LESSON 5

Food Dehydration-I

Content
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Course Name Food Engineering

Lesson 5 Food Dehydration-I

Content Revisor Name V. Nithyalakshmi

Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University,
University/College Name
Chennai
Course Reviewer Name Dr. Prashant Saurabh Minz
University/College Name NDRI - National Dairy Research Institute

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Objectives:

To give a basic understanding of drying, drying mechanism and

drying rate period

To solve problems on Estimation of drying time

To study about heat and mass balanced of drying in continuous dryer

Glossary

Critical moisture content: The moisture content at which the constant

rate drying period ends and the falling rate drying period starts is called
critical moisture content.

Equilibrium moisture content: The moisture content attained by a food

material with respect to a set of atmospheric temperature and relative
humidity is called the equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) of the food
material

Relative humidity: Ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in a gas–

vapour mixture to equilibrium vapour pressure at the same temperature.

5.1 Introduction

Drying or Dehydration is defined as the application of heat under

controlled conditions to remove the majority of the water normally
present in a food by evaporation or in the case of freeze drying by
sublimation. The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf life of
foods by a reduction in water activity with minimized packaging
requirements and reduced shipping weights. The reduction in weight and
bulk of food reduces transport and storage costs.The quality of the product
and its cost are greatly influenced by the drying operation. The quality of
a food product is judged by the amount of physical and biochemical
degradation occurring during the dehydration process. The drying time,
temperature, and water activity influence the final product quality. Low

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temperatures generally have a positive influence on the quality but require
longer processing times. Low water activity retards or eliminates the
growth of microorganisms, but results in higher lipid oxidation rates.
Storage stability of a food product increases as the water activity
decreases, and the products that have been dried at lower temperatures
exhibit good storage stability. Since lipid-containing foods are susceptible
to lipid oxidation at low water activities, these foods must be stored in
oxygen impermeable packages.

5.1.1 Drying Fundamentals

Drying is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process to remove

moisture. Heat transfer from the surrounding environment evaporates the
surface moisture. The moisture can be either transported to the surface of
the product and then evaporated or evaporated internally at a liquid vapor
interface and then transported as vapor to the surface.

The transfer of energy (heat) depends on the air temperature, air humidity,
air flow rate, exposed area of food material, and pressure. The physical
nature of the food, including temperature, composition, and in particular
moisture content, governs the rate of moisture transfer. Dehydration
involves the simultaneous application of heat and removal of moisture
from foods. Factors that control throughout the food processing are many
and it varies for thermal drying. Some involve the removal of moisture or
volatiles from various food ingredients or products that differ in both
chemical and physical characteristics. Others involve the drying of
solutions or liquid suspensions and different approaches to the problem.

The dehydration equipment generally utilizes conduction, convection, or

radiation to transfer energy from a heat source to the food material. The
heat is transferred directly from a hot gas or indirectly through a metal
surface.

In the food processing industry and dairy industry, the majority of dryers
employ forced convection with continuous operation. With the exception

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of the indirectly heated rotary dryer and the film drum dryer, units in which
heat is transferred by conduction are suitable only for batch use. This
limitation effectively restricts them to applications involving somewhat
modest production runs. Radiant, or "infrared," heating is rarely used in
drying materials. Direct heating is used extensively in industrial drying
equipment where much higher thermal efficiencies are exhibited than with
indirectly heated dryers. This is because there are no heat exchanger losses
and the maximum heat release from the fuel is available for the process.
However, this method is not always acceptable, especially where product
contamination cannot be tolerated, particularly in dairy industry. In such
cases, indirect heating must be used. With forced- convection equipment,
indirect heating employs a condensing vapor such as steam in an extended
surface tubular heat exchanger or in a steam jacket where conduction is
the method of heat transfer. Alternative systems that employ proprietary
heat-transfer fluids also can be used. These enjoy the advantage of
obtaining elevated temperatures without the need for high-pressure
operation as may be required with conventional steam heating. This may
be reflected in the design and manufacturing cost of the dryer.
Furthermore, in addition to the methods listed above, oil- or gas-fired
indirect heat exchangers also can be used. In general, dryers are either
suitable for batch or continuous operation.

In convectional drying the heating medium, generally air, comes into direct
contact with the solid. Various oven, rotary, fluidized bed, spray, and flash
dryers are typical examples. In conduction drying, the heating medium is
separated from the solid by a hot conduction surface. Examples are drum,
cone and through dryers. In radiation dryers, the heat is transmitted as
radiant energy. Some dryers also use microwave energy to dry food
materials at atmospheric pressure or at vacuum.

The typical drying cycle consists of three stages: heating the food to the
drying temperature, evaporation of moisture from the product surface
occurring at a rate proportional to the moisture content, and once the
critical moisture point is reached, the falling of the drying rate. The critical
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moisture point depends greatly on the drying rate since high drying rates
will raise the critical point and low drying rates will decrease them.

5.1.2 Principle of drying

When hot air is blown over a wet food, heat is transferred to the surface,
and latent heat of vaporization causes water to evaporate. Water vapour
diffuses through boundary film of air and is carried away by moving air (Fig
5.1). This creates a region of lower water vapour pressure at the surface
of the food and a water vapour pressure gradient is established from the
moist interior of the food to the dry air. This gradient provides the driving
force for water removal from the food. The boundary film acts as a barrier
to both heat transfer and water vapour removal during drying. The
thickness of the film is determined primarily by the air velocity; if the
velocity is low, the boundary film is thicker and this reduces both the heat
transfer coefficient and the rate of removal of water vapour. Water vapour
leaves the surface of the food and increases the humidity of the
surrounding air, to cause a reduction in the water vapour pressure gradient
and hence the rate of drying. Therefore the faster the drying air, the
thinner the boundary film and hence the faster the rate of drying.

In the pores of solids with rigid structure, capillary forces are responsible
for the retention of water, whereas in solids formed by aggregates of fine
powders, the osmotic pressure is responsible for water retention within
the solids as well as in the surface. The type of material to be dried is an
important factor to consider in all drying processes, since its physical and
chemical properties play a significant role during drying due to possible
changes that may occur and because of the effect that such changes may
have in the removal of water from the product.

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Fig 5.1 Movement of moisture during drying

The moisture removing mechanisms during drying falls in to three classes:

(i) evaporation from a free surface,
(ii) flow as a liquid in capillaries, and
(iii) diffusion as a liquid or vapour.

The first mechanism follows the laws for heat and mass transfer for a moist
product. The second mechanism becomes difficult to distinguish from
diffusion when one sets the surface tension potential to be proportional to
the logarithm of the moisture potential (or water activity). The third set of
mechanisms follows Fick‘s second law of diffusion, which is analogous to
Fourier‘s law of heat transfer when the appropriate driving force is used.

The mechanisms of water transfer in the product during the drying

process can be summarized as follows

 Water movement due to capillary forces

 Diffusion of liquid due to concentration gradients
 Surface diffusion
 Water vapor diffusion in pores filled with air
 Flow due to pressure gradients
 Flow due to water vaporization–condensation.

Most foods are classified as capillary porous rigid or capillary porous

colloids. Therefore, it is often proposed that a combination of capillary flow
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and vapour diffusion mechanisms should be used to describe internal mass
transfer.

5.1.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content

All solid materials have certain equilibrium moisture content when in

contact with air at a particular temperature and humidity. The material will
tend to lose or gain moisture over a period of time to attain this equilibrium
value. When the ambient temperature rises and humidity of air decreases,
the water present in food vaporizes, results in drying. At particular
condition the moisture content of the food material depends on the
temperature and relative humidity of the environment. If the vapour
pressure of the water present in food material is more than vapour
pressure of water vapours in air, the water present in food vaporizes and
diffuses in the atmosphere. Alternatively, if the vapour pressure of water
present in food is less than the atmospheric vapour pressure, food will
absorb moisture from atmosphere. This property of gaining or loosing of
moisture as per the atmospheric conditions is known as hygroscopicity.

The moisture content attained by a food material with respect to a set of

atmospheric temperature and relative humidity is called the equilibrium
Moisture Content (EMC) of the food material. In such condition , the food
moisture is in equilibrium with surrounding air.

5.1.3 Types of moisture

Fig.5.2 shows various moisture content regions of a food material such as

bound, unbound and free.

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Fig 52 Equilibrium moisture isotherm for a material showing various
moisture content.

Bound moisture: The amount of moisture tightly bound to the food matrix
with properties different from those of bulk water; this also represents the
portion of water that is unfreezable. Moisture content of a substance
which exerts as equilibrium vapour pressure less than of the pure liquid at
the same temperature is referred as bound moisture. This moisture is
difficult to remove.

Unbound moisture : Moisture content of the solid which exerts an

equilibrium vapour pressure equal to that of pure liquid at the given
temperature is the unbound moisture. Removal of unbound moisture
requires more energy than free moisture and less energy than bound
moisture.

Free moisture: Amount of moisture mechanically entrapped in the void

spaces of the system, having nearly all properties similar to those of bulk
water.The moisture content of solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture
content is referred as free moisture. The free water can easily remove. The
difference between initial and equilibrium moisture content of a food is
known as free moisture.

During drying, only free moisture can be evaporated. The free moisture
content of a solid depends upon the vapour concentration in the gas.

The moisture contents of solid when it is in equilibrium with given partial

pressure of vapour in gas phase is called as equilibrium moisture content.

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Similarly, the moisture content at which the constant rate drying period
ends and the falling rate drying period starts is called critical moisture
content. During the constant rate drying period, the moisture evaporated
per unit time per unit area of drying surface remains constant and in falling
rate drying period the amount of moisture evaporated per unit time per
unit area of drying surface continuously decreases

5.2 Constant Drying rate period and falling drying rate period

Drying rate is defined as the mass of water removed per unit time per unit
mass of dry matter or as the mass of water removed per unit time per unit
area.

