B2

Overhead lines

Compact AC overhead lines

Reference: 792

February 2020
Compact AC overhead lines
WG B2.63

Members

R. STEPHEN, Convenor ZA B. FIFE, Secretary US

D. DOUGLASS US L. NAZIMEK PL
J. FERNANDES BR J. NOLASCO BR
Y. HACHIZAWA JP O. REGIS BR
P. RODRÍGUEZ ES K. REICH AT
J. IGLESIAS ES S. STEEVENS DE
J. JARDINI BR H. VALENTE PT
W. KIEWITT DE C. WANG CA
W. LEE KR G. WATT CA
D. LIEBHABER US C. WINTER DE
D. LOUDON NO Y. YAMANAKA JP
E. MARSHALL ZA M.SOUZA BR
C. NASCIMENTO BR

Reviewers

W. TROPPAUER AT
K. HALSAN NO
H. LUGSCHITZ AT

Copyright © 2020
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-494-8
Disclaimer notice
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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Executive summary
The increased urbanisation and demand for power in built up areas has led to increased power
requirement in limited corridors. This has led to the need for more compact lines where the same
power can be transferred in a narrower right of way.
This brochure covers the compact design of AC overhead lines. There is another brochure under
development at the time of writing covering DC overhead lines.
It is often not possible to rebuild old infrastructure to increase the power flow in a corridor. Uprating
of the existing line will require either new conductors or a voltage upgrade requiring increased voltage
gradients on the same tower with insulators and clearances. This is, in effect, a compact line, as the
voltage stress is increased beyond the normal stress levels on more conventional lines.
Another requirement for increased voltage stress or compactness, is the reduced impedance levels
which are prevalent with decreased phase spacing, increased number of subconductor bundles or
expanded bundle designs. This reduced line impedance allows for an increased power flow down the
line. These techniques can be used to match the impedance and hence power flow in corridors or it
can increase the power flow without series compensation in longer lines.
This brochure explains the concept of compaction for reduced right-of-way as well as increased power
flow. Increased power flow can be realised by bundle expansion and phase compaction or by increase
line voltage. All result in increased electric fields and other effects which are necessary to manage in
the design of a compact line.
The brochure covers the following aspects:
▪ Introduction to electrical parameters of an AC overhead line (OHL) – this covers the
calculation of the surge impedance loading which is dependent on the resistance, impedance
and capacitance of the line.
▪ The AC resistance is fairly complicated and reference is made to relevant CIGRE brochures. A
summary of the parameters involved is covered in this brochure.
▪ The inductance and capacitance are also explained. In summary in order for a high surge
impedance loading it is desirable to reduce the inductance and increase the line capacitance.
This can be achieved by reducing phase spacing, increasing bundle diameter and increasing
the number of sub-conductors in the bundle.
▪ The reduction of phase spacing increases the surface gradient of the conductors in the bundle
which increases the risk of exceeding audible noise limits. The aspect of corona and audible
noise is covered in the brochure with reference to relevant brochures on the subject.
The above sections covered in chapters 1 to 3 provide an overview for the engineer on the calculation
of line parameters and how these parameters can be altered by the phase configuration and bundle
design. The constraint of corona is also covered providing the engineer with the ability to design
within constraints.
When the line is compacted the clearance between phases as well as the tower is also reduced. This
reduces the lines ability to withstand surges. The source of the surges can be either lightning or
switching induced. The section on insulation co-ordination covers the basic theory of insulation co-
ordination as well as the influence of atmospheric conditions on the flashover withstand of the gap.
Calculation examples are provided to enable the engineer to better understand the concept. The
calculation and effect of conductor swing is also covered.
The mechanical design, discussed in chapter 4, covers aspects of the line which includes wind and ice
loading. Hardware and tower designs are then described with a number of tower options presented
for the engineer. These are later used to describe the calculation of the electrical parameters for each
option. This allows the engineer to understand the effect of the different designs on the line
parameters and constraints.
Chapter 5 discusses Live line maintenance techniques for compact lines where the gaps are reduced.
Techniques such as gapped devices and moving the conductor to increase the gap are described.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Construction of compact lines is covered in chapter 6. Techniques are not dissimilar to conventional
lines.
Chapter 7 calculates the different parameters for each of the tower configurations mentioned
previously. This provides the engineer with a visual view of the effect of the tower configuration on
the various parameters including the electrical and magnetic fields.
Chapter 8 contains ten case studies from around the globe where different solutions have been
designed and implemented for narrow right of way and increased power flow requirements. The
engineer can view and understand the different options available to them that have been developed
and implemented.
Chapter 9 deals specifically with voltage uprating which requires the same analysis as line compaction.
Line uprating examples from Manitoba Hydro and Norway are described.
The brochure does not cover the entire range of formulae and methods to design a compact line. It
does provide the engineer with an overview of the parameters and the design options to apply.
References are made to enable access for the engineer to understand and apply the detailed
equations.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Contents
Executive summary ............................................................................................................. 3

1. Overview ................................................................................................................... 12
1.1 Definition and need for compaction ........................................................................................................12
1.2 Right of way (easement or servitude) reduction ....................................................................................12
1.3 Power flow improvement .........................................................................................................................12
1.3.1 Voltage upgrade .................................................................................................................................13
1.4 Considerations for compaction ...............................................................................................................13
1.5 Sustainability ............................................................................................................................................13
1.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................14

2. Electrical parameters............................................................................................... 15
2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................15
2.2 Surge impedance ......................................................................................................................................15
2.2.1 Calculation of AC resistance ...............................................................................................................15
2.2.2 Calculation of inductance ....................................................................................................................15
2.2.3 Determination of capacitance .............................................................................................................16
2.3 Corona .......................................................................................................................................................16
2.4 Design limits for corona ...........................................................................................................................16
2.4.1 Rectification of corona problems .........................................................................................................17
2.5 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................17

3. Insulation co-ordination .......................................................................................... 18

3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................18
3.2 Temporary (sustained) overvoltage ........................................................................................................18
3.3 Slow – front overvoltage (switching surge)............................................................................................18
3.4 Fast-front overvoltage ..............................................................................................................................20
3.5 Insulation strength ...................................................................................................................................21
3.5.1 General ...............................................................................................................................................21
3.5.2 Influence of atmospheric conditions ....................................................................................................21
3.5.3 Statistical behaviour of the insulation ..................................................................................................21
3.6 Insulation coordination calculation procedure ......................................................................................21
3.6.1 For continuous (power frequency) voltage and temporary overvoltage ..............................................21
3.6.2 For Slow-front (switching surge) .........................................................................................................22
3.6.3 For fast–front ......................................................................................................................................22
3.7 Air gap .......................................................................................................................................................22
3.8 Effect of conductor swing due to wind ...................................................................................................22
3.8.1 Phase-to-ground gaps ........................................................................................................................22
3.8.2 Phase-to-phase gaps ..........................................................................................................................23
3.8.3 Conductor position due to wind action – Consideration of asynchronous swing .................................23
3.9 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................23

4. Phase configuration, conductor, towers and hardware ........................................ 24

4.1 Phase configurations ...............................................................................................................................24
4.2 General procedure to optimize the selection of transmission line conductors ..................................26
4.3 Conductor selection mechanical .............................................................................................................28
4.3.1 Wind loads ..........................................................................................................................................28

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4.3.2 Ice loads .............................................................................................................................................29

4.4 Conductor selection - electrical ..............................................................................................................29
4.4.1 Effect of different surfaces ..................................................................................................................29
4.5 Hardware designs .....................................................................................................................................32
4.5.1 Electrical aspects ................................................................................................................................33
4.5.2 Mechanical aspects ............................................................................................................................34
4.5.3 Hardware for Expanded Bundles ........................................................................................................38
4.6 Tower designs...........................................................................................................................................41
4.6.1 Tower design considerations ..............................................................................................................41
4.6.2 Anti galloping considerations ..............................................................................................................46
4.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................48

5. Live line maintenance techniques .......................................................................... 49

5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................49
5.2 Feasibility of live line work on compact line ..........................................................................................49
5.3 Minimum approach distance ...................................................................................................................50
5.4 Control of transient overvoltage .............................................................................................................50
5.4.1 Pre-Insertion Resistor (PIR) ................................................................................................................51
5.4.2 Blocked automatic reclosing ...............................................................................................................51
5.4.3 Surge arrestor .....................................................................................................................................51
5.4.4 Portable Protective Air Gaps (PPAG) .................................................................................................51
5.5 Live work methods for compact lines .....................................................................................................52
5.5.1 Hot stick ..............................................................................................................................................52
5.5.2 Barehand ............................................................................................................................................53
5.5.3 Robot ..................................................................................................................................................55
5.6 Additional consideration ..........................................................................................................................55
5.6.1 Job planning .......................................................................................................................................55
5.6.2 NCI insulator .......................................................................................................................................55
5.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................56

6. Construction techniques ......................................................................................... 57

6.1 Underground cable and overhead line interface ....................................................................................57
6.2 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................59

7. Influence of compaction in the line electrical design ............................................ 60

7.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................60
7.2 Configurations ..........................................................................................................................................61
7.3 Insulation coordination ............................................................................................................................61
7.4 Geometries to be considered ..................................................................................................................61
7.5 Comparison of the results .......................................................................................................................63
7.5.1 Line constants (R, X, L,C) ...................................................................................................................63
7.5.2 Corona effect ......................................................................................................................................64
7.5.3 Electric field ........................................................................................................................................69
7.5.4 Magnetic field......................................................................................................................................70
7.5.5 Field design criteria discussion ...........................................................................................................72
7.6 Electrical line design criteria adopted in different countries ................................................................73
7.6.1 Over-voltages values used .................................................................................................................75
7.6.2 Insulation coordination values used ....................................................................................................76
7.6.3 Corona effects ....................................................................................................................................77
7.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................77

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8. Case studies............................................................................................................. 78
8.1 Case study: Compact Plus - Norway ......................................................................................................78
8.1.1 Insulator development.........................................................................................................................79
8.1.2 Fittings development ...........................................................................................................................79
8.1.3 Demonstration project Rasta ..............................................................................................................80
8.1.4 Magnetic field profile ...........................................................................................................................81
8.1.5 Technological challenges....................................................................................................................81
8.2 Case study: Stevin project - Belgium .....................................................................................................81
8.2.1 Example calculation: wind load ...........................................................................................................83
8.2.2 Zomergem and Zeebrugge .................................................................................................................84
8.2.3 Insulated cross arms ...........................................................................................................................85
8.2.4 Existing 150 kV line goes underground...............................................................................................85
8.2.5 Impact on landscape ...........................................................................................................................86
8.3 Case study: compact high voltage crossarms - Germany ....................................................................87
8.3.1 General parameters and requirements ...............................................................................................87
8.3.2 Design of the insulator crossarms .......................................................................................................88
8.3.3 Intended investigations and tests ........................................................................................................89
8.3.4 Mechanical tests for verification of combined mechanical static loads ...............................................90
8.3.5 Test results .........................................................................................................................................90
8.3.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................94
8.4 Case study: “compactLine” – A case study in Germany ......................................................................94
8.4.1 Background.........................................................................................................................................94
8.4.2 Requirements by the TSO ..................................................................................................................94
8.4.3 Development of phase conductor configuration ..................................................................................95
8.4.4 Development of insulators ..................................................................................................................96
8.4.5 Development of pylons .......................................................................................................................97
8.4.6 Mechanical and electrical tests ...........................................................................................................98
8.4.7 Acceptance study ...............................................................................................................................99
8.4.8 Demonstration ....................................................................................................................................99
8.5 Case study – Narrow right of way USA ...................................................................................................99
8.5.1 Parameters and compaction limits ....................................................................................................100
8.5.2 Structure comparison ........................................................................................................................102
8.5.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................104
8.6 Case study: Narrow ROW Tower – Japan.............................................................................................105
8.6.1 Background and requirements ..........................................................................................................105
8.6.2 Outline of Narrow ROW Tower .........................................................................................................106
8.6.3 Dimensions .......................................................................................................................................107
8.6.4 Phase to phase clearances in midspan ............................................................................................108
8.6.5 Electric field ......................................................................................................................................111
8.7 Case study: Live-line maintenance on downsized 400 kV tower types - Hungary............................112
8.7.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................114
8.8 Case study: Compact 110 kV – Poland .................................................................................................114
8.8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................114
8.8.2 Small-sized 110 KV line ....................................................................................................................115
8.8.3 Optimizing technical solutions ...........................................................................................................117
8.8.4 Division for narrow and wide-based towers ......................................................................................117
8.8.5 Elimination of useless solutions ........................................................................................................117
8.8.6 Variability of phase configuration ......................................................................................................117
8.8.7 Practical solutions which reduced construction time .........................................................................120
8.8.8 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................121
8.9 Case study: Development and validation of two compact 380 kV towers - Germany ......................122
8.9.1 Abstract.............................................................................................................................................122
8.9.2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................122
8.9.3 Electrical parameters ........................................................................................................................124
8.9.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................132
8.10 Case study: Compact and supercompact urban transmission lines – Brazil ...................................133
8.10.1 Compact urban transmission lines ....................................................................................................133
8.10.2 138 kV SuperCompact urban transmission lines ..............................................................................134
8.10.3 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields ....................................................................................................134
8.11 Case study: Switzerland.........................................................................................................................135

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9. Voltage upgrading ................................................................................................. 138

9.1 Case study – Manitoba Hydro (Canada) ...............................................................................................139
9.1.1 Background.......................................................................................................................................139
9.1.2 Mechanical consideration .................................................................................................................139
9.1.3 Electrical consideration .....................................................................................................................139
9.1.4 Experience during last forty years .....................................................................................................140
9.2 Case study Norway – Voltage uprating ................................................................................................141
9.2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................141
9.2.2 Comparison of environmental factors ...............................................................................................141
9.2.3 Improved aesthetics ..........................................................................................................................142
9.2.4 EMF and audible noise .....................................................................................................................142
9.2.5 Visual aspects and public acceptance ..............................................................................................143

10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 146

APPENDIX A. Definitions, abreviations and symbols ................................................... 147

A.1. General terms..........................................................................................................................................147
A.2. Specific terms .........................................................................................................................................147

APPENDIX B. Links and references ............................................................................... 151

APPENDIX C. Airgap calculation .................................................................................... 153

C.1. For slow-front..........................................................................................................................................153
C.2. For fast fronts .........................................................................................................................................155
C.3. For sustained overvoltage .....................................................................................................................155
C.4. Example ...................................................................................................................................................156
C.5. Calculation of swing angle.....................................................................................................................160

Figures and Illustrations

Figure 4.1 Variation of Drag Force Per Unit Length (1) vs. Wind Velocity ..............................................................28
Figure 4.2 Trapezoidal Strands (left) and Round Strands (right) ............................................................................29
Figure 4.3 Trapezoidal Strands (G(Z/X)TACSR) and Round Strands (AAAC) Comparison ...................................30
Figure 4.4 Arc Length with Surface Gradient Above a Certain Level ......................................................................31
Figure 4.5 Surface Gradient Enhancement by Protrusion for Trapezoidal Stranded Conductor .............................31
Figure 4.6 Surface Gradient Enhancement by Protrusion for Round Stranded Conductor .....................................32
Figure 4.7 110 kV Double I - string .........................................................................................................................33
Figure 4.8 V-string Power Arc Test .........................................................................................................................34
Figure 4.9 420 & 110 kV-V-strings (acute-angled) [3] .............................................................................................35
Figure 4.10 245 kV Tower with 245 kV on the Left and 420 kV Asymmetric V-string on the Right .........................36
Figure 4.11 Line Post Insulator ...............................................................................................................................36
Figure 4.12 420 kV Suspended Line Post Insulator [Papailiou] ..............................................................................36
Figure 4.13 150 kV Insulated Cross-Arm ................................................................................................................37
Figure 4.14 420 kV Insulated Cross-Arm ................................................................................................................37
Figure 4.15 420 kV Interphase Spacer ...................................................................................................................37
Figure 4.16 Interphase Spacers [Bergner] ..............................................................................................................38
Figure 4.17 Expanded Bundle Hardware ................................................................................................................39
Figure 4.18 Implementation of Expanded Bundle on a Transmission Line .............................................................40
Figure 4.19 Implementation of Asymmetrical Bundle on a Transmission Line ........................................................40
Figure 4.20 Implementation of Asymmetrical Bundle on a Transmission Line ........................................................41
Figure 4.21 Tower Designs with Phases Separated by Structural Elements and Those Without ...........................41
Figure 4.22 Broad Based Lattice Tower with Separate Foundations ......................................................................42
Figure 4.23 Narrow Based Lattice Tower with Compact Foundation ......................................................................42
Figure 4.24 Single Poles With Compact Foundation ..............................................................................................43
Figure 4.25 Clearances ..........................................................................................................................................44
Figure 4.26 Different Compact Tower Types for Consideration ..............................................................................45
Figure 4.27 Comparison on Existing Tower and Composite Type ..........................................................................46
Figure 4.28 Examples of Galloping Mode Shapes ..................................................................................................47

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Figure 4.29 345 kV Twin Bundle Interphase Spacer...............................................................................................48

Figure 4.30 420 kV Quad Bundle Interphase Spacer .............................................................................................48
Figure 5.1 Effect of Breaker PIR on Maximum Switching Surge Overvoltage ........................................................51
Figure 5.2 Stick Technique From Structure ............................................................................................................52
Figure 5.3 Displacing of Live Jumper to Achieve Access and Maintain MAD .........................................................53
Figure 5.4 Insulated Aerial Platform........................................................................................................................53
Figure 5.5 Indicating MAD (5.5 m for specific 765 kV line) .....................................................................................54
Figure 5.6 Strain Poles Displaying Physical Barrier to Eliminate Ergonomic Distance ...........................................54
Figure 5.7 Quanta Linemaster® Robotic Arm .........................................................................................................55
Figure 6.1 Cable to Line Interface Tower ................................................................................................................57
Figure 6.2 Cable to Line Interface Station ..............................................................................................................58
Figure 6.3 Cable to Line Transition Site..................................................................................................................58
Figure 7.1 Basic HVAC Line ...................................................................................................................................60
Figure 7.2 Phase Spacing to be Evaluated .............................................................................................................62
Figure 7.3 Phase Spacing to be Evaluated .............................................................................................................62
Figure 7.4 Surface Gradient as Function of the Number of Conductor per Phase ..................................................65
Figure 7.5 Surface Gradient as Function of the Bundle Spacing ............................................................................65
Figure 7.6 Radio Interference Mean Fair Weather..................................................................................................67
Figure 7.7 Audible Noise (wet conductor) ...............................................................................................................68
Figure 7.8 Electric Field in Soil Surface voltage 500kV ..........................................................................................69
Figure 7.9 Electric Field at 1 m Height, Minimum Clearance Above Ground 10 m voltage 420kV .........................70
Figure 7.10 Magnetic Field at Soil Surface (500kV)................................................................................................71
Figure 7.11 Magnetic Field at 1 m Height, Minimum Clearance Aboveground 10 m ..............................................72
Figure 8.1 Compact Plus Tower .............................................................................................................................78
Figure 8.2 Cross Arm..............................................................................................................................................79
Figure 8.3 Tower Top .............................................................................................................................................79
Figure 8.4 Top Phase with Surge Arrester ..............................................................................................................79
Figure 8.5 Aerial View of Line Section ....................................................................................................................80
Figure 8.6 Magnetic Field Profile ............................................................................................................................81
Figure 8.7 Mid-point Evolutions of the Classical Multistrand conductor ..................................................................82
Figure 8.8 Variations of Horizontal Transverse Load ..............................................................................................82
Figure 8.9 Diagram of Work Entailed ......................................................................................................................84
Figure 8.10 Diagram of Work Entailed ....................................................................................................................85
Figure 8.11 Existing and Modified Tower ................................................................................................................86
Figure 8.12 Existing ................................................................................................................................................86
Figure 8.13 During ..................................................................................................................................................87
Figure 8.14 After Construction ................................................................................................................................87
Figure 8.15 Non Pivoting Vee (NPV) ......................................................................................................................89
Figure 8.16 50° Horizontal Angle, Slippage Clamps ...............................................................................................89
Figure 8.17 Static Deformation for Load Case ........................................................................................................90
Figure 8.18 Laboratory Test Arrangement ..............................................................................................................90
Figure 8.19 Power Arc Test ....................................................................................................................................91
Figure 8.20 Buckling Euler Test ..............................................................................................................................92
Figure 8.21 Buckline Euler Test 4 ...........................................................................................................................92
Figure 8.22 Testing Arrangement ...........................................................................................................................93
Figure 8.23 After Test Initiated Breakage at Conductor Side ..................................................................................93
Figure 8.24 Wintrack, Tennet, the Netherlands ......................................................................................................93
Figure 8.25 Eagle Towers Ability to Change Tower Design with Compact Insulator Design Energinet, Denmark .94
Figure 8.26 “CompactLine” Suspension Bundle Spacer for Quad Bundle and a Double Steel Rope .....................95
Figure 8.27 Conductor Sag Comparison of Conventional and Compact line Configuration ....................................96
Figure 8.28 Three Alternative “CompactLine” Phase Configuration Concepts for the Suspension Pylon ...............96
Figure 8.29 “CompactLine” Tension Insulator Concept ..........................................................................................97
Figure 8.30 Tension Pylon Concept (left) and Suspension Pylon Concept (right) ..................................................97
Figure 8.31 Mechanical Load Transposition Test on Compactline “Saale” Configuration .......................................98
Figure 8.32 Flashover During Switching Impulse Test on Tension Insulator Configuration ....................................98
Figure 8.33 “compactLine” overhead line - Last works before commissioning in summer 2018 ............................99
Figure 8.34 Structure Dimensional Cases ............................................................................................................100
Figure 8.35 Span Lengths Achieved .....................................................................................................................101
Figure 8.36 Audible Noise Analysis ......................................................................................................................102
Figure 8.37 Aerial View of Surrounding Area ........................................................................................................105
Figure 8.38 View From Helicopter 2008 ...............................................................................................................105
Figure 8.38 Required Jumper Clearance in the Case of Adopting 275 kV Conventional Tower ...........................106
Figure 8.40 ROW of Existing Line and Narrow ROW Tower ................................................................................106
Figure 8.41 View of Conventional Tower and Narrow ROW Tower ......................................................................107
Figure 8.42 Required Jumper Clearance for 275 kV Narrow ROW Tower ...........................................................107
Figure 8.43 Typical Dimensions of Existing Tower and Narrow ROW Tower .......................................................108
Figure 8.44 Wind Upwash Angle and Drag Force.................................................................................................109
Figure 8.45 Asynchronous Conductor Swing in Midspan in Each V .....................................................................110

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Figure 8.46 Phase Configuration ..........................................................................................................................111

Figure 8.47 Electric Field at 1m Height .................................................................................................................111
Figure 8.48 Maximum Electric Field at 1m Height vs. Minimum Ground Clearance .............................................112
Figure 8.49 Conventional 400 kV Towers .............................................................................................................113
Figure 8.50 Insulator Replacement .......................................................................................................................114
Figure 8.51 Phase Wires Configuration on Suspension Towers ...........................................................................115
Figure 8.52 Drawing of Jumper ............................................................................................................................116
Figure 8.53 Jumpers on Tension Towers .............................................................................................................116
Figure 8.54 Jumpers with Suspension Insulators At Dedicated Angles ................................................................117
Figure 8.55 Flat Wire Configuration Tower for 220 kV Crossing ...........................................................................118
Figure 8.56 Barrel Wire Configuration Tower .......................................................................................................118
Figure 8.57 Towers Comparison...........................................................................................................................119
Figure 8.58 Two 110 kV Lines Temporary Connection .........................................................................................120
Figure 8.59 Temporary Line 110 kV on Concrete Medium Voltage Towers .........................................................120
Figure 8.60 Old (left) and New(right) Line.............................................................................................................121
Figure 8.61 Left: Original Triangle Configuration (D481). Right: Compact Triangle Configuration (D49) ..............123
Figure 8.62 Left: Original Fir Tree Configuration (D461). Right: Compact Fir Tree Configuration (D43) ..............123
Figure 8.63 Compact Tower Configurations Left: Triangle Configuration Right: Fir Tree Configuration. .............124
Figure 8.64 AN Level for the Triangle Configurations ...........................................................................................125
Figure 8.65 AN Level for the Fir Tree Configurations ...........................................................................................125
Figure 8.66 AN Level for the Compact Tower Configurations ...............................................................................126
Figure 8.67 RI Level for the Triangle Configurations ............................................................................................127
Figure 8.68 RI Level for the Fir Tree Configurations .............................................................................................127
Figure 8.69 RI Level for the Compact Tower Configurations ................................................................................128
Figure 8.70 Corona Loss for the Triangle Configurations .....................................................................................128
Figure 8.71 Corona Loss for the Fir Tree Configurations......................................................................................129
Figure 8.72 Corona Loss for the Compact Tower Configurations .........................................................................129
Figure 8.73 Electric Field for the Triangle Configurations .....................................................................................130
Figure 8.74 Electric Field for the Fir Tree Configurations .....................................................................................130
Figure 8.75 Electric field for the Compact Tower Configurations ..........................................................................131
Figure 8.76 Magnetic Field of the Triangle Configurations ...................................................................................131
Figure 8.77 Magnetic field of the Fir Tree Configurations .....................................................................................132
Figure 8.78 Magnetic Field of the Compact Tower Configurations .......................................................................132
Figure 8.79 Copel’s Urban Transmission Lines: 69 kV (left), 138 kV (center) and 230 kV (right). ........................133
Figure 8.80 Air Gap Strength Tests for 1.2 Meter .................................................................................................134
Figure 8.81 138 kV SuperCompact Urban Transmission Line Implanted in Curitiba (Brazil) in 2015 ...................134
Figure 8.82 138 kV Supercompact Urban Transmission Line Electric and Magnetic Fields .................................135
Figure 8.83 Steel lattice tower of existing 125kV-line (a) and Swiss compact 2D-tower (bipod) 400kV/132kV (b)
and standard (steel lattice) design (c) ...................................................................................................................136
Figure 8.84 Swiss compact tower for 400kV/132kV, front view ............................................................................136
Figure 8.85 Swiss compact tower for 400kV/132kV, side view with details of tower legs .....................................137
Figure 9.1 Phase Spacing Ratio vs. Line Voltage [EPRI 1978] ............................................................................138
Figure 9.2 Modified 115 kV Wood Pole Structure for 230 kV ................................................................................140
Figure 9.3 Standard 230 kV Wood Pole Structure in Same Area .........................................................................141
Figure 9.4 Existing, Compact Plus, Triangular and Vertical Configurations ..........................................................141
Figure 9.5 Line Configurations Overview ..............................................................................................................143
Figure 9.6 Tower Type Concepts From Widenoja Design and EFLA ...................................................................144
Figure 9.7 The Straw Presented in a Typical Surrounding for the Greater Oslo Area ..........................................145

