMs Estimate costs, establish budgets, track spending, and adjust as
necessary to keep the project within financial boundaries while achieving fiscal efficiency.
 Client communication: They maintain open and transparent communication with clients and
stakeholders. PMs provide updates, respond to inquiries, and use feedback to adapt project
scope to meet or exceed client expectations.
 Maintaining quality standards: PMs Implement quality control processes to ensure
deliverables meet agreed-upon standards and satisfy client requirements. This helps maintain
project integrity.
 UNIT 2: PROJECT PLANNING (PART 1)

2.1 THE CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)

In project management, the critical path is the longest sequence of tasks that must be completed to
execute a project. The tasks on the critical path are called critical activities because if they’re
delayed, the whole project completion will be delayed. To find the critical path, project managers
use the critical path method (CPM).

What Is the Critical Path Method (CPM)?

The critical path method (CPM) is a project management technique that’s used by project
managers to create an accurate project schedule. The CPM method, also known as critical path
analysis (CPA), consists in using the CPM formula and a network diagram to visually represent
the task sequences of a project.The critical path method was developed in the late 1950s by Morgan
R. Walker and James E. Kelley. The origins of the critical path method are closely related to the
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), a similar method that is commonly used in
conjunction with CPM in project management.
Once these task sequences or paths are defined, their duration is calculated to identify the critical
path. Finding the critical path is very helpful for project managers because it allows them to:
 Accurately estimate the total project duration.
 Estimate the time that’s necessary to complete each project task.
 Identify critical activities which must be completed on time and require close supervision.
 Find out which project tasks can be delayed without affecting the project schedule by
calculating slack for each task.
 Identify task dependencies, resource constraints and project risks.
 Prioritize tasks and create realistic project schedules.
Once done by hand, the critical path can now be calculated automatically with project scheduling
software equipped with Gantt charts, which makes the CPM method much easier. Project
Manager is project management software that helps you quickly implement the critical path
method. Build a project schedule on our Gantt chart, then simply filter for the critical path.

What Is the Importance of CPM in Project Management?

Using the critical path method is important when managing a project because it identifies all the
tasks needed to complete the project. It then determines the tasks that must be done on time, those
that can be delayed if needed and how much float or slack you have.
When done properly, critical path analysis can help you:
Identify task dependencies, resource constraints and project risks
Accurately estimate the duration of each task
Prioritize tasks based on their float or slack time, which helps with project scheduling and resource
allocation
Identify critical tasks that have no slack and ensure those are completed on time
Monitor your project progress and measure schedule variance
Use schedule compression techniques like crash duration or fast tracking

Critical Path Method (CPM) Formula

Before we learn how to use the CPM formula, we need to understand some key CPM concepts.
Earliest start time (ES): This is simply the earliest time that a task can be started in your project.
You cannot determine this without first knowing if there are any task dependencies
Latest start time (LS): This is the very last minute in which you can start a task before it threatens
to delay your project timeline
Earliest finish time (EF): The earliest an activity can be completed, based on its duration and its
earliest start time
Latest finish time (LF): The latest an activity can be completed, based on its duration and its
latest start time
Float/ Slack: Also known as slack, float is a term that describes how long you can delay a task
before it impacts its task sequence and the project schedule. The tasks on the critical path have
zero float because they can’t be delayed
Slack = LS – ES = LF – EF
The critical path method formula has two parts; a forward pass and a backward pass.

Forward Pass in CPM

Use the CPM diagram and the estimated duration of each activity to determine their earliest start
(ES) and earliest finish (EF). The ES of an activity is equal to the EF of its predecessor, and its EF
is determined by the CPM formula EF = ES + t (t is the activity duration). The EF of the last
activity identifies the expected time required to complete the entire project.
Backward Pass in CPM
Begins by assigning the last activity’s earliest finish as its latest finish. Then the CPM formula to
find the LS is LS = LF – t (t is the activity duration). For the previous activities, the LF is the
smallest of the start times for the activity that immediately follows.
his procedure will be detailed by means of solved examples:
Example 1:
Draw the activity-on-node (AON) project network associated with the following activities for
Dave Carhart’s consulting company project.
How long should it take Dave and his team to complete this project?
Activity Immediate Predecessor(s) Time (Days)
A – 3
B A 4
C A 6
D B 6
E B 4
F C 4
G D 6
H E, F 8

What are the critical path activities?