The boundary film of air surrounding the food acts as a barrier to the
transfer of both heat and water vapour during drying. The thickness of the
film is determined primarily by the air velocity. If air velocity is too low,
water vapour leaves the surfaces of the food and increases the humidity of
the surrounding air, to cause a reduction in water vapour pressure gradient
and rate of drying.

When food is placed into a dryer, there is short initial settling down period
as surface heats-up to the wet bulb temperature. Drying then commences
and, provided that water moves from the interior of the food at the same
rate as it evaporates from the surface, the surface remains wet. This is
known as constant rate period and continues until a certain critical
moisture content is reached. In practice different areas of food surfaces
dry out at different rates, and overall, the rate of drying declines gradually.
Thus the critical point is not fixed for a given food and depends on the
amount of food in the dryer and the rate of drying.

5.2.1 Factors affecting drying rate

• Initial moisture content of the raw material

• Composition of raw material
• Size, shape, surface area and arrangement of stacking of the raw

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 material
• Arrangement or stacking of the product to environment
• Temperature, relative humidity and velocity of air used for drying
• Rate of heat transfer on the surface of the food
• Pre-treatment of the raw material prior to drying (peeling, blanching,
sulphuring etc.)
• Time of drying
Surface area. It is desirable to maximize the surface-to-volume ratio of the
food to be dehydrated to minimize the resistance to heat and mass
transfer. Generally, the smaller the food piece, the more rapid the rate of
moisture loss.

Temperature.The hotter the air, the more moisture it will hold before
becoming saturated. Drying systems are designed to maximize
temperature differences between the product and the drying air to
increase the rate of dehydration. An upper limit to drying air temperature
is dictated by adverse chemical reactions that can take place in a food at
high temperatures. The upper temperature limit is also dictated by the
chemical and physical nature of the food.

Air velocity. Higher the air velocity within a dehydrator, the more rapid the
rate of moisture removal. Food dehydrators are designed to maximize the
velocity of heated air moving around the food particles to be dried.

Humidity of the drying air. The drier the air, the more moisture it can
absorb before it becomes saturated. The relative humidity of the drying air
determines the final moisture content of the food being dried. Knowledge
of the equilibrium relative humidity of food is important for the proper
design of dehydrators and for the design of packaging systems that will
prevent moisture adsorption by the dehydrated food during storage.
Relative humidity of air has a indirect relationship with drying rate

Atmospheric pressure and vacuum. Water boils at 100°C when it is at a

pressure of 1 atm (760 mm Hg). As the pressure lowers, the boiling

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temperature will decrease. If the temperature is maintained constant, a
decrease in pressure will increase the rate of boiling. Some concentrators
and dehydrators are operated at pressures below atmospheric pressure in
order to increase the rate of boiling and moisture removal. This is
especially important in the case of heat-sensitive food products.
5.2.2 Drying rate period
Fig: 5.3 shows general rate of drying curve for solid material.
Drying process can be divided in to three periods
(i) constant drying rate period and
(ii) first falling drying rate period and
(iii) second falling rate period.

Fig 5.3: General rate of Drying Curve for solid material

Constant drying rate period

In a constant drying rate period, the moist surface of product behave like
a free waters. Diffusion of moisture from within the droplet maintains
saturated surface conditions and as long as these lasts, evaporation takes
place at constant rate. When a solid is dried under constant drying

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conditions, the moisture content typically falls. The graph is linear at first,
then curves and eventually levels off. Constant rate drying period will
proceed until free moisture appears from the surface, the moisture
removal rate will then become progressively less. The moisture content at
which the constant drying rate ceases is known as the critical moisture
content. The critical moisture content is depend on product and its
thickness. During the constant rate period, the moisture from interior
migrates to the surface by various means and is vapourised. As the
moisture content is lowered, the rate of migration to the surface is
lowered. If drying occurs at too high temperatures, the surface forms the
layer of closely packed shrunken cells which are sealed together. This
presents a barrier to moisture migration and tends to keep the moisture
sealed within. This condition is known as case hardening.

The constant rate period is characterized by a rate of drying independent

of moisture content. During this period, the solid is so wet that a
continuous film of water exists over the entire drying surface, and this
water acts as if solids were not there. The temperature of the wetted
surface attained the wet bulb temperature.

The surface temperature of the food remains close to the wet bulb
temperature of the drying air until the end of the constant rate period, due
to cooling effects of evaporating water.

Web bulb Temperature(WBT)

The temperature of the air, measured by a thermometer bulb, is termed

the dry-bulb temperature. If the thermometer bulb is surrounded by a wet
cloth, heat is removed by evaporation of water from the cloth and the
temperature falls. This lower temperature is called the wet-bulb
temperature.

WBT is the steady state temp shown by the thermometer whose bulb is

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covered with a wet wick and from which water is evaporating into a high
velocity air stream. The quantity of water evaporated is not high enough
to alter the temperature and humidity of the air stream.

The air blown at high velocity (minimum recommended is 300 m/min). It

causes evaporation of water from the wick. Evaporation requires latent
heat. This heat comes from surface of glass bulb of thermometer. So the
temperature of the glass bulb decreases. The heat comes from the
temperature difference between Tw and Ta (large). It is the case of
simultaneous heat and mass transfer. This heat is latent heat for phase
change of water to water vapor.

q = Mw Nw λw A
Where,
q = amount of latent heat transfer
Mw = mol. Mass of water kg/kg mol
Nw = Molar flux of water vapour, kg mol m-2 s-1
λw = Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg A = Surface area of the
bumb m2
Nw = ky (yw-y)
ky = Mass transfer coefficient kg mol m-2 s-1
yw = Mole fraction of water vapour in the stagnant air layer
adjacent to the wet cloth
y = mole fraction of water vapour in the air stream,
some distance away from the wet cloth (yw-y) is
the driving force.
As long as the rate of surface evaporation
continues, the rate of drying is governed by equation:.

𝑑𝑤 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 )
= = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴(𝐻𝑠 − 𝐻𝑎 )
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣

Where,

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 W = kg of moisture
t = Time
h = Heat transfer coefficient between air and moisture kcal/ kg
hr °C
ta = dry bulb temperature of air, °C
ts = surface
temperature, °C
A= area, m2
ΔHv = Heat of vapourisation at ts ,
Kcal/ kg
ka = Mass transfer coefficient
(kg/ hr m)
Hs = humidity of saturated air at the surface temperature
Ha = humidity of air

The constant rate period ends when the migration rate of water from the
interior of the surface becomes less than the rate of evaporation from the
surface. The period subsequent to the critical point is called the falling rate
period. Beyond this point, the surface temperature rises, and the drying
rate falls off rapidly. The falling rate period takes a far longer time than the
constant rate period, even though the moisture removal may be much less.
The drying rate approaches zero at some equilibrium moisture content.

Falling rate period

When the moisture content of the food falls below the critical moisture
content, the rate of drying slowly decreases until it approaches zero at
equilibrium moisture content. This is known as falling rate period. Non-
hygroscopic foods have single falling rate period where as hygroscopic
foods have two periods. In the first period the plane of evaporation moves
inside the food water diffused through dry solid to the drying air. It ends
when plane of evaporation reaches the center of the food and the partial
pressure of water falls below the saturated water vapour pressure. The

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second period occurs when the partial pressure of water is below the
saturated vapour pressure as drying is by desorption.

During falling rate period the rate of water movement from the interior of
the food to the surface falls below the rate at which water evaporates to
the surrounding air. The surface therefore dries out. This is usually the
longest period of drying operation.

Drying in falling rate period involves two processes:

a) movement of moisture within the material to the surface

b) removal of the moisture from the surface

The method used to estimate drying rates and drying times in the falling
rate period depends on whether the solid is porous or non porous. In a non
porous material, once there is no superficial moisture, further drying can
occur only at a rate governed by diffusion of internal moisture to the
surface. In a porous material other mechanism appears, and drying may
even takes place inside the solid instead of at the surface.

During the falling rate period the amount of water evaporating from the
surface gradually decreases but as the same amount of heat being supplied
by the air the surface temperature rises until it reaches the dry bulb
temperature of the drying air. Most heat damage to food occurs in the
falling rate period.

During the falling-rate period, the factors that control the rate of drying
change. Initially the important factors are similar to those in the constant-
rate period, but gradually the rate of water movement (mass transfer)
becomes the controlling factor. Water moves from the interior of the food
to the surface by the following mechanisms:

Liquid movement by capillary forces, particularly in porous foods

Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of

solutes at the surface and in the interior of the food
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 Diffusion of liquids which are adsorbed in layers at the surfaces of
solid components of the food

Water vapour diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by

vapour pressure gradients.

First falling drying rate period

Point B, the moisture content at the end of the constant rate period, is the
‘critical moisture content’. At this point the surface of the solid is no longer
saturated, and the rate of drying decreases with the decrease in moisture
content. At point C, the surface moisture film has evaporated fully, and
with the further decrease in moisture content, the drying rate is controlled
by the rate of moisture movement through the solid. As drying proceeds,
the fraction of wet surface decreases to zero where first falling rate period
ends.

Second falling drying rate period

Period C to D represents conditions when the drying rate is largely

independent of conditions outside the solid. In this period, subsurface e
evaporation takers place and it continues until the equilibrium moisture
content is reached. The moisture transfer may be by any combination of
liquid diffusion, capillary movement, and vapour diffusion.