App Figure C.1 Phase to Phase Overvoltage .......................................................................................................155

App Figure C.2 Withstand Characteristic of Gap (power frequency) ....................................................................155
App Figure C.3 Risk Versus Distance...................................................................................................................158
App Figure C.4 Phase to Phase Overvoltage (α=0.5)...........................................................................................160
App Figure C.5 Asynchronous Swing of the Conductors at Mid Span Position ....................................................162

Tables
Table 1.1 Increase in Surge Impedance Loading with Compaction and/or Bundle Size Increase ..........................13
Table 2.1 Sound Levels Recommended for Outdoors South Africa .......................................................................17
Table 4.1 Influence of Phase Configuration on EMF, RI and AN ............................................................................24
Table 4.2 Influence of Parameters ..........................................................................................................................26
Table 4.3 Clearances for Birds used in Spain .........................................................................................................44
Table 5.1 Overvoltage Factors ...............................................................................................................................50
Table 7.1 Conductor Clearances to the Tower (horizontal distances) ....................................................................61
Table 7.2 Parameters of the Alternative Line Configurations ..................................................................................63
Table 7.3 Sensitivity of Gmx to Number and Spacing of Subconductor..................................................................64

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Table 7.4 Gmx for the Tower Alternative Configuration ..........................................................................................65

Table 7.5 Value of K Versus N ...............................................................................................................................67
Table 7.6 ROW for RI and AN Values in (m) ..........................................................................................................69
Table 7.7 ICNIRP Reference Values ......................................................................................................................73
Table 7.8 Required and Legal Limits for Electric and Magnetic Fields ...................................................................73
Table 7.9 Required and Calculated Limits ..............................................................................................................73
Table 7.10 Answers Received for Overvoltages .....................................................................................................75
Table 7.11 Answers Received for Insulation Coordination .....................................................................................76
Table 7.12 Answers Received for Corona Effects ..................................................................................................77
Table 8.1 Wind Loads .............................................................................................................................................83
Table 8.2 Mechanical Loads ...................................................................................................................................88
Table 8.3 Conductor Sag Comparison of Conventional and Compact line Configuration .......................................95
Table 8.4 “Compactline” Designed Pylon Dimensions for Suspension and Dead-end Pylon .................................98
Table 8.5 Structure Configurations .......................................................................................................................103
Table 8.6 Summary of Analysis Results ...............................................................................................................103
Table 8.7 Typical Dimensions of Existing Line and New Line Replaced with Narrow ROW Tower ......................108
Table 8.8  and  value estimated in this consideration and the required clearance in each V ............................109
Table 8.9 Results of Surface Gradients ................................................................................................................124
Table 9.1 Electrical and Mechanical Issues ..........................................................................................................139
Table 9.2 Comparison of Environmental Factors ..................................................................................................142

App Table A.1 Definition of General Terms Used in this TB .......................................................................... 147
App Table A.2 Definition of Technical Terms Used in this TB ........................................................................ 147
App Table C.1 Gap Factor for Slow-front (with and without insulator filling the gap)....................................... 154
App Table C.2 Gap Factor (k) for Phase to Phase Insulation ......................................................................... 155
App Table C.3 Line Energization Risk Calculation ......................................................................................... 157
App Table C.4 Risk by Section and Total .................................................................................................... 159
App Table C.5 Values ............................................................................................................................... 159

Equations
Equation 2.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................15
Equation 2.2 ...........................................................................................................................................................15
Equation 3.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................22
Equation 7.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.2 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.3 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.4 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.5 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.6 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.7 ...........................................................................................................................................................63
Equation 7.8 ...........................................................................................................................................................64
Equation 7.9 ...........................................................................................................................................................66
Equation 7.10 .........................................................................................................................................................66
Equation 7.11 .........................................................................................................................................................66
Equation 7.12 .........................................................................................................................................................67
Equation 7.13 .........................................................................................................................................................67
Equation 7.14 .........................................................................................................................................................67
Equation 7.15 .........................................................................................................................................................68
Equation 8.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................83
Equation 8.2 ...........................................................................................................................................................83
Equation 8.3 .........................................................................................................................................................109

App Equation C.1..................................................................................................................................................153

App Equation C.2..................................................................................................................................................153
App Equation C.3..................................................................................................................................................159
App Equation C.4..................................................................................................................................................160
App Equation C.5..................................................................................................................................................160

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

1. Overview
1.1 Definition and need for compaction
Definition of Compaction – for the purposes of this brochure and based on the definition of
compact lines provided by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the definition of compact lines is:
Compact Line: Power line for which the distances between phases are much less than those used in
conventional designs. This is typically made possible either by using special insulators or reducing the
over-voltages applied between phases.
Note that the concept of “Compaction” which implies multiple circuits in a single right of way (ROW) is
excluded from this brochure.
Compaction of AC power lines is required for a variety of reasons, these include:
 Right of way (easement or servitude) limitations – the obtaining of servitudes for placement of
lines is becoming more difficult world wide. It is often required that large capacity lines are
placed in the same servitude width of previous smaller lines. Compact lines which permit the
line to fit into the smaller servitude width are often the solution.

 Increase in power flow – the reduction of phase spacing which can be achieved by reducing
the distance between bundle centres or by increasing the bundle diameters, will result in an
increase in the surge impedance loading of the line. This is achieved by reducing the
impedance of the line and permits an increase in power flow down the line.

 Visual impact – Compacting phases usually results in a lower visual impact which may be
more pleasing to the public. This, in turn may result in more acceptance from the public for
the line.

1.2 Right of way (easement or servitude) reduction

The reduction in the servitude width can be achieved in many different ways. The servitude width is
generally determined by the blow out of the conductor from the centre line. In order to reduce the
blowout of the conductor the following can be done:
 Use of V instead of I string insulators – the V string will reduce the movement of the insulator
under wind conditions. In the case of the I string, the insulator moves increasing the blow out
and hence the servitude width requirement.

 Use of shorter spans – shorter spans limit the blowout of the conductor as the conductor is
fixed at each tower point. The drawback of this method is that the increase in the number of
towers increases the cost of the line.

 Use of vertical phase configuration – if the phase configuration is vertical as opposed to flat,
the blowout of all phases is the same as would be with the centre phase on a flat
configuration. This reduces the structure width and the servitude width required by blowout.

 Reducing the distance between phases – the reduction between phases can be used in any
phase configuration, verticle, flat or delta. The reduction in the phase spacing will reduce the
structure width and servitude width required by blowout in the case of delta or flat
configurations and reduce the tower height (improve visual impact).

1.3 Power flow improvement

Increasing the bundle size and phase compaction can increase the surge impedance loading (SIL) of
the line. This is an indication of the increased power flow possible without compensation down the
line. The actual power flow will depend on the network that the line is employed in [CIGRE 1998]

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Table 1.1 Increase in Surge Impedance Loading with Compaction and/or Bundle Size Increase

Voltage SIL traditional TL SIL- HSIL

(kV) (MW) (MW)
69 9-12 10-40
138 40-50 50-120
230 120-130 130-440
500 950-1000 1000-2000

The above table indicates the increases that can be achieved by decreasing phase spacing and
increasing the bundle diameter as well as the number of sub-conductors in the bundle. Lines
employing these approaches are described as high surge impedance loading (HSIL) lines.
1.3.1 Voltage upgrade
Another means to increase power flow is to upgrade the voltage of the line. This places the same
stresses electrically on the line as would a compact line at a lower voltage. The same processes and
theory apply to both cases. Note that in the case of voltage upgrade the substation equipment will
also have to be upgraded which may influence the method used for increasing power transfer.

1.4 Considerations for compaction

In compacting the line by reducing the distance between the phases, the following aspects need to be
taken into account.
Audible noise and radio interference – by decreasing the distance between the phases or
increasing the bundle size with the same distance between bundle centres, will increase the surface
gradient on the conductors. This results in increased audible noise as well as radio interference. It is
important to check that these levels are within acceptable standards.
Live line maintenance – the reduction in phase spacing reduces the distances that live workers can
operate within. It may be necessary to change the method of working or maintain the line when it is
out of service.
Insulation co-ordination – the ability of the line to withstand lightning and switching surges will be
impacted by the reduction in phase spacing. It is important that studies are undertaken to determine
if the surges to be experienced on the line will result in an unacceptable flashover rate. If so measures
should be taken to ensure reliability of the line is maintained.
Sub-span oscillation – In order to reduce the surface gradient on the conductors, the bundle size
may be reduced. This reduces the surface gradient, audible noise and radio interference. However, if
the distance between the sub-conductors is less than 15 diameters in the horizontal plane, one may
experience sub-span oscillation which can cause damage. This can be mitigated by increasing the
number of spacer dampers and checks need to be undertaken to ensure the bundle is mechanically
without vibration issues.
Phase to phase clashing – galloping under ice conditions may cause flashover due to phases
moving out of synchronisation (in phase). This may be exacerbated with the reduction in phase
distance. In areas where galloping is likely, mitigation measures such as interphase spacers or other
anti-galloping devices may be necessary.

1.5 Sustainability
Sustainable Development (SD) is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [Brundtland 1987]. SD is a
broad concept, with three pillars that include the Environment, Economy and Society. Our
infrastructure systems, including our transmission systems, significantly impact all three pillars. The
transmission line industry has the challenge of providing a path for electricity to support societal and
economical needs and to facilitate the use of renewable energy sources while balancing negative
impacts to the environment and society. Compact transmission design plays a significant role in the
future of sustainable transmission line development.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

The following SD concepts are inherent to compact design:

1. Reduction in visual impact resulting from smaller, shorter structures, less vegetation clearing
and smaller right of way (ROW)
2. Efficient land-use by increased power flow on relatively smaller ROW
3. Reduction in EMF resulting from smaller phase spacing (Often causing higher audible noise)
4. Avoidance of land disturbance of important areas like sensitive habitats, farmlands and
greenfield areas by use of existing (greyfield) ROW’s
5. Reduced power losses resulting from increased voltages in a given ROW and increased SIL.

This is not a comprehensive set of considerations for a SD transmission line design. The decision to
apply a compact design to a given situation is commonly determined by the strong need to consider
one or more of these aspects, although SD should be approached holistically considering all aspects of
the design and sustainability. The following Cigre Technical Brochures are suggested for more
information on SD in transmission line design:
Cigre TB 147, High Voltage Overhead Lines Environmental Concerns, Procedures, Impacts and
Mitigations
Cigre TB 265, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) For Overhead Lines
Cigre TB 340, Utilities Practices Toward Sustainable Development
Cigre TB 383, Sustainable Development Performance Indicators for Transmission System Operators
Cigre TB 548, Stakeholder Engagement Strategies in Sustainable Development – Electricity Industry
Overview

1.6 Summary
The needs and benefits of compaction can be wide spread and include reduced right of way, increased
power transfer, environmental benefits and sustainability. The following chapters will deal with the
electrical parameters of the line as well as the mechanical aspects to consider. This leads to tower
design, phase configuration and maintenance. Calculations as to the effect of compaction on actual
examples are covered as well as case studies.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

2. Electrical parameters
2.1 Introduction
In order to understand the impact of compaction, it is necessary to understand the parameters that
make up the electrical components of the line. This includes the surge impedance loading which
affects the power transfer of the line. In order to understand surge impedance it is necessary to
understand how the impedance of the line is determined. This includes the resistance, inductance and
capacitance. This is included in the following sections of this chapter.
When the phases are moved closer together, it increases the surface gradient of the phase
conductors. This, in turn, increases the possibility of audible noise being created due to corona. To
rectify the issue of audible noise after construction is very difficult and expensive. It is critical that the
compact design ensures that the corona limits are not exceeded. This is covered in section 2.3 of this
chapter.

2.2 Surge impedance

The surge impedance of the transmission line is defined as the [Muftic] square root of the ratio of the
line inductance to the line capacitance.
Thus
Equation 2.1

𝐿
𝑍𝐶 = √ Ω
𝐶
Where Zc is the surge impedance
L is the series inductance and
C is the shunt capacitance.
The surge impedance loading (SIL) is the load at which the inductance and capacitance will negate
each other and represents an indication of the capability of the power line to transfer load.
Equation 2.2

(𝑉𝐿𝐿 )2
𝑆𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝐶
where VLL is the line voltage.
It is desirable in most cases to increase the capability of the line to transfer load thus to increase C
and reduce L to maximise this parameter.
It is important to understand the parameters that make up the Resistance (R), Inductance (L) and the
Capacitance (C) of a Transmission line.
2.2.1 Calculation of AC resistance
The AC resistance of a transmission line is described in detail in Cigre [Douglass 2008] and is a
function of the conductor construction and material. For ACSR conductors it is also a function of
current. Frequency plays a lesser role at power frequency levels.
2.2.2 Calculation of inductance
The inductance depends on the Geometric mean radius (GMR) and the geometric mean diameter
(GMD) of the bundle and phase configuration. Details can be found in [Muftic]. The GMR is a function
of the bundle radius and number of conductors in the bundle. The larger the radius and the higher the
number of subconductors the higher the value of GMR. The GMD is a function of the distance between
phases. The less the distance between the phases the lower the value of the GMD. The inductance is
a function of the ratio of GMD to GMR. For the inductance to be low, which is desired for power
transfer, the GMR should be high and the GMD low.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

To decrease the inductance which will enable higher power transfer, the GMR should be large and the
GMD should be small. Thus the bundle size should be large, the number of subconductors should be
high and the and the phase spacing should be small.
2.2.3 Determination of capacitance
With reference to [Muftic], the shunt capacitance of a power line is affected by the height of
conductor to the earth plane which affects the charge in the conductors.
The aim should be for capacitance to be high which will reduce losses and support voltage. In order
for this to occur the phases need to be closer together and/or the bundle larger to increase the C
value. Similarly the conductors need to be close to the ground to increase the C value.
Note that capacitance can affect the voltage adversely if the load is low. Shunt reactors may be
required to reduce the receiving end voltage.

2.3 Corona
In this section the parameters relating to Corona are described as well as the relationship between
phase spacing and corona.
The following factors affect the corona on a conductor surface [Muftic]
 System voltage
 Conductor diameter
 Clearances between conductor and adjacent phase conductors
 Clearance between conductor and earth
 Number of conductors per phase
 Bundle geometry (diameter of bundle of sub conductors)
 Conductor surface condition
 Atmospheric and weather conditions
As Conductor diameter increases the surface gradient decreases, as well as the inception voltage or
the surface gradient (Peek gradient Ec). When the conductor surface gradient exceeds the Peek
gradient the visual corona, radio interference and audible noise levels will be higher.
As phase to ground and phase to phase clearances increase the surface gradient decreases in a
complex way.
Decreased air pressure also decreases the corona inception limit. Thus lines at high altitude (above
1000m) will have higher corona activity given the same conductor diameter.
The corona inception voltage or gradient is not dependent on the number of conductors in the bundle
and is calculated as if it is a single conductor irrespective of the bundle configuration [Muftic]
The second aspect that needs to be considered is the calculation of surface gradients. The design of
the line needs to ensure that the ratio of the surface gradient to the visual corona threshold calculated
gradient <0.95 [Muftic]
In order to reduce the surface gradient of the conductor in the bundle it is necessary to increase the
number of conductors in the bundle thus reducing the E ave (average gradient of all subconductors) and
increasing the bundle radius to reduce Emax (maximum value in one subconductor).
The larger the conductor radius the lower the corona inception voltage but this effect is overshadowed
by the increase in number of sub conductors in the bundle, the smaller bundle radius and the larger
phase spacing.

2.4 Design limits for corona

The optimal minimum ratio for allowable corona performance E max/Ec<0.95 [Muftic] irrespective of the
altitude chosen.
The audible noise limits that are recommended for outdoors according to [SABS 60103] are as follow:-

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Table 2.1 Sound Levels Recommended for Outdoors South Africa

[SABS 60103]

Evenings,
Type of Daytime Night-time
Weekends
District dBA dBA
dBA
Rural 45 40 35
Suburban 50 45 40
Urban 55 50 45
Industrial 70 65 60

Audible noise limits will vary with location and are often aided by regional or local regulation. The
limits provided above are an example of such regulations.
The important factor to realise is that, depending on the background level of noise, the disturbing
noise level which is defined as 7 dB above background noise may be exceeded.
Thus it is considered pertinent to design systems conservatively with regard to corona.
This is difficult to achieve if the line’s loading requirements are low relative to the system voltage as
the aluminium area required is far smaller than the minimum area required taking into account corona
design parameters. This normally leads to different alternatives being considered such as smaller
conductors but more sub conductors in a bundle. Practical considerations need to be taken into
account such as stringing of large bundles of small diameter conductors is problematic. Small
conductors also tend to move more erratically in the wind
2.4.1 Rectification of corona problems
Corona mitigation after the line is built is one of the most difficult aspects to rectify. This is because it
requires either a reduction in system voltage or the use of an additional sub-conductor which may not
be possible without strengthening of the towers. Thus it is critical to ensure that the bundle design
caters for all weather and construction possibilities to ensure that the applicable audible noise limits
are not exceeded.

2.5 Summary
This chapter covered the electrical parameters affected by line compaction. Compaction increases the
ability to transfer power but adversely affects the corona and hence the audible noise on the line.
In addition, compaction affects the flashover resistance of the line. This is covered in the next chapter
relating to insulation coordination.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

3. Insulation co-ordination
3.1 Introduction
This section describes the overvoltages that impact a transmission line such as switching and lightning
surges. The mitigation of surges with application of devices such as surge arresters placed in the line
need to be considered.
The AC system overvoltage stresses are the input of the insulation coordination study for the design of
clearances and of the insulator chain of the transmission line.
The overvoltages can be classified as [CIGRE 2014]:
• Sustained voltage: continuous power frequency voltages originated from system operation
under normal conditions; and temporary sustained overvoltage originated from switching
operations like load rejection, energization, and resonance conditions.
• Slow front overvoltage (switching surges): initial part or the transient due to switching
operations, and from faults
• Fast front overvoltage: originated mainly from lightning strikes or certain types of switching
• Very fast front overvoltage: mainly related with gas insulated substation equipment switching.
In the case of compaction the possible impact of overvoltages are increased. It is important to
understand the nature of overvoltages and the mitigation of the effects of these in the line design.

3.2 Temporary (sustained) overvoltage

These overvoltages are of a sinusoidal type and defined by its magnitude and duration. They affect
the insulation withstand of the clearances (gaps) and other insulation considerations. These can be
defined by test with an amplitude with duration of one minute. They are also important for examining
the surge arrester behaviour and its energy absorption. The surge arrester rating is chosen not to
conduct significant current during this overvoltage.
The origins of temporary overvoltage are: earth faults, load rejection, line/equipment switching and
resonances.
a) Earth faults
This overvoltage is related to phase-to-ground faults location and the system neutral earthing. For
ungrounded earthing system the phase-to-ground overvoltage may reach values close to the phase-
to-phase voltage. For grounded neutral impedance or solidly grounded system these overvoltages are
much smaller.
b) Load rejection
For long line systems, after load rejection an overvoltage appears due to the Ferranti effect, they are
bigger in the open end of the line. Shunt reactors connected to the lines reduce this overvoltage.
The condition may become worse if load rejection is combined with pre-existing, or post occurring
phase-to-ground faults.
c) Line/equipment switching
Energization and reclosing of lines lead to temporary overvoltage due to the Ferranti effect. Shunt
reactors reduce the overvoltage. Capacitor switching in is also a cause of temporary overvoltage.
d) Resonances
Temporary overvoltages are originated also by resonances and may be mitigated by detuning the
system circuit. Transformer energization and Ferro-resonance should be of concern.

3.3 Slow – front overvoltage (switching surge)

Slow front overvoltage is of oscillatory nature fast damped. They are represented in laboratory test by
a wave with time-to-peak of 250 µs and the tail of 2500 µs

18
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

They arise from:

• line energization
• line reclosing (re-energization)
• fault inception
• fault clearing
• load rejection
• capacitive switching
• inductive load switching
a) Line energization
During line energization, a slow-front overvoltage occurs super imposed to the power frequency
overvoltage. When the breaker closes, a travelling wave moves along the line, creating a slow-front
overvoltage (after some reflections/refractions).
The peak value of the overvoltage depends on the point-on-wave switching instant, and the Ferranti
effect influenced by the presence of shunt reactors and line capacitance.
The overvoltage may be mitigated by synchronized switching or by the use of pre- insertion resistors.
When pre-insertion resistors are present, the transient phenomena have two components: one when
the resistor is inserted; and another when it is bypassed.
The resistor insertion time average value is specified (about 10 ms) but there is a random variation of
a few milliseconds (2-4 ms). Synchronized switching also has a random behaviour as related to closing
instant.
These energization overvoltages are determined by simulation with electromagnetic transient model
software running a set of 100-200 cases (shots) characterized by the switching closing instant in the
three phases.
It is assumed that the resistor insertion instant follows a Gaussian distribution defined by mean value
and standard deviation. As result, the maximum value of the overvoltage is determined (and the
corresponding switching closing instants) and a set of voltage value in the sending, receiving and
some intermediate distance of the line.
The values are used to define a statistical distribution of overvoltage (Gaussian or Weibull) through a
mean, a standard deviation, and a truncated maximum value.
There are two ways for establishing the distribution of overvoltage: called “phase-peak” and “case-
peak” methods. In the former for each shot, for one location, the peak value of the three phases are
included in the distribution; in the latter, only the highest of the three phase peaks is included in the
distribution. Therefore they should be considered in different ways when designing the insulation.
Energization over an existing phase-to-ground fault may lead to higher overvoltage; however they are
not used for line insulation design but only to checking surge arrester performance.
It should be noted that phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase overvoltage distribution shall be
obtained for insulation design.
b) Reclosing
After line opening, one or more attempt of re-energization may occur automatically. When the line is
disconnected a trap charge is kept in the line (in the line capacitance), so the reclosing is an
energization over the residual voltage of the line; this should lead to higher slow-front overvoltage
than for energization.
For lines without shunt connected reactors the trapped charge is a DC voltage with certain damping
(due to line conductance or capacitance).
For lines with shunt reactors the DC voltage is of oscillatory nature (with two frequencies
superimposed, a combination due to the natural line frequency and the operating voltage frequency).
In studies, the worst instant of breaker contact closing shall be determined. After that, a statistical
calculation around this worst position is done (random contact closing instant).

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

The reclosing overvoltages are mitigated by using pre insertion resistors in the breakers or
synchronized closing system. The trapped charge can be controlled through: open resistor in the
breaker; shunt reactor; inductive potential transformer and by closing/opening a line to ground fast
switch.
The phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase overvoltage distributions are searched to be used in the
insulation coordination, in a similar way as for the energization overvoltage.
c) Load rejection
Apart from the sustained overvoltage in the initial cycles there may occur slow-front overvoltages, in
general lower than those for energization or reclosing.
d) Fault application
When a fault occurs a travelling wave goes in the line and may cause high overvoltage in points of
discontinuities (different surge impedances) or when summing up waves from different passes.
In general this overvoltage has short shape and is discharged by surge arrester without any high
energy content. Sometimes they are treated as fast-front surge.
e) Fault clearing
They are in general lower than energization or reclosing overvoltage and they depend on the type and
distance of the fault, breaker sequence of opening, and prior network condition. Opening resistor may
be used to mitigate them.
f) Inductive and capacitive load switching
Capacitive load switching does not lead to overvoltage; overcurrent is therefore of concern.
Inductive load switching off may cause local overvoltage when the breaker forces the current to zero
before natural zero crossing. Transformer energization may cause high inrush current that could lead
to resonance in points of the system.
This type of overvoltage, in general, does not influence line design but substation design. Mitigation is
obtained with closing/opening resistor or synchronized switching.

3.4 Fast-front overvoltage

Fast-front overvoltage is due mainly by lightning surge. They are represented by a standard impulse
wave of 1.0/50 µs.
Lightning can strike the shield wires, or the phase conductors or the ground.
When striking the conductor, called direct stroke, the overvoltage generated from phase-to-ground is
very high, proportional to the stroke current magnitude and the phase conductor surge impedance. A
shielding failure describes when a lightning strike bypasses shield wires with a direct stroke to the
conductors.
If the lightning strikes the shield wire, the current flows through them and to the ground by the
tower, generating an overvoltage from the shield wire to ground. This overvoltage is coupled to the
phase conductors leading to an overvoltage across the insulation that can create a failure (back
flashover).
Lightning striking the ground near the line may induce overvoltage in the lines, that in general are
lower than 500 kV, therefore not important for high voltage transmission lines (>138 kV).
Lightning overvoltage failure are reduced by the following actions:
1. Installation of (in general two ) shield wires or improving shielding effect ( reduces direct
flashover)
2. Reducing tower footing resistance by installing counterpoise, (reduces back flashover)
3. Increase in the insulation (reduce direct and back flashover)

20
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

3.5 Insulation strength

3.5.1 General
When a low voltage stress is applied in insulation (insulator or air gap) there is no flow of current.
When this stress is increased to a sufficient level, the resistivity along the path through the insulation
changes to a low value conducting current (breakdown).
A number of factors influence the dielectric strength of the insulation [CIGRE 2014]:
1. The magnitude, shape, duration, polarity of the voltage applied
2. The electric field distribution in the insulation
3. The type of insulation: air, liquid, solid, gas
4. The physical state of the insulation (including ambient conditions)
5. Breakdown in air insulation is strongly dependent on gap configuration and polarity and of the
wave shape of the voltage stress.