Forward path
We will now perform the forward path to calculate the ES and EF with an analysis of each activity.
Start node:
This dummy node has all values equal to zero.
Activity A:
Since it is the first activity, its ES will be equal to the EF of the starting node (zero); the EF is
calculated as follows:

EF = ES + activity time
EFA = 0 + 3 = 3

Activity B:
It has as precedent only activity A; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity A. In the
same way as the previous node, the EF of activity B is calculated by adding its ES + the
corresponding time:
EFB = 3 + 4 = 7

Activity C:
It has as precedent only activity A; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity A. The EF
of activity C is calculated by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFC = 3 + 6 = 9

Activity D:
It has as a precedent only activity B; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity B. The EF
of activity D is calculated by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFD = 7 + 6 = 13
Activity E:
It has as a precedent only activity B; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity B. The EF
of activity E is calculated by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFE = 7 + 4 = 11
Activity F:
It has as precedent only activity C; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity C. The EF
of activity F is calculated by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFF = 9 + 4 = 13
Activity G:
It has as precedent only activity D; therefore its ES will be equal to the EF of activity D. The EF
of activity G is calculated by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFG = 13 + 6 = 19
Activity H:
This activity has two precedents: E and F; therefore its ES will be equal to the highest EF of both
activities. In this case, activity F has the highest value with 13. The EF of activity H is calculated
by adding its ES + the corresponding time:
EFH = 13 + 8 = 21

End Node:
The end fictitious node is joined with the last activities G and H; and the highest value of the EF
of both activities is placed as ES: 21. This value represents the total duration of the project. As this
node has zero duration (because it is fictitious) its EF will be equal to 21 + 0 = 21.

Backward path
To finalize the critical path calculation we will perform the backward traversal to calculate the LF
and LS, starting from the final node; placing the values at the bottom of the node as follows:
End Node:
For the end node the LF value is equal to the project duration (21). The LS is calculated by
subtracting the LF minus the duration (zero).
LSEnd = 21 – 0 = 21
Activity H:
Since the final node is the only successor to activity H, its LF will be equal to the LS of the final
node (21). The LS of activity H is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSH= 21 – 8 = 13
Activity G:
Since the end node is the only successor of activity G, its LF will be equal to the LS of the end
node (21). The LS of activity G is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSG = 21 – 6 = 15

Activity F:
Since activity H is the only successor of activity F, its LF will be equal to the LS of activity H (13).
The LS of activity F is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSF = 13 – 4 = 9

Activity E:
Since activity H is the only successor of activity E, its LF will be equal to the LS of activity H
(13). The LS of activity E is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSE = 13 – 4 = 9

Activity D:
Since activity G is the only successor of activity D, its LF will be equal to the LS of activity G
(15). The LS of activity D is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSD = 15 – 6 = 9
Activity C:
Since activity F is the only successor of activity C, its LF will be equal to the LS of activity F (9).
The LS of activity C is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSC = 9 – 6 = 3
Activity B:
How activity B has as successors activities D and E, its LF will be equal to the smaller value of
the LS of both. In this case, since both have a value of 9; that value will be the LF of activity B.
The LS of activity B is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSB = 9 – 4 = 5
Activity A:
How activity A has as successors activities B and C, its LF will be equal to the smaller value of
the LS of both. In this case, the lowest value is that of activity C (3); therefore, that value will be
the LF of activity A. The LS of activity A is calculated by subtracting its LF minus its duration:
LSA = 3 – 3 = 0
Initial Node:
Using the same analysis as above we complete the values of the initial node with zero.Finally we
calculate the slack for each node with the following formula:
Slack = LS – ES = LF – EF
The final graph would look like this:
The activities with zero float (marked in red) are the critical activities. In this example, these
activities follow a single path that will be our critical path: A – C – F – H. Total project time is 21
days.

Example 2:
Shirley Hopkins is developing a program in leadership training for middle-level managers. Shirley
has listed a number of activities that must be completed before a training program of this nature
can be conducted. The activities, immediate predecessors, and times appear in the accompanying
table.Provide the following: diagram for these precedencies
a. What is the critical path?
 b. What is the total project completion date?
c. What is the slack time for each individual activity?
Solution 2:
We will solve this example by showing the results and analysis of our critical path method
calculator:
Each activity is broken down by its precedents and descendants:
Activity Immediate Predecessor Time (days)
A – 2
B – 5
C – 1
D B 10
E A,D 3
F C 6
G E,F 8

Predecessor Activity Successor

Start → A A A→E
Start → B B B→D
Start → C C C→F
B→D D D→E

A→ED→E E E→G
C→F F F→G

E→GF→G G G → End
This table serves as a guide to build our network diagram. Two dummy activities were added to
show the start and end. The activities with 0 (zero) slack are the ones that make up the critical path.

CPM Network Diagram

CPM Network Diagram with Calculations of ES, EF, LS, LF and Float
The following table presents the results to determine the critical path:
Early Start (ES): It is equal to the Early Finish to the activity's precedent. If it has more than one
precedent, the highest value is taken.
Early Finish (EF): It is equal to the Early Start of the activity plus its duration (t). EF = ES + t.
Late Start (LS): It is equal to the Late Finish minus its duration (t). LS = LF – t.
Late Finish (LF): It is equal to the late start of the activity that follows. If it has more than one
successor, the lowest value is taken.
Slack (S): It can be calculated in two ways. S = LS – ES = LF – EF. Activities with zero clearance
make up the critical path.
The critical path is:
B→D→E→G
The total project time is: 26 hours
Final Reflection
Activity Time Early Start (ES) Early Finish (EF) Late Start (LS) Late Finish (LF) Slack (S)
A 2 0 2 13 15 13
B 5 0 5 0 5 0
C 1 0 1 11 12 11
D 10 5 15 5 15 0
E 3 15 18 15 18 0
F 6 1 7 12 18 11
G 8 18 26 18 26 0
The critical path shows us the main activities that will determine the total time of the project; that
is why Project Managers must be aware of the fulfillment of each one of them. This does not mean
that the other activities should be neglected; on the contrary, if they are delayed longer than their
slack, the project will have problems to finish on time.
With the help of our entry, we are confident that you will gain more understanding about the CPM
technique and how it can be used to calculate critical path