5.3 Estimation of Drying Time For Food Products

In order to determine the time required to achieve the desired reduction
in product moisture content, the rate of moisture removal or drying rate
must be predicted. The rate of drying depends on properties of drying air
(the dry bulb temperature, RH, and velocity of air and the surface heat
transfer coefficient), the properties of food (moisture content, surface to
volume ratio and the surface temperature) and rate of moisture loss. The
size of the pieces has an important effect on the drying rate in both the
constant and falling rate periods. In the constant rate period, smaller
pieces have a larger surface area available for evaporation where as in

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 falling rate period smaller pieces have a shorter distance for moisture to
travel through the food. Other factors which influence the rate of drying
include:
1. The fat content of the food (higher fat contents generally results
in slower drying, as water is trapped with in the food).

2. The method of preparation of food

3. The amount of food placed in a dryer in relation to its size

For constant rate drying period the following general expression would apply:
𝑑𝑤 𝑤𝑜 − 𝑤𝑐
𝑅𝑐 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑐
𝑤 −𝑤
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑜 𝑐
𝑅𝑐
Where,
wc= Critical moisture content (kg water / kg dry solid )
𝑤𝑜 = Initial moisture content (kg water / kg dry solid )
tc = Constant rate drying
time
During falling rate drying, the following analysis would apply.
𝑑𝑤 𝑅𝑐
− = 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑐
𝑑𝑤 𝑤𝑐
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑤 𝑅𝑐
Where the limits of integration are between critical moisture content wc
or end of constant
rate drying, tc and some desired final moisture content, w.

On integration:
𝑡 𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐 𝑑𝑤
∫𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐
∫𝑤 𝑤
𝑐 𝑜

𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑐 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐

𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐

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 tf - Time for falling rate
Total Drying time(t)= Constant rate drying time(tc) + Falling rate drying
time(tf)
𝑤𝑜 −𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡 = + ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
The above equation indicates that the time for complete drying
from some initial moisture content wo to a desirable final
moisture content w depends on knowledge of critical moisture
content wc, the time for constant rate drying tc, and the rate for
constant drying Rc.

Example 5.1

The initial moisture content of a food product is 77% (wet basis), and the
critical moisture content is 30% (wet basis). If the constant drying rate is
0.1 kg H 2 O/(m 2 s), compute the time required for the product to begin
the falling rate drying period. The product has a cube shape with 5-cm
sides, and the initial product density is 950 kg/m 3 .
Given
Initial moisture content = 77% wet basis
Critical moisture content = 30% wet basis
Drying rate for constant rate period = 0.1 kg H 2 O/(m 2 s)
Product size = cube with 5-cm sides
Initial product density = 950 kg/m3

Solution
1. The initial moisture content is
0.77 kg H2O/kg product = 3.35 kg H2O/kg solids
2. The critical moisture content is
0.3 kg H2O/kg product = 0.43 kg H2O/kg solids
3. The amount of moisture to be removed from product during constant-
rate drying will be
3.35 - 0.43 = 2.92 kg H2O/kg solids
4. The surface area of the product during drying will be

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 0.05 mx0.05 m = 2.5 x10-3m2 /side
2.5 x10-3m2 /side x6 sides = 0.015 m2
5. The drying rate becomes
0.1 kg = 1.5 x10-3kg H2O/s
H2O/(m2s)X0.015m2
6. Using the product density, the initial product mass
950 kg/m3 x(0.05)3 m3 = 0.11875 kg product
0.11875 kg productxx0.23 kg solid / kg product= 0.0273 kg solid
7. The total amount of water to be removed becomes
2.92 kg H2O/kg solids x 0.0273 kg = 0.07975 kg H2O
solids
8.Using the drying rate, the time for constant-rate drying
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟕𝟓 kg H2O = 53.2 s
𝟏.𝟓 𝐗 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 kg H2O/s

Example 5.2

A tunnel dryer is being designed for drying apple halves from initial
moisture content of 70 % (wet basis) to final moisture content of 5 % (wet
basis). An experimental drying curve for the product indicates that the
critical moisture content is 25 % (wet basis) and the time for constant
drying is 5 min.Based on the information provided, estimate the total
drying time for product.

Solution
Initial product moisture = 0.7 / = 2.33 kg H2O / kg solids
content, wo 0.3
Critical moisture content, wc = 0.25/0. = 0.333 kg H2O / kg solids
75
Final moisture content, w = 0.05/0. = 0.0526 kg H2O / kg solids
95
Time for constant rate drying, = 5 min
tc

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Required: Total drying time
𝑤𝑜 − 𝑤𝑐
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑡𝑐
Rc = (2.33 – 0.33) / 5 min = 0.4 kg H2O / kg solids min
Falling rate drying time
𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = (0.333/0.4) × ln (0.333 / 0.0526)
= 1.54 min
Total drying time, t = tc + tf =5 + 1.54 = 6.54 min

Example 5.3

Estimate the drying rate and time needed to reduce the moisture content
of a 100 µm diameter spherically shaped droplet, falling in a spray dryer
from 60 to 35 %. The initial density of the droplet is 900 kg/m3. The droplet
is in an air stream such that Ta= 200 oC, P =101.3 k Pa, h = 200 w/m2 oC
and Twb = 60 oC. Assume that constant rate drying applies over the total
drying process and droplet doesn‘t change in size.

Given:
Diameter of the droplet = 100 µm =0.0001 m
Initial moisture content = 60 %
Final moisture content = 35%
Density of droplet = 900 kg/m3
Ta = 200oC
P = 101.3kPa
h = 200 w/m2oC
Solution
The surface area of the = π D2 -8
= π (0.0001)2 = 3.14 × 10 m
3

droplet
The volume of the droplet = 1/6 πD 3 = π /6 × (0.0001)3 = 5.24 × 10
-13

m3

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 -10
The initial mass of the = ρ × V = 900 × 5.24 × 10-13 = 4.71 × 10
droplet , mi
Applying solids balance: mp × 0.4 = mf × 0.65
Final mass of the product = mi×0.4/ = 2.9 × 10-10 kg.
mf 0.65

Drying rate, R 𝑑𝑤 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 ) Δhfg × 1000

=𝑅=
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣
hfg = latent heat of evaporation corresponding to given pressure in kJ
/ kg.
R = 200(3.14 × 10-8) (200 – 60)/ 3.71 × 10-10
(2370.7 × 1000) = kg s
Drying time, t = (mi - mf) / R =[(4.71 – 2.9) 10-10 ]/ 3.71 10-10
= 0.49 s

5.4 Diffusion Controlled Falling Rate Period

The method used to estimate drying rates and drying times in the falling
rate period depends on whether the solid is porous or nonporous. In a
nonporous material, once there is no superficial moisture, further drying
can occur only at a rate governed by diffusion of internal moisture, and
drying may be even take place inside the solid instead of at the surface.
One important point to note is that non-hygroscopic foods have a single
falling rate period, where as hygroscopic foods have two falling rate
periods.

First Falling Rate Period

The plane of evaporation moves inside the material being dried, and water
diffuses through the dry solids to the drying air. It represents a condition
whereby the surface is no longer capable of supplying sufficient free
moisture to saturate the air in contact with it. Under these conditions, the
rate of drying depends very much on the mechanism by which moisture
from inside the material is transferred to the surface. This is usually the
longest period of a drying operation and in some foods, where the initial
21
moisture content is below the critical moisture content the falling rate
period is the only part of the drying curve to be observed.

Second Falling Rate

At the end of the first falling rate period it may be assumed that the surface
is dry and that the plane of separation is moving in to the solid and the
vapour reaches the surface by molecular diffusion through the material.
The forces controlling the vapour diffusion will determine the final rate of
drying, and these will be largely independent of the conditions outside the
material. During the falling rate period, the factors that control the rate of
drying change.

Initially the important factors are similar to those in the constant rate
period, but gradually the rate of mass transfer becomes the controlling
factor. This depends mostly on the air and the thickness of the food. It is
unaffected by the both the relative humidity of the air and the velocity of
the air. The air temperature is therefore controlled during the falling rate
period, whereas the air velocity and temperature are more important in
the constant rate period. In practice foods may differ from these idealized
drying curves owing to shrinkage, changes in the temperature and rate of
moisture diffusion in different parts of the food and changes in the
temperature and humidity of the drying air. The surface temperatures of
the food remains close to the wet bulb temperature of the drying air until
the end of the constant rate period, due to the cooling effect of the
evaporating water. During the falling rate period the amount of water
evaporating from the surface gradually decreases but as, the same amount
of heat is being supplied by the air the surface temperature rises until it
reaches the dry bulb temperature of the drying air. Most heat damage to
the food therefore occurs during falling rate period.

Example 5.3

A 50 m diameter droplet of a liquid food is being dried in a spray.

Experiments have indicated that the constant rate drying period for this

22
type of situation requires 2 s. If the product entering the spray dryer has
10 % total solids and critical moisture content is 35 % (wet basis),
determine the moisture removal rate during constant rate drying. Assume
droplet size does not change during the drying and the product density is
1050 kg / m3

Second method:
Wo = 90 % = 0.9 / 0.1 = 9 kg H2O / kg solid.
Wc = 35 % = 0.35/0.65 = 0.5385 kg H2O /kg solid.
Drying rate = wo - wc / t = 4.23 kg H2 O / kg solids.

5.5 Heat and Mass Balance of Continuous Dryers

Dehydration System Design
The design of dehydration systems involves several considerations. The
parameters that have a direct influence on capacity of a system include the
quality and characteristics of air available for drying along with the drying
time required for individual pieces of the product being dried.

23
Mass and Energy Balance:
By application of mass and energy balance analysis to an entire
dehydration system several parameters influencing design are accounted
for.

Fig. 5.4 Mass and Energy balance for drying

system
Moisture balance on the system
Moisture lost by the product = Moisture gained by the air

ma (W2 – W1) + = mp (w1 –w2 )

Where,
ma = Air flow rate (kg dry air / h),
mp = Product flow rate (kg dry solids / h),
W = Absolute humidity (kg water / kg dry air) and
w = Product moisture content (kg water / kg solid)
Ta= Temperature of air ( oC)
Tp = Temperature of product (oC ) and
1 is inlet condition; and 2 is the outlet condition.