The withstand capability of insulation is determined through applied voltage standard test [IEC 1996]:
Sustained overvoltage 1 min sinusoidal wave
Fast-front 1.2/50µs waveform
Slow-front 250/2500µs waveform
Withstand capability is different depending on the wave polarity.
3.5.2 Influence of atmospheric conditions
The insulation withstand depends on the ambient conditions, and they are referenced to “standard
atmospheric conditions”:
Temperature .................................. 20° C
Pressure ........................................ 101.3 kPa (1013 mbar)
Absolute humidity ........................... 11 g/m3
After defining the desired withstand for standard condition a correction has to be applied to match the
local atmospheric condition ensuring the withstand capability of self-restoring insulation
3.5.3 Statistical behaviour of the insulation
Some insulation materials are non-regenerative (oil, paper in a transformer for instance) and others
are auto-regenerative like the air. In the latter case the statistical behaviour is discussed here-in-after.
When a certain number of shots or impulses with the same wave are applied in an insulation material
the breakdown may occur by only some of the impulses. Due to this the insulation withstand is
defined by a probability function (Gaussian or Weibull). The statistical behaviour of the insulation (as a
Gaussian distribution) is defined provided two values are known, for instance, the mean , and the
standard deviation Z=U50 – U16. Sometimes the value is substituted by U10 or U2.
The conventional deviation can be assumed as:
For fast-front (lightning) Z= 0.03
For slow-front (switching surge) Z= 0.06 U50

3.6 Insulation coordination calculation procedure

3.6.1 For continuous (power frequency) voltage and temporary overvoltage
The coordination is set based in the maximum voltage peak value phase-to-ground that is the phase-
to-phase voltage divided by √3.
Insulation withstand of insulator string varies depending on the pollution level.
Reference [IEC 1993] indicates the specific creepage (mm/kV), to set the recommended distance
depending on the pollution level. The distance refers to the contour of the insulator (creepage

21
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

distance). As example for pollution level “light” the recommendation is 16 mm/kV(rms, phase-to-
phase) or 27.7 mm/kV(rms, phase-to-ground)
3.6.2 For Slow-front (switching surge)
There are two methods: deterministic; and statistical approaches.
In the deterministic approach a statistical value of the overvoltage is set equal to a statistical value of
the withstand (both with certain probability)
Equation 3.1

U S 50  N S Z S  U W 50  NW ZW
are the means of the overvoltage and withstand capability
are the standard deviations (overvoltage-withstand)
𝑁𝑠 ,𝑁𝑤 number corresponding to a desired probability, or the truncation points.
Note that sometimes NS=2 is chosen to set the overvoltage with 2% probability of being exceeded
and NW=1.3 to set the withstand to 10 % not to be exceeded
In the statistical approach the risk of failure is evaluated.
The following assumptions are established:
1. Peaks other than the highest are disregarded
2. Shape is taken as identical to the standard waveform
3. All overvoltage of the same polarity (the worst)

The risk is than calculated as the integral of the product of the probability density of the overvoltage
and the discharge probability of the insulation.
Failure occurs when the overvoltage is greater than withstand.
This has to be done for the gaps in the three phases of one tower then extended to all towers in the
line. This is covered in more detail in Appendix C.
3.6.3 For fast–front
The same concepts applied for slow-front are valid. However, in general no extra insulation than for
slow front is provided for fast surge. The insulatoin provide for slow front is that used for lightning
performance evaluation outages per 100 km per year.

3.7 Air gap

The air gaps, filled or not with insulators, are of the self-restoring type. The geometrical configuration
of the gap influences their withstand capability.
The critical flashover value ( ) in kV for “standard atmospheric condition”, can be estimated as
function of the gap distance (d) in m by the equations in the Appendix C.

3.8 Effect of conductor swing due to wind

3.8.1 Phase-to-ground gaps
The gap distances determined with the procedure described above should be preserved even in the
presence of wind. For the sustained voltage insulation the gap is preserved even with a wind with
return period of for example 50 years. For slow front insulation small swing (say 10o, or wind with
return period of 2 years) or no swing is adopted.

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3.8.2 Phase-to-phase gaps

When there is a tower member between phases the phase-to-phase gap requirement is matched by
the designed phase-to-ground gaps. In case that the distance between phases is filled with air some
designs consider the possibility of asynchronous conductor swing and extra distance in the necessary
phase-to-phase gap is added.
3.8.3 Conductor position due to wind action – Consideration of asynchronous
swing
According to [Kiessling 2003], the clearances between conductors and earthed tower elements and
between phase conductors vary in conformance with wind actions. The wind actions themselves vary
with time and location and can be described as randomly distributed using statistical approaches.
The phase-to-phase clearances are determined by the formulas presented in [Kiessling 2003] or [EN
50.341-1]. However, for adjacent phases, as in the case of horizontal configurations, it is necessary to
prove that the middle span clearances together with power-frequency voltages do not cause flashover
under the occurrence of asynchronous swing angles.
An example of the calculation of swing angle is covered in APPENDIX C.

3.9 Summary
This chapter covered the ability of the phase configuration and tower design to withstand
overvoltages. In addition it covered the variation in the gap distance due to conductor movement. In
the next chapter the phase configuration, hardware and tower designs will be covered.

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4. Phase configuration, conductor, towers and

hardware
4.1 Phase configurations
This section describes the different phase configurations that can be used for compact AC lines. They
need to be divided into Right of Way (ROW) reduction and Surge impedance Loading (SIL)
improvement. For ROW reduction examples such as vertical configuration, compact delta with
composite post cross arms can be described. For SIL improvement increased bundle diameter,
assymetrical shaped bundles in delta or inverse delta with composite cross arms can be described.
Phase configuration, as mentioned in TB278 [CIGRE 2005 TB278], will have a strong influence on EMF
values at ground level, in fact if we convert the values there presented into p.u., considering 1 the
highest value, the magnetic field can be reduced by 43% just by changing the configuration from
horizontal to triangular. The explanation of the configurations are shown below the table.
Table 4.1 Influence of Phase Configuration on EMF, RI and AN
(source: [CIGRE 2005TB278]

Single Circuit OHL

Magnetic
Electric Field Radio Int. Audible N.
Field
p.u p.u. p.u. p.u
Horizontal 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,98
Delta 0,85 0,80 0,94 1,00
Vertical 0,97 0,63 0,91 0,96
Triangule 0,85 0,57 0,94 1,00

Double Circuit OHL

Magnetic
Electric Field Radio Int. Audible N.
Field
p.u p.u. p.u. p.u
Vertical 1,00 0,75 0,94 0,97
Low Impedance 0,91 0,83 0,94 0,99
Danube 0,91 1,00 1,00 1,00

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Single circuit 400kV configuration alternatives shown above. d is subconductor distance and s is
phase spacing. Below indicates the double circuit configurations.

Also from TB278 [CIGRE 2005 TB 278] and what was previouly mentioned, the OHL parameters can
be joined into two major groups, those that influence the EMF value at ground level and those that
influence the EF on the conductor surface and so the corona effect. In the first group are “Phase to
phase distance”, “Conductor height above ground” and less the “number of sub-conductors.” In the
second group the main parameter to consider is the “number of sub-conductors” and the “phase to
phase distance.”

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Table 4.2 Influence of Parameters

(source: [CIGRE 2005 TB 278])

4.2 General procedure to optimize the selection of transmission line

conductors
The selection of the optimal conductor configuration has to consider the overall system, since there
are more factors relating to the choice than those that are affected by the shape and the configuration
of the conductors. This has been done according to Reference [Cigre 2016]. The process of this
selection can be divided into 10 steps of which, the first 4 steps relate to the line life cycle costing
point of view. Then, in the following steps, a few options are selected for more detailed system
analyses.
These steps can be explained as follows:
Step 1:
For every conductor configuration that meets the planning requirements, the field effect (EMF) and
corona limits (radio interference and audible noise) are to be identified. In addition, the intended use
of power line carriers and the effect of the line design, especially transposition towers, need to be
considered.
Step 2:
Based on the line loading, corona and field effect limits a combination of options of suitable conductor
bundle types are to be selected. Thereafter the capital investment cost (CIC) for each option is to be
estimated. The capital cost estimates must take into account changes which can occur after the line
profiles and soil conditions are obtained in the detail design phase.
Step 3:
The electrical line parameters (resistance (R), reactance (X) and susceptance (B)) are to be calculated
for each option in both actual and per unit (p.u.) values.
Step 4:
Based on the line loading forecast, the total cost of line losses (TCO) need to be calculated for each
option for the entire lifecycle of the line. Thereafter a line life cycle costing analysis (LCC) for the
different options (i.e., LCC = CIC + TCO) is to be performed. Note that the best method to calculate

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

losses is to look at the system losses not the line losses. The reason is that the line may cause power
to flow in a non optimal way in the network.
The line life cycle cost of a transmission line consists of the initial capital investment plus the cost of
line losses over the life cycle of the line. It is necessary to calculate over the life of the line, the
present value of the line losses, using the net discount rate prescribed by the utility’s financial
guidelines.
From a line life cycle costing point of view, the most economic conductor configuration will be that
which gives the minimum cost
Step 5:
Three to five most suitable conductor options are to be selected for detailed system analysis studies.
For long overhead power lines (>150km) or shorter but highly loaded lines, unbalance studies are to
be performed to determine the need for phase transposition or phase optimization for parallel lines.
Step 6:
The new overhead power line will be part of an interconnected transmission system. Hence, it is also
essential to consider the losses from an overall system point of view. Thus, in order to make a better
decision regarding conductor selection, detailed system analysis studies should be performed in order
to calculate the cost of system losses for each option for the entire life cycle of the line. It is necessary
to calculate over the life of the line, the present value of the savings in system losses (minus value),
using the net discount rate prescribed.
Step 7:
For short lines, the thermal limits need to be considered. Thermal capacity will be directly proportional
to the size of the conductor, or cross-sectional area (mm2 ). Depending on operational conditions,
thermal limits can be decisive in the selection of a conductor. For example, if operation in emergency
conditions requires a power transfer significantly above the normal operation, then the selection of the
configuration will be dictated by thermal limits rather than by the economical loading. Permanent
operation close to or at thermal limits will always be significantly above economical loading, because
of very high losses amounting, in total, to much more than the cost of construction.
Step 8:
One of the main purposes of the new line is to extend the power transfer margin. The power transfer
margin is dependent on the voltage collapse limits, which are related to the surge impedance of the
line. Surge impedance loading (SIL) is a measure of the power that can be transferred without
reactive compensation. SIL depends on the conductor bundle and line configuration. Different sizes of
conductor and bundle will give different SIL and the price that must be paid for a possible increase of
SIL must be evaluated. There is a cost benefit for having a higher voltage collapse or power transfer
margin, as this will allow more load to be added on to the network without the need for further
reinforcement. This implies that options with a larger margin will be beneficial. It is difficult to place
an exact monetary value on this benefit, but for the purposes of this discussion, the cost of adding
shunt capacitor banks to make up for the lost power transfer margin can be calculated to compare the
different cases.
Thus, the benefits of higher surge impedance loading need to be verified by performing voltage
analysis or voltage collapse studies. This will allow for the benefits of a higher surge impedance
loading to be quantified, which is relevant for long overhead power lines which are voltage rather than
thermally constrained.
Step 9:
The operating and maintenance costs and the need for live-line maintenance for each conductor
configuration is to be considered.
Step 10:
The need for high reliability and the differences in reliability for each option has to be considered.
After getting close to the general selection of the conductor configuration deeper studies can be done
considering the mechanical and the electrical determination of the power lines. This will be done by

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

investigating the factors that relate to the conductor choice and compare them for different surfaces,
trapezoidal and round, and the number and diameter of sub-conductors in a bundle
For the evaluation of a number of design options (tower, foundation, conductor and phase
configuration), the appropriate technology index (ATI) as described in [CIGRE 2016 TB 638] should be
used.

4.3 Conductor selection mechanical

The mechanical determination for power lines is influenced by the load on the conductor which in turn
is influenced by a number of other factors. These include the wind speed which is influenced by the
roughness factor for different terrain categories, the conductor diameter and some other factors
explained in this section. The line is exposed to ambient conditions such as wind and ice loading.
However the conductor system needs to be designed to minimize the effect of wind and ice loadings.
This is generally achieved by using fewer conductors in the bundle to minimize the wind load. In
addition, the lower the steel content the lower the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the conductors
and hence lower loads result in the strain towers allowing for lighter tower designs. The same applies
to ice loading with fewer conductors in the phase bundle the lower the overall ice load. Note that less
conductors per phase adversely affect the corona performance, SIL, and thermal rating of the line.
4.3.1 Wind loads
The load on the tower, due to wind, is a function of the load on the conductor, which in turn, is a
function of the conductor diameter. If the cross sectional area is increased (thus increasing the
diameter when using the same fill factor) in comparison to the previous conductors, there could be a
need to strengthen the towers. This is often not possible due to environmental constraints or could be
prohibitively expensive.
The reason for such gain of trapezoidal conductors in the wind-excited response is, above all, due to
its aerodynamics. As the wind velocity reaches the range of 30 and 40 m/s, the drag coefficient of the
classical conductor, being post critical, does not vary too much. As result, the drag force is free to
fluctuate. Simultaneously, 𝐶𝑋𝐶 of the trapezoidal conductor fluctuates inversely proportionally to the
wind fluctuations, making the drag force quasi-constant at V between 30 and 40 m/s. Thanks to such
stagnation of the drag force in that velocity region, beyond the critical state the trapezoidal cable is
still much less loaded as compared to the stranded cable.

Figure 4.1 Variation of Drag Force Per Unit Length (1) vs. Wind Velocity
For Classical Stranded and Trapezoidal Conductors [Lilien 2004]

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Regarding this graphic it can be said that using trapezoidal conductors at wind velocities beneath 30
m/s is not of an advantage from the point of view of the load affecting the conductor, but at wind
velocities above it can be.
4.3.2 Ice loads
All information about ice loads in this section are taken from reference [IEC - 2003].
There are two main types of icing: precipitation icing and in-cloud icing.
In mountains or regions where both types of icing may occur, the different data for the two types may
be treated separately, with separate distributions to provide the basis for the design load. Ice load
should ideally be deduced from measurements taken from conductors and locations representative of
the line. These measurement techniques are described in [IEC 1997].
A very important factor with ice accretion is the effect of the terrain. It is difficult to transfer
knowledge acquired from one site to another because the terrain strongly influences the icing
mechanism.
For design purposes, icing data from measuring stations near or identical to the line site are ideally
required. Very often, this will not be the case and service experience with existing installations will
provide additional input.
Yearly maximum ice loads can be evaluated by means of meteorological data analysis or an existing
accretion model can be used, if available, to use for statistical approach.
The action of wind on ice-covered conductors involves at least three variables: wind speed that occurs
in presence with icing, ice weight and ice shape (effect of drag coefficient). This action results in both
transversal and vertical loads.
Ideally, statistics of wind speed during ice presence on conductors should be used to generate the
combined loadings of ice and wind corresponding to the selected reliability level.

4.4 Conductor selection - electrical

4.4.1 Effect of different surfaces
Trapezoidal shaped strands achieve a higher fill factor (as shown in Figure 4.2 below), and are more
efficient in current transmission compared to traditional round strands.

Figure 4.2
Trapezoidal Strands (left) and Round Strands (right)
[Qi-Li 2015]

Existing methods for surface gradient calculations ignored the shape of the strands. In order to obtain
more information on surface gradients for different shapes of strands, a novel method was developed.
From the electric field plot along the surface of the conductor, the following conclusions can be
obtained:
 The round stranded conductor has a higher maximum surface gradient compared to a
trapezoidal stranded conductor
 The maximum electric field for a trapezoidal shaped strand is located at the corners while the
maximum electric field for a round shape strand is located at the tip of the circle furthest from
the conductor center.
 On the circumference of a conductor fabricated with trapezoidal strands, there are large
continuous lengths with approximately same surface voltage gradient.

29
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

 On the surface of the round strands, the surface gradient varies along the strand surface and
there is no continuous area with same voltage gradient.

Figure 4.3
Trapezoidal Strands (G(Z/X)TACSR) and Round Strands (AAAC) Comparison
[Qi Li 2015]

In the Figure 4.3 the arc length along the edge of conductor strands is chosen to represent the
surface distribution of electric field. The horizontal axis refers to the electric field strength and the
vertical axis represents the integrated arc length which has a surface gradient value above a certain
level.
If 16 kV/cm is selected as a typical level to examine the field distribution, the trapezoidal stranded
conductor has approximately 88 mm circumference above this level while the round stranded
conductor has about 59 mm circumference above 16 kV/cm. If a higher level of electric field is
selected as the threshold, take 20 kV/cm as an example, the round stranded conductor has a larger
area above this value than the trapezoidal stranded one

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.4
Arc Length with Surface Gradient Above a Certain Level

Figure 4.4 described the circumferential length above a threshold value of voltage gradient. The next
step is to decide the threshold value which has to be considered. A hemispherical protrusion is
introduced to the existing model to compute the enhancement of electric field. As presented in Figure
4.5 and Figure 4.6 when a protrusion is applied to the surface of the conductor, the local electric field
is increased due to the relatively large curvature created by the protrusion. This field enhancement is
not only determined by the shape and size of the protrusion but also depends on the location of it.
Hemisphere protrusion with a range of the size (radius: 10µm, 50µm, 100µm and 200µm ) is applied
on both trapezoidal strands and round strands. Finite element method is employed to evaluate the
electric field enhancement. By vary the location where the protrusion sits, the relationship between
surface Hemisphere gradient with protrusion and without protrusion is established in Figure 4.5 and
Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.5
Surface Gradient Enhancement by Protrusion for Trapezoidal Stranded Conductor
[Qi Li 2015]

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.6
Surface Gradient Enhancement by Protrusion for Round Stranded Conductor
[Qi Li 2015]

From Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6, if the worst scenario is taking into consideration, the threshold value
for surface gradient without protrusion is marked in dashed line (14.7 kV/cm for trapezoidal strands
and 15.3 kV/cm for round strands). Referring to Figure 4.4, the correlated surface arc length for
trapezoidal shape strands is approximately 88 mm while the correlated surface arc length for round
shape strands is approximately 62 mm. For these arc lengths it can be seen that smooth trapezoidal
strands may improve corona performance compared to round wire designs of the same diameter due
to their smaller surface gradients. However, these results also depend on the applied voltage. If the
voltage goes higher, the surface gradient of the strands will be higher as well.
Furthermore, sufficient conductor diameter/surface area can provide the appropriate level of
mitigation of corona. By increasing the conductor diameter the surface gradient can be decreased
which results in a decreased corona discharge. The bundling of conductors assists in the effective
increase in overall conductor diameter. Only using a large diameter conductor instead of a conductor
bundle would result in other electrical disadvantages, such as the increased potential to create audible
noise.

4.5 Hardware designs

This section describes the hardware required for ROW reduction as well as SIL improvement. It
includes the design of corona rings and use of arching horns where applicable. It also covers
specialised hardware for use by live line maintenance staff.
Once the phase conductor configuration in view of ROW reduction and insulation coordination has
been chosen, tower top geometry, insulator sets and related hardware have to be designed
accordingly.
Arrangement of subconductors within phase conductor bundles will have to be taken into account in
design of support hardware.
The suspension string has a key influence on tower and line dimensions. The line can be made
compact if the freedom of movement of the string and conductor is restricted. A conventional I- or
double I- string can move nearly free under the influence of wind.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.7
110 kV Double I - string

Cause of the movement the phase-to-earth clearance in horizontal and vertical direction will be
reduced. To reduce the ROW and compact the line a common option is to fix the position of the
conductor and string at the suspension tower.
4.5.1 Electrical aspects
Electrical aspects that need to be considered in addition to insulation coordination (chapter 3) are RIV,
corona and audible noise in connection with support hardware that may necessitate fittings for
grading the electrical field. Protection against power arcs is another aspect that may require spark
gaps, power arc protective fittings like arcing horns or similar arrangements.
4.5.1.1 Arcing protection
Compact tower top geometries make it even more important that design of power arc protective
fittings takes into account orientation of their end burning points and the effect of electrodynamic
forces that should guide the power arc in such a way that it actually burns on the end points designed
for that purpose. Power arc tests on the complete insulator set (e.g. as described in [IEC 2008]) may
prove the protection concept.

33
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.8
V-string Power Arc Test
(great angle with additional arc protective fitting at the crossarm)

One of the electric parameters that define the characteristics of an overhead line is its surge
impedance. The surge impedance of a transmission line is also called the characteristic impedance
with the ohmic resistance set equal to zero.
Arrangement of phase conductors and sub-conductors within phase conductors determine the SIL.
Tower top geometry and insulator sets and related hardware have to be designed accordingly.
The SIL of a compact line can be increased by [Kiessling 2003]:
1. Reducing phase spacing
2. Increasing number of subconductors per phase bundle
3. Increasing conductor diameter
4. Increasing bundle radius
5. Introducing bundle expansion along the span but keeping the bundle spacing near the tower
6. The reduction of the space between the phases correlate direct to compact lines and low
ROW.

Inverted - V, - T and - Y sets are mostly applied as “pollution” sets in cases where the tower to
conductor clearance is limited but the pollution conditions on-site require high insulation length for
accommodation of high creepage distances.
4.5.2 Mechanical aspects
Compaction will, in most cases, lead to tangent supports that restrict conductor movement by a
suitable arrangement of the insulator set. Common arrangements are [Papailiou]:
- V-strings (symmetric and asymmetric), (Figure 4.8, Figure 4.9, Figure 4.10)
- horizontal post insulators (Figure 4.11)
- the combination of suspension strings with post insulators (Figure 4.12)
- insulated cross-arms ("horizontal V") (Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14)
For these arrangements, design with regard to strength of components should carefully consider the
actual loading. Strength of components needs to be sufficient to withstand the resulting geometric
sum of loads:

34
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

- in the vertical direction from self-weight of the conductor (weight span) and additional ice load
acting on the weight span,
- in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the line from wind load on the wind span and, if
applicable, a component of conductor tension in case of an angle tower,
- in the horizontal direction along the line from horizontal conductor tension (the full tension in
case of tension towers and possibly loads from load cases that include differential loads in
case of suspension towers).
It should be noted that, for the four principal insulator arrangements, there may be load cases where
not only loading in tension, but also loading in compression becomes critical.
As to coordination of strength of components, the same rules apply as for conventional lines, and
hardware components should be designed such that they are more reliable compared to towers,
foundations, conductors and insulators.

Figure 4.9
420 & 110 kV-V-strings (acute-angled) [3]

35
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.10
245 kV Tower with 245 kV on the Left and 420 kV Asymmetric V-string on the Right
[Bergner]

Figure 4.11
Line Post Insulator
[Papailiou]

Figure 4.12 420 kV Suspended Line Post Insulator [Papailiou]

36
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.13
150 kV Insulated Cross-Arm
(1975) [Bergner]

Figure 4.14
420 kV Insulated Cross-Arm
[LAPP]

Interphase spacers are another element of compact lines. They are applied in order to avoid clashing
and/or flashovers during conductor galloping and to secure the clearance between conductors.

Figure 4.15
420 kV Interphase Spacer
[Bergner]

37
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.16
Interphase Spacers
[Bergner]

The requirements and tests of hardware depend on the national standards and the specification of the
grid operator and differ not generally of standard lines.
The case studies in chapter 8 give examples of design and specific testing.
4.5.3 Hardware for Expanded Bundles
In order to increase the SIL of an overhead line, the bundle may require expansion. This requires
increased dimension spacer dampers. The following figure indicates the application of expanded
bundle hardware in Brazil.

38
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.17
Expanded Bundle Hardware
(Brazil)

The following figures indicates the application of the expanded bundle on the line

39
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.18
Implementation of Expanded Bundle on a Transmission Line

Figure 4.19
Implementation of Asymmetrical Bundle on a Transmission Line

40
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.20
Implementation of Asymmetrical Bundle on a Transmission Line

In the above figures it should be noted that the centre phase is a different dimension to the outer
phase. The outer phase bundles are also not symmetrical.

4.6 Tower designs

The tower types that can be used for compaction are many and varied. One characteristic is that the
use if insulated cross arms and phase to phase insulation may be more prevalent than on non-
compact towers. Insulator types can be any of the commonly used materials such as porcelain, glass
or composite. Composite may be the preferred option in phase to phase insulation due to weight and
length considerations.
Towers may be separated into those with tower body between the phases and those without. The
figures below indicates some options

Figure 4.21
Tower Designs with Phases Separated by Structural Elements and Those Without
[Fife 2017]

4.6.1 Tower design considerations

With regards to overhead line compaction, tower design can be divided into two parts: Tower Body
type selection and Tower top geometry.
4.6.1.1 Tower body type selection
Tower body is chosen according to visual impact and land occupation restrictions. Although there are
other options, the most used worldwide are:
 Broad Base Lattice Towers with separate foundations
 Narrow Base Lattice Towers with compact foundation
 Single Poles with compact foundation

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.22
Broad Based Lattice Tower with Separate Foundations

Figure 4.23
Narrow Based Lattice Tower with Compact Foundation

42
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.24
Single Poles With Compact Foundation

From a compaction perspective the last two reduce land occupation to the minimum possible levels.
4.6.1.2 Tower top geometry
Tower Top geometry has been extensively studied previously and is one of the key factors when line
compaction is needed as phase to phase distances and phase to earth distances are involved.
Reference [CIGRE 2008 TB 348] covers most of the areas that need to be considered when defining
tower top distances. Therefore, hereinafter a summary of the main will be presented, focusing on
minimum requirements and relation with line compaction.
Distances requirements when designing a Tower Top geometry can be summarize into: electrical,
maintenance and environmental.
1) Electrical Requirements

This is the primary input for tower top distances. Based on phase-to-phase or phase-to-earth
according to the voltage level, values can be obtain from national regulations or from a flashover
reliability study. The latter is the preferred choice if a high degree of compaction is needed as stated
in the compact line definition used in this Technical Brochure.
Details and procedures can be found in reference [CIGRE 2008 TB 348]where also a comparative of
different countries regulation and practices is presented.
2) Maintenance Requirements

Tower top maintenance works such as tower painting often require bigger distances than those that
come purely from electrical requirements. Normally a climbing corridor is required and this has to be
considered as shown in the following image:

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.25
Clearances

If live line work is expected additional distances may need to be considered. More details can be
found in Chapter 5 of this Technical Brochure.
3) Environmental requirements

Some countries environmental regulations required additional distances to be observed in order to

protect birds from electrocution. This may end up with a limitation in the degree of compaction that is
achievable, especially for lower voltages power lines.
To provide an example, the following table contains the phase-to-earth distances included in the
Spanish electrical regulation. Second column shows phase-to-earth distances and the third column
shows the minimum phase-to-earth distances when bird electrocution protection is involved.
Table 4.3 Clearances for Birds used in Spain

Voltage Dpe Dpe_birds

(kV) (m) (m)
400 kV 2,80 1,5

220 kV 1,70 1,5

132 kV 1,20 1,5
66 kV 0,70 1,5

As can be seen, for 132 kV and 66 kV overhead lines the compaction limit comes from the
environmental regulations and not from the electrical flashover reliability.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

4.6.1.3 Tower design options

The Figures below indicates a few of the tower design options that may be considered.

