Introduction to control theory

LECTURE 2- PART 2: MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTINUOUS LTI SYSTEMS

Author : Sonia GHRAB

Cursus : EENG3
UE : Introduction to control theory
Version : 1.0
Date : 13/02/2024

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 Example 2 :Second order system

Consider the following system. The input is 𝑒 𝑡 = 5 𝑢(𝑡) where 𝑢 𝑡 is the unit step
1. Determine the differential equation that links the input 𝑒 𝑡 to the output 𝑦 𝑡
2. Determine the transfer function of the considered system
3. Determine the expression of the output 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑒(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)

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 Solution

𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟑
𝑒(𝑡) > > 𝑦(𝑡)

>
𝒊𝟐

Loop 1
Loop 2

Answer to question 1

Mesh law (Loop 1)

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 ; where 𝑉𝑐 is the voltage accross the capacitor

Mesh law (Loop 2)

𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑖3 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 ; where 𝑦(𝑡) is the voltage accross the capacitor

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For the Loop 2, we have

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑖3 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

For the Loop 1, we have

𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Node law

𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑖2 𝑡 + 𝑖3 (𝑡)

Substituting 𝑖2 (𝑡) and 𝑖3 (𝑡) by their expressions then we get

𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑖2 𝑡 + 𝑖3 𝑡 = 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 Using equations of loops 1 and 2 and by substituting the current by their expressions then we get

• For the Loop 1 𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• For the Loop 2
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑖3 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Finally , for loops 1 and 2 we have
𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) by its expression in the equation 𝑒 𝑡 , we obtain
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 2
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 3 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

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 2
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + 3 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑦(𝑡) Second order system
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace transform (the initial conditions are zeros)
E s = 𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 3 𝑅𝐶𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑌(𝑠)

E s = 𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 1 Y(s)
The transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 is given by
𝑌(𝑠) 1
𝐻 𝑠 = =
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 1
Answer to question 2
The expression of 𝑌 𝑠 can then be deduced
𝐸(𝑠) 5
𝑌 𝑠 = ; 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐸 𝑠 = ℒ 5 𝑢(𝑡) =
𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 1 𝑠

Then 5
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 1

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 5
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑅𝐶 2 𝑠 2 + 3 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 + 1

𝑦 𝑡 = ⋯ ⋯ (To be determined thanks to the next section)

In the Laplace table we can not found a formula that can fits the expression of 𝑌(𝑠)

some extra steps need to be followed in order to get the expression of 𝑦(𝑡)

Final Solution
Rational Partial fraction Inverse Laplace
Fraction expansion transform

(variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒕")

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 3.2. Partial fraction expansion (decomposition)

Partial fraction expansion (also called partial fraction decomposition) is performed whenever we want
to represent a complicated fraction as a sum of simpler fractions

Example
consider the fraction

𝑠+3
𝐹 𝑠 = 3
𝑠 + 7 𝑠 2 + 10 𝑠
We can represent this as a sum of simple fractions
𝑠+3 𝑠+3 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝐹 𝑠 = 3 = = + +
𝑠 + 7 𝑠 2 + 10 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 5 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+5

But how do we determine the values of 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴3 (see next slide)

3 −1 −2
𝐹 𝑠 = 10 + 6 + 15
𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+5

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 Table 1: Partial fractions and formulas for constants
𝒏
𝑵(𝒔) 𝑵(𝒔) 𝑨𝒊
Partial fraction with distinct real 𝑭 𝒔 = = =෍
𝑫(𝒔) ς𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒂𝒊 𝒔 + 𝒂𝒊
roots 𝒊=𝟏
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝒏
= + + ⋯+ ;
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒔 + 𝒂𝒏