Energy balance for the system gives:

ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql

ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql

Where,
Ql = Heat losses from dehydration system,
Ha = Heat content of air (kJ / kg dry air) and
Hp = Heat content of product (kJ / kg dry solids).

24
Considering 0: C as the reference temperature the expressions for heat
content of air and product are :
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1
Hp2 = Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
Where,
Cpp – Specific heat of product solids (kJ /kg K)
Cpw – Specific heat of water (kJ /kg K),
Tp – Product temperature.

Using these equations, the quality of air required for drying an established
amount of product over known moisture content range can be
determined. In addition, for known inlet conditions of air, the moisture
characteristics of air at the system outlet can be established.

5.6 Rate of evaporation in drum dryers

The rate of moisture removal by a drum dryer is essentially a constant

rate of water evaporation as the product is continuously feed between
the drums and the dried product is removed. The equation governing the
rate of evaporation in a drum dryer is:
𝑑𝑤 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑡𝑚 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 )
= =
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣 ∆𝐻𝑣
Where,
U - Over all heat transfer coefficient, kcal/m2 hr °C or W/
m2 K
Δtm - ta-ts=Temperature of steam - Surface temperature,
°C
ΔHv - Latent heat of vaporization at ts , Kcal/ kg
h - Heat transfer coefficient between air and
moisture kcal/ kg hr °C
2
A - Area, m
The overall coefficient is from 1160 to 2100 W/ m2 K under optimum

25
 condition, although it may be only 1/10 of these values when
conditions are adversed. Since the thickness of drum wall is small
compared to the diameter of the drum, the area A can be regarded
simply as the outer surface area of the drum. The U depends on hs , k
and hp and other coefficients.

1
𝑈 = 1 𝑥 1 1
+ + + (ℎ
ℎ𝑠 𝑘 ℎ𝑝 𝑐 +ℎ𝑟 +ℎ𝑒 )

Where,
hs - Equivalent film coefficient of steam (W/m2K)
x - Thickness of metal (m)
k - Thermal conductivity of metal (w/m K)
hp - Equivalent film coefficient of product (W/m2K)
hc - Convection coefficient (W/m2K)
hr - Radiation coefficient (W/m2K)
he - Evaporation film coefficient (W/m2K)

The factor having the greatest effect on U is the condition of the liquid film
and the drum speed. Drying rates for drum dryers can be extremely high
when thin film of low viscosity is evaporated, and it is thus permissible to
use high temperature. In addition to assuring the adequate heat transfer
the drying system must provide for removal of water vapour. If the speed
of a particular drum is measured, then the U value and the moisture
content of the product will be increased, if the conditions are unchanged.
The overall thermal efficiency of drum dryer is 35 – 80%.

The moisture content X of a milk product containing mw amount of water

and ms amount of dry matter including fat is given by:
𝑚𝑤
𝑋 (𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠) =
(𝑚 𝑤 + 𝑚 𝑠 )

The proportion of dry matter (TS) is given by

26
 𝑚𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = = 1−𝑋
(𝑚 𝑤 + 𝑚 𝑠 )

During the evaporation of a product from the original moisture content X0

containing amount of water mwo to final moisture content X containing an
amount of water mw, the following amount of water is removed.

𝑋𝑜 𝑋
𝑚𝑤𝑜 − 𝑚𝑤 = ([ ]−[ ]) 𝑚𝑠
1 − 𝑋𝑜 1−𝑋

Calculated as a fraction of the water originally present, the following

obtained

𝑚𝑤𝑜 − 𝑚𝑤 𝑋(1 − 𝑋𝑜 )
=1−( )
𝑚𝑤𝑜 𝑋𝑜 (1 − 𝑋)
Example 5.4
1000 kg/hr of dried product (4 %moisture) is produced in a spray dryer.
The atmospheric air at 30 °C and 40 % RH is heated to 190 °C and it is
exhausted at 80°C . The concentrated milk having 45 % TS by weight. Feed
temperature of concentrated milk is 30 °C. Dried product comes out at
50°C. Heat losses from the dryer are 104675 kJ/h. Find out the air flow
rate required.
Solution
Based on enthalpy and moisture balance:
ma = Mass flow rate of air (kg dry air/h)
ms = Mass flow rate of solid (kg dry solid/h) = 1000x0.96 = 960k g dry
solid/h
Ta1 = temperature of air at the inlet = 190 °C
Ta2 = temperature of air at the exit = 80 °C
Tp1 = temperature of feed at the inlet = 30 °C
Tp2 = temperature of product at the exit = 50 °C
Ha1 , Ha2 are enthalpy content of air at the inlet and exit ( kJ/ kg dry
air)
Hp1 , Hp2 are enthalpy content of feed and product ( kJ/ kg dry air)

27
 W1 , W2 are moisture content in air at the entry and exit (kg moisture/
kg dry air)
w1 , w2 = moisture content in feed and product (kg moisture/
kg dry solid)
Cpp = specific heat of dry solids Cpw = specific heat of water
From Psychometric chart: Air contains 0.011 kg water/kg of dry air = W1
Assuming dry milk solids have specific heat of 2.32 kJ / kg
Solid balance
Feed rate x = 1000 x0.96
0.45
Feed rate = 1000x = 2133 kg/h
0.96/45
Moisture balance on the system:
ma W1 + mp w1 = ma W2 + mp
Moisture lost by the product = moisture gained by the air
ma (W2 – W1) + = mp (w1 –w2 )
w1 = 55/45 = 1.22 kg of water /kg dry solid
w2 = 4/96 = 0. 042 kg of water / kg of dry solids
ma (W2- = 960 (1.22-0.042) (1)
0.011)
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
= 1. 005 x 190 + 0.011 (2500.5+1.884 = 222.39 kJ / kg
x 190) air
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
= 1.005 x 80 + W2 (2500.5+1.884 x = 80.4+2651.22
80) W2
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1
= 2.32 x 30 + 1.22 x 4.187 x = 222.84 kJ/ kg dry solid
30
= Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
Hp2
= 2.32 x 50 + 0.042 x 4.187 = 124.8 kJ/ kg dry solid
x 50
28
 Energy/enthalpy balance for the system :

Enthalpy in = Enthalpy out system

system
ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql
ma x 222.39 + 960 x = ma ( 80.4 + 2651.22 W2) + 960 x 124.8 +
222.84 104675
142 ma – 2651.22 ma = 224483 (2)
W2
By solving equations (1) and (2)
ma = 26663 kg /h
From (1)
W2 = (1130.88/ ma) + 0.011
W2 = 0.0534
Humidity of air exhaust = 0.0534 kg/kg dry air

Example 5.5
From the following data given for a spray dryer determine hot air flow
rate and humidity of air at the exit of the dryer and quantity of fuel oil
requirement for the air heater. TS in feed = 41%; Moisture content in
product = 3.5 % Temp. of feed = 45 °C; Temperature of product at the
exit of dryer = 60 °C; Feed rate = 50000 kg / hr; Specific humidity of
inlet air (33°C, 45 % RH) = 0.14 kg water/ kg of dry air; Inlet and exit air
temperatures are 210 °C and 85 °C resp; Specific heat of feed = 2.32
kJ/kg; Heat losses from the dryer is 2 x 105 kJ/h; The calorific value of
oil =42000 kJ/kg; Heat transfer efficiency in the air heater = 85%
Solution
w1 = 59/41 = 1.439 kg of water/ kg of dry
solid
w2 = 3.5/96.5 = 0.03626 kg of water/ kg of
dry solid
Cpp = 2.32 kJ/kg
Ta1 = 210 °C Ta2 = 85 °C
29
 Tp1=45 °C Tp2 = 60 °C
Ql = 2 x 105 kJ/h
Quantity of feed = (5000 x 0.965) = 4825 kg/h
,ms
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
= 1.005 x 210 + 0.014 (2500.5+1.884 x 210)
= 251.6 kJ / kg
air
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
= 1.005 x 85 + W2 (2500.5+1.884 x 85)
= 85.42 + 2660.64 W2
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1
= 2.32 x 45 + 1.22 x 4.187 x 45
= 375.53 kJ/ kg dry solid
Hp2 = Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
= 2.32 x 60 + 0.03626 x 4.187 x 60
= 148.31 kJ/ kg dry solid
Energy/enthalpy balance for the system :
ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql
ma x 256.1 + 4825 x = ma ( 85.42 + 2600.64 W2) + 4825 x 148.31
375.53 + 2 x105
170.68ma – 2660.64 ma = 915595.75 (1)
W2

Moisture balance on the system:

Moisture lost by the product = Moisture gained by the
air
ms (W2 – W1) + = ma (w1 –w2 )
4825(1.439 – = ma (W2 – 0.01
0.03626)
ma(W2 – 0.014) = 6768.22 (2)
By solving equations (!) and
(2)
30
 ma = 141821.56 kg/h
W2 = 0.0617 kg/kg dry air
Total energy = ma x Cpp (210- 33)
requirement / h
= 25227928 = 7007.75 kW
kJ/h
Quantity of oil = (42000 x 0.85)/35700 kg/h
required
= 706.66 kg/h

References
1. Paul Singh, R and Dennies R. Heldman. (1993). Introduction to Food
Engineering. Fourth Edition. Academic Press. Chapter 8, 543-570.

2. Fellows, P. (2000). Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practice.

Second Edition Wood head Publishing Limited.

3. Sahay. K.M and Singh. K.K.( 2009) . Unit operations of Agricultural

Processing, Second Revised Edition. Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD,
Noida, U.P.