Figure 4.26
Different Compact Tower Types for Consideration

45
 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.27
Comparison on Existing Tower and Composite Type
[Fife 2017]

4.6.2 Anti galloping considerations

Compact constructions of overhead lines require preservation of minimum air clearances distances
between phase conductors and between phase conductor and earth wire to avoid flashover. That
applies for normal operation and exceptional occurrences, e. g. galloping.
Compact lines are mostly designed with or close to minimum allowable conductor clearances. Rigid
interphase spacers incorporating composite insulators properly distributed along spans are an option
to preserve distances in spans and to keep the compact appearance.
Conductor galloping is the name that has been used to describe the large amplitude (several meters),
low frequency, wind-induced oscillation of conductors. Galloping occurs at single conductors as well as
at bundle conductors mostly when they are ice covered because of the modified aerodynamic
characteristic of the conductor.
Galloping is an aeroelastic instability: aeroelastic because its occurrence depends on not only the
aerodynamic characteristics of the conductor - or bundle - but also on its mechanical properties,
characterised by the distribution of mass, stiffness and damping. It is an instability because, if the
conductor is restrained, no fluctuating aerodynamic force of the relevant frequency is found to be
acting on the conductor: only if the conductor moves is such a force present. This distinguishes it from
phenomena such as aeolian vibration or turbulent buffetting where, in general, a fluctuating force
does act on a stationary conductor. Being an instability, galloping can occur over a wide range of
windspeeds once the minimum critical speed had been exceeded: the typical windspeed range is
8 m/s to 30 m/s. [Tunstall]
The effects of galloping on a line are dependent on the severity and duration of the event and on the
type of line construction. The most common problem that it causes is phase – to – phase flashovers,
since the amplitudes can approach the sag of the span (Figure 4.28) and this can cause a failure of
the line. But not only flashovers are a danger for the reliability of overhead line. The heavy additional
loads can damage the conductors, towers, insulators and fittings. It should be ensured that the
compact overhead line can handle these additional loads or these should be prevented.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.28
Examples of Galloping Mode Shapes
[Cigre WG 11]

Generally speaking, the susceptibility of compact lines to galloping is not different to that of
conventional lines.
Some investigations came to the conclusion that conductor bundles are more prone to galloping than
single conductors, and the larger bundles less than smaller bundles.
If galloping is to be accounted for in clearance design, [CIGRE 2007 TB 322] proposes ellipses
predicting excursions of conductors during galloping. As increasing conductor clearances would be
counter-productive in compacting lines, means can be sought to prevent or mitigate the effects of
galloping.
[CIGRE 2007 TB 322] describes anti-galloping devices and methods to prevent galloping. The use of
these devices may cause additional loads, which should be considered in the line design. The most
widely used galloping control device is the interphase spacer.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 4.29
345 kV Twin Bundle Interphase Spacer

Figure 4.30
420 kV Quad Bundle Interphase Spacer
[Bergner]

4.7 Summary
The phase configuration as well as the conductor selection, hardware and tower designs were covered
in this chapter. As the conductor selection, phase configuration, bundle configuration, tower design
and hardware design are all interrelated, it is necessary to understand the interaction and determine
the best combinations for further analysis. The methods to do this is covered in [CIGRE 2016 TB 638].
The next chapter covers the live maintenance considerations for compact lines.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

5. Live line maintenance techniques

5.1 Introduction
One complication relating to compact line is that the smaller clearances may require a revision of the
live line practices to allow a compacted line to be maintained live.
Live line work has proven through its history to be one of the safest methods of maintaining the
transmission and distribution system. This impeccable safety record is a direct result of the careful
planning, training and preparation undertaken prior to the commencement of all live line work. All live
line work utilizes one of the following principles:
 Using special tools attached to the ends of insulated sticks/poles, the worker maintains
minimum (safe) approach distance (MAD) from the energized conductor or apparatus. Also
referred to as “HOTSTICK” or “DISTANCE” method.
 Using rubber insulating covers to cover parts at different potential and insulating gloves, work
is performed by hand on energised components. This technique is also referred to as
“GLOVING and COVER UP”.
 Using insulated tools or equipment and wearing conductive suits and boots, the worker is
brought into contact with energized line and apparatus by various means of access(ladders,
ropes, insulated aerial platform, helicopter), thus eliminating the hazard of different potentials
while maintaining the required MAD This practice is referred to as “Barehand” method.

References for additional information:

 [EPRI 2009] Live Work Reference book
 [CIGRE 2013 TB 561] Cigre technical brochure Live Work-A management perspective by joint
WG B2/B3.27

The principle to perform live line work on compact line is no different to a conventional line. However,
actual live line experience with compact line is limited. Only few utilities have attempted it so far. The
major difference between compact and conventional line are listed as follow:
 Reduced electrical clearance
 More complicated insulator configuration
 NCI insulators are extensively used but lack of reliable in-service inspection tool to determine
integrity before live line work commences poses a risk.

5.2 Feasibility of live line work on compact line

Line design plays a significant role in the possible implementation of live line work on compact lines.
Designers should incorporate the required MAD, anchor and lifting points and take into account
additional mechanical loading on certain parts of the structure during live line work. Utilization of live
line friendly hardware assemblies is critical to facilitate live line tooling.
As the electrical clearance of compact line is smaller than conventional line and in some cases, it
might be even smaller than the standard MAD, every compact line would require a case by case study
to determine the feasibility of live line work. Some special tools or additional mitigation method might
be required to perform the live line work on compact line.
These could include:
 Displacement live conductors on the compact structure with the use of insulated sticks to
ensure the required MAD requirements can be adhered too.
 Reducing the required MAD requirement by controlling the over voltage at the work site by
means of a voltage control device (personal protective gap and/or surge arrestors)
 Reducing the ergonomic distance allowance to zero by means of restrictive barriers.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

5.3 Minimum approach distance

The MAD is the sum of two components:
 The electrical distance, often referred to as the minimum air insulation distance (MAID), which
is based on the withstand/spark-over of the air gap and the anticipated overvoltage value at
the worksite
 An ergonomic distance, of typically 0.2-0.7 m for system voltage from 72.6 kV to 800 kV is
added to cater for inadvertent movement of the live worker.

The electrical distance component of MAD is predominantly influenced by the anticipated overvoltage
at the worksite.
Two types of overvoltage need to be considered including:
 Temporary Overvoltage
 Transient Overvoltage

Transient overvoltage includes both switching and lightning overvoltage. Because lightning induced
over voltage is not quantifiable, the common rule is to stop work when lighting is seen or when
thunder is heard in the vicinity of the worksite. Therefore, only switching overvoltage need to be
considered to calculate MAD. Switching over voltages can be eliminated by disabling the automatic
reclose function.
The overvoltage factor is the ratio of the transient overvoltage to peak line to ground voltage of the
line. When the value of overvoltage factor is unknown for the specific worksite, the industry-accepted
value or the maximum anticipated value from national code shall be used in this case. The typical
values from [IEEE 2009] IEEE Standard 516-2009 is listed as follow:
Table 5.1 Overvoltage Factors

AC Line-to-line Voltage Overvoltage Factor

At and below 362 kV 3.0 p.u.
363 to 550 kV 2.4 p.u.
551 to 800 kV 2.0 p.u.

However, this practice might prevent live line work on compact line designs due to additional safety
buffer. It is recommend that a detailed transient overvoltage study is conducted for each compact line
and then using this actual overvoltage factor to determine the required MAD.
Calculation of MAD follows the same procedure for conventional and compact line. Currently there are
two widely accepted methods to determine MAD.
These are:
 [IEEE 2009] IEEE 516 – 2009
 [BS EN 61472-2013].

In addition, each individual country might publish their own specific national code or method to
compute MAD.

5.4 Control of transient overvoltage

As discussed in section 5.3, transient overvoltage is one of the key factors in the computation of MAD.
Many experiences have shown that MAD calculated based on the industry-acceptable value of
overvoltage factor present a challenge to perform live line work on compact line. Therefore, actual
transient overvoltage study is required and some mitigation methods to reduce transient overvoltage
at worksite may also be required.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

5.4.1 Pre-Insertion Resistor (PIR)

PIR could significantly reduce the transient overvoltage during line reclosing and energization. This is
the most common mitigation methods to reduce transients. A detailed study is necessary to properly
size the resistor and it should be done under an overall line insulation coordination effort. The
transient will be minimized if PIR is equal to line surge impedance. Figure 5.1 demonstrates the effect
of PIR on maximum switching overvoltage.

Figure 5.1
Effect of Breaker PIR on Maximum Switching Surge Overvoltage

5.4.2 Blocked automatic reclosing

Blocking the automatic reclosing function on the line to be worked on eliminates switching
overvoltage. This is widely used by most utilities for all live work.
5.4.3 Surge arrestor
Transmission line arresters are applied to transmission lines to mitigate the effects of lightning. In
some cases, they could be installed on transmission lines to reduce switching surges magnitudes.
When using surge arrestor to control switching transient, the potential switching surge energy of the
system needs to be calculated and used to size the surge arrestor. The surge arrestor has been
proven to be effective for both reclosing and fault condition.
5.4.4 Portable Protective Air Gaps (PPAG)
Portable protective gap can be installed on a compact structure to control the over voltage at the work
site to a pre-determined value and thereby reduce MAD requirement. These gaps are set to flashover
at a predetermined reduced voltage and this voltage is then used to determine MAD.
While PPAG’s have been used successfully it is not always a practically feasible option on certain
structures and higher voltages.

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5.5 Live work methods for compact lines

5.5.1 Hot stick
As work is performed from a distance hot stick live work should be feasible on most compact
structures/lines, provided worker access can be facilitated and suitable live work friendly hardware
have been installed.

Figure 5.2
Stick Technique From Structure

In some cases live component can be displaced to ensure MAD can be achieved.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 5.3
Displacing of Live Jumper to Achieve Access and Maintain MAD

5.5.2 Barehand
Because of reduced clearance and inability to achieve the required minimum approach distance
(MAD), hot stick work or barehand access from the structure is not always possible. In these cases
working from an elevated insulated platform may be possible utilising barehand technique as indicated
in picture below.

Figure 5.4 Insulated Aerial Platform

Used where structure design does not facilitate easy access and MAD cannot be maintained.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

The Ergonomic component can be reduced to zero if a physical barrier is installed to eliminate
inadvertent movement of the barehand live worker. In such case the MAID only will be applied.

Figure 5.5 Indicating MAD (5.5 m for specific 765 kV line)

Cannot easily be maintained but MAID (5 m) is with the use of a physical barrier

Figure 5.6
Strain Poles Displaying Physical Barrier to Eliminate Ergonomic Distance

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

5.5.3 Robot
The use of robotic arms controlled from ground level is another option is to displace live conductors
thereby creating additional clearance so that minimum approach distance (MAD) can be achieved
Reference
 [CIGRE 2018 TB 731]

Figure 5.7 Quanta Linemaster® Robotic Arm

Used to displace conductors after it was disconnected from the live end of the insulator string using
typically Hot Stick technique from an insulated aerial platform.

5.6 Additional consideration

5.6.1 Job planning
Job planning must be conducted before any live line work. Different utilities might have different
requirement which ties to their own standard procedure or national code. The common considerations
widely accepted by many utilities are listed as follow:
 Always verify if the live line crews have adequate training and certifications
 Written work procedure in accordance with national and utility requirements.
 Advance notice for switching arrangement with System Operator for the mitigation method
such as blocked reclosing.
 Live line work must not be started during rain, melting snow, sleet or heavy fog or when
lightning is seen or thunder is heard.
 Ensure there is a rescue plan in place

5.6.2 NCI insulator

The majority of compact line designs make use of Non ceramic insulators (NCI’s). Unlike glass cap and
pin insulators, the electrical and mechanical integrity of an NCI cannot be determined by visual
inspection. This poses a risk during live line maintenance activity because of both mechanical and
electrical failure while work is in progress.
Some utilities merely perform visual inspection while other prohibits live work on NCI’s. This will be
influenced by the failure rate you have experienced and the associated risk.
Research has spent much time and effort developing an in situ device for determining the health of a
NCI insulator.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Steps to follow:
1. The operator positions himself and presses the push button on the probe and the logger
(optional).
2. The tester is placed on the string a few insulators below the grounded end.
3. The tester is slid back to the beginning of the string and kept stationary for at least 10
seconds until a long beeping sound is heard.
4. The tester is slid to the line end of the string and then back to the starting point. The buzzer
sounds each time a reading is taken at each insulator.
5. The tester is removed from the string by making sure a continuous sound is heard (indicating
a successful scan) and then the push button is pressed to store the data. Commercially
available testers (Positron and EPRI) can be applied by means of a hot stick to in service NCI’s
to verify condition.

5.7 Summary
Live line working on compact lines is possible but will require different techniques depending on the
type of structure and spacing provided.
More techniques to ensure the MAD is maintained are required. Many such techniques involve robots.

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6. Construction techniques
The experience of the Working Group Members in relation to construction is that there are no specific
differences between construction on conventional lines and that of compact lines. The same
techniques are used for example with a quad rectangular bundle and an unsymmetrical bundle in
terms of stringing. For fitting of hardware different “bicycle” or cart designs may be required to move
along the span to install spacer dampers. This would be required irrespective of the phase spacing
though.
Tower erection techniques are also the same, the only variation may be that compact lines may have
to be installed in very restricted right of ways requiring specialised use of cranes or other lifting
devices. This again is independent of the phase spacing as such.
It is thus suggested that each line construction be dealt with on a case by case basis as is normally
the case for a conventionally spaced tower design.

6.1 Underground cable and overhead line interface

Compact overhead line sections will commonly interface with underground cable sections given that
both arrangements are typically applied in congested corridors and/or urban environments. The
transition from an overhead line arrangement to an underground line arrangement requires a
transition site or structure.
In general, these transitions include a structure that supports the bare overhead conductors and
facilitates connection to the underground cables with use of cable terminations. These locations
regularly include surge arresters to protect the cables. For lower voltages, it is possible for all of the
necessary components to be located on a single structure often referred to as transition, riser or
termination structures as shown in the following figures.

Figure 6.1
Cable to Line Interface Tower

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 6.2
Cable to Line Interface Station

For higher voltages, approximately greater than 200 kV, the size of the equipment and the number of
cables per phase will typically require a larger site contained within a fence. These transition sites may
include other equipment commonly found in switchyards and substations. Refer to the following figure
for an example of a transition site.

Figure 6.3
Cable to Line Transition Site

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

The presence of an underground section within a transmission line segment will influence the overall
line capacity, impedance and system transients. Protection considerations will also have to be
considered as it is not good practice to autoreclose onto a fault in a cable section. The protection
needs to determine the location of the fault and operate accordingly..

6.2 Summary
Construction issues are not markedly different between conventional spaced phases and compacted
designs. The difference may occur with the more frequent use of cable in compact line designs. The
cable to line interface is therefore an important consideration in the overall design of the system.
The next chapter will demonstrate detailed calculations that can be used as an example in designing
compact lines.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

7. Influence of compaction in the line electrical

design
7.1 General
Design of compact HVAC line has been considered recently due to necessity of transmitting more
power per line and reduction of corridor usage.
The reasons to use compact AC line are when:
 There is a need of reduction of the right-of-way (ROW).
 There is advantage to increase the SIL (Surge Impedance Load) of the line.

To reach these AC targets detailed studies are carried out to find the smallest (but safe) phase
spacing and therefore the desired GMD (Geometric Mean Distance).
For the second target, besides the GMD reduction, the use of bundle conductors and its expansion
(increase in the bundle radius therefore increasing the GMR Geometric Mean Radius) should also be
considered. Increasing GMR and/or reducing GMD lead to line with lower inductance (L), higher
capacitance (C), lower surge impedance (Zc), and higher SIL surge impedance loading. As
consequence of the reduction on L the system is more dynamically stable for the same transmitted
power, and the amount of series compensation in the line, when necessary, is lower. However, the
increase on C lead to the necessity of higher amount of shunt reactance for line energization.
Compaction or expansion leads to the increase of the conductor surface gradient impacting the corona
phenomena, and also the electromagnetic fields; therefore impacting tower weight and the ROW
width.
Compaction reduces the spatial area of the line impacting the ROW width.
The Objective of this section is to get a measure/quantification of the influence of compaction in the
line electrical design. As reference, a base case HVAC line is considered with the characteristics bellow
(Figure 7.1):
. voltage 500 kV maximum 550kV
. bundle; 4x954MCM (~483mm2).
. diameter 2.961 cm, Rail
. sub-conductor spacing 45.7 cm . phase
spacing 5.5 m . conductor height see
figure
. min. dist. cond. ground 12 m
. conductor sag 18.0 m
. shield wires EHS 3/8”
. shield wires spacing 24.8 m. shield wire
height, tower 40 m . shield wire sag 12.0
m
.soil resistivity 500  m

Figure 7.1
Basic HVAC Line
[CIGRE 2014]

Sensitivity to various parameters will be evaluated to quantify the influence of the parameter change.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

7.2 Configurations
To get a compact HVAC line design the following general guidance applies.
 Use of V or H insulator string and/or composite insulator
 Avoid the tower parts in between poles
 Investigate a vertical arrangement

Based on these towers with silhouettes in Figure 4.26, alternatives geometries may be conceived.

7.3 Insulation coordination

Insulation coordination aims at determining the air clearances and the number and type of insulators
to be used [IEC 1996].
The number of insulators is selected based on the maximum AC voltage and on the assumption of a
certain environment pollution level (see chapter 3).
The electrical air clearances phase-to-ground (Dpe) to be determined are: conductor-to-tower or
objects, conductor-to-ground or objects in the ground; and phase-to-phase air clearances (Dpp).
They are calculated to for withstand power frequency, switching and lightning surge overvoltage. The
minimum air clearance to tower, and objects at the edge of right-of-way shall be maintained in the
condition of conductor swing due to wind in order to prevent flashovers and the touch of objects such
as trees.
In Table 7.1 for conductor to tower clearances, are minimum values used to create alternatives
geometries. For phase-to-phase the minimum value considered is 5.5 m.
Table 7.1 Conductor Clearances to the Tower (horizontal distances)

Power Switching Insertion

Frequency Surge of Cond.
Insulator
Clearance
String clearance. swing clearance swing V string
(m)
(m) (m). (m) (m). (m)
V 1.2 0. 1.93 0. 3.25 3.25

I 1.2 3.9 1.93 1.42 0. 5.10

7.4 Geometries to be considered

The next step is to determine the Ph-Ph distances for the alternative configurations of the Figure 4.26.
 Horizontal configuration of phases (T1)

Considering tower leg with 2 m, bundle spacing of 0.47 m and V string the Ph-Ph distance becomes ~
9m
 Horizontal configuration of phases (T2)

In this case the Ph-Ph distance is determined by switching surge Ph-Ph withstand, therefore ~5.5 m
 middle vertice up triangle (T3)

Considering the tower width of 2.5 m at lower phase height, a bundle spacing 0.47 m and a V string,
it results in a Ph-Ph distance of 9.5 m between the lower phases. The distances from lower to top
phases may be estimated to be around 9.5 m
 middle vertice up triangle (T4 andT5)

The Ph-Ph distances are limited by Ph-Ph switching surge withstands at 5.5 m. In the T4 case the
length of the Ph-Ph insulation string will be determinant plus bundle spacing leading to Ph=Ph
distance of 9 m. For T5 the Ph-Ph distances can be 5.5 m and the phases can be provided with I
string.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

 Y/Δ configuration (T6,T7)

In these cases the string length will determine the Ph-Ph distances to be around 8.5 and 9 m unless
polymeric insulators are used instead of standard glass cap and pin insulators.
 E/W triangle (T8)

Considering tower width of 2 m; bundle spacing of 0.47 and switching surge clearances, it results in
Ph-Ph distances of 9.0 m for upper/lower phases and 10.5 m for left/right phases
The summary of phase spacing is illustrated bellow:

Figure 7.2
Phase Spacing to be Evaluated

Additionally, different Double-Circuit-Tower arrangements (D1-D7) are shown below (max. operating
voltage of 420 kV, bundle spacing 400 mm). Towers D1-D3 vertical-design and D5-D7 Danube-design.

Figure 7.3
Phase Spacing to be Evaluated

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7.5 Comparison of the results

7.5.1 Line constants (R, X, L,C)
The line parameters are calculated assuming full transposition and average height of the conductors.
The equations are below.
Equation 7.1
𝐺𝑀𝐷 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑋𝐿 = 2 (2𝜋 𝑓) 𝐿𝑛 ( ) 10−4
𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑧 𝑘𝑚
Equation 7.2
𝐷 𝐷
𝑖𝑖
𝐶 = 1/(17.976 (𝐿𝑛 (𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑐 𝑖𝑘
) − 𝐿𝑛 (𝐺𝑀𝐷 ))) μF/km
Equation 7.3

𝑛 𝐹 𝑛 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅 √
𝑅

F=1 for GMRc and ~0.8 for GMRz

Equation 7.4
𝑎
𝑅= 𝜋
2 sin( )
𝑛

a is the bundle spacing

n is the number of subconductor in a bundle
Equation 7.5

𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 3√𝑑12 𝑑13 𝑑32

dij is the distance between conductors i,j
Dii is the distance conductor to its image
Dik is the distance conductor to the image of the other
Equation 7.6

𝐷𝑖𝑖 = 3√𝐷11 𝐷22 𝐷33

Equation 7.7

𝐷𝑖𝑘 = 3√𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31

f = 60 Hz
SIL is the value with V= 500 kV
The results are in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Parameters of the Alternative Line Configurations

GMD XL C Zc SIL
Configuration (m) Ohm/km (μF/km) (ohm) (MW)
T1 11.34 0.303 0.01416 238.4 1048.9
T2 (basic case) 6.93 0.266 0.01604 209.8 1191.5
T3 9.50 0.290 0.01471 228.7 1093.3
T5 5.50 0.249 0.01712 196.3 1273.3
T6/T7 9.50 0.290 0.01469 228.8 1092.6
T8 9.97 0.294 0.01451 231.7 1079.0

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Note: R= 0.0155 ohm/km; GMRc= 0.211 m and GMRz=0.203 m; the same for all alternatives
It can be seen that the lower the GMD (compaction) the lower the XL and Zc but the higher C and
SIL. Higher SIL are also obtained with the same GMD but changing GMR with change in bundle
spacing (bundle expansion)
SIL affects stability and reactive compensation. The same effect of geometry change can be obtained
by proper series and shunt reactive compensation with small change in reactive power cost.
7.5.2 Corona effect
Corona effect in the HVAC line lead to: radio interference, TV interference and audible noise. The
impact of the corona effect is dictated by the maximum conductor surface gradient (Emax) calculated
with maximum voltage (550kV) and its ratio to the Peek gradient. Therefore to analyze the impact of
compaction it can be done first by measuring the variation on Gmx.
7.5.2.1 Conductor surface gradient
The simplified process to evaluate the maximum conductor surface gradient in HVAC lines are
reproduced in [CIGRE 2014] and consist in:
calculation of the charge Q = H-1 V being H the Maxwell coefficient and V the voltage
Equation 7.8

𝑄 (𝑛 − 1)𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑥 = (1 + )
𝑟 (2 𝜋 𝜀𝑜) 𝑛 𝑅
Q is the charge [Coulombs/m]
r. R conductor and bundle radius, [cm]
n is number of sub conductor
𝜀𝑜 is dielectric constant [Farad/m]
Sensitivity related to the number of subconductor (phase configurations with almost same total Al
area), and to bundle spacing are in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Sensitivity of Gmx to Number and Spacing of Subconductor

central external
a d
# N MCM/mm2 Ph Ph
(cm) (cm)
kV/cm kV/cm
1 (basic) 4 954/483 45.7 2.961 19.71 17.15
2 3 1272/644 45.7 3.417 20.44 18.01
3 6 636/322 45.7 2.484 18.48 15.72
4 4 954/483 20 2.961 18.93 16.84
5 4 954/483 30 2.961 18.99 16.73
6 4 954/483 70 2.961 21.09 18.09

The values in Table 7.3 are also shown in Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5.

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

22
kV/cm
20
18
16
central
14
external
12
10
2 3 4 5 6 7
conductor/phase

Figure 7.4 Surface Gradient as Function of the Number of Conductor per Phase
(same total Al section)

22
kV/cm
20
18
16
central
14
external
12
10
0 20 40 60 80
bundle spacing (cm)

Figure 7.5 Surface Gradient as Function of the Bundle Spacing

(same conductor configuration)

The difference of Gmx related to tower configuration is in Table 7.4.

Table 7.4 Gmx for the Tower Alternative Configuration

GMD kV/cm
#
(m) Central External
T1 11.34 16.99 15.22
T2 6.93 20.44 18.01
T3 9.50 16.62 16.63
T5 5.50 19.69 19.28
T6/T7 9.50 17.24 16.25
T8 9.97 16.78 /16.55 / 16.18

Central phase has higher gradient; the gradients are proportional to GMD.
7.5.2.2 Radio Interference
Radio Interference (RI) values at soil, in a cross section perpendicular to the line are here calculated
using equations from [CIGRE 2014] as below.
CIGRE approach consider (CISPR specification: QP: 9 kHz)

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

For “heavy rain” weather:

Equation 7.9
D
RIhr = −10 + 3.5g + 6d − 33log (20) dBμ

where
g is the maximum surface gradient (function of the mean height) (kV/cm)
D is the radial distance from the phase to the point (m)
d is the sub conductor diameter (cm)
Valid for: 10 m < D <60 m, and 1 cm < d < 2.5 cm only.
It should be noted that:
 from the heavy rain value subtract 24 dBμ to get mean fair weather value;
 from the heavy rain value subtract 7 dBμ to get “mean foul weather” value,

The equation applies for each phase, and the total RI can be calculated by:
Equation 7.10

3
2
Ei = 20 log √∑ Eki
k=1
( )
Equation 7.11
RI kj

E kj 10 20

The values of the noise for the various arrangements (mean fair weather) are shown on Figure 7.6.
The RI noise criterion may consider signal 66 dBμ, Signal-to-noise ratio SNR.= 18 dBμ (interference
audible but speech perfectly received), therefore the following alternatives may be used:
 mean fair weather noise=48 dBμ, to match fair weather 50% probability
 mean fair weather noise=48 -12=36 dBμ, to match fair weather 98% probability (lower)
 mean fair weather noise=48 -17=31 dBμ, to match foul weather 50% probability

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 7.6
Radio Interference Mean Fair Weather

It can be seen that high compaction may impact the right-of-way width
7.5.2.3 Audible noise
Audible noise (wet conductor) values in the soil, cross section perpendicular to the line are here
calculated using equations from [CIGRE 2014] as below.
For “wet conductor” the average excitation function is:
Equation 7.12

q
A50  K1  120 log g  K 2 log n  55 log d 
300
Table 7.5 Value of K Versus N

K1 K2
n<3 -169.7 0
n≥3 -182.7 26.4

To obtain average value for fair-weather subtract 25 dBA from the value in the equation
Range of validity: 230 – 1500 kV, n ≤ 16, 2 ≤ d ≤ 6.5cm
The audible noise AN level in dBA is:
Equation 7.13

LA = ΓA + 54.3 − 11.4 logD

Equation 7.14

ΓA5 = ΓA50 + 3.5

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The sum of the individual pressure values from all phases results in the total sound pressure at the
point.
Equation 7.15

3 LAi

LATot  10 log 10 10

i 1

The AC lines design criteria are defined based on subjective evaluation obtained from group of people.
Low complaints:< 52 dBA (equivalent to business office noise)
Moderate: (some) complaints→ 52-58 dBA
Many complaints: >58 dBA
Moreover the weather condition has to be established and in some countries it is defined as maximum
noise not to be exceeded at average rain → 42 dBA. This level corresponds to suburban living room
noise [1-46]
The values of the noise for the various arrangements are shown on Figure 7.7. Also it is indicated the
noise design criteria levels.