2.2 PERT (PROGRAMMED EVELUATIO AND REVIEWED TECHNIQUES)

In 1957, a new project p l a n n i n g , e x e c u t i o n and control technique was developed,

ProgramEvaluation and Review Technique (PERT) by the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office
on thePolaris missile system to support the nuclear submarine projects. It is a technique
for estimating and planning a large project. One of its most powerful concepts is the
management of probabilities. PERT makes use of simple statistical mathematics in
order to come up with a probability distribution for the completion dates of the project
milestones, it was designed to provide: (1) Management information on actual and
impending problems in completing a project; (2) A continuous status report on active projects
for achieving established objectives, completion dates, and the probability ofreaching both;
and (3) Notation of most and least critical component activities withineach project. PERT
presented a even provided time requirements needed forcompleting each comprehensive
illustration of all major project activitiesand their interdependencies. In fact, it component
activity. It focused managerial attention on thosebusiness activities most vital in meeting
the project completion date and identifiedwhich resources could be used more effectively
if transferred to other phases of aproject. Finally, PERT provided a scheme of the project
as it occurred, therebyillustrating the effects of managerial changes in the entire project.
The ability of PERTto predict future performance and potential future problems through
frequency reporting, marked its major departure from previous planning and control
techniques which relied heavily on historical data. The estimation of time for the completion
of each activity is important in the network analysis; this can be done using three possible
 assumptions: (1) Most optimistic time (a): This time assumes that everything will go
according to minimum amount of difficulties and such situation may occur approximately
one percent of time; (2) Most pessimistic time (b): This time assumes that everything will
not go according to plan and that the maximum potential difficulties will develop and may
occur approximately one percent of time; and (3) Most likely or normal time (m): This is
the time that would most often occur, shouldthis effort be reported over again. The estimated
time of an activity completion is givenby using three estimates that are combined into an
expected duration and a standard deviation. The expected completion duration (l) is assumed
to be (1 · a +4 · m+ 1· b) ‚ 6,and the standard deviation (s) is assumed to be (b–a) ‚6.

Terminology, Scope and Application of Project Evaluation and Review Techniques

(PERT)

Terminology Definition and Scope

PERT event A point that marks the start or completion of one or more activities. It consumes no time
and uses no resources. When itmarks the completion of one or more activities, it is not
"reached" (does not occur) until all of the activities leading to that event have been
completed.
predecessorevent An event that immediately precedes some other event without anyother events intervening.
An event can have multiple predecessor events and can be the predecessor of multiple
events.
successor event An event that immediately follows some other event without any other intervening events.
An event can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of multiple events.

PERT activity The actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources (such as labor,
materials, space, machinery). It can be understood as representing the time, effort, and
resources required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity
cannot be performed until the predecessor event has occurred.
PERT sub- A PERT activity can be further decomposed into a set of sub- activities. For example,
activity activity A1 can be decomposed into A1.1, A1.2 and A1.3 for example. Sub-activities have
all the properties of activities, in particular a sub-activity has predecessor or successor events
just like an activity. A sub-activity can be decomposed again into finer-grained sub-
activities.
optimistic The minimum possible time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything
time (O) proceeds better than is normally expected
pessimistic time The maximum possible time required to accomplish a task,assuming everything goes
(P) wrong (but excluding major catastrophes).
most likely The best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assuming everything
time (M) proceeds as normal.
expected time The best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, accounting for the fact that
(TE) things don't always proceed as normal (the implication being that the expected time is the
average time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions over
an extended period of time).
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6
float or slack Is a measure of the excess time and resources available to complete a task. It is the amount
of time that a project task can be delayed without causing a delay in any subsequent tasks
(free float)or the whole project (total float). Positive slack would indicate ahead of
schedule; negative slack would indicate behind
schedule; and zero slack would indicate on schedule.
critical path: The longest possible continuous pathway taken from the initialevent to the terminal event.
It determines the total calendar time required for the project; and, therefore, any time delays
along the critical path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same
amount.

critical activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero. An activity with zero float is not necessarily
on the critical path since its path may not bethe longest.
Lead time: The time by which a predecessor event must be completed in orderto allow sufficient time
for the activities that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches completion.
lag time: The earliest time by which a successor event can follow a specific PERT event.
fast tracking: Performing more critical activities in parallel
crashing critical Shortening duration of critical activities
path:

1. Major Features of PERT Analysis

The chief feature of PERT analysis is a network diagram that provides a visual depiction of
the major project activities and the sequence in which they must be completed. Activities are
defined as distinct steps toward completion of the project that consume either time or
resources. The network diagram consists of arrows and nodes and can be organized using
one of two different conventions. The arrows represent activities in the activity-on-arrow
convention, while the nodes represent activities in the activity- on-node convention. For each
activity, managers provide an estimate of the timerequired to complete it.
The sequence of activities leading from the starting point of the diagram to the finishing
point of the diagram is called a path. The amount of time required to complete the work
involved in any path can be figured by adding up the estimated times of all activities along
that path. The path with the longest total time is then called the "critical path," hence the
term CPM. The critical path is the most important part of the diagram for managers: it
determines the completion date of the project. Delays in completing activities along the
critical path necessitate an extension of the final deadline for the project. If a manager hopes
to shorten the time required to complete the project, he or she must focus on finding ways to
reduce the time involved in activities along the critical path.
The time estimates managers provide for the various activities comprising a project involve
different degrees of certainty. When time estimates can be made with a high degree of
certainty, they are called deterministic estimates. When they are subject to variation, they are
called probabilistic estimates. In using the probabilistic approach, managers provide three
estimates for each activity: an optimistic or best case estimate; a pessimistic or worst case
estimate; and the most likely estimate. Statistical methods can be used to describe the extent
of variability in these estimates, and thus the degree of uncertainty in the time provided for
each activity. Computing the standard deviation of each path provides a probabilistic estimate
of the time required to complete the overall project.

2. Stages of PERT
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model that allows for
variations in activity completion times. In a PERT network model, each activity is
represented by a line (or arc), and each milestone (i.e. the completion of an activity) is
represented by a node.
Milestones are numbered so that the end node of an activity has a higher number than thestart
node. Incrementing the numbers by 10 allows for additional nodes to be inserted without
modifying the numbering of the entire network. The activities are labeled alphabetically, and
the expected time required for each activity is also indicated. The critical path is the pathway
through the project network that takes the longest to complete, and will determine the overall
time required to complete the project. Bear in mind that for a complex project with many
activities and task dependencies, there can be more than one critical path through the
network, and that the critical path can change.
PERT planning involves the following steps:
a) Identify activities and milestones - the tasks required to complete the project,and
the events that mark the beginning and end of each activity, are listed in atable.
b) Determine the proper sequence of the activities - this step may be combined with
step 1, if the order in which activities must be performed is relatively easyto
determine.
c) Construct a network diagram - using the results of steps 1 and 2, a network
diagram is drawn which shows activities as arrowed lines, and milestones as
circles. Software packages are available that can automatically produce a network
diagram from tabular information.
d) Estimate the time required for each activity - any consistent unit of time can be
used, although days and weeks are a common.

e) Determine the critical path - the critical path is determined by adding the activity
times for each sequence and determining the longest path in the project.If the activity
time for activities in other paths is significantly extended, the critical path may change.
The amount of time that a non-critical path activity canbe extended without delaying
the project is referred to as its slack time.
1. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses
As the project progresses, estimated times can be replaced with actual times. Because the
critical path determines the completion date of the project, the project can be completed
earlier by allocating additional resources to the activities on the critical path. PERT also
identifies activities that have slack time, and which can therefore lend resources to critical
path activities. One drawback of the model is that if there is little experience in performing
an activity, the activity time estimate may simply be a guess. Another more serious problem
is that, because another path may become the critical path if one or more of its associated
activities are delayed, PERT often tends to underestimate the time required to complete the
project.
PERT incorporates uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing
precise details and durations of all activities. The time shown for each project activity when
creating the network diagram is the time that the task is expected totake based on a range
of possibilities that can be defined as:
  The optimistic time - the minimum time required to complete a task
 The pessimistic time - the maximum time required to complete a task
 The most likely time - an estimate of how long the task will actually take

The expected time (the time that will appear on the network diagram) is defined as the
average time the task would require if it were repeated a number of times over a period of
time, and can be calculated using the following formula:
Expected time = (optimistic time + (4 x most likely time) + pessimistic time) / 6
The information included on the network diagram for each activity may include:
 Activity Name (AN)
 Expected Duration (ED)
 Earliest start (ES)
 Earliest Finish (EF)
 Latest Start (LS)
 Latest Finish (LF)
 Slack (S)
In order to determine these parameters, the project activities must have been identified and
the expected duration of each calculated. The earliest start (ES) for any activity will depend
on the maximum earliest finish (EF) of all predecessor activities (unless the activity is the
first activity, in which case the ES is zero). The earliest finish for the activity is the
earliest start plus the expected duration. The lateststart (LS) for an activity will be equal
to the maximum earliest finish of all predecessor activities. The latest finish (LF) is the
latest start plus the expected duration. The slack in any activity is defined as the
difference between the earliest finish andthe latest finish, and represents the amount of time
that a task could be delayed without causing a delay in subsequent tasks or the project
completion date. Activities on the critical path by definition have zero slack.
A PERT chart provides a realistic estimate of the time required to complete a project,
identifies the activities on the critical path, and makes dependencies (precedence
relationships) visible. It can also identify the earliest and latest start and finish datesfor a
task, and any slack available. Resources can thus be diverted from non-critical activities to
those that lie on the critical path should the need arise, in order to prevent project slippage.
Variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the variances in the
completion times of the activities in the critical path, allowing the probability of the project
being completed by a certain date to be determined (this will depend on the number of
activities in the critical path being greatenough to allow a meaningful normal distribution to
be derived).PERT charts canbecome unwieldy, however, if the number of tasks is too great.
The accuracy of the task duration estimates will also depend on the experience and judgment
of the individual or group that make them.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Introduction:

 PERT is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks
within a project.
 Developed in the 1950s by the U.S. Navy for the Polaris submarine project.
 Particularly useful for projects with high uncertainty or complexity.

Key Concepts:

1. Network Diagrams:
o PERT uses network diagrams to represent project tasks and their dependencies.
o Nodes represent events or milestones.
o Arrows represent activities or tasks.
2. Three Time Estimates:
o PERT requires three time estimates for each activity:
 Optimistic Time (a): The shortest possible time an activity can be
completed under ideal conditions.
 Most Likely Time (m): The best estimate of the time required under
normal conditions.
 Pessimistic Time (b): The longest time an activity might take if
everything goes wrong.
3. Calculating Expected Time:
 o PERT uses a weighted average of the three time estimates to calculate the
expected time (TE) for each activity: TE=a+4m+b/6
4. Critical Path:
o The critical path is the longest sequence of activities that determines the earliest
possible completion date of the project.
o Activities on the critical path have zero slack or float.
5. Probability and Variance:
o PERT allows for the calculation of the variance of project completion time:
Variance=(b−a/6)2
o This variance helps in assessing the probability of completing the project within a
certain timeframe.
6. PERT Chart:
o A PERT chart visually represents the project schedule, showing the sequence of
activities and their expected durations.

Advantages of PERT:

 Provides a structured approach to planning and scheduling.

 Accounts for uncertainties and risks through probability analysis.
 Helps identify the critical path and manage project timelines effectively.

Limitations of PERT:

 Requires accurate estimation of time and dependencies.

 Complex to manage and update as projects progress.
 Assumes activities are independent, which may not always be the case in real-world
projects.

Example 1

Consider a construction project with the following activities and their estimated times (in
weeks):

Optimistic Time Most Likely Time Pessimistic Time

Activity Description
(a) (m) (b)
A Site Preparation 2 3 6
B Foundation Laying 3 4 5
C Framing 4 5 8
D Roofing 2 3 4
Plumbing and Electrical
E 3 4 6
Work
F Interior Finishing 3 4 5
G Exterior Finishing 2 3 4
Assume all activities can start as soon as their predecessors finish. Calculate the expected time
and identify the critical path for this project.

Solution:

1. Calculate Expected Time (TE) for Each Activity:

Use the formula:

TE=a+4m+b/6

Let's calculate TE for each activity:

o For Activity A (Site Preparation): TEA=2+4×3+6/6 =20/6 ≈3.33 weeks

o For Activity B (Foundation Laying): TEB=3+4×4+5/6C=24/6=4 weeks
o For Activity C (Framing): TEC=4+4×5+8/6CC=32/6≈5.33 weeks
o For Activity D (Roofing): TED=2+4×3+4/6=18/6=3 weeks
o For Activity E (Plumbing and Electrical Work): TEE=3+4×4+6/6=29/6 ≈ 4.83 weeks
o For Activity F (Interior Finishing): TEF=3+4×4+5/6=24/6 =4 weeks
o For Activity G (Exterior Finishing): TEG=2+4×3+4/ 6=17/6 ≈2.83 weeks
2. Construct the Network Diagram:

Using the estimated times and dependencies, construct a network diagram to visualize the
project activities and their sequences.

3. Identify the Critical Path:

o The critical path is the longest path through the network diagram, which determines the
shortest possible project duration.
o Calculate the total duration for each path and identify which path has the longest
duration.

By calculating the expected times and analyzing the network diagram, we can identify the
critical path and determine the project's expected duration.

Conclusion:

In this example, we've applied PERT to calculate expected times for each activity in a
construction project and identify the critical path. This approach helps project managers in
scheduling activities effectively and managing project timelines to ensure timely completion.