𝐀𝐢 = 𝐬 + 𝒂𝒊 𝑭(𝒔)ቚ ∀ 𝒊 = 𝟏…𝒏
𝐬=−𝐚𝐢

𝐴 𝐴∗
𝐹 𝑠 = + ;
s+𝑎 s + 𝑎∗

Partial fraction with the first-order 𝐀 = s + 𝑎 𝐹(𝑠)ȁs=−𝑎

complex poles
with 𝑎∗ is the complex conjugate of a and 𝐴∗ denotes the complex
conjugate of 𝐴
𝑁(𝑠)
Partial fraction with n-th order real 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠+𝑎 𝑛 𝑠+𝛽
poles (repeated poles) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛 𝐵
= + + ⋯+ +
𝑠+𝑎 𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝛽
1 𝑑 (𝑘−1)
𝐴𝑘 = (𝑘−1)
𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) ቚ ∀ 𝑘 = 1…𝑛
𝑘 − 1 ! 𝑑𝑠 𝑠=−𝑎

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 4. BLOCK DIAGRAM
4.1. Types of Feedback

Types of feedback

Negative feedback Positive feedback

• Negative feedback reduces the error between the • Positive feedback adds the reference input and
reference input, and system output feedback output
E(s) ɛ(s) Y(s)
E(s) ɛ(s) Y(s)
+ F(s) + F(s)
- +
R (s) R(s)

G(s) G(s)

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 E(s) + ɛ(s) Y(s)
Using the block diagram of a negative feedback
F(s)
we can write the following:
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝜀(𝑠) R(s) -
𝜀 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 − 𝑅(𝑠)
G(s)
𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

Combining these expressions then we obtain

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠) 𝐸 𝑠 − 𝐺 𝑠 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 1+𝐹 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝐸(𝑠)

The closed-loop transfer function is (the transfer function of negative feedback control system is)

𝑌(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 = =
𝐸(𝑠) 1 + 𝐹 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

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Using the block diagram of a positive feedback control system we can write the following:

E(s) + ɛ(s) Y(s)

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝜀(𝑠) F(s)
𝜀 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
R(s) +
G(s)
Combining these expressions then we obtain
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠) 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 1−𝐹 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝐸(𝑠)

The closed-loop transfer function of a positive feedback control system is

𝑌(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 = =
𝐸(𝑠) 1 − 𝐹 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

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 E(s) + ɛ(s) Y(s)
F(s)

R(s) -
Remarks :
G(s)
● If 𝑮 𝒔 = 𝟏 then we have a unitary feedback

● If we open the closed-loop feedback (indirect chain) (see the red indicators on the figure), we will get an
open loop system, this is exactly as if we put in serie the direct and indirect chains. We can therefore
deduce that the transfer function of an open-loop system is given by:

ɛ(s) Y(s) - R (s)

F(s) G(s)

−𝑅(𝑠)
= 𝐹 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝜀(𝑠)

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 4.2. Block Diagram Reduction Rules

4.2.1. Basic Elements of Block Diagram

➢ Summing point : A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation. The plus or minus
sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted

It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the same dimensions and the same
unit

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➢ Take-off Point/ branch point
• The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one
branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more
blocks, summing points

• In this figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, 𝑅 𝑠 to three blocks

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 4.2.2. Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks

• Series Connection (cascade connection)
In the following figure, two blocks having transfer functions 𝐺1 (𝑠) and 𝐺2 (𝑠) are connected in series

𝑋(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺1 (𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠)

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two blocks. The
equivalent block diagram is shown below

𝑋(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 (𝑠)

Similarly, you can represent series connection of 𝑵 blocks with a single block. The transfer function of this
single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those 𝑵 blocks

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 • Parallel Connection

• The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input
• In the following figure, three blocks having transfer functions 𝐺1 (𝑠), 𝐺2 (𝑠) and 𝐺3 𝑠 are connected in
parallel
• The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point

• That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those three blocks

• Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of 𝑵 blocks blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those 𝑵 blocks

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 4.2.3. Simplifying (reducing) the block diagram

For which objective ?