To give a basic understanding of drying, drying mechanism and

drying rate period

To solve problems on Estimation of drying time

To study about heat and mass balanced of drying in continuous dryer

Glossary

Critical moisture content: The moisture content at which the constant

rate drying period ends and the falling rate drying period starts is called
critical moisture content.

Equilibrium moisture content: The moisture content attained by a food

material with respect to a set of atmospheric temperature and relative

31
humidity is called the equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) of the food
material

Relative humidity: Ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in a gas–

vapour mixture to equilibrium vapour pressure at the same temperature.

5.1 Introduction

Drying or Dehydration is defined as the application of heat under

controlled conditions to remove the majority of the water normally
present in a food by evaporation or in the case of freeze drying by
sublimation. The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf life of
foods by a reduction in water activity with minimized packaging
requirements and reduced shipping weights. The reduction in weight and
bulk of food reduces transport and storage costs.The quality of the product
and its cost are greatly influenced by the drying operation. The quality of
a food product is judged by the amount of physical and biochemical
degradation occurring during the dehydration process. The drying time,
temperature, and water activity influence the final product quality. Low
temperatures generally have a positive influence on the quality but require
longer processing times. Low water activity retards or eliminates the
growth of microorganisms, but results in higher lipid oxidation rates.
Storage stability of a food product increases as the water activity
decreases, and the products that have been dried at lower temperatures
exhibit good storage stability. Since lipid-containing foods are susceptible
to lipid oxidation at low water activities, these foods must be stored in
oxygen impermeable packages.

5.1.1 Drying Fundamentals

Drying is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process to remove

moisture. Heat transfer from the surrounding environment evaporates the
surface moisture. The moisture can be either transported to the surface of
the product and then evaporated or evaporated internally at a liquid vapor
interface and then transported as vapor to the surface.

32
The transfer of energy (heat) depends on the air temperature, air humidity,
air flow rate, exposed area of food material, and pressure. The physical
nature of the food, including temperature, composition, and in particular
moisture content, governs the rate of moisture transfer. Dehydration
involves the simultaneous application of heat and removal of moisture
from foods. Factors that control throughout the food processing are many
and it varies for thermal drying. Some involve the removal of moisture or
volatiles from various food ingredients or products that differ in both
chemical and physical characteristics. Others involve the drying of
solutions or liquid suspensions and different approaches to the problem.

The dehydration equipment generally utilizes conduction, convection, or

radiation to transfer energy from a heat source to the food material. The
heat is transferred directly from a hot gas or indirectly through a metal
surface.

In the food processing industry and dairy industry, the majority of dryers
employ forced convection with continuous operation. With the exception
of the indirectly heated rotary dryer and the film drum dryer, units in which
heat is transferred by conduction are suitable only for batch use. This
limitation effectively restricts them to applications involving somewhat
modest production runs. Radiant, or "infrared," heating is rarely used in
drying materials. Direct heating is used extensively in industrial drying
equipment where much higher thermal efficiencies are exhibited than with
indirectly heated dryers. This is because there are no heat exchanger losses
and the maximum heat release from the fuel is available for the process.
However, this method is not always acceptable, especially where product
contamination cannot be tolerated, particularly in dairy industry. In such
cases, indirect heating must be used. With forced- convection equipment,
indirect heating employs a condensing vapor such as steam in an extended
surface tubular heat exchanger or in a steam jacket where conduction is
the method of heat transfer. Alternative systems that employ proprietary
heat-transfer fluids also can be used. These enjoy the advantage of
obtaining elevated temperatures without the need for high-pressure
33
operation as may be required with conventional steam heating. This may
be reflected in the design and manufacturing cost of the dryer.
Furthermore, in addition to the methods listed above, oil- or gas-fired
indirect heat exchangers also can be used. In general, dryers are either
suitable for batch or continuous operation.

In convectional drying the heating medium, generally air, comes into direct
contact with the solid. Various oven, rotary, fluidized bed, spray, and flash
dryers are typical examples. In conduction drying, the heating medium is
separated from the solid by a hot conduction surface. Examples are drum,
cone and through dryers. In radiation dryers, the heat is transmitted as
radiant energy. Some dryers also use microwave energy to dry food
materials at atmospheric pressure or at vacuum.

The typical drying cycle consists of three stages: heating the food to the
drying temperature, evaporation of moisture from the product surface
occurring at a rate proportional to the moisture content, and once the
critical moisture point is reached, the falling of the drying rate. The critical
moisture point depends greatly on the drying rate since high drying rates
will raise the critical point and low drying rates will decrease them.

5.1.2 Principle of drying

When hot air is blown over a wet food, heat is transferred to the surface,
and latent heat of vaporization causes water to evaporate. Water vapour
diffuses through boundary film of air and is carried away by moving air (Fig
5.1). This creates a region of lower water vapour pressure at the surface
of the food and a water vapour pressure gradient is established from the
moist interior of the food to the dry air. This gradient provides the driving
force for water removal from the food. The boundary film acts as a barrier
to both heat transfer and water vapour removal during drying. The
thickness of the film is determined primarily by the air velocity; if the
velocity is low, the boundary film is thicker and this reduces both the heat
transfer coefficient and the rate of removal of water vapour. Water vapour

34
leaves the surface of the food and increases the humidity of the
surrounding air, to cause a reduction in the water vapour pressure gradient
and hence the rate of drying. Therefore the faster the drying air, the
thinner the boundary film and hence the faster the rate of drying.

In the pores of solids with rigid structure, capillary forces are responsible
for the retention of water, whereas in solids formed by aggregates of fine
powders, the osmotic pressure is responsible for water retention within
the solids as well as in the surface. The type of material to be dried is an
important factor to consider in all drying processes, since its physical and
chemical properties play a significant role during drying due to possible
changes that may occur and because of the effect that such changes may
have in the removal of water from the product.

Fig 5.1 Movement of moisture during drying

The moisture removing mechanisms during drying falls in to three classes:

(iv) evaporation from a free surface,
(v) flow as a liquid in capillaries, and
(vi) diffusion as a liquid or vapour.

The first mechanism follows the laws for heat and mass transfer for a moist
product. The second mechanism becomes difficult to distinguish from
diffusion when one sets the surface tension potential to be proportional to
the logarithm of the moisture potential (or water activity). The third set of

35
mechanisms follows Fick‘s second law of diffusion, which is analogous to
Fourier‘s law of heat transfer when the appropriate driving force is used.

The mechanisms of water transfer in the product during the drying

process can be summarized as follows

 Water movement due to capillary forces

 Diffusion of liquid due to concentration gradients
 Surface diffusion
 Water vapor diffusion in pores filled with air
 Flow due to pressure gradients
 Flow due to water vaporization–condensation.

Most foods are classified as capillary porous rigid or capillary porous

colloids. Therefore, it is often proposed that a combination of capillary flow
and vapour diffusion mechanisms should be used to describe internal mass
transfer.

5.1.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content

All solid materials have certain equilibrium moisture content when in

contact with air at a particular temperature and humidity. The material will
tend to lose or gain moisture over a period of time to attain this equilibrium
value. When the ambient temperature rises and humidity of air decreases,
the water present in food vaporizes, results in drying. At particular
condition the moisture content of the food material depends on the
temperature and relative humidity of the environment. If the vapour
pressure of the water present in food material is more than vapour
pressure of water vapours in air, the water present in food vaporizes and
diffuses in the atmosphere. Alternatively, if the vapour pressure of water
present in food is less than the atmospheric vapour pressure, food will
absorb moisture from atmosphere. This property of gaining or loosing of
moisture as per the atmospheric conditions is known as hygroscopicity.

36
The moisture content attained by a food material with respect to a set of
atmospheric temperature and relative humidity is called the equilibrium
Moisture Content (EMC) of the food material. In such condition , the food
moisture is in equilibrium with surrounding air.

5.1.3 Types of moisture

Fig.5.2 shows various moisture content regions of a food material such as

bound, unbound and free.

Fig 52 Equilibrium moisture isotherm for a material showing various

moisture content.

Bound moisture: The amount of moisture tightly bound to the food matrix
with properties different from those of bulk water; this also represents the
portion of water that is unfreezable. Moisture content of a substance
which exerts as equilibrium vapour pressure less than of the pure liquid at
the same temperature is referred as bound moisture. This moisture is
difficult to remove.

Unbound moisture : Moisture content of the solid which exerts an

equilibrium vapour pressure equal to that of pure liquid at the given
temperature is the unbound moisture. Removal of unbound moisture
requires more energy than free moisture and less energy than bound
moisture.

Free moisture: Amount of moisture mechanically entrapped in the void

spaces of the system, having nearly all properties similar to those of bulk
water.The moisture content of solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture

37
content is referred as free moisture. The free water can easily remove. The
difference between initial and equilibrium moisture content of a food is
known as free moisture.

During drying, only free moisture can be evaporated. The free moisture
content of a solid depends upon the vapour concentration in the gas.

The moisture contents of solid when it is in equilibrium with given partial

pressure of vapour in gas phase is called as equilibrium moisture content.
Similarly, the moisture content at which the constant rate drying period
ends and the falling rate drying period starts is called critical moisture
content. During the constant rate drying period, the moisture evaporated
per unit time per unit area of drying surface remains constant and in falling
rate drying period the amount of moisture evaporated per unit time per
unit area of drying surface continuously decreases

5.2 Constant Drying rate period and falling drying rate period

Drying rate is defined as the mass of water removed per unit time per unit
mass of dry matter or as the mass of water removed per unit time per unit
area.

The boundary film of air surrounding the food acts as a barrier to the
transfer of both heat and water vapour during drying. The thickness of the
film is determined primarily by the air velocity. If air velocity is too low,
water vapour leaves the surfaces of the food and increases the humidity of
the surrounding air, to cause a reduction in water vapour pressure gradient
and rate of drying.