Figure 7.7
Audible Noise (wet conductor)

7.5.2.4 Right-of-way Based on Corona Criteria

ROW for noise requirements

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Table 7.6 shows the required right-of-way to meet the corona noise criteria: Radio Interference 36
dBμ (mean fair weather condition); Audible 52 dBA, (wet conductor condition).
Table 7.6 ROW for RI and AN Values in (m)

ROW ROW
CASE
RI AN
T1 70 not an issue
T2 >120 70
T3 70 not an issue
T5 >120 90
T6-T7 65 not an issue
T8 75 not an issue

7.5.2.5 Final ROW for insulation criteria and corona

For the ROW requirements for insulation coordination the conditions of TB 388, sag, temperature are
assumed, leading to the value of 60 m for ROW (corresponding to swing angle of 45o (50 years return
period wind); sag 35m maximum (600m span length); clearance for operating voltage, 1.2 m).
Therefore the final ROW (insulation and corona) will be those of Table 7.6.
7.5.3 Electric field
The electric fields (for single circuit configurations) at the soil surface were calculated following
[CIGRE 2014] page 4-68, the values obtained are in Figure 7.8 with voltage 550kV. The heights of the
conductors are those in the middle of the span (minimum clearance).

Figure 7.8
Electric Field in Soil Surface voltage 500kV

Compaction leads to higher electric field in proper configuration.

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Note that in many countries the criteria for the electric field is 4.17 kV/m (60 Hz system- general
public exposure) at the soil level (or at 1 m height), therefore most of the configuration do not pass. If
occupational exposure is used as criteria then all pass (voltage 500kV)
The electric fields of the double-circuit, 420 kV designs considered here remain below 5 kV/m (Figure
7.9). The electric and magnetic field of a double circuit line can be optimised using the effect of
different transpositions. The field can either be minimized in the area of the centreline (0-20 m from
the centreline) or in greater distance (20-70 m). A minimisation in the distance can be necessary, if
precautionary values, like the Swiss 1-µT-value have to be considered.

Figure 7.9
Electric Field at 1 m Height, Minimum Clearance Above Ground 10 m voltage 420kV

7.5.4 Magnetic field

The magnetic field in the soil surface was calculated following [CIGRE 2014], the values obtained are
in Figure 7.10. The height of the conductors is those in the middle of the span (minimum clearance).
The current used in the calculation is 1.7 kA that means 1500 MW at 500 kV, or the peak steady state
condition (sometimes daily average is used).

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Figure 7.10
Magnetic Field at Soil Surface (500kV)

In many countries the design criteria (60 Hz system) is 83 uT, therefore all alternatives pass.
For double circuits, the current used in the calculation is 1.5 kA/circuit that means 2200 MW at 420
kV. The magnetic fields of the different double-circuit-420 kV-designs remain below 25 µT. The
electric and magnetic field of a double circuit line can be optimised using the effect of different phase
position in each circuit.
The field can either be minimized in the area of the centreline (0-20 m from the centre of the tower)
or in greater distance (20-70 m).
A minimisation in the distance can be necessary, if precautionary values, like the Swiss 1-µT-value
have to be considered. The distance where the 1-µT-value is reached varies between 40-60 m.
Compaction of a line can lead to an improvement of up to 15 m compared to a standard design.

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Figure 7.11 Magnetic Field at 1 m Height, Minimum Clearance Aboveground 10 m

Phase position optimized to a minimize field in the distance (20-30 m from the centreline)

7.5.5 Field design criteria discussion

In this item the line electrical design criteria are discussed. The criteria is based on the reference
values recommendations of ICNIRP entity that is part of the World Health Organization. ICNIRP
defines two type exposure: “general public” and “occupational”; the later applied to people that works
in the electrical system ambient, and the former related to all other people not aware of what may be
field effect on health.

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The following Table 7.7 indicates the ICNIRP Occupational and public exposure limits at 50 and 60Hz.

Table 7.7 ICNIRP Reference Values

50 Hz 60 Hz Units

Occupational
electric field basic restriction: head 100 120 mV/m
electric field basic restriction: whole body 800 800 mV/m
magnetic field reference levels 1000 1000 μT
electric field reference level 10 8.333 kV m-1
General Public
electric field basic restriction: head 20 24 mV/m
electric field basic restriction: whole body 400 400 mV/m
magnetic field reference levels 200 200 μT
electric field reference level 5 4.167 kV m-1

The following Table 7.8 indicates the required and calculated levels based on the example.
Table 7.8 Required and Legal Limits for Electric and Magnetic Fields

Basic restriction occupational public (50 Hz):

100 mV/m in the head
800 mV/m in the whole body
Magnetic fields Electric fields
ICNIRP reference level: 1 mT ICNIRP reference level: 10 kV/m
field actually achieved: 3.03 mT field actually achieved: 24.2 kV/m

Basic restriction general public (50 Hz):

20 mV/m in the head
400 mV/m in the whole body
Magnetic fields Electric fields
ICNIRP reference level: 200 µT ICNIRP reference level: 5 kV/m
field actually achieved: 606 µT field actually achieved: 9.9 kV/m
Table 7.9 Required and Calculated Limits

The above calculation indicates that the example will not meet magnetic and electric field constraints
at 50 and 60 hertz. The designer will have to rework the configuration (phase spacing, bundle
configuration, height above ground) to determine a compliant design.

7.6 Electrical line design criteria adopted in different countries

In cooperation between WG B2.62 (compact DC lines) and B2.63 (compact AC lines) a short inquiry
regarding the line electrical criteria for AC and DC was prepared. The inquiry was supported by the
different countries with their own knowledge. The scope of the inquiry was to put together the
overhead transmission line electrical design criteria used in several countries. 16 countries were asked
of which 8 countries replied with 9 answers.
The answers for AC are summarised in this document.

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There were four sections in the questionnaire. The first section included questions regarding over-
voltages. The second section asked about insulation coordination. The third section contained
questions about corona effects and the last section was to maintain information about electric and
magnetic fields.
Not every question was answered by the 8 countries who responded to the questionnaire. The
answers received are summarised in the following:
Relating to over-voltages the operating voltage/power frequency overvoltage differ between 1.05 pu
and 1.45 pu. For the Switching surge V2% , 3 answers were received, each for different voltage levels
(2.5 for 500 kV, 2.7 for 345 kV, 1.0 for 400 kV). The answers for the phase-to-ground energization
differ between 1.9 pu and 3.5 pu. For the phase-to-phase energization between 2.3 pu and 4.0 pu.
For the phase-to-ground reclosing values between 1.9 pu and 4.0 pu were received and for the phase-
to-phase reclosing between 2.0 pu and 5.3 pu. The range of the fault inception is between 1.45 pu
and 2.0 pu. For the load rejection, fault clearing the answers differ between the values 1.9 and 2.6.
For the insulation coordination the pollution level is mostly light/clean (6 of 9 answers). The insulation
creepage differs mainly between 25 mm/kVp-g and 34 mm/kVp-g. For the air clearance, max. voltage
is the answer. The wind return period (yr.) is answered with 50 years (8 of 9 answers). For the
switching surge only 2 answers were received (1/1000 operations and 2.0/1.7 pu). The answers for
energization and reclosing are very different to each other (see Table 7.10). For fault inception only
one value has been received which is 1.9 for 765 kV. The answers for shielding angle and outage
rate/100 km/yr. also differ from each other very much which can be seen in table below.
Regarding the corona effects the values for the max. conductor surface gradient vary between 16
kV/cm and 21 kV/cm. For the weather probability 3 countries answered with 90% and one country
with wet condition. One country has no policy and the other ones did not answer this question, so that
the answers are very different to each other as well.
The signal-to-noise radio interference differs between 20 dBμ and 24 dBμ. The answers for radio
interference signal lay between 49 dBμ and 71 dBμ. For the noise 2 answers were received, 42 dBμ
and 47 dBμ. The weather probability for radio interference is mostly foul 50%/wet condition (4 of 6
answers).
The noise for audible noise differs between 35 dBA and 70 dBA. The weather probability here is
wet/foul in all countries that have answered.
The answers for the electric field are different to each other as well. The ion current is not relevant for
AC. The answers for the magnetic field have also huge differences and differ between 20 μT and 2000
μT. They are mostly measured in the edge (6 of 9 answers).

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7.6.1 Over-voltages values used

Table 7.10 Answers Received for Overvoltages
USA
Norway Canada Korea Germany Brazil France USA Japan
(BPA)
Operating
voltage/pow
1.09/1.05
1.1 er frequency - 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.45 1.05-1.20 1.1
or /1.1
overvoltage
(pu)
2.5
1.0
Switching (500 kV)
1.2 (400
surge V2% 2.7
kVpk)
(345 kV)
a Energization
Phase-to- 1.7
- 2.6 2.3 2.0-3.5 1.9 -
ground (pu) (765 kV)
Phase-to- 3.0
- 2.3 3.45 3.0-4.0 3.1 _
phase (pu) (765 kV)
b Reclosing
2.0
Phase-to- 3.2/2.4/1
- 3.1 2.0-4.0 2.2 -
ground (pu) .9
3.3
3.12/4.5/
Phase-to- 4.6/4.0/3 or
- 4.65 2.0-4.0 3.6
phase (pu) .3
5.3
Fault 1.9
c - <2.0 1.45 <2.0 1.9 -
inception (765 kV)
Load 2.6
rejection, 1.9
d - <2.0 2.3 <2.0 (series -
fault clearing (765 kV)
(pu) caps)

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7.6.2 Insulation coordination values used

Table 7.11 Answers Received for Insulation Coordination
USA
Norway Canada Korea Germany Brazil France USA Japan
(BPA)
Power
2.1 50
frequency
Pollution Light/ Light/ Light/ Light/ Light/ Very Light/
Middle Various
level clean clean clean clean clean light clean
Insul.
24*1/26*
Creepage 25 28 34 25 27 23-54 22
1
(mm/kVp-g)
Air clearance Max. Max. Max. Max. Max. 0.7m- Max.
Max. volt.
(&wind) voltage voltage voltage voltage voltage 3.0m volt.
Wind return
50 50 50 50 5-50 50 50
per (yr)
1/1000 2.0/
Switching
2.2 operation
surge 1.7 pu
s
a Energization
Phase-to-
ground
- - 0.9 10-3. µ- 3σ 1.6E-3
flashover
risk (pu)
Phase-to- IEEE
phase risk - - 0.9 10-4. 516
(pu) MAID
b Reclosing
Phase-to-
3.3/2.5/1
ground risk - 0.9 10-2.
.9
(pu)
Phase-to-
4.6/4.4/3
phase risk - 0.9 10-3.
.5
(pu)

Fault 1.9
c - NA
inception (765 kV)
based on
Lower
required
Shielding 30/40 than -10 -30 Vary on
outage +5/0/-5
angle degrees critical degrees situation
rate and
ls
GFD
1.0
Outage rate/ 2.0/1.1/3 Not
- 0.1 1.0 0.3-2.0 (100mil
100km/yr .8 determ.
es)

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7.6.3 Corona effects

Table 7.12 Answers Received for Corona Effects
USA
Norway Canada Korea Germany Brazil France USA (BPA) Japan
max.
conductor 15
3.1 - 16-19 peak 16
surf. grad (21:peak)
(kV/cm)
weather/ no wet
- 90% 90% 90%
probability policy condition
Radio
3.2
Interference
20 ≤
Signal-to- (0.5265
no
noise - 24 24 24 MHz to
policy
(dB μ) 1.6065
MHz)
49-63
min.
above
regulat
1μV/m no
signal (dB μ) - 71 66 ed
(depends policy
(@1MH
on
z)
voltage)
no
noise (dB μ) - 47 42
policy
wet
weather/ foul no condition
- foul 50% fair 50%
probability 50% policy

3.3 audible noise

35-70 45-70
(depends (depends
on on area
noise (dBA) 50 50 50 58 58 45 - 55 50
situation, and time)
area and
time)
wet
weather wet wet wet rainy wet wet foul foul
condition

7.7 Summary
The chapter provided, by means of calculated examples, the variation in electrical parameters due to
phase spacing, bundle design, tower configuration and height above ground. The second part of the
chapter covered the various standard values that need to be adhered to in various countries. Of
interest is the wide range of values that are accepted. Note that in each case the designer needs to
use the set of values only from one country as the values are interrelated.

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8. Case studies
The brochure has thus far covered the theory as well as the practical calculation of parameters. There
are many different applications of compact lines around the world. This chapter will cover a number of
these examples. The purpose is to expose the designer to the ideas that have been implemented
worldwide so that they can adapt an idea or combination of ideas for their use.

8.1 Case study: Compact Plus - Norway

Original work on line compaction began in the 90’s after concerns about magnetic fields and
leukaemia in children. The original concepts were reported in Cigre paper 22/33/36-08_1998 -- A
compact 420 kV line utilising line surge arresters for areas with low isokeraunic levels [CIGRE 1998-1]
New insulator technology led to further development work. Main points of the design process and final
configuration are:
 Cooperation STRI, Nordic TSOs
 Designed for suburban areas 300 and 420 kV
 Reduce the magnetic field, compaction, delta config.
 Low visual impact
 Narrow ROW, 5 m phases pacing
 Tubular tower, hollow composite insulators,
 No earthwire
 Line surge arresters, reduce overvoltages

Figure 8.1
Compact Plus Tower

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8.1.1 Insulator development

Dimensions
The insulator assembly was developed with the following
dimensions
 6-7m between the outer phases
 Distance outer phase – upper phase 4-6m
 Tower height approximately. 20m

Figure 8.2
Cross Arm

Figure 8.3
Tower Top

8.1.2 Fittings development

Full scale corona tests were conducted with the attachment of surge arrester in tower top

Figure 8.4
Top Phase with Surge Arrester

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8.1.3 Demonstration project Rasta

A demonstration project was developed using the compact tower in a suburban area. The magnetic
field in the area from the existing line was above the recommended limit. The areas boasted easy
access. It is important to note that the landowner was involved in the decision making process. It was
agreed to replace 3 of the existing standard towers with the compact plus towers. The conductor was
altered from a simplex to a Parrot duplex configuration and the shield wire was buried in the ground.

Figure 8.5
Aerial View of Line Section

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8.1.4 Magnetic field profile

3,5

3 Standard Tower
Magnetic field (uT)

2,5

1,5
Compact

0,5

Distance from centre (m)

Figure 8.6
Magnetic Field Profile

The above figure indicates the reduction in the magnetic field due to the compact design and delta
configuration of the compact plus tower.
8.1.5 Technological challenges
The following technological challenges were experienced with the development of the compact
plus tower:

 With the reduced phase spacing, it was necessary to add a phase conductor to reduce
corona noise. There is also an increased risk of conductor clashing at midspan.
 Using the composite insulator as a structural element required studies be conducted
relating to fibre stiffness, aging of silicon material and possible fatigue failures due to
vibrations and oscillations.
 With the insulator as the strength component the span lengths are dependent on insulator
stress. Height difference between towers and climatic conditions in the actual span
needed to be taken into account.
 Installation methods had to be revised as well as access plans into the area.

8.2 Case study: Stevin project - Belgium

The Stevin project aims to upgrade the electricity grid between Zomergrm and Zeebrugge. This
section covers a portion of the double circuit 380 kV line (note a portion of the line is underground).
In this analysis a 525 m-long span is considered. The tension is 33.6 kN (for classical conductor) and
39.14 kN (for smooth conductor). In this case the initial sag at zero wind (16.5 m) for both types of
conductors is the same.
However, note that higher tensions mean a higher stress on the truss.

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Several analysis cases with different mean wind velocities (30 m/s and 40 m/s) were considered.
Simulations were done over 10 min. interval – a duration imposed by standard recordings of wind and
retained in the models of the wind fluctuations 2.
In all analysis cases, the smooth-surfaced conductor was excited significantly less than the classical
multistrand analogue. The tension variation (Tmax - Tmin) in the trapezoidal conductor is by 44% to
52% less than round conductors, which means a lower risk of fatigue problems.

Figure 8.7 Mid-point Evolutions of the Classical Multistrand conductor

Mid-point evolutions of the classical multistrand conductor (above) and trapezoidal (below).
Mean wind speed: 30 m/s, along wind turbulence scale: 200 m, turbulence intensity: 19%

For mean wind velocity V=30 m/s (main analysis case), variations of the tower transverse loads ΔRy
from the smooth conductor were by 34% less than from the classical analogue. At V = 40m/s
variations of ΔRy remained at the same level. In the same time, the trapezoidal conductor enjoyed
especially significant gain in the mean value Ry (up to 46%) (shown in the following graph).

Figure 8.8 Variations of Horizontal Transverse Load

Variations of the horizontal transverse load on tower end in the wind direction, RY, for the trapezoidal
cable and the classical multistrand analogue. Mean wind velocity: 30 m/s, alongwind turbulence scale:
200 m, turbulence intensity: 19%

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8.2.1 Example calculation: wind load

Equation 8.1

𝐴𝐶 = 𝑞0 𝐶𝑋𝐶 𝐺𝐶 𝐺𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛺

Equation 8.2

𝑞0 = 0,5 ∗ µ ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑅 2 (𝑉𝑅 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)

With:
µ = 1,225 kg/m3 (for 15°C und 101,3 Pa)

t = 1 for 15°C

25
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑚/𝑠 for wind zone 1
1,08

𝑉𝑅 = 25 𝑚/𝑠 for wind zone 2

25 2
Wind Zone 1: 𝑞0 = 0,5 ∗ µ ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑅 2 = 0,5 ∗ 1,225 ∗ 1 ∗ ( ) = 328,2 𝑃𝑎
1,08

Wind Zone 2: 𝑞0 = 0,5 ∗ µ ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑅 2 = 0,5 ∗ 1,225 ∗ 1 ∗ (25)2 = 382,8 𝑃𝑎

With:

𝐺𝐶 = 1,98 for a height of 15 m

𝐺𝐿 = 0,94 for L = 400 m

𝑑 = 0,0224 m for conductor 265/35

𝑑 = 0,0324 for conductor 550/70

𝛺 = 90°
The wind loads are:
Table 8.1 Wind Loads

265/35 550/70
Wind Zone 1 5473,18 N 7916,6 N
Wind Zone 2 6383,9 N 9233,9 N

In bundled conductors, the total effect (according to [IEC 2003]) shall be taken as equal to the sum of
the actions on the sub-conductors, without accounting for possible masking effect of one of the sub-
conductors on another.

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This means that two conductors of diameter 18mm with a combined aluminium area of 300mm2 will
impart the same load as a single 36mm conductor with an aluminium area of 600mm2. Thus, from a
mechanical loading point of view, the less number of conductors in the bundle the better. The
conductor choice has to impact on the tower design (which is a function of the load the tower must
take) which in turn has an effect on the foundation design (which is a function of the load the
foundation must bear). As a rule, the fewer number of conductors in a bundle and the lower the
tensile strength of the conductor, the lower the tower strength required. Corona limitations will dictate
the minimum number of conductors in a bundle and the diameter of the conductor.
8.2.2 Zomergem and Zeebrugge
The works include:
1. The construction of a double high-voltage line of 380kV over a distance of 47 km. The
connection we bring partly underground and partly above ground.
2. The construction of three substations in Zeebrugge, the Spie and Vivenkapelle.
3. The degradation and the underground laying of the existing 150 kilovolts connections.
4. 53 km overhead lines disappear realization Stevin
5. Strengthening the existing high-voltage grid in West and East Flanders to carry a larger
amount of electricity the coast to the interior. The amplification involves the construction of
new overhead and underground connections. At the same time we remove 53 km of old lines
down and add 35km underground.
6. 16 km reuse existing lines / route
7. 10km underground tunnel under the Baldwin Canal
8. 21 km new lines
9. 47 km high-voltage line 380 kV
10. 35 km 150 kV line goes underground
11. 53 km 150 kV line decommissioned

Figure 8.9
Diagram of Work Entailed

New Lines or Upgrades

Decommissioning

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 8.10
Diagram of Work Entailed

 Elia is constructing a 380 kV connection between Eeklo and Vivenkapelle. This connection runs
almost parallel to the existing 150 kV line from Eeklo-North through St. Laureins, walks to the
East edge of Bruges.
 April 2015 - April 2016, foundations from the 48 mast (mast mast No. 30 to No. 77) Of this
sub-project.
 Autumn 2016 tower erection.
 In Eeklo is currently already part of the existing 150 kV line put underground . This is
necessary in order to start the construction of the new 380 kV line.

8.2.3 Insulated cross arms

Elia uses insulated cross arms making the towers more compact, reducing the visual impact and the
electromagnetic. The insulated cross arms ensure that the 380 kV line looks much the same as a
conventional 150 kV mast.
8.2.4 Existing 150 kV line goes underground
To build the new 380 kV line the existing 150 kV line was required by authorities to be placed
underground.

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Figure 8.11
Existing and Modified Tower

Left: Existing 150 kV line with classic mastarm (48 m high)

Right: Future 380 kV line with insulated mastarm (51 m)
8.2.5 Impact on landscape
Here's how the landscape will evolve north of Maldegem before, during and after the implementation
of the Stevin project.

Figure 8.12
Existing

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 TB 792 - Compact AC overhead lines

Figure 8.13
During

Figure 8.14
After Construction

8.3 Case study: compact high voltage crossarms - Germany

8.3.1 General parameters and requirements
The following information were fixed by the Engineering and Consulting Company.
1. Calculation of parameters acc. to EN 50341-2-4
2. 420 kV two-circuit overhead line design with suspension towers.
3. Use of 4 bundle conductor 565-AL1/72-ST1A – FINCH acc. to DIN EN 50182
4. Possible operation in wind load zone W4 according to German NNA (characterized by 30 m/s
reference wind speed) and ice load zone E2 (characterized by a specific reference ice load
[N/m] of 10 + 0.2 x conductor diameter [mm])
5. Wind span length 500 m.
6. Mechanical requirements are based on Load cases [EN 2012] for example:
Loading Case A
Permanent loads and wind action, corresponding conductor horizontal tensile forces at +5 °C.

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Loading Case D
Permanent loads and wind action together with ice loads, corresponding conductor horizontal tensile
forces at -5 °C.
Loading Case J
Unbalanced ice loads
Loading Case L
Permanent loads and ice loads, corresponding horizontal conductor tensile forces at –5 °C; failing of
one insulator string of a multiple insulator set.
NOTE Effects of loading case L are only decisive for crossarms.
Table 8.2 Mechanical Loads

Calculated
Load Load
Mechanical
Case Direction
Load / kN

Vertical 67,96
A
horizontal 72,33

Vertical 121,67
D
horizontal 68,66

Vertical 90,13
J
longitudinal 133,05

7. Crossarm design to be used also for 420 kV DC application (34 mm/kV CD).
8. Max. electrical field at the insulator triple point = 4,5 kV/cm; at arcing rings = 21 kV/cm.
9. Rated short current = 50 kA 1s
10. Compliance with German protective law of emissions (“26. BImSchV”). It contains
requirements for the protection of the public to guard against harmful environmental effects
by electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields.

8.3.2 Design of the insulator crossarms

Based on the maximum mechanical stresses first two different versions of non-pivoting cross-arms by
using exclusively composite insulators have been created. One with fixed clamps/80° horizontal angle
between posts and one with clamps with controlled slippage/50° horizontal angle. The reason was the
high longitudinal mechanical loads (Load case J). For keeping the vertical loads two suspension rods
have been designed. The insulators for both versions are identical.

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Figure 8.15
Non Pivoting Vee (NPV)

Figure 8.16
50° Horizontal Angle, Slippage Clamps

Together with the hardware manufacturer all connecting parts with respect to mechanical loads and
short circuit current have been designed.
8.3.3 Intended investigations and tests
After fixing the main design parameters as insulating length, core diameter, creepage distance, arcing
distance ultimate mechanical loads (incl. safety factors), connecting dimensions to the tower following
activities have been started:
1. Electrical field calculations
2. Determination of properties of various glass-fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) rods
3. Mechanical stress calculation
4. Calculation of load transposition

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With reference to the results of the calculations, the prototypes of insulators as well as the fittings
were manufactured for the necessary practical tests. The following tests have been carried out:
8.3.4 Mechanical tests for verification of combined mechanical static loads
1. Dielectrical tests including radio interference voltage (RIV). In addition DC-voltage tests and
corona extinction test
2. Power arc tests
3. Buckling tests of post insulators
4. Load transposition tests

8.3.5 Test results

The requirements of the compact designs were a new quality of mechanical stress. In order to create
optimum designs it was decided to determine different parameters as tension, pressure, modulus of
elasticity, shear modulus of different polymer-rods. The results were used for optimization the
mechanical calculations.
As first positive result the calculation of critical load case J with extreme longitudinal tensile load
showed positive results for 50° design with fixed clamps. The static deformation is shown in Figure
8.17.

Figure 8.17
Static Deformation for Load Case

Figure 8.18
Laboratory Test Arrangement

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With this positive calculation the mechanical tests were started with the 50 ° version and fixed
suspension clamps. After strengthening the connecting parts to the tower (strong deformation at 125
% of calculated longitudinal load Load case J), the design withstood 200%. As consequence it was
decided to stop the development of suspension clamps with controlled slippage and to carry out all
following tests with 50 ° NPV with fixed clamps.
The dielectric tests fulfilled the standard requirements. In addition the complete crossarm was tested
at +555 kV DC voltage for 30 min.
The power arc tests acc. to IEC 61467 have been carried out under following test parameters:
Test circuit: D
Specified arc current: 50 kA
Specified arc time: 0,2 s; 0,2 s; 0,5 s

Figure 8.19
Power Arc Test

The crossarm design pass all tests. The final mechanical tests (residual strength of elements) showed
for the suspension rods higher tensile strength as SML.
Buckling tests: To verify the calculations and to get more information for the real buckling strength
the single post insulators have been tested acc. load cases Euler 2 and 4.

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Figure 8.20
Buckling Euler Test

Figure 8.21
Buckline Euler Test 4

To cover also the very special load case L, breakage of one suspension insulator, it was decided to
carry out this test at outdoor facility.

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Figure 8.22
Testing Arrangement

Figure 8.23
After Test Initiated Breakage at Conductor Side

The application of the technology is demonstrated in the following two figures.