Example 2:

You are managing a software development project with the following activities and their
estimated times (in days):
 Optimistic Time Most Likely Time Pessimistic Time
Activity Description
(a) (m) (b)
Requirements
A 5 8 12
Gathering
B System Design 7 9 14
C Coding 10 15 20
D Testing 6 10 12
E Documentation 4 6 8
Assume all activities can start as soon as their predecessors finish. Draw the network diagram
and identify the critical path for this project.
Solution:
Calculating Expected Time (TE) for Each Activity:
Using the formula TE=a+4m+b/6
 For Activity A (Requirements Gathering): TEA=5+4×8+12/6 =49/6≈8.17 days
o For Activity B (System Design): TEB=7+4×9+14/6=58/6≈9.67 days
o For Activity C (Coding): TEC=10+4×15+20/6 =95/6 ≈15.83 days
o For Activity D (Testing): TED=6+4×10+12/6 =58 /6≈9.67 days
o For Activity E (Documentation): TEE=4+4×6+8/6 =38/6 ≈6.33 days

The critical path is A -> C -> D -> E with a duration of 40 days.

Question 2:

You are tasked with organizing a marketing campaign project with the following activities and
their estimated times (in weeks):

Optimistic Time Most Likely Time Pessimistic Time

Activity Description
(a) (m) (b)
A Market Research 3 4 6
Campaign Strategy
B 2 3 5
Development
C Content Creation 4 5 8
D Design and Production 3 4 6
E Campaign Launch 2 3 4

Assume all activities can start as soon as their predecessors finish. Draw the network diagram
and identify the critical path for this project.

Solution:

Network Diagram:

Calculating Expected Time (TE) for Each Activity:

Using the formula TE=a+4m+b/6

 For Activity A (Market Research): TEA=3+4×4+6/6=25/6≈4.17 weeks

 For Activity B (Campaign Strategy Development): TEB=2+4×3+5/6=21/6≈3.5 weeks
 For Activity C (Content Creation): TEC=4+4×5+8/6=37/6≈6.17 weeks
 For Activity D (Design and Production): TED=3+4×4+6/6=25/6≈4.17 weeks
 For Activity E (Campaign Launch): TEE=2+4×3+4/6=21/6=3.5 weeks

The critical path is A -> B -> C -> D -> E with a duration of 21.51 weeks.

4. Animation: Understanding PERT (U-tube)

5. Implementation of PERT

The first step to scheduling the project is to determine the tasks that the project
requires and the order in which they must be completed. The order may be easy torecord
for some tasks (e.g. When building a house, the land must be graded before thefoundation
can be laid) while difficult for others (There are two areas that need to begraded, but there
are only enough bulldozers to do one). Additionally, the timeestimates usually reflect the
normal, non-rushed time. Many times, the time requiredto execute the task can be reduced
for an additional cost or a reduction in the quality. In the following example there are seven
tasks, labeled A through G. Some tasks can bedone concurrently (A and B) while others
cannot be done until their predecessor task iscomplete (C cannot begin until A is complete).
Additionally, each task has three timeestimates: the optimistic time estimate (O), the most
likely or normal time estimate(M), and the pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected
time (TE) is computed usingthe formula (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.

Activity Predecessor Opt (O) Normal (M) Pess.(P) Expected

time
A - 2 4 6 4.00
B _ 3 5 9 5.33
C A 4 5 7 5.17
D A 4 6 10 6.33
E B,C 4 5 7 5.17
F D 3 4 8 4.50
 G E 3 5 8 5.17

Once this step is complete, one can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram. It can be created
by hand or by using diagram software. There are two types of network diagrams, activity on
arrow (AOA) and activity on node (AON). Activity on node diagrams are generally easier to
create and interpret. To create an AON diagram, it is recommended (but not required) to start
with a node named start. This "activity" has duration of zero (0). Then you draw each activity
that does not have a predecessor activity (a and b in this example) and connect them with an
arrow from start to each node. Next, since both c and d list a as a predecessor activity, their
nodes are drawn with arrows coming from a. Activity e is listed with b and c as predecessor
activities, so nodee is drawn with arrows coming from both b and c, signifying that e cannot
begin until both b and c have been completed. Activity f has d as a predecessor activity, so
anarrow is drawn connecting the activities. Likewise, an arrow is drawn from e to g. Since
there are no activities that come after f or g, it is recommended (but again not required) to
connect them to a node labeled finish.

Advantages of using PERT

 PERT chart explicitly defines and makes visible dependencies (precedence

relationships) between the work breakdown structure (commonly WBS) elements.
 PERT facilitates identification of the critical path and makes this visible.
 PERT facilitates identification of early start, late start, and slack for each activity.

 PERT provides for potentially reduced project duration due to better understandingof
dependencies leading to improved overlapping of activities and tasks where feasible.
 The large amount of project data can be organized & presented in diagram for usein
decision making.
 PERT can provide a probability of completing before a given time.

Disadvantages of using PERT

 There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and individual dependency

relationships.
 PERT is not easily scalable for smaller projects.
 The network charts tend to be large and unwieldy requiring several pages to printand
requiring specially sized paper.
 The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/CPM charts makes it harder to show status
although colours can help (e.g., specific colour for completed nodes).

CPM (Critical Path Method):

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is one of several related techniques for doing project
planning. CPM is for projects that are made up of a number of individual "activities." If some
of the activities require other activities to finish before they can start, then the project
becomes a complex web of activities.