When food is placed into a dryer, there is short initial settling down period
as surface heats-up to the wet bulb temperature. Drying then commences
and, provided that water moves from the interior of the food at the same
rate as it evaporates from the surface, the surface remains wet. This is
known as constant rate period and continues until a certain critical
moisture content is reached. In practice different areas of food surfaces

38
dry out at different rates, and overall, the rate of drying declines gradually.
Thus the critical point is not fixed for a given food and depends on the
amount of food in the dryer and the rate of drying.

5.2.1 Factors affecting drying rate

• Initial moisture content of the raw material

• Composition of raw material
• Size, shape, surface area and arrangement of stacking of the raw
material
• Arrangement or stacking of the product to environment
• Temperature, relative humidity and velocity of air used for drying
• Rate of heat transfer on the surface of the food
• Pre-treatment of the raw material prior to drying (peeling, blanching,
sulphuring etc.)
• Time of drying
Surface area. It is desirable to maximize the surface-to-volume ratio of the
food to be dehydrated to minimize the resistance to heat and mass
transfer. Generally, the smaller the food piece, the more rapid the rate of
moisture loss.

Temperature.The hotter the air, the more moisture it will hold before
becoming saturated. Drying systems are designed to maximize
temperature differences between the product and the drying air to
increase the rate of dehydration. An upper limit to drying air temperature
is dictated by adverse chemical reactions that can take place in a food at
high temperatures. The upper temperature limit is also dictated by the
chemical and physical nature of the food.

Air velocity. Higher the air velocity within a dehydrator, the more rapid the
rate of moisture removal. Food dehydrators are designed to maximize the
velocity of heated air moving around the food particles to be dried.

Humidity of the drying air. The drier the air, the more moisture it can
absorb before it becomes saturated. The relative humidity of the drying air

39
determines the final moisture content of the food being dried. Knowledge
of the equilibrium relative humidity of food is important for the proper
design of dehydrators and for the design of packaging systems that will
prevent moisture adsorption by the dehydrated food during storage.
Relative humidity of air has a indirect relationship with drying rate

Atmospheric pressure and vacuum. Water boils at 100°C when it is at a

pressure of 1 atm (760 mm Hg). As the pressure lowers, the boiling
temperature will decrease. If the temperature is maintained constant, a
decrease in pressure will increase the rate of boiling. Some concentrators
and dehydrators are operated at pressures below atmospheric pressure in
order to increase the rate of boiling and moisture removal. This is
especially important in the case of heat-sensitive food products.
5.2.2 Drying rate period
Fig: 5.3 shows general rate of drying curve for solid material.
Drying process can be divided in to three periods
(iv) constant drying rate period and
(v) first falling drying rate period and
(vi) second falling rate period.

40
Fig 5.3: General rate of Drying Curve for solid material

Constant drying rate period

In a constant drying rate period, the moist surface of product behave like
a free waters. Diffusion of moisture from within the droplet maintains
saturated surface conditions and as long as these lasts, evaporation takes
place at constant rate. When a solid is dried under constant drying
conditions, the moisture content typically falls. The graph is linear at first,
then curves and eventually levels off. Constant rate drying period will
proceed until free moisture appears from the surface, the moisture
removal rate will then become progressively less. The moisture content at
which the constant drying rate ceases is known as the critical moisture
content. The critical moisture content is depend on product and its
thickness. During the constant rate period, the moisture from interior
migrates to the surface by various means and is vapourised. As the
moisture content is lowered, the rate of migration to the surface is
lowered. If drying occurs at too high temperatures, the surface forms the
layer of closely packed shrunken cells which are sealed together. This
presents a barrier to moisture migration and tends to keep the moisture
sealed within. This condition is known as case hardening.

The constant rate period is characterized by a rate of drying independent

41
of moisture content. During this period, the solid is so wet that a
continuous film of water exists over the entire drying surface, and this
water acts as if solids were not there. The temperature of the wetted
surface attained the wet bulb temperature.

The surface temperature of the food remains close to the wet bulb
temperature of the drying air until the end of the constant rate period, due
to cooling effects of evaporating water.

Web bulb Temperature(WBT)

The temperature of the air, measured by a thermometer bulb, is termed

the dry-bulb temperature. If the thermometer bulb is surrounded by a wet
cloth, heat is removed by evaporation of water from the cloth and the
temperature falls. This lower temperature is called the wet-bulb
temperature.

WBT is the steady state temp shown by the thermometer whose bulb is
covered with a wet wick and from which water is evaporating into a high
velocity air stream. The quantity of water evaporated is not high enough
to alter the temperature and humidity of the air stream.

The air blown at high velocity (minimum recommended is 300 m/min). It

causes evaporation of water from the wick. Evaporation requires latent
heat. This heat comes from surface of glass bulb of thermometer. So the
temperature of the glass bulb decreases. The heat comes from the
temperature difference between Tw and Ta (large). It is the case of
simultaneous heat and mass transfer. This heat is latent heat for phase
change of water to water vapor.

q = Mw Nw λw A
Where,
q = amount of latent heat transfer
Mw = mol. Mass of water kg/kg mol
42
 Nw = Molar flux of water vapour, kg mol m-2 s-1
λw = Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg A = Surface area of the
bumb m2
Nw = ky (yw-y)
ky = Mass transfer coefficient kg mol m-2 s-1
yw = Mole fraction of water vapour in the stagnant air layer
adjacent to the wet cloth
y = mole fraction of water vapour in the air stream,
some distance away from the wet cloth (yw-y) is
the driving force.
As long as the rate of surface evaporation
continues, the rate of drying is governed by equation:.

𝑑𝑤 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 )
= = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴(𝐻𝑠 − 𝐻𝑎 )
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣

Where,
W = kg of moisture
t = Time
h = Heat transfer coefficient between air and moisture kcal/ kg
hr °C
ta = dry bulb temperature of air, °C
ts = surface
temperature, °C
A= area, m2
ΔHv = Heat of vapourisation at ts ,
Kcal/ kg
ka = Mass transfer coefficient
(kg/ hr m)
Hs = humidity of saturated air at the surface temperature
Ha = humidity of air

43
The constant rate period ends when the migration rate of water from the
interior of the surface becomes less than the rate of evaporation from the
surface. The period subsequent to the critical point is called the falling rate
period. Beyond this point, the surface temperature rises, and the drying
rate falls off rapidly. The falling rate period takes a far longer time than the
constant rate period, even though the moisture removal may be much less.
The drying rate approaches zero at some equilibrium moisture content.

Falling rate period

When the moisture content of the food falls below the critical moisture
content, the rate of drying slowly decreases until it approaches zero at
equilibrium moisture content. This is known as falling rate period. Non-
hygroscopic foods have single falling rate period where as hygroscopic
foods have two periods. In the first period the plane of evaporation moves
inside the food water diffused through dry solid to the drying air. It ends
when plane of evaporation reaches the center of the food and the partial
pressure of water falls below the saturated water vapour pressure. The
second period occurs when the partial pressure of water is below the
saturated vapour pressure as drying is by desorption.

During falling rate period the rate of water movement from the interior of
the food to the surface falls below the rate at which water evaporates to
the surrounding air. The surface therefore dries out. This is usually the
longest period of drying operation.

Drying in falling rate period involves two processes:

c) movement of moisture within the material to the surface

d) removal of the moisture from the surface

The method used to estimate drying rates and drying times in the falling
rate period depends on whether the solid is porous or non porous. In a non
porous material, once there is no superficial moisture, further drying can
occur only at a rate governed by diffusion of internal moisture to the
44
surface. In a porous material other mechanism appears, and drying may
even takes place inside the solid instead of at the surface.

During the falling rate period the amount of water evaporating from the
surface gradually decreases but as the same amount of heat being supplied
by the air the surface temperature rises until it reaches the dry bulb
temperature of the drying air. Most heat damage to food occurs in the
falling rate period.

During the falling-rate period, the factors that control the rate of drying
change. Initially the important factors are similar to those in the constant-
rate period, but gradually the rate of water movement (mass transfer)
becomes the controlling factor. Water moves from the interior of the food
to the surface by the following mechanisms:

Liquid movement by capillary forces, particularly in porous foods

Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of

solutes at the surface and in the interior of the food

Diffusion of liquids which are adsorbed in layers at the surfaces of

solid components of the food

Water vapour diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by

vapour pressure gradients.

First falling drying rate period

Point B, the moisture content at the end of the constant rate period, is the
‘critical moisture content’. At this point the surface of the solid is no longer
saturated, and the rate of drying decreases with the decrease in moisture
content. At point C, the surface moisture film has evaporated fully, and
with the further decrease in moisture content, the drying rate is controlled
by the rate of moisture movement through the solid. As drying proceeds,
the fraction of wet surface decreases to zero where first falling rate period
ends.

45
 Second falling drying rate period

Period C to D represents conditions when the drying rate is largely

independent of conditions outside the solid. In this period, subsurface e
evaporation takers place and it continues until the equilibrium moisture
content is reached. The moisture transfer may be by any combination of
liquid diffusion, capillary movement, and vapour diffusion.

5.3 Estimation of Drying Time For Food Products

In order to determine the time required to achieve the desired reduction
in product moisture content, the rate of moisture removal or drying rate
must be predicted. The rate of drying depends on properties of drying air
(the dry bulb temperature, RH, and velocity of air and the surface heat
transfer coefficient), the properties of food (moisture content, surface to
volume ratio and the surface temperature) and rate of moisture loss. The
size of the pieces has an important effect on the drying rate in both the
constant and falling rate periods. In the constant rate period, smaller
pieces have a larger surface area available for evaporation where as in
falling rate period smaller pieces have a shorter distance for moisture to
travel through the food. Other factors which influence the rate of drying
include:
4. The fat content of the food (higher fat contents generally results
in slower drying, as water is trapped with in the food).