Figure 8.24
Wintrack, Tennet, the Netherlands

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Figure 8.25
Eagle Towers Ability to Change Tower Design with Compact Insulator Design Energinet, Denmark

The above figure indicates the benefit

8.3.6 Conclusions
Due to the different design to string configurations for 420 kV many calculations and practical tests
have been carried out. Main result was that the use of suspension clamps with controlled slippage is
not necessary for the NPV with small horizontal angle.
An important target of this project was, to verify the results of the calculations by real tests. Especially
for the mechanical parameters a good conformity could be demonstrated.
The developed 420 kV insulating crossarm can be used also for 420 kV DC application. This design can
be fixed to towers made by concrete (UHPC), steel or to lattice towers.

8.4 Case study: “compactLine” – A case study in Germany

8.4.1 Background
In Germany, grid expansion plans by transmission system operators increasingly face a severe lack of
acceptance in public perception. This leads to long approval processes for grid expansion projects,
thwarting grid expansion in the German transmission system.
With the objective to develop, test and demonstrate an innovative and compact overhead line design
for 380 kV, the research project “compactLine” was started in 2013. The project consortium consists
of a German transmission system operator, industry partners and research institutes. The new
overhead line design aims at significantly reducing right of way as well as overall height of the
transmission corridor without increasing the number of pylons. Nevertheless, any new overhead line
design has to be operated in an existing transmission grid efficiently without compromising security of
supply. In order to facilitate the technical development, it was crucial to define a set of specific
requirements to be met by the new overhead line design.
8.4.2 Requirements by the TSO
 Development of the new overhead line design according to [EN 2012] 50341-2-4
 380 kV two-circuit overhead line design with suspension and tension pylons
 Use of standard conductor bundle 4 x ACSR 434-AL1/56-ST1A with an overall ampacity of
3600 A
 Minimum ground clearance of 12.5 m

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 Possible operation in wind load zone W2 according to [EN 2012] EN 50341-2-4 (characterized
by 25 m/s reference wind speed) and ice load zone E2 (characterized by a specific reference
ice load [N/m] of 10 + 0.2 x conductor diameter [mm])
 Inspection and maintenance works on conductors and cross-arms without need for cranes or
manlifts
 Safe accessibility of one cross-arm with the circuit switched off while the other circuit is
operated at 3600 A
 Resulting corridor dimensions not more than 60 m width and 40 m average height at span
lengths of approx. 420m
 Compliance with German regulation (“26. BImSchV”) for electromagnetic field emissions under
maximum load: 5 kV/m and 100 µT at 1 m above ground and audible noise at max. 35 dB(A)
in residential areas at night according to “TA Laerm”.

8.4.3 Development of phase conductor configuration

The main technical feature of the “compactLine” concept to reduce the right of way as well as the
corridor height is the addition of two highly tensioned steel ropes to the phase configuration. Each of
the phase conductor quad bundles is attached to the steel ropes like garlands by suspension bundle
spacers.

Figure 8.26
“CompactLine” Suspension Bundle Spacer for Quad Bundle and a Double Steel Rope

The distances between the bundle spacers will be approx. 20 meters. Thus, the sag of the subspans is
typically below one meter and overall conductor sag is significantly lower than of a conventional
system. A comparison is given in the table and figure below.
Table 8.3 Conductor Sag Comparison of Conventional and Compact line Configuration

Conductor Temperature Conventional Sag “Compactline” Sag

(°C) (m) (m)
+10 (EDS) 17.3 6.0
+80 19.6 6.5
-5 17.8 8.1

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Figure 8.27
Conductor Sag Comparison of Conventional and Compact line Configuration

8.4.4 Development of insulators

Due to the high tension of the conductors, also lateral movement of the conductors is limited. To take
full advantage of this behaviour, rigid V string arrangements without lateral movement were chosen.
However, this conductor configuration concept leads to a series of technical challenges. Besides of
bundle spacers also the insulator string sets and fittings had to be newly developed. One of the
challenges was the design of composite insulators fulfilling the strong tension requirements caused by
the highly tensioned steel support ropes. During the research phase, three alternative suspension
insulator string configurations Figure 8.28 as well as one design for tension strings, were investigated
and tested for mechanical and electrical performance.

Figure 8.28
Three Alternative “CompactLine” Phase Configuration Concepts for the Suspension Pylon

Depending on the phase configuration, core diameters of 88 mm, 130 mm and 170 mm were
developed and tested successfully to withstand the tension as well as compression loads with
corresponding safety factors. In order to facilitate the final development of the overall overhead line
design, decision was made to focus on the “Havel” configuration for a latter demonstration project.
Tension insulators had to be developed, as tensile forces under everyday stress (EDS) conditions are
much higher than of conventional systems in Germany. A very long V-string arrangement was chosen
for the tension string set of the support ropes.
Here also a special turnbuckle construction set allows sagging of support rope and suspended bundle.
In order to withstand failure of one insulator in the string, tension insulators were designed with a
63,5mm composite core for 1320 kN. Respective design tests according to IEC 61109 were performed
successfully.

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Figure 8.29
“CompactLine” Tension Insulator Concept

8.4.5 Development of pylons

Due to the highly tensioned steel ropes between the tension pylons, high tensile forces are acting on
the cross-arms resulting in high bending forces acting on the pylon. Therefore, conical solid-wall steel
pylons were investigated instead of a latticed steel structure to bear the increased forces and to
reduce the dimensions of the pylon at the bottom. Moreover, this reduction of the pylon diameter will
also have a positive impact on land use.

Figure 8.30
Tension Pylon Concept (left) and Suspension Pylon Concept (right)

The suspension pylon was designed as single tubular, conical steel structure with ring flange
connections, based on the proven concept of wind pylons. For the design of the pylons, maximum
pylon foot diameter was limited to 3.8 m to allow for road transport logistics, accessing railway
crossings and tunnels. The height of each single segment was limited to 12 m, the weight to 20 t.
These limitations are owed to difficult conditions for transport in rough terrain and remote areas.
Furthermore, the height of each element was defined to be a whole multiple of 3 m, which
corresponds to the common width of heavy steel plates. High utilisation rate of the pylon shell
especially in the lower parts calls for the use of T-flanges as applied at the base of wind pylons as
well. Therefore, provision is made for a manhole in the lower part of the pylon to allow for a regular
inspection of the bolts with safe access.
The dead-end pylon (also possible as tension pylon) was designed as a portal, consisting of two
tubular, conical steel pylons supporting the cross-arm. This is related to significantly higher forces
resulting from steel rope tension.
An overview of the dimensions of the suspension and dead-end pylon are listed in the table below.

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Table 8.4 “Compactline” Designed Pylon Dimensions for Suspension and Dead-end Pylon

Suspension Pylon Dead-end Pylon

Diameter (foot) (m) ~ 2.5 ~ 3.4
Diameter (head) (m) ~ 1.5 ~ 2.5
Pylon width incl. cross-arm (m) ~ 39 ~ 36
Pylon height (m) ~ 30 ~ 36

8.4.6 Mechanical and electrical tests

In order to validate the technical development of components and comply with respective standards,
several mechanical and electrical full-scale tests were carried out.
As one example, suspension as well as insulator string configurations were tested in a full-scale
outdoor test set-up for the situation that one of the tensioned insulators fails (load transposition). The
remaining insulator(s) had to be able to withstand the dynamic forces due to accelerations and
impacts during its movement to the new position of equilibrium. Moreover, relevant components of
the “compactLine” system were subject to several electric tests, such as dielelectric, short-circuit and
switching impulse tests.

Figure 8.31
Mechanical Load Transposition Test on Compactline “Saale” Configuration

Figure 8.32
Flashover During Switching Impulse Test on Tension Insulator Configuration

Satisfyingly, all mechanical and electrical tests were passed successfully with minor optimizations of
some of the components.

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8.4.7 Acceptance study

However, experiences suggest that this purely technological approach might not be able to meet
acceptance challenges accordingly. Consequently, the technical development of the compactLine
overhead line design was supported by a detailed communication plan and validated by an
independent acceptance study. The study revealed among other results, that height of the pylons is a
major factor to influence acceptance of an overhead line. Hence, there is evidence that an overhead
line concept with reduced height such as “compactLine” can indeed influence public acceptance
positively.
8.4.8 Demonstration
Based on the satisfying and promising results of the research as well as on the acceptance study, the
construction of a pilot project was approved. The overhead line project has a length of 1.8km
conisting of three “compactLine” suspension towers as well as two “compactLine” tension towers,
connecting an existing substation with a nearby passing overhead line. The line was successfully
commissioned in summer 2018 and fully operational.
After commissioning, a technical monitoring propram of the pilot overhead line operated in the
existing grid shall provide insights in operation and maintenance of the “compactLine” concept.

Figure 8.33
“compactLine” overhead line - Last works before commissioning in summer 2018

8.5 Case study – Narrow right of way USA

A major utility with operations in the southeastern United States has been experiencing significant
growth, mainly from industrial development. Planners determined that additional 500 kV transmission
capacity is needed to service the area. The existing standard structure at 500 kV required a 225 foot
right of way. Due to the short lead times associated with some of the industrial development projects
and the difficulty in acquiring the standard right of way on a timely basis to facilitate the development
projects, the design team identified a need to explore ways to compact the design. The planners
suggested that the line design team explore ways of fitting a new 500 kV line with an ampacity rating
of 3000 amps in an existing 230 kV corridor which is 125 feet wide. This would eliminate the need for
the lengthy right of way acquisition process.
To determine the requirements and parameters that impact this specific effort, the team qualitatively
assigned priorities to common performance metrics and the design parameters that impact those
metrics. Following the qualitative assignment of importance to key performance measures, the team

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studied the related parameters. A parametric study was performed based on some assumed limits of
application to highlight which of the related parameters had the greatest impact.
Based on the results of the parametric study, the important parameters were studied in more detail to
determine their actual limits of application. The detailed study results allowed the development of
configurations with varying levels of compactness. Numerous configurations were developed
considering parameters ranging from standard approaches to the limits determined through the
detailed analysis of those requirements. The advantages and disadvantages of the various
configurations were then compared to support selection of the preferred configurations. The final
design step included the detailed design of the structures for implementation within the utility’s set of
standards for use on future projects.
8.5.1 Parameters and compaction limits
A parametric study determined which priority parameters should be studied in detail to determine
limits of compaction. The parametric study considered varying phase configurations, structure
dimensions and conductor configurations. The study produced results for the predetermined key
performance measures:
 Achievable span length as limited by conductor blowout and correlated ROW clearance
requirements including vegetation buffers.
 Audible noise and EMF at the ROW edge.
Five generic phase configuration categories were defined: 1-Horizontal, 2-Vertical, 3-Delta, 4-Inverted
Delta, 5-Rotated Delta. For each configuration, there are a variety of options including whether the
phases are separated by supporting structural elements or whether the insulation system is I-String or
V-String. Furthermore, structure dimensions are determined by required spacing between phases and
between each phase and structural elements. These spacing requirements will vary per the following:
 Required clearances based on switching transient overvoltage studies
 Insulation requirements resulting from insulation coordination studies
 Insulation arrangements including selection of V-string vs. I-string
 Line layout including span lengths and resulting impacts on galloping performance
The detailed studies required to define these parameters are not possible without a selected
configuration. Therefore, the parametric study considered varying structure dimensions to support
understanding of the impact of phase configuration and structure dimensions on the studied
performance measures. The range of structure dimensions considered was intended to describe
possible arrangements. Five structure dimensional cases were considered for each phase
configuration. The structure dimensional cases were assigned numeric descriptions, 1 being the most
compact configuration considered and 5 being the least compact configuration considered. The
structure dimensional ranges are described in the following table. Subsequent analysis indicated if the
phasing configuration and structure dimension combinations were technically feasible or even
necessary to achieve the project objectives.
STRUCTURE DIMENSIONAL CASES

horizontal vertical delta inverted delta rotated delta

Case 1
most
compact

case 5
least
compact

Figure 8.34
Structure Dimensional Cases

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Notes:
1. The gray hatching describes regions reserved for structural supporting elements.
2. The red circle describes the phase bundle locations for the configuration.
To support a high level understanding of the conductor configuration impact on the key performance
measures, the conductor diameter, bundle quantity and bundle spacing were varied while meeting
project requirements. The conductor configurations considered included three bundle and four bundle
configurations with varied conductor diameters and bundle spacing.
The parametric study included the following:
 Five phase configurations (Horizontal, Delta, Inverted Delta, Rotated Delta, Vertical)
 Five structure dimensional cases (1=Most Compact through 5=Least Compact)
 Two bundle quantities (3 or 4)
 Five conductor configurations
The following graph describes the achievable span length as limited by the project blowout criteria for
each phase configuration and structure dimension case. The achievable span lengths vary from very
small to approximately 1,200 ft for the studied configurations. For some dimensional cases, the
Horizontal phase configuration couldn’t achieve realistic span lengths. The Vertical phase configuration
achieved the maximum achievable span length.

1200
Achievable Span Length for Blowout

1100

1000

900
(ft)

800

700

600
3
1
2
3
4
5
1
2

4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5 Horizontal Delta Inverted_Delta Rotated_Delta Vertical
Structure Dimensional Case (1 = Most Compact, 5 = Least Compact)
Phase Configuration
Figure 8.35
Span Lengths Achieved

The following graph describes the achieved audible noise values at the edge of the ROW for each
phase configuration, structure dimensional case and conductor configuration. As the structure
dimensions decrease (more compact) the audible noise increases. Increasing the number of
subconductors in a phase bundle from 3 to 4 reduced the audible noise value by approximately 5 dBA.
Increasing the subconductor diameter reduced the audible noise value. Decreasing the bundle spacing
also reduced the audible noise value, by a smaller amount. Plotted results containing the descriptor 3
describes a 3 bundle configuration, while the descriptor 4 describes a 4 bundle configuration. The
descriptor “A” describes the smallest bundle diameter while “E” describes the largest bundle diameter.

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70

Foul Weather Audible Noise at Edge ROW 65 3-A

3-B
60
3-C
55 3-D
(dBA)

50 3-E
4-A
45
4-B
40 4-C

4
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3

5
Horizontal Delta Inverted_Delta Rotated_Delta Vertical 4-D
4-E
Structure Dimensional Case (1 = Most Compact, 5 = Least Compact)
Phase Configuration
Figure 8.36
Audible Noise Analysis

Of the key performance measures studied, the audible noise and achievable span as limited by
conductor blowout constituted the greatest challenges to the project. Other studied parameters did
not approach the selected limits. The approximate analysis contained within this study indicated that
some of the studied structure and conductor configurations can achieve desired audible noise
performance, while others may require some adjustment to comply. The achievable span length can
be considered a cost indicator, with the larger achievable span lengths indicating the expected lower
overall cost when applying the selected structure and conductor configurations to a line.

The Horizontal phase configuration results in the highest audible noise values and the smallest
achievable span lengths, therefore the worst performer of the phase configurations considered. The
three Delta type phase configurations all have very similar results. The Vertical phase configuration
achieves the largest achievable span lengths with slightly higher audible noise values when compared
to the Delta type configurations.
Based on the parametric study results, the following analyses were performed on some of the most
feasible configurations:
 Transient Overvoltage Analysis
 Insulation Coordination Analysis
 Live-Line Working Distance Analysis
Minimum clearance requirements and insulation lengths determine limits to compaction. A reduction in
required clearance or reduction in required insulation length can result in a more compact structure
design. The detailed study to define compaction limits generally supports reduction in values
historically applied. Reduction in such limits facilitates the development of a relatively compact
structure. Although, there are some noted disadvantages to reduction in clearances including some
expected reduction in performance, difficulties in live working and changes to standard insulation
assemblies. The compaction limits were studied in detail to determine how compact the structure
design could be; the need and efficiency of applying such limits was determined in subsequent design
steps.
8.5.2 Structure comparison
Possible structure configurations were compared to facilitate the selection of a preferred configuration.
The approach to the comparisons included the development of candidate structure configurations
based on previously studied constraints, followed by the selection of a short-list of structure
configurations for in depth comparison. The following table describes the short-list configurations
studied.

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Table 8.5 Structure Configurations

The following table summarizes the key results.

Table 8.6 Summary of Analysis Results

STRUCTURE CONFIGURATION RESULTS

STRUCTURE CONFIGURATIONS
Vertical, 2 Pole Braced

Vertical, 2 Pole Braced

Rotated Delta, 1 Pole

Rotated Delta, 1 Pole

Rotated Delta, 2 Pole

Rotated Delta, 2 Pole

Standard Spacing

Standard Spacing

Standard Spacing

Standard Spacing
Standard Spacing

Standard Spacing
Compact Spacing

Compact Spacing

Compact Spacing

Compact Spacing

Compact Spacing
COMPONENT UNIT
Vertical, 1 Pole

Vertical, 1 Pole

Vertical, 2 Pole

Delta, 2 Pole

Delta, 2 Pole
w/Arms

CONFIGURATION PARAMETERS AND ANALYSIS RESULTS

Achievable Span Length Ft 875 1150 1150 825 1150 1000 1150 1150 875 1000 1000
Estimated Structure
Lb/str 16900 34100 33500 20100 30600 32100 34300 46200 28000 41200 28800
Weight
Estimated Structure Height Ft 125 185 175 135 165 155 160 185 130 180 125
Number of Subconductors Qty 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 3 4
Number of Shield Wires Qty 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2
Number of Foundations Qty/str 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Standard Insulator Assy Pass/Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail
Standard Insulators Pass/Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail
Live-Line Maint. Pass/Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail Fail Fail Pass Pass Pass Fail
QUALITATIVE COMPARISON
Lightning Performance 1 = Best 3 4 3 1 5 4 5 4 1 4 3
Switching Performance 5 = Worst 5 1 1 1 5 5 5 1 1 1 5

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STRUCTURE CONFIGURATION RESULTS

Galloping Performance 2 3 4 1 4 3 5 3 1 2 2
Aesthetics 3 4 2 4 3 4 1 3 3 5 2
Design Flexibility 3 5 5 3 5 1 5 5 3 1 3
Structure
1 4 5 1 3 2 4 5 3 4 3
Constructability
Foundation
2 5 3 3 5 2 3 4 3 3 3
Constructability
Wire Constructability 1 1 5 1 1 2 5 5 3 2 3
Line Restoration 1 1 5 1 1 2 5 5 3 2 3
Line Maintenance 1 1 5 1 1 2 5 5 3 2 3
ESTIMATED COST COMPARISON PER MILE
Cost Comparison % Baseline 100% 104% 106% 108% 115% 121% 122% 126% 126% 131% 134%

The maximum allowable span length as limited by conductor blowout and ROW edge clearances was
determined for each structure configuration and used as the design span for that configuration. This
approach of applying the maximum allowable span as the design span reflects the notion that the
optimal design span for each configuration is the maximum span allowed by this criterion. However, it
is noted that the cost savings correlated to maximizing span lengths is not always realized given the
number of constraints that can disallow long spans in a given corridor such as vegetation, line angles,
and pinch points in the ROW. Structure heights were selected to support the required ground
clearances in the design span assuming flat terrain.
In addition to the noted quantitative comparison, a qualitative comparison described the relative
performance of each configuration in performance measures which are not easily quantified. The last
comparison item included a cost comparison between each of the options on a per mile cost basis.
The estimated cost comparisons were only intended to consider costs that vary with each structure
configuration and did not consider overheads, access constraints, ROW, mobilization or demobilization
costs. The estimated costs were only expected to be relatively accurate for the sake of comparison.
8.5.3 Conclusion
The estimated cost comparison results indicated costs varying by approximately 30% between the
structure configurations considered. The vertical configurations provided the largest allowable span
length; but achieving these longer spans required taller and heavier structures at each structure
location. In most cases, the compact versions were more expensive solutions than the standard
configurations; this was a result of the compact options requiring 4 subconductors per bundle in lieu
of the 3 subconductors per bundle applied to the standard configurations to meet audible noise
requirements.
The choice of a preferred structure configuration was not based purely on economics. In addition to
the consideration of costs, the selection of the preferred structure configuration considered the
application of utility standards when possible. The selection also considered constructability and
maintenance. Some of these components have related costs which were not reflected in the cost
comparison. Additionally, these qualitative advantages can be significant to implementation and
feasibility of any configuration.
To best address the challenges anticipated, the recommended best approach was to select a primary
structure configuration in combination with a secondary or complementary configuration that can be
used individually or in combinations to address a wide variety of likely design situations. The selected
primary structure configuration was the rotated delta, one-pole with standard spacing. The selected
complementary configuration was the vertical, two-pole with standard spacing. These two structure
configurations can be used individually or in combinations to address specific design challenges,
including very poor soil conditions, narrower (pinch points) ROW, longer or shorter span requirements,
structure height considerations, differing load zones, constructability issues, etc. all while meeting the
criteria established.

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8.6 Case study: Narrow ROW Tower – Japan

8.6.1 Background and requirements
A 275 kV two-circuit transmission line constructed in 1967 was needed to be renewed in order to
increase transfer capacity. However, obtaining of new ROW was exceedingly difficult because
surrounding areas of the existing line were urbanized in recent years. Therefore, it was required to
minimize the horizontal phase spacing to reduce the ROW and increase the tower height to obtain
more ground clearance in response to requests from the residents living in the vicinity.

Aerial View in 1977 Aerial View in 2007

(10 years after construction) (Urbanzed in recent years_

Figure 8.37
Aerial View of Surrounding Area
(Created by editing Aerial Photographs of Geospatial Information Authority of Japan)

Figure 8.38
View From Helicopter 2008

In this project, the following specifications were required.

 Replace conductor bundle 2 x TACSR 410 mm2 with 4 x TACSR 810 mm2
(capacity increase from 1221 MW to 3676 MW)
 Increase the bundle spacing from 0.4 m to 0.5 m
 Increase the tower height
 Replace towers at the same place
 Minimize the horizontal spacing and the ROW

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Since the bundle spacing is increased, the horizontal spacing between outermost bundle centers must
be reduced in order to place new conductors inside of the existing ROW. However, that is difficult
because the phase configuration is determined to keep the clearance at the jumper. Furthermore,
quad bundle requires more spacing to keep clearance between each bundle conductor and the tower.
As a result, adoption of quad bundle instead twin bundle leads to larger size of jumper and hence
horizontal spacing. Should the conventional tower be adapted, the horizontal spacing increases
approximately from 11m to 12m as shown in the following figure.

0.4m 0.5m

twin bundle (existing line) quad bundle (replace with conventional towers)

Figure 8.39
8.6.2 Outline of Narrow
Required ROW Tower
Jumper Clearance in the Case of Adopting 275 kV Conventional Tower
The idea to minimize the ROW is shown in the figure below. The horizontal spacing of conventional
tower is determined to keep the clearance at the jumper. In contrast, that of “Narrow ROW Tower"
can be reduced so far as the phase to phase clearance in midspan permits by pulling the jumper
toward outside. In Japan, ROW requires 3 m from the outermost conductor. Narrow ROW Tower can
reduce the ROW width as well as the horizontal spacing of outermost bundle

3m

3m

ROW of existing line ROW of Narrow

11 8.4m
(approx. 17m) ROW Tower
m
(approx. 14.4m)

3m

3m

Figure 8.40
ROW of Existing Line and Narrow ROW Tower

The comparison of conventional tower and Narrow ROW Tower is shown below. The jumper of
Narrow ROW Tower is pulled toward outside by long rod post insulator in order to keep the clearance
at the jumper. In this way, the horizontal spacing in midspan can be reduced without the constraints
of the jumper clearance.

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275 kV Conventional tower (existing line) 275 kV Narrow ROW Tower

Figure 8.41
View of Conventional Tower and Narrow ROW Tower

Figure 8.42
Required Jumper Clearance for 275 kV Narrow ROW Tower

8.6.3 Dimensions
Table 8.7 shows the overview of the typical dimensions of existing line and new line replaced with
Narrow ROW Tower.
Minimum ground clearance of the existing line is determined by limits for electric field to conform with
Japanese law (It should be less than 3 kV/m at 1 m above ground). In the case of new line, 9 m is
added on the height determined by limits for electric field in order to take the height of 2-story
buildings around the ROW into account.

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Table 8.7 Typical Dimensions of Existing Line and New Line Replaced with Narrow ROW Tower

New Line
Description Existing line
(Narrow ROW Tower)
Span Length 250 m - 500 m 250 m - 500 m
Conductor 2 x TACSR 410 mm2 4 x TACSR 810 mm2
Maximum Working Tension 49 kN 54 kN
Sag at Zero Wind (500 m Span length,
18.8 m 25.7 m
15° C of conductor temperature)
Minimum Ground Clearance 12 m 24 m
Tower Height 50 m 75 m
Bundle Spacing 0.4 m 0.5 m
Vertical Phase Spacing 6.2 m 8.5 m
Horizontal Phase Spacing 11 m 8.4 m
Determinant Factor of Horizontal Phase Asynchronous swing of
Jumper clearance
Spacing conductor in midspan.

8.5m

8.5m

75m

8.4m
6.2m

6.2m

50m

11m

Figure 8.43
Typical Dimensions of Existing Tower and Narrow ROW Tower

8.6.4 Phase to phase clearances in midspan

When Narrow ROW Tower is adopted, the phase configuration is determined to keep phase to phase
clearances under the occurrence of asynchronous swing in midspan instead of jumper clearances. The
swing angles calculated by equation below. The calculation takes the upwash angle of wind into
account.

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vertical component of drag force

φ
horizontal component of drag force

conductor

wind direction

Figure 8.44
Wind Upwash Angle and Drag Force
Equation 8.3

  / 2 C V 2 d cos 
  arctan  
 mg -  / 2 C V d sin 
2

where:
θ = swing angles
 = air density (= 1.225 kg/m³ at 15° C, 1013 hPa);
C = drag factor (= 1.0);
V = wind velocity;
d = conductor diameter (= 0.0384 m);
m = conductor mass (= 2.614 kg/m)
g = gravitational acceleration (= 9.80665 m/s2)
φ = wind upwash angle (= 10° considering the terrain)
The 2 of possible differences are taken into account:
Conductor 1:  - 2 < 1 <  + 2
Conductor 2:  - 2 < 2 <  + 2
where  is standard deviation of swing angles estimated by power spectrum density function theory of
turbulence.
The clearance check is performed at 4 levels of wind velocity as below.
Table 8.8  and  value estimated in this consideration and the required clearance in each V

V 10 m/s 20 m/s 30 m/s 40 m/s

 5.2 o
21.1 o
43.5 o
62.8 o
 0.9 o 3.0 o 4.6 o 4.5 o
 + 2 7.0 o 27.1 o 52.7 o 71.8 o
 - 2 3.4 o 15.1 o 34.3 o 53.8 o
Criteria voltage switching surge switching surge switching surge power freq
Required clearance 2.8m 2.8m 2.8m 1.2m

The figure below shows the asynchronous conductor swing in midspan in each V. Considering the
symmetry of the phase configuration, the clearance check of several combinations of phases can be
omitted. As shown in the figure, the phase to phase distances in Narrow ROW Tower is higher than
required clearance to withstand criteria voltage corresponding to V.
It must be noted that the closest combination of phases changes depending on V.