DSS (Decision Support Systems): A decision support system (DSS) is a computer- based
information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities.
DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization (usually mid
and higher management) and help people make decisions about problems that may be rapidly
changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e. Unstructured and Semi-Structured
decision problems. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized, human-
powered or a combination of both. While academics have perceived DSS as a tool to support
decision making process, DSS users see DSS as a tool to facilitate organizational processes.
Sprague (1980) defines DSS by its characteristics:

1. DSS tends to be aimed at the less well structured, underspecified problem thatupper
level managers typically face;

2. DSS attempts to combine the use of models or analytic techniques withtraditional

data access and retrieval functions;

3. DSS specifically focuses on features which make them easy to use by non-computer
people in an interactive mode; and

4. DSS emphasizes flexibility and adaptability to accommodate

changes inthe environment and the decision making approach of the user.

LOB (Line of Balance): The Line of Balance (LOB) process is employed when a repetitive
 process exists within the contract's work scope. The manufacturing of parts and the assembly
of units in the factory are two candidates for the use of LOB. Line of Balance (LOB) is a
management control process for collecting, measuring and presenting facts relating to time,
cost and accomplishment - all measured against a specific plan. It shows the process, status,
background, timing and phasing of the project activities, thus providing management with
measuring tools that help:
1. Comparing actual progress with a formal objective plan.
2. Examining only the deviations from established plans, and gauging their degree of
severity with respect to the remainder of the project.

3. Receiving timely information concerning trouble areas and indicating areas where
appropriate corrective action is required.
4. Forecasting future performance.
The "Line of Balance" itself is a graphic device that enables a manager to see at a single
glance which of many activities comprising a complex operation are "in balance" - i.e.,
whether those which should have been completed at the time of the review actually are
completed and whether any activities scheduled for futurecompletion are lagging behind
schedule. The Line of Balance chart comprises onlyone feature of the whole philosophy
which includes numerous danger signalcontrols for all the various levels of management
concerned.

MC (Monte Carlo) Method: Monte Carlo methods (or Monte Carlo experiments) are a
broad class of computational algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to obtain
numerical results. They are often used in physical and mathematical problems and are most
useful when it is difficult or impossible to use other mathematical methods. Monte Carlo
methods are mainly used in three distinct problem classes: optimization, numerical
integration, and generating draws from a probabilitydistribution.
In physics-related problems, Monte Carlo methods are quite useful for simulating systems
with many coupled degrees of freedom, such as fluids, disordered materials, strongly coupled
solids, and cellular structures (see cellular Potts model, interacting particle systems,
McKean-Vlasov processes, kinetic models of gases). Other examples include modeling
phenomena with significant uncertainty in inputs such as the calculation of risk in business
and, in math, evaluation of multidimensional definiteintegrals with complicated boundary
conditions. In application to space and oil exploration problems, Monte Carlo–based
predictions of failure, cost overruns and schedule overruns are routine

2.3 WHAT IS A WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (WBS)

A WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the entire scope of work required to complete a project.
It breaks down the project into smaller, more manageable components, and provides a clear and
structured view of the work required to complete the project. That is, a (WBS) is a visual
representation of the scope of work for a project. It decomposes the project into smaller, more
manageable work packages or deliverables, each with associated tasks, milestones, and deadlines.