5. The method of preparation of food

6. The amount of food placed in a dryer in relation to its size

For constant rate drying period the following general expression would apply:
𝑑𝑤 𝑤𝑜 − 𝑤𝑐
𝑅𝑐 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑐
𝑤𝑜 −𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
Where,
wc= Critical moisture content (kg water / kg dry solid )

46
 𝑤𝑜 = Initial moisture content (kg water / kg dry solid )
tc = Constant rate drying
time
During falling rate drying, the following analysis would apply.
𝑑𝑤 𝑅𝑐
− = 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑐
𝑑𝑤 𝑤𝑐
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑤 𝑅𝑐
Where the limits of integration are between critical moisture content wc
or end of constant
rate drying, tc and some desired final moisture content, w.

On integration:
𝑡 𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐 𝑑𝑤
∫𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐
∫𝑤 𝑤
𝑐 𝑜

𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑐 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐

𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
tf - Time for falling rate
Total Drying time(t)= Constant rate drying time(tc) + Falling rate drying
time(tf)
𝑤𝑜 −𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡 = + ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
The above equation indicates that the time for complete drying
from some initial moisture content wo to a desirable final
moisture content w depends on knowledge of critical moisture
content wc, the time for constant rate drying tc, and the rate for
constant drying Rc.

Example 5.1

The initial moisture content of a food product is 77% (wet basis), and the
critical moisture content is 30% (wet basis). If the constant drying rate is
0.1 kg H 2 O/(m 2 s), compute the time required for the product to begin

47
the falling rate drying period. The product has a cube shape with 5-cm
sides, and the initial product density is 950 kg/m 3 .
Given
Initial moisture content = 77% wet basis
Critical moisture content = 30% wet basis
Drying rate for constant rate period = 0.1 kg H 2 O/(m 2 s)
Product size = cube with 5-cm sides
Initial product density = 950 kg/m3

Solution
1. The initial moisture content is
0.77 kg H2O/kg product = 3.35 kg H2O/kg solids
2. The critical moisture content is
0.3 kg H2O/kg product = 0.43 kg H2O/kg solids
3. The amount of moisture to be removed from product during constant-
rate drying will be
3.35 - 0.43 = 2.92 kg H2O/kg solids
4. The surface area of the product during drying will be
0.05 mx0.05 m = 2.5 x10-3m2 /side
2.5 x10-3m2 /side x6 sides = 0.015 m2
5. The drying rate becomes
0.1 kg = 1.5 x10-3kg H2O/s
H2O/(m2s)X0.015m2
6. Using the product density, the initial product mass
950 kg/m3 x(0.05)3 m3 = 0.11875 kg product
0.11875 kg productxx0.23 kg solid / kg product= 0.0273 kg solid
7. The total amount of water to be removed becomes
2.92 kg H2O/kg solids x 0.0273 kg = 0.07975 kg H2O
solids
8.Using the drying rate, the time for constant-rate drying
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟕𝟓 kg H2O = 53.2 s
𝟏.𝟓 𝐗 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 kg H2O/s

48
Example 5.2

A tunnel dryer is being designed for drying apple halves from initial
moisture content of 70 % (wet basis) to final moisture content of 5 % (wet
basis). An experimental drying curve for the product indicates that the
critical moisture content is 25 % (wet basis) and the time for constant
drying is 5 min.Based on the information provided, estimate the total
drying time for product.

Solution
Initial product moisture = 0.7 / = 2.33 kg H2O / kg solids
content, wo 0.3
Critical moisture content, wc = 0.25/0. = 0.333 kg H2O / kg solids
75
Final moisture content, w = 0.05/0. = 0.0526 kg H2O / kg solids
95
Time for constant rate drying, = 5 min
tc
Required: Total drying time
𝑤𝑜 − 𝑤𝑐
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑡𝑐
Rc = (2.33 – 0.33) / 5 min = 0.4 kg H2O / kg solids min
Falling rate drying time
𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑡𝑓 = (0.333/0.4) × ln (0.333 / 0.0526)
= 1.54 min
Total drying time, t = tc + tf =5 + 1.54 = 6.54 min

Example 5.3

Estimate the drying rate and time needed to reduce the moisture content
of a 100 µm diameter spherically shaped droplet, falling in a spray dryer
from 60 to 35 %. The initial density of the droplet is 900 kg/m3. The droplet
is in an air stream such that Ta= 200 oC, P =101.3 k Pa, h = 200 w/m2 oC
49
and Twb = 60 oC. Assume that constant rate drying applies over the total
drying process and droplet doesn‘t change in size.

Given:
Diameter of the droplet = 100 µm =0.0001 m
Initial moisture content = 60 %
Final moisture content = 35%
Density of droplet = 900 kg/m3
Ta = 200oC
P = 101.3kPa
h = 200 w/m2oC
Solution
The surface area of the = π D2 -8
= π (0.0001)2 = 3.14 × 10 m
3

droplet
The volume of the droplet = 1/6 πD 3 = π /6 × (0.0001)3 = 5.24 × 10
-13

m3
-10
The initial mass of the = ρ × V = 900 × 5.24 × 10-13 = 4.71 × 10
droplet , mi
Applying solids balance: mp × 0.4 = mf × 0.65
Final mass of the product = mi×0.4/ = 2.9 × 10-10 kg.
mf 0.65

Drying rate, R 𝑑𝑤 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 ) Δhfg × 1000

=𝑅=
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣
hfg = latent heat of evaporation corresponding to given pressure in kJ
/ kg.
R = 200(3.14 × 10-8) (200 – 60)/ 3.71 × 10-10
(2370.7 × 1000) = kg s
Drying time, t = (mi - mf) / R =[(4.71 – 2.9) 10-10 ]/ 3.71 10-10
= 0.49 s

5.4 Diffusion Controlled Falling Rate Period

50
The method used to estimate drying rates and drying times in the falling
rate period depends on whether the solid is porous or nonporous. In a
nonporous material, once there is no superficial moisture, further drying
can occur only at a rate governed by diffusion of internal moisture, and
drying may be even take place inside the solid instead of at the surface.
One important point to note is that non-hygroscopic foods have a single
falling rate period, where as hygroscopic foods have two falling rate
periods.

First Falling Rate Period

The plane of evaporation moves inside the material being dried, and water
diffuses through the dry solids to the drying air. It represents a condition
whereby the surface is no longer capable of supplying sufficient free
moisture to saturate the air in contact with it. Under these conditions, the
rate of drying depends very much on the mechanism by which moisture
from inside the material is transferred to the surface. This is usually the
longest period of a drying operation and in some foods, where the initial
moisture content is below the critical moisture content the falling rate
period is the only part of the drying curve to be observed.

Second Falling Rate

At the end of the first falling rate period it may be assumed that the surface
is dry and that the plane of separation is moving in to the solid and the
vapour reaches the surface by molecular diffusion through the material.
The forces controlling the vapour diffusion will determine the final rate of
drying, and these will be largely independent of the conditions outside the
material. During the falling rate period, the factors that control the rate of
drying change.

Initially the important factors are similar to those in the constant rate
period, but gradually the rate of mass transfer becomes the controlling
factor. This depends mostly on the air and the thickness of the food. It is
unaffected by the both the relative humidity of the air and the velocity of

51
the air. The air temperature is therefore controlled during the falling rate
period, whereas the air velocity and temperature are more important in
the constant rate period. In practice foods may differ from these idealized
drying curves owing to shrinkage, changes in the temperature and rate of
moisture diffusion in different parts of the food and changes in the
temperature and humidity of the drying air. The surface temperatures of
the food remains close to the wet bulb temperature of the drying air until
the end of the constant rate period, due to the cooling effect of the
evaporating water. During the falling rate period the amount of water
evaporating from the surface gradually decreases but as, the same amount
of heat is being supplied by the air the surface temperature rises until it
reaches the dry bulb temperature of the drying air. Most heat damage to
the food therefore occurs during falling rate period.

Example 5.3

A 50 m diameter droplet of a liquid food is being dried in a spray.

Experiments have indicated that the constant rate drying period for this
type of situation requires 2 s. If the product entering the spray dryer has
10 % total solids and critical moisture content is 35 % (wet basis),
determine the moisture removal rate during constant rate drying. Assume
droplet size does not change during the drying and the product density is
1050 kg / m3

52
Second method:
Wo = 90 % = 0.9 / 0.1 = 9 kg H2O / kg solid.
Wc = 35 % = 0.35/0.65 = 0.5385 kg H2O /kg solid.
Drying rate = wo - wc / t = 4.23 kg H2 O / kg solids.

5.5 Heat and Mass Balance of Continuous Dryers

Dehydration System Design
The design of dehydration systems involves several considerations. The
parameters that have a direct influence on capacity of a system include the
quality and characteristics of air available for drying along with the drying
time required for individual pieces of the product being dried.

Mass and Energy Balance:

By application of mass and energy balance analysis to an entire
dehydration system several parameters influencing design are accounted
for.

53
Fig. 5.4 Mass and Energy balance for drying
system
Moisture balance on the system
Moisture lost by the product = Moisture gained by the air

ma (W2 – W1) + = mp (w1 –w2 )

Where,
ma = Air flow rate (kg dry air / h),
mp = Product flow rate (kg dry solids / h),
W = Absolute humidity (kg water / kg dry air) and
w = Product moisture content (kg water / kg solid)
Ta= Temperature of air ( oC)
Tp = Temperature of product (oC ) and
1 is inlet condition; and 2 is the outlet condition.