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V = 20 m/s
V = 10 m/s

V = 40 m/s

V = 30 m/s

Figure 8.45
Asynchronous Conductor Swing in Midspan in Each V

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8.6.5 Electric field

The phase configuration of this transmission line is shown below. The phase sequence of the right
side is reversed from that of the left side in order to negate the electric field.

phase A phase C

phase B
phase B

phase C
phase A

Figure 8.46
Phase Configuration

The comparison of electric field at 1m height between Narrow ROW Tower and conventional tower is
shown in the figure below. Due to the large phase spacing and different conductor bundle, the Narrow
ROW tower exhibits a higher electric field than the previous tower design.
Therefore, Narrow ROW Tower requires lager ground clearance in order to compliance the limits for
electric field in Japan (3 kV/m at 1 m above ground).

Electric field at 1m height

5
Narrow ROW Tower (ground clearance: 10m)
Narrow ROW Tower (ground clearance: 20m)
Narrow ROW Tower (ground clearance: 30m)
4
Conventional Tower (ground clearance: 10m)
Conventional Tower (ground clearance: 20m)
electric field [kV/m]

Conventional Tower (ground clearance: 30m)

3

0
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
distance from centerline [m]

Figure 8.47
Electric Field at 1m Height

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Maximum electric field at 1m height

5

Narrow ROW Tower

Conventional Tower
4

maximum electric field [kV/m]

3

0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Minimum ground clearance [m]

Figure 8.48
Maximum Electric Field at 1m Height vs. Minimum Ground Clearance

8.7 Case study: Live-line maintenance on downsized 400 kV tower types

- Hungary
In the late 1950’s, Dr. Béla Csikós developed the technology of live-line maintenance to the Hungarian
120 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV and 750 kV electric transmission network, with the use of bare-hand method.
In this time, due to the arrangement of the single tower types, the live work was allowed in the big
part of the Hungarian high voltage network. The relatively big distances between the different phase
conductors and between the high voltage parts and grounded parts of the network resulted a
relatively high safety factor from the aspect of clearances. After the development of the technology,
there was no significant change in the regulations regarding to the obligatory clearances, which are
needed in the air for the safety work in case of bare-hand method. After that, the construction of the
Hungarian network was changed, including the 400 kV lines, in which the conventional live working
technologies cannot be used anymore.
The important changes which influenced the condition of the network from the point of view of live
work:
- The decrease of length of the installed insulators. In case of the installed glass insulator
strings, there were additional elements in the strings which result more clear air gap for live
work. With the increased length of the insulator, the replacement of glass insulator elements
or full insulator strings could be carried out, and the movements were possible on the surface
of tension insulator strings.
- Downsized, so-called « compact » structures were designed into the 400 kV network, in which
the use of new type of composite insulators was spread out; as the result of relatively small
insulators and the downsized structures, obligatory clearances are not available by using
many existing technologies, mostly in the upper phases in vertical phase arrangements. It is
also notable, that in Hungary the steel lattice structures are currently used in the high voltage
lines. Figure 8.48 shows four examples of the reduced distances through two conventional
(a,b) and two novel (c,d) structures.
- While in case of glass or porcelain insulator strings, the mechanical condition of the insulator
can be expected visually. In case of composite insulators only the condition of the outer
silicone rubber can be seen, instead of the core inside. There are harmful mechanisms – such
as brittle fracture – which may result the breakdown of mechanical strength of the core inside
the insulator. The detection of these faults is still under research, but as it can be seen now,
composite insulators needs special additional diagnostic measurements to get adequate
information about the real condition of it. It means that the high degree of the application of
these type of insulators in case of compact towers may mean complications when the
possibility of live working is evaluated on an exact line.

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Figure 8.49 Conventional 400 kV Towers

400 kV Towers (a), (b), with approx. 4 meters long insulators – the phases have 5 meters distance from
the grounded structure and 11 meters distance between each other; novel 400 kV towers (c), (d), with
approx. 3 meters long insulators, the phases have 4 meters distance from the grounded structure and 8
meters distance between each other.

Because of the decrease of available safety distances in the air, the development of new technologies
and equipment could be a possible way of using live working methods on compact lines, as well. In
the last 5 years, a new live-line technology was researched and developed within the confines of the
BEST PATHS project (FP7) in Hungary, involving the High Voltage Laboratory of Budapest University
of Technology and Economics to the work, where research, development and education/training works
are being done in the field of live-line maintenance. During this work, the reduced tower types were
also examined, and the development of a reduced-size mounting chair made of non-conducting
materials was done, which is movable between phase conductors. The development of non-
conducting tools and a special technology for insulated movements for bare-hand method was also
done including the development of a new type of conductor car, as well. The use of mounting chair
and the new insulator replacement technology is shown in Figure 8.49. New tools are used in this
technique for getting the highest safety like strain: carrier conductor yoke plate, (against the any
unexpected mechanical breakdown of the insulator), the mounting chair is suspended by two
independent dielectrically resistive live-line rope including an insulator into the circle parallel with the
changeable one, using only non-conductive materials help the movement in the short MAD.

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Figure 8.50 Insulator Replacement

Insulator replacement is being done on a Hungarian 400 kV line, on a double circuit tower type which is
shown in Figure 8.8-1. (c), by using the non-conductive mounting chair.

During the development, the possibility of the adaptation of portable protective air gap (PPAG) was
investigated (FIRST in Europe), by the consideration of the electrical and geometrical parameters of
the Hungarian network. It is also important, that in Hungary, so-called modified operational conditions
are activated during live-line maintenance, when the protective equipment works without any delays,
and the automatic reclosers are deactivated due to safety reasons. With these kind of limited
operational conditions, the temporary or transient overvoltages of the worksite can be reduced
effectively, which is the base of the calculated required clearances of safe work.
8.7.1 Conclusion
The developments indicate that it is possible to design maintenance methods for live line operation on
compact lines.

8.8 Case study: Compact 110 kV – Poland

8.8.1 Introduction
The 21st century brought a dynamic development of the economy, which generated an increase in the
demand for electricity. Modernization of the transmission grid, which often remembers the times of
World War II, is an everyday necessity. While the construction and expansion of the 220 and 400 kV
high voltage transmission network in Poland has been simplified by the Government Act to prepare
and implement strategic investments in the field of transmission networks, the 110 kV lines remain
unsupported. This fact combined with the growing problems with obtaining the "Right of way" for new
investments determines the increasing occurrence of the small-sized, compact high voltage lines.

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The example of this solution is the modernization of the 110 kV Pątnów - Piotrków Kujawski line. The
existing one circuit 110 kV Pątnów - Piotrków Kujawski line was built in 1966, and in terms of the
broadly understood technical condition as well as transmission capacity required reconstruction to a
double circuit line. On properties with an unregulated legal status, the new line had to be fit in the
existing single circuit line dimensions which was constructed on Sc185 supports. The most accurate
solution was the first in Poland, optimized, compact 110 kV on lattice towers.
8.8.2 Small-sized 110 KV line
During the design of a small-size 110 kV line, the focus was not only on its size, but also on its
utilization properties.
In order to put a two circuit line in the width of the existing single circuit, defined by the dimensions
of the Sc185 series towers, it was not possible to use typical support with a barrel line configuration.
Therefore the vertical phase wires configuration was assumed to be the axiom.
On the suspension towers, the possibility of using insulated cross-arms has been analyzed. These
cross-arms were the right solution in terms of technical aspects, but their considerable cost resulted in
the search for a more economical way. As a solution, typical insulator strings on standard, steel cross-
arms were designed. This solution also prevailed due to operational reasons. In emergency situations,
it is far easier to purchase commonly used insulators that are available immediately and replace the
suspension string than to order the insulator cross-arms, which are not a widely used solution with
limited availability. The picture of the phase wires configuration on suspension towers is shown in in
the following figure.

Figure 8.51 Phase Wires Configuration on Suspension Towers

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Due to the reduction of the line width on properties with unregulated legal status, new supports have
been designed. During the design of towers, a number of problems were encountered. Especially on
tension towers it was problematic to design jumpers. The standard free-hanging jumpers solution did
not pass the examination due to the failure to achieve proper clearances, which could only be ensured
by using longer cross-arms and in this case it was not acceptable. Therefore, the option of stiffening
the jumpers was considered by mounting the post suspension insulators at the end of the cross-arms.
However, similarly as in the case of insulated cross-arms, post insulators proved to be worse in utility
and more expensive solution. The same results were given by hanging jumpers on suspension strings,
additionally loaded with counter weights. Along with moving them aside by placing the dedicated steel
angles at the end of the cross-arms, a simpler and more profitable solution was achieved while
maintaining narrow dimensions of line. Figure 8.51, Figure 8.52 and Figure 8.53 show designed
jumpers.

Figure 8.52 Drawing of Jumper

Figure 8.53 Jumpers on Tension Towers

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Figure 8.54 Jumpers with Suspension Insulators At Dedicated Angles

8.8.3 Optimizing technical solutions

A special feature that distinguishes the 110 kV Pątnów - Piotrków line from other compact lines is the
optimization of the solutions used. Among such difficulties as the need to build a small-size line,
crossing with the re-built 220 kV line or the Ślesiński canal, and the lack of full, long-term shutdown, it
was the optimization that determined the final shape of the 110 kV line. Below, these following
elements of optimization are listed, which have significantly contributed to a profitable balance of
construction works.
8.8.4 Division for narrow and wide-based towers
Due to the unregulated status of the 110 kV line corridor, in the case of plots whose owners did not
agree to sign the transmission easement, the Contractor was obliged to place the designed double-
circuit 110 kV line in the existing, single-circuit dimension. In practice, this meant the need to build
narrow-base towers in existing places, designed so as not to exceed the dimension of disassembled
supports. Of course, the total number of narrow-based towers used was a variable value, growing as
the entire formal procedure was approaching the end. In order not to block the progress of design
works, the same basic dimensions were adopted for narrow and wide-based towers. At the later
stage, this procedure allowed them to be swapped freely without the need for a complicated update
of the project documentation.
8.8.5 Elimination of useless solutions
During the design work, the focus was on eliminating useless solutions and factors that may delay the
implementation of the project. The number of types of designed towers was limited. It was avoided to
create a whole series of all designed structure types focusing on individual, dedicated constructions
and their functions. To reduce the total workload and simplify future exploitation only two types of
OPGW have been designed. Before starting the development of projects, the design team put much
emphasis on finding solutions that could be better for future exploitation and were competitively
priced.
All these factors significantly improved the work process and allowed to simplify project
documentation.
8.8.6 Variability of phase configuration
The design conditions disallowed using one series of towers in the 110 kV Pątnów - Piotrków Kujawski
line. The obstacles were both problems related to arrangements with landowners as well as crossed
objects. As mentioned above, the problem of arrangements has been solved by splitting columns into
narrow and wide-based. The next step was to design the crossing with the 220 kV Pątnów-Jasiniec
line, which had to be crossed under the low hanging 220 kV phase wires. There was no possibility of
raising 220 kV line, because of other, external reasons. In this case, the vertical phase wires
configuration could not be used. Therefore, strong, double circuit towers type M1p with a flat phase-
wires configuration were designed. (Figure 8.54).

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Figure 8.55 Flat Wire Configuration Tower for 220 kV Crossing

The crossing with the Ślesiński canal in case of using a vertical phase wires configuration could affect
the need to increase the vertical distances between the cross-arms, and this will result development of
very high towers. To reduce their height, the wires configuration was changed to barrel. (Figure 8.55).

Figure 8.56 Barrel Wire Configuration Tower

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As a result the following types of towers have been created:

 Pl, M3l, M6l – wide-based with vertical phase wires configuration,
 Pwl, M3wl, M6wl, Kwl – narrow-based with vertical phase wires configuration,
 M6 – wide-based with barrel phase wires configuration ,
 Pws – narrow-based with barrel phase wires configuration ,
 M1p – wide-based with flat phase wires configuration.
Figure 8.56 presents the comparison between new towers and old Sc185 supports.

Figure 8.57 Towers Comparison

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8.8.7 Practical solutions which reduced construction time

The significant length of the line - 36 km - and its importance for the region presented difficulties in
obtaining a long-term shutdown from the operator. The problem was the supply of GPZ Radziejów in
case of an emergency condition on the remaining, after switching off the Pątnów-Piotrków Kujawski,
110 kV line. After agreement with Energa-Operator SA and ENEA Operator Sp. z o.o. it was decided to
connect the planned Pątnów - Piotrków Kujawski line temporary to the 110 kV line Pakość - Pątnów,
Janikowo - Pątnów. The connection allowed to maintain the continuity of electricity transmission and
also enabled building the line with a break for the winter period. A connection of two 110 kV lines is
shown in the following figure.

Figure 8.58 Two 110 kV Lines Temporary Connection

A specially designed system of temporary lines based on medium voltage supports, one per each 110
kV live phase has also proved to be a successful solution. Due to the short time of possible shutdowns
of the 110 kV line, they enabled the bypassing of the 110 kV line and the release of a place for new
monolithic foundations in the places of the disassembled towers. An example of a bypass is shown in
Figure 8.58.

.
Figure 8.59 Temporary Line 110 kV on Concrete Medium Voltage Towers

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8.8.8 Conclusions
The combination of optimization of the designed 110 kV line with reducing its size resulted in the
creation of an optimized small-scale, compact line on lattice towers.
This line is an example of a fusion of economics and logistics with industry solutions, which combined
allow for a significant reduction of costs simultaneously reducing construction time and total width of
the designed lines on lattice towers.

Figure 8.60 Old (left) and New(right) Line

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8.9 Case study: Development and validation of two compact 380 kV

towers - Germany
8.9.1 Abstract
In this case study two compact tower configurations for a voltage level of 380 kV that have been
developed and validated in Germany are presented. One tower is a compact triangle configuration for
places where the necessity of being as small as possible exists, while the width does not play a major
role. The other tower is a compact fir tree configuration for situations where it is to be built as narrow
as possible. These configurations are compared to their original configurations that were originally
dimensioned for porcelain insulators.
Since the problem with air pollution in Germany was bigger in the past due to industrialization, the
insulators had to be dimensioned for higher pollution levels than today. The compact towers are
dimensioned exclusively for composite insulators.
All tower configurations in this case study consist of a number of 4 subconductors. These have a
bundle subconductor spacing of 400 mm and a conductor diameter of 32.46 mm. The insulator length
of the composite insulators is 4.5 m.
In these case study the differences in the dimensions and the electrical parameters by compaction are
discussed.
On the one hand, it is analyzed if the compact tower configurations meet the German regulation for
electromagnetic field emissions under maximum load. This is 5.0 kV/m for the electric field and 100
μT for the magnetic field. On the other hand the differences in the electrical parameters between the
compact configurations and their original configurations and between the two compact configurations
are examined and illustrated. The electrical parameters include the audible noise, radio interference,
corona loss, electric field and the magnetic field.
The results have showed that the electric and magnetic fields of both towers are far away from the
limit values. The difference in the audible noise is significantly high for the triangle configurations (3
dB(A)), for the fir tree configurations it can be neglected (0.4 dB(A)). The differences and results for
the other electrical parameters are in an acceptable level.
8.9.2 Introduction
In Germany two compact tower configurations for a voltage level of 380 kV have been developed and
validated. The towers are designed for 300 m span lengths and they can be climbed up in the middle.
One tower is a compact triangle configuration for places where the necessity of being as small as
possible exists, whereas the width does not play a major role. The other tower is a compact fir tree
configuration for situations where TSOs have to built as narrow as possible. In the following these two
configurations are illustrated in comparison to their original configurations.
Since the standards in the past have been different than today, the possibility to built as compact as
possible exist nowadays. The major effect for this is the standardization of the composite technology.
The original towers are dimensioned for porcelain insulators. Since the problem with air pollution in
Germany was bigger in the past due to industrialization, the insulators had to be dimensioned for
higher pollution levels than today. The compact towers are dimensioned for exclusively composite
insulators. This allows a compaction of the tower configurations.
In these case study the differences in the dimensions and the electrical parameters by compaction are
discussed.

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Figure 8.61 Left: Original Triangle Configuration (D481). Right: Compact Triangle Configuration (D49)

Both tower configurations in Figure 8.61 have a number of 4 subconductors. The subconductors have
a separation distance of 400 mm, the subconductor diameter is 32.46 mm and the insulator length is
4.5 m. The original configuration is for a field length of 350 m, when composite insulators are used.
Another difference is that the compact configuration does not have a kink over the length. This is
possible by methods that have not been known before. Moreover, it can be seen that through
compaction 3 m is gained in the height and 4.5 m in the width.

Figure 8.62 Left: Original Fir Tree Configuration (D461). Right: Compact Fir Tree Configuration (D43)

Here, both configurations have a number of 4 subconductors as well. The subconductors have a
separation distance of 400 mm, the subconductor diameter is 32.46 mm and the insulator length is
4.5 m. For the same reasons as before, the original configuration is dimensioned for a field length of
450 m and with a kink. It can bee seen on the figure, that through compaction 2 m can be gained in
the width, which is the major focus on these configurations.

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In Figure 8.63 the both compact tower configurations have been illustrated in comparison as well.
Here the dimensions and the differences between the heights and the widths of both configurations
can bee seen more clearly.

Figure 8.63 Compact Tower Configurations Left: Triangle

Configuration Right: Fir Tree Configuration.

8.9.3 Electrical parameters

In the next step the electrical parameters of the towers have to be defined in order to ensure that
they meet the international and national regulations. Also, the differences in the electrical parameters
between the original and the compact configurations and between the both compact configurations
shall be shown. This has been done for the phase arrangement of the conductors that can be seen in
the following figures.
Amprion has decided to use this phase arrangement since it reflects the usual case utilized in their
network.
8.9.3.1 Surface gradients
First the surface gradients are defined as they affect the majority of the electrical parameters. Here,
the finite element method has been used since it is known to be the most accurate method.
The results of the surface gradients can be seen in the following table.

Phase Tower Configuration according to the FEM

Regarded Triangle - Triangle - Fir Tree - Fir Tree -

Phase Original Compact Original Compact

R1 10.80 kV/cm 10.87 kV/cm 11.41 kV/cm 11.89 kV/cm

S1 12.11 kV/cm 12.63 kV/cm 11.78 kV/cm 11.51 kV/cm
T1 12.39 kV/cm 12.98 kV/cm 11.52 kV/cm 11.61 kV/cm
R2 12.41 kV/cm 12.98 kV/cm 11.51 kV/cm 11.62 kV/cm
S2 12.24 kV/cm 12.70 kV/cm 11.78 kV/cm 11.51 kV/cm
T2 10.80 kV/cm 10.89 kV/cm 11.37 kV/cm 11.87 kV/cm
Table 8.9 Results of Surface Gradients

From the results it can be seen that the differences between the original and the compact towers are
not very much. The deviation between the triangle configurations is up to 4,5 %, whereas for the fir
tree configurations it is up to 4,2 %.

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In the following it is analyzed how the different surface gradients affect the electrical parameters. It is
important to know, if the compaction of the towers has an significant negative influence on these
parameters. To the electrical parameters counts the audible noise, radio noise, corona loss, electric
field and the magnetic field. These parameters are shown for the both triangle configurations, the
both fir tree configurations and the two compact towers in comparison to each other.
8.9.3.2 Audible noise
The AN levels L50 for fair and rainy weather for a microphone height of 1 m above ground and for
distances from -50 m to +50 m to the middle of the tower are presented in this section.
In Figure 8.64 the AN level for the original triangle configuration and the compact triangle
configuration is illustrated. The values are about 3 dB(A) higher for the compact tower. This is
approximately a doubling of the perceived noise.

Figure 8.64 AN Level for the Triangle Configurations

For the fir tree configuration however, which is seen in Figure 8.65, the AN levels of the original and
the compact towers do not vary very much. The difference is roughly at 0.4 dB(A). This is not to be
seen as a significantly high difference

Figure 8.65 AN Level for the Fir Tree Configurations

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As can be seen in Figure 8.66 the AN level of the compact triangle configuration is indeed significantly
higher than the AN level for the compact fir tree configuration. The difference lies by a value of almost
5 dB(A).
Furthermore the maximum AN level of the compact triangle configuration with almost
40 dB(A) might be too high. The value for the compact fir tree configuration with approximately 34
dB(A), however, should not be a problem for any authorization processes.

Figure 8.66 AN Level for the Compact Tower Configurations

In the following section the radio interferences are regarded.

8.9.3.3 Radio interference
The RI Levels for fair weather and bad weather conditions have been detected for
- an antenna height of 1.7 m above ground,
- a frequency of 0.5 MHz,
- a ground conductivity of 4.00 mmhos/m,
- a wavelength of 600 m and
- 0 m above sea level.
For distances from -50 m to +50 m to the middle of the tower, the results can be seen in the
following figures.
Between the original and the compact triangle configuration, there is not a significantly high difference
between the maximum RI Level values. The difference is about 1.7 dBmV/m, which is not a critical
value in this context. In Figure 8.67 the values for the RI Levels of these both configurations are
illustrated.

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Figure 8.67 RI Level for the Triangle Configurations

For the original and the compact fir tree configurations the results are similar as well (see Figure
8.68). The difference is approximately 2.2 dBmV/m.

Figure 8.68 RI Level for the Fir Tree Configurations

Also between the two compact configurations and, there is not a significant difference.

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Figure 8.69 RI Level for the Compact Tower Configurations

In the following the differences in the corona losses are presented.

8.9.3.4 Corona loss
The Corona Loss for a rain rate of 3.6 mm/h and 0 m above sea level are illustrated in this section.
According to Figure 8.70, the compact triangle configuration has a higher rate of corona losses than
its original configuration for all phases.

Corona Loss at Rainy Weather for the

Triangle Configurations
3,5

3
Corona Loss in W/m

2,5

D461
1,5
D43
1

0,5

0
R1 S1 T1 R2 S2 T2
Considered Phase

Figure 8.70 Corona Loss for the Triangle Configurations

The fir tree configurations show a different behavior regarding the corona losses. For the phases S1
and S2 the original fir tree configuration has higher corona losses, for the phases R1 and T2 the losses
of the compact tower dominate and for the phases T1 and R2 there is not a big difference.

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Corona Loss at Rainy Weather for the Fir

Tree Configurations
2

1,8

1,6
Corona Loss in W/m

1,4

1,2

1
D481
0,8 D49
0,6

0,4

0,2

0
R1 S1 T1 R2 S2 T2
Considered Phase

Figure 8.71 Corona Loss for the Fir Tree Configurations

Comparing the two compact configurations and, it can be seen that the triangle configuration has
significantly higher losses expect for the phases R1 and T2.

Corona Loss at Rainy Weather for the

Compact Tower Configurations
3,5

2,5
Corona Loss in W/m

D43
1,5
D49
1

0,5

0
R1 S1 T1 R2 S2 T2
Considered Phase

Figure 8.72 Corona Loss for the Compact Tower Configurations

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8.9.3.5 Electric field

The statutory limit value for the electric field is 5.0 kV/m in Germany.
The electric field of all tower configurations has to be under this value. For the towers presented in
this paper the course of the field for a distance from -50 m to +50 m to the middle of the tower is as
follows.

Figure 8.73 Electric Field for the Triangle Configurations

Figure 8.74 Electric Field for the Fir Tree Configurations

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Figure 8.75 Electric field for the Compact Tower Configurations

Although there are little differences between the electric field values of the compared towers, they all
meet the German regulations. In total the compact towers have higher electric field values. This is
however as small as 0.1 kV/m. Furthermore, in contrast to the audible noise, the field of the compact
fir tree configuration is, as expected, higher than the electric field of the compact triangle
configuration. Both are between the limit value though.
In the next section the results for the magnetic fields are shown.
8.9.3.6 Magnetic field
The limit value for the magnetic field in Germany is 100.00 μT.
The course of the magnetic field for a distance from -50 m to +50 m to the middle of the tower is as
follows.
Here the results are similar to the results of the electric field. Despite little differences between the
maximum values, all towers meet the German regulations. The differences are smaller than the
differences in the electric field. For the compact fir tree configuration, the compact tower even has a
smaller field than the original one.

Figure 8.76 Magnetic Field of the Triangle Configurations

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Figure 8.77 Magnetic field of the Fir Tree Configurations

Figure 8.78 Magnetic Field of the Compact Tower Configurations

8.9.4 Conclusions
The shown case study has developed and validated two compact tower configurations for a voltage
level of 380 kV. One tower is a compact triangle configuration for places where the necessity of being
as small as possible exists, whereas the width does not play a major role. The other tower is a
compact for tree configuration for situations where it is to built as narrow as possible.
Both configurations consist of a number of 4 subconductors. These have a spacing of 400 mm and a
diameter of 32.46 mm. The insulator length is 4.5 m.
In order to validate the possible use of these towers in the Amprion network, the electrical parameters
have been defined and analyzed. This has been done for the phase arrangement in figure 1.
The statutory limit value for the electric field is 5.0 kV/m in Germany. For the triangle configuration,
the limit value would be reached at a conductor sag of 9.5 m and for the fir tree configuration at a
conductor sag of 12.0 m. For the magnetic field the limit value is at 25.00 μT. The results have
showed that the magnetic fields of both towers are far away from the limit value. Also, the audible
noise level and the radio interference level have been defined to be in an acceptable range.

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8.10 Case study: Compact and supercompact urban transmission lines –

Brazil
8.10.1 Compact urban transmission lines
Copel, a utility in Southern Brazil, has started the very first studies on 69 kV lines compaction in the
1970’s as an alternative solution to underground transmission lines which were much expensive. The
goal was to develop a transmission line arrangement which could be implanted in very populated
urban areas. For this reason, the arrangement must present a high degree of safety and compatible
aesthetics for such scenario. It was called Urban Transmission Line (UTL). In early 80´s Copel has
implanted its first urban transmission line (69 kV), and due to its acceptance by population, Copel
developed 138 kV compact urban transmission line and 230 kV UTL in 2003.
Currently, Copel has more than 500 km of 69 and 138 kV Urban transmission lines installed in Paraná
State (Southern Brazil), most of them in big cities. It represents about 10% of all 69 and 138 kV
transmission lines in Paraná State

Figure 8.79 Copel’s Urban Transmission Lines:

69 kV (left), 138 kV (center) and 230 kV (right).