a. The importance of a WBS in project management is manifold. Here are some key reasons
why a Helps with project planning: A WBS is a key tool in project planning. It helps project
managers break down complex projects into smaller, more manageable components, making
it easier to plan and manage the project. By breaking down the project into smaller, more
manageable components, project managers can identify the work required, the resources
needed, and the timelines for completion.
b. Facilitates resource allocation: With a clear and structured view of the work required to
complete the project, a WBS helps project managers allocate resources more effectively. It
helps identify the resources required at each level of the project, making it easier to manage
resources and ensure that they are allocated appropriately.
c. Facilitates project monitoring and control: A WBS provides a clear and structured view of
the project, making it easier for project managers to monitor progress and control the project.
It provides a clear framework for tracking progress against milestones, identifying issues and
risks, and making adjustments as needed.
d. Helps with project communication: A WBS is an excellent tool for communicating the
project scope and requirements to stakeholders. It provides a clear and structured view of the
work required to complete the project, making it easier for stakeholders to understand the
project and its requirements.
e. Overall, a WBS is a critical tool in project management. It provides a clear and structured view
of the project, making it easier to plan, manage, and control the project. By breaking down the
project into smaller, more manageable components, project managers can identify the work
required, the resources needed, and the timelines for completion, making it easier to allocate
resources, monitor progress, and communicate with stakeholders.
Characteristics of a WBS
There are two distinct approaches to creating a WBS that you can choose from deliverable
based (which focuses on individual tasks or parts of the project scope) or phase based (which
breaks down projects by timeline).
Each WBS will look slightly different depending on your existing workflow, the size of your
team, and the type of project you’re working on.
Hierarchical structure. The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of a project into smaller,
more manageable components. The top level of the hierarchy represents the project’s major
deliverables, while the lower levels break down each deliverable into smaller, more manageable
tasks.
Unique identifier. Each component of the WBS is assigned a unique identifier, such as a
number or code, to enable tracking, monitoring, and control of the project work.
Defined scope. The WBS defines the project scope by identifying all the tasks that need to be
completed to accomplish the project objectives. This enables project managers to plan, organize,
and control the project work effectively.
Visual representation. The WBS is typically presented as a graphical representation, such as a
tree diagram, to make it easier to understand and communicate.
How to create a WBS
Now that you understand how a WBS works, here’s a step-by-step process for creating one for
your next project:
Define the project. The first step to creating a WBS is defining your project goals, objectives,
and scope.
Set project boundaries. Next, identify any key boundaries to help clearly define what is and
isn’t included in the project scope. This could also include any important deadlines that you need
to meet for your project to be successful.
Identify project deliverables or phases. Once you’ve clearly defined your project, you’ll want
to identify what needs to be completed, by who, and by what date.
Define level one elements. These elements are high-level summaries of the deliverables required
to meet the scope of the project.
Break down each of the level one elements. Start “decomposing” each of the level one
elements into unique lower level deliverables. Break down each element until any additional
breakdown no longer makes the project easier to work through.
Create a WBS dictionary. In this step, you’ll want to deliver a description of the work
contained in each element. You’ll also want to define project information, including budgets,
milestones, boundaries, risks, project owners, terms, and more.
Identify team members. Here, describe the project team, stakeholders, and other interested
parties. This will help everyone understand the scope of the project, who is working on which
tasks, and the dependencies between tasks.
Create a Gantt chart schedule. Gantt charts are an effective way to visually represent a project
that makes it easy to understand task dependencies and project milestones.
 THE GANTT CHART
Gantt charts show planned activity against time; they are frequently used throughout projects,
programmes and portfolios after tasks have been identified using a work breakdown structure. A
timeline, like the Gantt chart is useful to keep tasks on track when there is a large team and multiple
stakeholders.A Gantt chart is a powerful tool used in project management to represent a project
schedule visually. Initially developed by Henry Gantt in the early 20th century, these charts have
become a staple in the business world for planning and tracking projects efficiently. It displays
tasks or activities along a timeline, allowing project managers to see:

 What needs to be done.

 When it needs to be completed.
 The relationship between tasks and the overall project timeline.
This article delves into Gantt charts, exploring their benefits and how to create one of your own.
What is a Gantt chart used for?
A Gantt chart visually represents a project schedule and is a valuable tool used in project
management.
Project managers and team members use it to understand the timeline of various tasks and
activities.
So, why is a Gantt chart so important?
First and foremost, it helps project managers break down a project into manageable tasks and
assign responsibilities to team members.

A Gantt chart ensures that everyone understands what needs to be done and when by clearly
outlining the tasks that need to be completed and the deadlines for each task.

Gantt charts also track progress and monitor the project timeline.

Project managers can mark tasks on the chart as tasks are completed and milestones are achieved.
This allows them to see how things are progressing and if there are any delays or bottlenecks.
Additionally, Gantt charts are practical communication tools project managers can share with
stakeholders, clients, and team members.

It’s visual representation of the project timeline makes it easier for others to understand the project
scope, deadlines, and dependencies between tasks.

A Gantt chart is a versatile tool that helps plan, organize, and execute projects effectively. It
ensures deadlines are met and the project progresses promptly.

Having a Gantt chart can make a difference in ensuring the success of both small and large
projects.

COMMON WAYS TO USE A GANTT CHART

1. Project planning
Gantt charts are commonly used for project planning, providing a visual timeline of tasks,
dependencies, and deadlines.

Since Gantt charts break down the project into smaller, more manageable tasks and assign
timeframes to each task, project managers can effectively plan out the entire project from start to
finish. This helps allocate resources, manage time effectively, and ensure the project stays on
track.
2. Resource allocation
Gantt charts are also useful for resource allocation, allowing project managers to see which tasks
require which resources and when. By having a clear overview of resource availability and
allocation, project managers can see that resources are allocated efficiently and that there are no
bottlenecks or overall allocation of resources at any point during the project.
3. Progress tracking
Gantt charts are the optimal tool for tracking the progress of a project in real time. By updating the
chart with actual progress, project managers can easily see if tasks are on, behind, or ahead of
schedule. This helps identify potential delays or issues early on so that corrective actions can be
taken to keep the project on track.
4. Timeline visualization
Gantt charts represent the project timeline, allowing team members and stakeholders to easily
understand the sequence of tasks, milestones, and deadlines. This visualization helps communicate
the project timeline effectively, sets expectations, and keeps all parties informed about the project’s
progress.
5. Dependency management
Gantt charts enable project managers to manage task dependencies within a project. Project
managers can identify critical paths, determine which tasks can be done in parallel, and ensure that
tasks are completed correctly. Optimization of the project timeline ensures efficient completion of
tasks.