Energy balance for the system gives:

ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql

ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql

Where,
Ql = Heat losses from dehydration system,
Ha = Heat content of air (kJ / kg dry air) and
Hp = Heat content of product (kJ / kg dry solids).

Considering 0: C as the reference temperature the expressions for heat

content of air and product are :
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1

54
 Hp2 = Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
Where,
Cpp – Specific heat of product solids (kJ /kg K)
Cpw – Specific heat of water (kJ /kg K),
Tp – Product temperature.

Using these equations, the quality of air required for drying an established
amount of product over known moisture content range can be
determined. In addition, for known inlet conditions of air, the moisture
characteristics of air at the system outlet can be established.

5.7 Rate of evaporation in drum dryers

The rate of moisture removal by a drum dryer is essentially a constant

rate of water evaporation as the product is continuously feed between
the drums and the dried product is removed. The equation governing the
rate of evaporation in a drum dryer is:
𝑑𝑤 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑡𝑚 ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑠 )
= =
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝐻𝑣 ∆𝐻𝑣
Where,
U - Over all heat transfer coefficient, kcal/m2 hr °C or W/
m2 K
Δtm - ta-ts=Temperature of steam - Surface temperature,
°C
ΔHv - Latent heat of vaporization at ts , Kcal/ kg
h - Heat transfer coefficient between air and
moisture kcal/ kg hr °C
2
A - Area, m
The overall coefficient is from 1160 to 2100 W/ m2 K under optimum
condition, although it may be only 1/10 of these values when
conditions are adversed. Since the thickness of drum wall is small
compared to the diameter of the drum, the area A can be regarded
simply as the outer surface area of the drum. The U depends on hs , k
and hp and other coefficients.

55
 1
𝑈 = 1 𝑥 1 1
+ + + (ℎ
ℎ𝑠 𝑘 ℎ𝑝 𝑐 +ℎ𝑟 +ℎ𝑒 )

Where,
hs - Equivalent film coefficient of steam (W/m2K)
x - Thickness of metal (m)
k - Thermal conductivity of metal (w/m K)
hp - Equivalent film coefficient of product (W/m2K)
hc - Convection coefficient (W/m2K)
hr - Radiation coefficient (W/m2K)
he - Evaporation film coefficient (W/m2K)

The factor having the greatest effect on U is the condition of the liquid film
and the drum speed. Drying rates for drum dryers can be extremely high
when thin film of low viscosity is evaporated, and it is thus permissible to
use high temperature. In addition to assuring the adequate heat transfer
the drying system must provide for removal of water vapour. If the speed
of a particular drum is measured, then the U value and the moisture
content of the product will be increased, if the conditions are unchanged.
The overall thermal efficiency of drum dryer is 35 – 80%.

The moisture content X of a milk product containing mw amount of water

and ms amount of dry matter including fat is given by:
𝑚𝑤
𝑋 (𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠) =
(𝑚 𝑤 + 𝑚 𝑠 )

The proportion of dry matter (TS) is given by

𝑚𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = = 1−𝑋
(𝑚 𝑤 + 𝑚 𝑠 )

During the evaporation of a product from the original moisture content X0

containing amount of water mwo to final moisture content X containing an
amount of water mw, the following amount of water is removed.

56
 𝑋𝑜 𝑋
𝑚𝑤𝑜 − 𝑚𝑤 = ([ ]−[ ]) 𝑚𝑠
1 − 𝑋𝑜 1−𝑋

Calculated as a fraction of the water originally present, the following

obtained

𝑚𝑤𝑜 − 𝑚𝑤 𝑋(1 − 𝑋𝑜 )
=1−( )
𝑚𝑤𝑜 𝑋𝑜 (1 − 𝑋)
Example 5.4
1000 kg/hr of dried product (4 %moisture) is produced in a spray dryer.
The atmospheric air at 30 °C and 40 % RH is heated to 190 °C and it is
exhausted at 80°C . The concentrated milk having 45 % TS by weight. Feed
temperature of concentrated milk is 30 °C. Dried product comes out at
50°C. Heat losses from the dryer are 104675 kJ/h. Find out the air flow
rate required.
Solution
Based on enthalpy and moisture balance:
ma = Mass flow rate of air (kg dry air/h)
ms = Mass flow rate of solid (kg dry solid/h) = 1000x0.96 = 960k g dry
solid/h
Ta1 = temperature of air at the inlet = 190 °C
Ta2 = temperature of air at the exit = 80 °C
Tp1 = temperature of feed at the inlet = 30 °C
Tp2 = temperature of product at the exit = 50 °C
Ha1 , Ha2 are enthalpy content of air at the inlet and exit ( kJ/ kg dry
air)
Hp1 , Hp2 are enthalpy content of feed and product ( kJ/ kg dry air)
W1 , W2 are moisture content in air at the entry and exit (kg moisture/
kg dry air)
w1 , w2 = moisture content in feed and product (kg moisture/
kg dry solid)
Cpp = specific heat of dry solids Cpw = specific heat of water
From Psychometric chart: Air contains 0.011 kg water/kg of dry air = W1

57
Assuming dry milk solids have specific heat of 2.32 kJ / kg
Solid balance
Feed rate x = 1000 x0.96
0.45
Feed rate = 1000x = 2133 kg/h
0.96/45
Moisture balance on the system:
ma W1 + mp w1 = ma W2 + mp
Moisture lost by the product = moisture gained by the air
ma (W2 – W1) + = mp (w1 –w2 )
w1 = 55/45 = 1.22 kg of water /kg dry solid
w2 = 4/96 = 0. 042 kg of water / kg of dry solids
ma (W2- = 960 (1.22-0.042) (1)
0.011)
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
= 1. 005 x 190 + 0.011 (2500.5+1.884 = 222.39 kJ / kg
x 190) air
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
= 1.005 x 80 + W2 (2500.5+1.884 x = 80.4+2651.22
80) W2
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1
= 2.32 x 30 + 1.22 x 4.187 x = 222.84 kJ/ kg dry solid
30
= Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
Hp2
= 2.32 x 50 + 0.042 x 4.187 = 124.8 kJ/ kg dry solid
x 50
Energy/enthalpy balance for the system :

Enthalpy in = Enthalpy out system

system
ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql
ma x 222.39 + 960 x = ma ( 80.4 + 2651.22 W2) + 960 x 124.8 +
58
 222.84 104675
142 ma – 2651.22 ma = 224483 (2)
W2
By solving equations (1) and (2)
ma = 26663 kg /h
From (1)
W2 = (1130.88/ ma) + 0.011
W2 = 0.0534
Humidity of air exhaust = 0.0534 kg/kg dry air

Example 5.5
From the following data given for a spray dryer determine hot air flow
rate and humidity of air at the exit of the dryer and quantity of fuel oil
requirement for the air heater. TS in feed = 41%; Moisture content in
product = 3.5 % Temp. of feed = 45 °C; Temperature of product at the
exit of dryer = 60 °C; Feed rate = 50000 kg / hr; Specific humidity of
inlet air (33°C, 45 % RH) = 0.14 kg water/ kg of dry air; Inlet and exit air
temperatures are 210 °C and 85 °C resp; Specific heat of feed = 2.32
kJ/kg; Heat losses from the dryer is 2 x 105 kJ/h; The calorific value of
oil =42000 kJ/kg; Heat transfer efficiency in the air heater = 85%
Solution
w1 = 59/41 = 1.439 kg of water/ kg of dry
solid
w2 = 3.5/96.5 = 0.03626 kg of water/ kg of
dry solid
Cpp = 2.32 kJ/kg
Ta1 = 210 °C Ta2 = 85 °C
Tp1=45 °C Tp2 = 60 °C
Ql = 2 x 105 kJ/h
Quantity of feed = (5000 x 0.965) = 4825 kg/h
,ms
Ha1 = 1.005 Ta1 + W1 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta1)
= 1.005 x 210 + 0.014 (2500.5+1.884 x 210)
59
 = 251.6 kJ / kg
air
Ha2 = 1.005 Ta2 + W2 (2500.5+ 1.884 Ta2)
= 1.005 x 85 + W2 (2500.5+1.884 x 85)
= 85.42 + 2660.64 W2
Hp1 = Cpp Tp1 + w1 Cpw Tp1
= 2.32 x 45 + 1.22 x 4.187 x 45
= 375.53 kJ/ kg dry solid
Hp2 = Cpp Tp2 + w2 Cpw Tp2
= 2.32 x 60 + 0.03626 x 4.187 x 60
= 148.31 kJ/ kg dry solid
Energy/enthalpy balance for the system :
ma Ha1 + mp Hp1 = ma Ha2 + mp Hp2 + Ql
ma x 256.1 + 4825 x = ma ( 85.42 + 2600.64 W2) + 4825 x 148.31
375.53 + 2 x105
170.68ma – 2660.64 ma = 915595.75 (1)
W2

Moisture balance on the system:

Moisture lost by the product = Moisture gained by the
air
ms (W2 – W1) + = ma (w1 –w2 )
4825(1.439 – = ma (W2 – 0.01
0.03626)
ma(W2 – 0.014) = 6768.22 (2)
By solving equations (!) and
(2)
ma = 141821.56 kg/h
W2 = 0.0617 kg/kg dry air
Total energy = ma x Cpp (210- 33)
requirement / h
= 25227928 = 7007.75 kW
kJ/h
60
 Quantity of oil = (42000 x 0.85)/35700 kg/h
required
= 706.66 kg/h

References
4. Paul Singh, R and Dennies R. Heldman. (1993). Introduction to Food
Engineering. Fourth Edition. Academic Press. Chapter 8, 543-570.

5. Fellows, P. (2000). Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practice.

Second Edition Wood head Publishing Limited.

6. Sahay. K.M and Singh. K.K.( 2009) . Unit operations of Agricultural

Processing, Second Revised Edition. Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD,
Noida, U.P.

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