𝜶(𝒔)

𝝍𝒄 (𝒔) − 𝝍(𝒔)
+ 𝑪(𝒔) + + 𝑴(𝒔) 𝑯(𝒔) +
+ + −

𝑮(𝒔)

𝑷(𝒔)

𝑲(𝒔)

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ecam.fr 13/02/2024
 Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram that many blocks, summing points
and take-off points

• Rule 1: Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify

• Rule 2: Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify

• Rule 3: Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify

• Rule 4: If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right

• Rule 5: If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left

• Rule 6: Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block

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 Diagram Algebra for summing and Take-off points

Block Diagram Algebra for Block Diagram Algebra

Summing Points for Take-off Points

Shifting summing point after the Shifting take-off point after the
block block

Shifting summing point before the Shifting Take-off Point Before the
block Block

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 A-Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks
• Shifting summing point after the block
• Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by one

A.1. Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present before the
block.

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Summing point has two inputs 𝑅 𝑠 and 𝑋 𝑠 , The output of it is 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)

Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

The output block of 𝐺(𝑠) is 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 , the output of the summing point is

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠)

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The term 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the second term

In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 𝐺 𝑠 It is having the input 𝑋(𝑠) and
the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of 𝑋 𝑠 . This block diagram is shown in
the following figure

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 A.2.Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present after the
block.

Output of this block diagram is

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠)
Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

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 Output of this block diagram is

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑋(𝑠)

Comparing the equation in pink with the purple

The term 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 is the same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second term. In order
1
to get the second term also same, we require one more block
𝐺 𝑠

It is having the input 𝑋 𝑠 and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of 𝑋 𝑠 . This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

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 B-Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks
B.1. Shifting take-off point after the block
B.2. Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by one.

B.1. Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is present before the
block

Here

𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 ; 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)

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 When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output 𝑌(𝑠) will be same, but, there is
difference in 𝑋 𝑠 value. So, in order to get the same 𝑋 𝑠 value, we require one more
1
block . It is having the input 𝑌 𝑠 and the output is 𝑋(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)

This block diagram is shown in the following figure

B.2. Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is present after the block

Here 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)

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When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output 𝑌(𝑠) will be same, but, there is difference
in 𝑋 𝑠 value. So, in order to get same 𝑋 𝑠 value, we require one more block 𝐺 𝑠 it is having the
input 𝑅 𝑠 and the output is 𝑋(𝑠)

This block diagram is shown in the following figure

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 4.2.4. Block Diagram Reduction Rules: An example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify this block diagram using the block
diagram reduction rules

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Step 1:
• Use Rule 1 for blocks 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 . Use Rule 2 for blocks 𝐺3 and 𝐺4

The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure

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Step 2
• Use Rule 3 for blocks 𝐺1 𝐺2 and 𝐻1

• Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the block 𝐺5

The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure

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Step 3

• Use Rule 1 for blocks 𝐺3 + 𝐺4 and 𝐺5

The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure

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 Step 4
• Use Rule 3 for blocks (𝐺3 +𝐺4 ) 𝐺5 and 𝐻3
The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure

Step 5
• Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series
The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure

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Step 6
• Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop

The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

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 Example 2:

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 4.2.5. Transfer function of a MISO (Multiple-Input Single-Output) system

Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram having multiple inputs

• Step 1 : Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time and make the
remaining inputs as zero (superposition principle)

• Step 2: Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs

• Step 3: Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions

Remark
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems, because, we have to draw
the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step

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 Example of a sytem having two inputs

𝑬𝟏 (𝒔)
𝒀(𝒔)
𝑬𝟐 (𝒔)
?
𝑌(𝑠)
𝐻1 𝑠 = ቤ
𝐸1 (𝑠) 𝑬 𝒔 =𝟎
𝟐

𝑌(𝑠)
𝐻2 𝑠 = ቤ
𝐸2 (𝑠) 𝑬 𝒔 =𝟎
𝟏

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐸1 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐸2 (𝑠)

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