The main characteristics of this arrangement are:

 Circular concrete single poles, up to 26 meter in height,
 Line post insulator for suspension structures (composite or porcelain)
 Single 636 or 795 MCM phase conductors (69 and 138 kV)
 2 x 397,5 MCM phase conductors for 230 kV arrangement;
 Overhead groundwire and auxiliary conductor under phases.
 Narrow ROW,
 Reduced phase to phase distance: 1.2 meter for 69 kV, 1.7 meter for 138 kV and 3 meters for
230 kV
 Grounding system: three copperweld rods of 6 meters in length each, 6 meter apart ;
The circular concrete is used because this sort of structure is very common in Brazilian urban areas.
The structures are not tall because it counts on public acceptance. Because of the compaction and
electric fields on conductor surface, large diameter is used. The additional ground wire installed under
the phase conductors is very useful for safety reasons, for one it is a physical barrier against
inadmissible touches on phase conductors and this additional cable helps on line protection in case of
cable or insulator failure. The span length is very short, about 80 to 100 meters, however, considering
this arrangement is installed in very populated areas on the sidewalks, there is no free space for spans
larger than 100 meters, usually.

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8.10.2 138 kV SuperCompact urban transmission lines

In 2013, Copel carried out the very first studies to compact its 138 kV urban transmission lines based
on the 69 kV UTL infrastructure. It means Copel intended to use the same structures, cables and
grounding system of 69 kV UTL and uprate them into 138 kV. This new arrangement is called
SuperCompact Urban Transmission Line (SCUTL). Thus, the following studies and tests were carried
out:
 Corona and audible noise;
 Radio Interference;
 60 Hz Electric and Magnetic Fields;
 Air Gap Strength for lightning impulse and switching surge;
 Phase to phase switching surge;
 Lightning surge performance;

Figure 8.80 Air Gap Strength Tests for 1.2 Meter

The results of the tests were satisfactory and the very first construction of a 138 kV supercompact
urban transmission line was implanted in 2015, in Curitiba city, capital of Paraná State, Brazil. The
interphase distance of this arrangement is only 1.2 meters. The experimental 138 kV supercompact
urban transmission line is 1 kilometer long and it was energized in 2015. So far, the operation of this
arrangement is satisfactory with no complains or outages because of the compaction reported.

Figure 8.81 138 kV SuperCompact Urban Transmission Line Implanted in Curitiba (Brazil) in 2015

8.10.3 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields

The electric and magnetic fields are critical issues for urban transmission lines once the most part of
public complain is about EMF. The supercompact urban transmission line arrangement has low EMF
emission: 0.56 kV/m and 4.2 uT for electric and magnetic fields respectively. The current exposure
limits in Brazil are 4,17 kV/m and 200 uT. The Figure below shows the field profile and distribution.

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Figure 8.82 138 kV Supercompact Urban Transmission Line Electric and Magnetic Fields

8.11 Case study: Switzerland

A good example is the worldwide first 400 kV compact line with composite insulators which has been
installed in Switzerland in 1998 [Amann et al., 1998]. The line became necessary as the existing 125
kV line, Figure 8.83 (a) was not any more adequate to carry the increased power demand in the region
of lake Geneva and had to be replaced by a 400 kV line. The conventional steel lattice towers,
normally used for this type of line, Figure 8.83(c), required a considerable right of way (ROW), which
was not available at certain locations, where the line route has to pass very close to inhabited
buildings. The solution was to design very slender 2D-towers and insulated cross-arms with composite
insulators for the 400 kV circuits and also for the two single phase 132 kV circuits for the feeder lines
of the Swiss railways SBB, Figure 8.83(b). It is worth noting that as these days the FRP rod sizes
available were restricted to 76 mm, which could not take the compression loads, hollow core
composite insulators had to be used. Figure 8.84 and Figure 8.85 show the Swiss compact tower in
more detail.

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Figure 8.83 Steel lattice tower of existing 125kV-line (a) and Swiss compact 2D-tower (bipod) 400kV/132kV
(b) and standard (steel lattice) design (c)

Figure 8.84 Swiss compact tower for 400kV/132kV, front view

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Figure 8.85 Swiss compact tower for 400kV/132kV, side view with details of tower legs

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9. Voltage upgrading
This section is to present the general information and idea of voltage upgrading as it might be
considered as compact line design in some cases. The detailed information on this topic had been
studied and discussed in other CIGRE document. [CIGRE 2014]
Voltage upgrading means to increase the operating voltage of an existing transmission line. It ranges
from the case where it is possible to increase operating voltage with minor or no modification on the
line to the case where it requires major upgrade. The case with major upgrade, such as rebuild the
entire structures, is not in the scope of this section. This section is only focus on the cases where
there is no or minor modification on the line. Under this umbrella, two scenarios are the best
candidates for the voltage upgrading:
 The (especially if old 115-138 kV) lines are overdesigned
 The lines were built for higher voltage but are currently operating at reduced voltage.
Between 1950 and 1980, a deterministic method had been widely applied when designing
transmission lines. This deterministic method typically uses extra margins due to lack of research and
available information. Many transmission lines designed during this era have much larger air gap on
phase to ground and phase to phase spacing. Figure 9.1 illustrates the trend by plotting the ratio of
phase spacing to required power frequency flashover spacing as a function of transmission line
voltage class for typical lines designed during this era. [EPRI 1978]

Figure 9.1
Phase Spacing Ratio vs. Line Voltage [EPRI 1978]

As shown in Figure 9.1, the ratio of phase spacing to power frequency flashover spacing is
approximate 10.5 at the 115-138 kV voltage range. So there is a good opportunity to upgrade the
voltage for the lines designed at this voltage range. The sufficient margin in the existing lines might
be high enough to operate at a higher voltage with no or minor modification on the line. In this case,
we end up with a compact line.
When a transmission line voltage upgrading project is being considered, three studies should be
conducted including power system studies, electrical feasibility studies and mechanical feasibility
studies.
The motivation to increase voltage on transmission line should be always driven by power system
studies. There are many other methods available to increase the power flow on a particular
transmission line such as reconductor, nip-tuck, dynamic loading, etc. If voltage upgrading deems to
be the preferred solution for the project, then reactance limits, surge impedance loading, voltage drop
and regulation, station apparatus and etc need to be also examined before proceeding with this idea.
After power system studies confirm the feasibility of voltage upgrading option, electrical and
mechanical feasibility studies should be conducted. The major issues to be addressed are listed in
Table 9.1.

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Table 9.1 Electrical and Mechanical Issues

Electrical Issues Mechanical Issues

Ground Clearance and Right-of-Way Structure Load
Corona Performance Insulator Strength
Insulator Performance Structure Geometry
Lightning and Switching Surge Performance New Wind and Ice Loading
EMF
Protection
Maintenance and Live Line Work

The design engineer should be aware that every voltage upgrading project is unique, requiring its own
individual study. Differences in existing line design and condition, as well as differences in system
needs, give each study its own special characteristics. Solution works for one project might not work
for other projects.

9.1 Case study – Manitoba Hydro (Canada)

9.1.1 Background
In 1970s, due to load growth, Manitoba Hydro decided to convert one of 115 kV wood pole lines to
230 kV using existing structures insofar as possible. The line had 31.8 miles of wood pole H-Frame
suspension structures and a few steel towers at each termination. The goal was to use as many
existing structures as possible to reduce the project cost.
9.1.2 Mechanical consideration
The line was strung with 336.4 MCM (175mm2) ACSR Linnet conductor and was designed with a
nominal safety factor of 3 on structure loadings. Design ground clearance is 20 ft (approximately 6m).
However, the original tower spotting was done by hand. Based on the field survey, the actual ground
clearance is closer to 24 ft (approximately 8m). This overdesign, while making the line more expensive
than was necessary when built in 1967, has produced the unusual benefit that the line will be much
more inexpensive to convert to a higher voltage.
Based on the system studies and anticipated load, 795 MCM (400mm2) conductor will be required for
the converted line. In order to provide sufficient ground clearance for 230 kV while adjusting tension
so that Aeolian vibrations are controlled, self-damping conductor had been selected because it may be
strung to a much higher tension than conventional conductor and still remain relative vibration free.
After detailed analysis, 795 MCM (400mm2) Type 5 (equivalent to 42/7 ACSR) conductor was selected
as the best alternative, strung to 31% of U.T.S. at -30⁰F (-1 deg C) initial condition. Tower spotting
studies, using existing structures as fixed locations, were performed. Violations on ground clearance
were noticed at a number of spans so it was decided to increase the cross arms by 2 ft (0.6m) which
mitigated all ground clearance violations. Structure loading was further analysed based on the new
conductor and configuration. All suspension wood pole structures still met the design criteria but all
dead-end towers need to be replaced with standard 230 kV lattice steel towers.
9.1.3 Electrical consideration
A full scale test was performed at the University of Manitoba high voltage lab to confirm the electrical
clearance and insulator requirement. Based on the testing results, nine-unit string of suspension
insulator provided satisfied performance so two new insulators were added to each string (original
design had seven-unit insulator string). The nine-unit string was much shorter than standard insulator
string for 230 kV which has twelve units typically. Therefore, live line work was not allowed at the
converted line.
The clearance under power frequency voltage and switching surge voltage was also examined and
confirmed to meet all design criteria.
Due to the raised cross arms, the shield angle was reduced. A lightning study was conducted to
confirm the shielding failure rate. Based on the study, 4 ft (1.2m) bayonets were added on some
structures to reduce the shielding angle which is shown in Figure 9.2.

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Corona losses and radio influence voltage (RIV) are two factors which is worthy of consideration on a
converted line. Corona losses depend mostly upon the gradient around the conductor. Although a
larger conductor had been strung but the higher voltage level still causes a higher corona losses on
the converted line compare to a typical 230 kV design. This is part of the necessary price of
conversion. The RIV had also been measured in field after construction and the results met all
regulations.
9.1.4 Experience during last forty years
By upgrading the voltage on this transmission line, Manitoba Hydro saved 30% of capital cost back
then. During last forty (40) years, there is no line failure due to ice storms. No obvious difference has
been found in line performance from other 230 kV transmission lines in the same area. However, the
main disadvantage of the voltage upgrade for this project is live line work had been banned due to
tight clearance and low insulation level.

Figure 9.2
Modified 115 kV Wood Pole Structure for 230 kV

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Figure 9.3
Standard 230 kV Wood Pole Structure in Same Area

9.2 Case study Norway – Voltage uprating

9.2.1 Introduction
The 300 kV line Hamang-Smestad operated by the Norwegian TSO Statnett was originally built for 220
kV in the early sixties and upgraded to 300 kV around 1965. The line was part of the main supply to
Oslo and was located in the countryside. Since this time Oslo has expanded and this line is now goes
through through a relatively densely populated urban environment with clearances to properties at
statutory minimums. Statnett would like to upgrade the line to 420 kV and ideally all environmental
factors (audible noise, electrical fields and magnetic fields) should remain at their present levels.
Several tower types and configurations were considered, see the figure below.

Existing line Compact Plus Triangular Vertical

Figure 9.4
Existing, Compact Plus, Triangular and Vertical Configurations

9.2.2 Comparison of environmental factors

The table below shows a comparison of the key environmental factors against the existing line (duplex
Parrot diameter 38 mm). All new the alternatives use triplex Grackle (diameter 34 mm). Values are at
the edge of the ROW 20 m from the center line of the existing line. The columns on the right show a
relative comparison.

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Table 9.2 Comparison of Environmental Factors

AN
Tower AN B-field E-field
Increase B-field E-field
Type Increase Increase Increase
(dB(A))
Compact plus +10 -47 % -43 % +++ -- --
Triangular +2 -17 % -24 % + - -
Vertical +2 -17 % -58 % + - --

The compact plus gives a large reduction in both E and B fields, but also a large increase in AN. The
Triangular and Vertical designs give reductions in both E and B fields, men only small increases in AN.
The reliance on only a single compression insulator in a densely populated area was deemed
unnecessarily risky. The vertical tower seemed too high/dominating for the environment. The
Triangular configuration seemed to offer the best compromise.
9.2.3 Improved aesthetics
The Norwegian utility Statnett has in recent years focused heavily on development of new tower types
with the aim of increasing safety and reducing weight, cost and construction time. New materials and
innovative and aesthetically pleasing structural concepts have been studied for varying conditions and
different environments. Designing an OHTL for densely populated, urban areas requires a special
emphasis to be placed on minimizing electric and magnetic fields and audible noise. In addition, with
ever increasing environmental awareness and the need for public acceptance, the visual appearance
of new structural solutions should be adapted to fit the environment in the best possible way. This
chapter will discuss the main electrical requirements and aesthetic aspects in the design phase for
new OHTL tower concepts developed for the greater Oslo area.
9.2.4 EMF and audible noise
A technical pre-study of electric and magnetic fields, as well as audible noise calculations for various
phase-conductor configurations were carried out by EFLA consulting engineers. Seven cases with
ACSR conductors were considered:
Standard 300 kV horizontal arrangement with 9,2 m phase spacing and duplex Curlew (base case)
420 kV towers with Delta configuration and triplex Grackle
420 kV towers with Delta configuration and duplex Parrot
420 kV towers with triangle configuration and triplex Grackle
420 kV towers with triangle configuration and duplex Parrot
420 kV towers with vertical configuration and triplex Grackle
420 kV towers with vertical configuration and duplex Parrot
See Figure 9.5 for overview of line configurations mentioned above.

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Delta Configuration Triangle Configuration Vertical Configuration

Case 2 and 3 Case 3 and 4 Case 5 and 6
Figure 9.5
Line Configurations Overview

Calculations were done for three different phase spacings for cases no.2-6, wherein the requirements
were 50 dB(A) and 0,4 µT at the edge of right-of-way, 10 m from the outer phases. Average
operational conditions were assumed, with an average load of 532 A for case no.1 (the 300 kV) and
717 A for cases no.2-6. A maximum average load of 789 A was also calculated for cases no.2-6.
All cases no.2-6 were shown to fulfil the requirements, but no single configuration performed best for
all criteria. The technical study showed that the delta configuration resulted in the lowest magnetic
field but audible noise higher than the existing 300 kV line. The 420 kV vertical configuration gave
slightly higher magnetic fields but significantly higher audible noise.

9.2.5 Visual aspects and public acceptance

The main tower type in use in Statnetts 420 kV transmission grid has a horizontal phase-conductor
configuration, which is too wide for use in existing 300 kV corridors, and has furthermore met with
some public resistance in recent times. EFLA consulting engineers in Norway and Iceland teamed up
with Widenoja Design AS, Norway, to develop new tower concepts for Statnett for use in,
predominantly urban areas, interspersed with vegetation and agricultural landscape.
Based on the work from the abovementioned technical pre-study, Statnett specified the following
requirements for the concept development:
Phase-conductor configurations: Vertical, triangular and delta configurations, with defined phase-to-
phase and phase-to-earth clearances
Phase conductor: Triplex Grackle
Earth wire: Same as todays OHL, with OPGW
Insulators: I or V strings with glass or composite insulators
Develop both a suspension and angle tension tower types
Widenoja Design was responsible for creating the main visual concepts and evaluating their suitability
for the urban environment. The filtering of ideas and further development of selected concepts,
considering all technical aspects was done in close cooperation between EFLA and Wideonja Design.

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The three different concepts developed as shown in the figure below, all based on tubular steel
sections.

The Tulip The Sprout The Straw

Figure 9.6
Tower Type Concepts From Widenoja Design and EFLA

The visual aspects of each concept are addressed in the chapter, such as line configuration, structural
forms, scale and suitability to the surroundings shown using model inserts in photos. The new tower
types will reduce the right-of-way needed compared with the existing 300 kV towers.
Phase distance and line configurations are very important for EMF and audible noise, but also for the
visual appearance. Visual analysis was done for all possible tower types that fulfilled the technical
requirements from Statnett.
Statnett has chosen the Straw, shown in Figure 9.6, as the best solution for OHL in the Great Oslo
area. It is a compact, innovative and well balanced design. The design is inspired by Norwegian varied
nature, and the designer has tested the methodology in an urban context. It has a simple form, few
elements and positive aesthetic qualities. The design balances the triangular line configuration and
how the form gathers and defines the conductors from the surroundings. In the case of parallel lines,
this tower type will provide even clearer boundary. The towers will have painted surface and colored
silicone glass insulators.

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Figure 9.7
The Straw Presented in a Typical Surrounding for the Greater Oslo Area

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10. Conclusion
This guideline covers the main aspects relating to the design of compact lines. The main concept with
regard to compact lines is that the electrical stresses are higher than with conventional lines. This
higher stress manifests itself in the form of audible noise, compromised insulation co-ordination for
switching and lightning impulses. This guide highlights these areas and allows the reader to
understand the aspects that need to be taken into account when mitigating the effects of the higher
electrical stress.
The calculation examples show the effect of different design solutions. The reader is able to optimise
his solution initially from these examples prior to the detailed calculations that need to be performed
on a specific design.
The case studies indicate different practical solutions that have been implemented. It includes a novel
idea of supporting the conductor bundle with steel cables to reduce the sag. This allows for shorter
spans hence narrower right of way. The voltage upgrade example indicates the same concept as a
compact line with a different application for increased power flow. This example, although 40 years
old, provides an example of the steps required for a reliable upgrade solution.
Note that the guide is not a design document but a document by which the reader can assess the
aspects required for design of compact lines as well as determine the calculations that need to be
undertaken in the completion of a detailed compact line design. It does, however, provide references
that will enable the designer to fully design a compact line.

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APPENDIX A. Definitions, abreviations and symbols

A.1. General terms
App Table A.1 Definition of General Terms Used in this TB

Acronym Phrase Definition

A publication produced by CIGRÉ representing
the state-of-the-art guidelines and
recommendations produced by an SC WG.
Hardcopy TBs can be purchased, or Individual
TB Technical Brochure
Members, or staff of a Collective Member can
download the PDF for free using their login
credentials (copyright restrictions for use within
their own CIGRE Membership only)
SC Study Committee One of the 16 technical domain groups of CIGRE
A group formed by a SC to develop a TB on a
WG Working Group
particular subject of interest

A.2. Specific terms

App Table A.2 Definition of Technical Terms Used in this TB

Acronym Phrase Definition

A stranded conductor of which all wires are
AAAC All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
made of aluminum alloy.
A reinforced conductor with one or more layers
Aluminum Conductor Steel
ACSR of aluminum wires stranded around a core of
Reinforced
galvanized steel wires.
The audible noise emanates from the air
pressure variations that are caused by the
corona discharges, more specifically the
AN Audible Noise
streamer discharges created under positive DC
voltage or during the positive half-cycle of the
AC voltage.
Defined in TB638, in order to determine the
best set of design options among a number of
ATI Appropriate Technology Index alternatives. The ATI indicator is proposed for
HVAC and HVDC and determines the best
option for the initial cost and the life cycle cost.
B Susceptance Imaginary part of an admittance.
The ratio of the charging current to the rate of
change of voltage. It is responsible for
C Capacitance
accumulating and generating reactive power
for system requirements.
Dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio
Cx Drag Coefficient or Drag Factor of the drag force to the force produced by the
dynamic pressure times the area.
Defined as the total of direct and indirect costs
of the overhead line, excluding losses, and
CIC Capital Investment Cost
expressed in monetary units of a reference
year.
Distance required to withstand a certain critical
d Gap Distance flashover value (U50). The value depends on
the air gap arrangement.

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Acronym Phrase Definition

Refer to the internal clearances between
phase conductors and objects at earth
Dpe Phase-to-earth clearance
potential, including the tower structure and the
earth wire.
Refer to the internal clearances between
Dpp Phase-to-phase clearance
phase conductors.
The tension or stress that a conductor normally
experiences for most of its service life, typically
EDS Everyday Stress
at a conductor temperature of 0ºC to 25ºC
without wind or ice.
Constituent of an electromagnetic field which is
EF Electric Field characterized by the electric field strength
together with the electric flux density.
The average electric field strength on the
Average conductor surface field surface on the conductor. Depends on the
Eave
gradient total charge on the bundle, the number of
subconductors and the radius of the conductor.
The corona inception voltage is that voltage
Ec Corona inception voltage above which the conductor will enter into
visible corona.
The maximum electric field strength on the
surface on the conductor. It´s the most
Maximum conductor surface field important factor influencing generation of
Emax
gradient corona. It is recommended that the optimal
minimum ratio for allowable corona
performance Emax/Ec<0.95
EMF Electromagnetic field A combination of electric and magnetic fields.
A numerical technique to obtain approximate
FEM Finite Element Method
solution to physical problems.
A steel core of round, galvanized high tensile
steel wires is surrounded by layers of
trapezoidal shaped aluminum alloy strands.
G(Z/X)TACSR Gap-type Conductor The inner layer forms a tube that encloses the
steel core such that a gap exists between the
core and inner layer of high temperature
aluminum alloy.
Used as core material for composite insulators,
is made of glass fibre – oriented uniaxially in
FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic
the direction of the rod axis – and epoxy resin
matrix.
Used for inductance and capacitance
GMD Geometric Mean Distance calculations, GMD is the geometric mean
distance between any number of conductors.
Used for inductance and capacitance
calculations, GMR can be considered as the
GMR Geometric Mean Radius radius of a fictitious conductor assumed to
have no internal flux but with the same
inductance as the actual conductor.
Lines in which Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
is increased by means of decreasing phase
High Surge Impedance Loading
HSIL spacing and increasing the bundle diameter as
lines
well as the number of sub-conductors in the
bundle.
High voltage line connected to an alternating
High Voltage, Alternating Current
HVAC current source of supply or connecting two
Line
alternating current networks

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Acronym Phrase Definition

High voltage line connected to a direct current
HVDC High Voltage, Direct Current Line
source of supply
The ratio of the magnetic flux linkage and the
L Inductance
current.
The Life Cycle Assessment is an objective
process to evaluate the environmental burdens
associated with a product, process or activity
by identifying, and quantifying energy and
materials used and wastes released to the
environment, and to evaluate and implement
LCA Life Cycle Assessment opportunities to affect environmental
improvements. The assessment includes the
entire life cycle of the product, process or
activity, encompassing extracting and
processing raw materials, manufacturing,
transportation and distribution, use, reuse,
maintenance, recycling and final disposal.
Consists of the initial capital investment plus
the cost of line losses over the life cycle of the
line, calculated over the life of the line and
LCC Life Cycle Cost
using the present value of the line losses and
the net discount rate prescribed by the utility’s
financial guidelines.
The minimum distance in air to be maintained
between any part of the body of a worker,
including any object (except appropriate tools
for live work) being directly handled, and any
MAD Minimum Approach Distance parts at different potentials. It´s the sum of
the electrical distance MAID and an ergonomic
distance to take into account inadvertent
movement and errors in judgment of distance
while performing work.
The minimum distance in air required to
prevent a disruptive discharge between
MAID Minimum Air Insulation Distance
energized parts or between energized parts
and earthed parts during live work.
Constituent of an electromagnetic field which is
MF Magnetic Field characterized by the magnetic field strength
together with the magnetic flux density
Unit for measuring power that is equal to one
MW Megawatt
million watts.
Also known as composite insulators, NCI are
NCI Non-Ceramic Insulator made up of a FRP core rod and a silicone
rubber housing with two end fittings.
An electric line whose conductors are
OHL Overhead Line supported above ground, generally by means
of insulators and appropriate supports.
Ground wire containing optical fibres which can
OPGW Optical Ground Wire
be used for telecommunications purposes.
The per unit quantity is defined as the ratio of
p.u. Per Unit
the quantity to its base value.
Used to limit network overvoltages during
PIR Pre-Insertion Resistor
switching operations.
This type of device can be used as a liveline
tool to provide worker protection by
PPAG Portable Protective Air Gap
establishing a controlled spark over path. The
worker's minimum approach distance (MAD)

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Acronym Phrase Definition

may be reduced to a withstand distance
coordinated with the sparkover voltage of the
PPAG. Recognizing that the protective gap at
the work area may operate, these gaps are
generally installed at an adjacent structure.
The property of an electric circuit that
determines the average rate at which electric
R Resistance
energy is converted into heat as a function of
the electric current.
Any effect on the reception of wanted radio
signals due to any unwanted disturbance
RI Radio Interference
within the radio frequency spectrum. Is caused
by the same phenomenon as Audible Noise.
Voltage in the radio frequency range produced
RIV Radio Interference Voltage
by an electromagnetic disturbance.
Servitude width for the the placement of
overhead lines. Right of way is defined
considering conductor and insulator swing,
ROW Right of way
electrical clearances to objects at the border of
ROW and in some regulations corona and field
effects.
A development that meets the needs of the
SD Sustainable Development present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
The load at which the inductance and
capacitance will negate each other and
SIL Surge Impedance Loading
represents an indication of the capability of the
power line to transfer load.
Ratio used to evaluate Radio Interference by
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
comparing the noise level with the radio signal.
Represents the economic cost of losses in the
overhead line. It must be determined using the
TCO Total Cost of Line Losses
integrated network losses and not the losses
relating only to the line itself.
The voltage value for which the insulation
U50 Critical Flashover Voltage
exhibits 50 % probability of withstand.
The calculated value of composite conductor
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength tensile strength, which indicates the minimum
test value for stranded bare conductor.
VLL Line Voltage, Phase to Phase Voltage between phases.
X Reactance Imaginary part of an impedance.
Z Standard Deviation Positive square root of the variance.
The square root of the ratio of the line
Zc Surge Impedance
inductance to the line capacitance.

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APPENDIX B. Links and references

[Brundtland 1987] “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future”,
Brundtland Commission, 1987
[Bergner] Richard Bergner Elektroarmaturen
[CIGRE 1974 TB 20] “Interferences Produced by Corona Effect of Electric Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure No.
20, 1974.
[CIGRE 1980 TB 21] “Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré Technical Brochure
No. 21, 1980.
[CIGRE 1991 TB 63] “Guide to Procedures for Estimating the Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines,” Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 63, 1991.
[CIGRE 1992 TB 72] “Guidelines for the Evaluation of the Dielectric Strength of External Insulation, “Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 72, 1992.
[CIGRE 1996 TB 61] [3] “Addendum to Electric and Magnetic Fields Produced by Transmission Systems”, Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 61, 1996.
[CIGRE 1998] SC: 22, Published: 1998, Rapport de Session, Ref. No. 22-207, Expanded bundle technique: the
application of HSIL TL concept to increase the capacity of overhead lines.
[CIGRE 1998-1] CE/SC: 22, Publié/Published: 1998, Rapport de Session, Ref. No. 22/33/36-08, A compact 420 kV
line utilising line surge arresters for areas with low isokeraunic levels
[CIGRE 2002 TB 207] “Thermal Behaviour of Overhead Conductors,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 207, 2002.
[CIGRE 2005 TB 278] “The influence of line configuration on environment impacts of electrical origin” Cigre
technical brochure number 278.
[CIGRE 2006 TB 299] “Guide for Selection of Weather Parameters for Bare Overhead Conductor Ratings,” Cigré
Technical Brochure No. 299, 2006
[CIGRE 2007 TB 322] CIGRE Technical Brochure 322 “The state of the art of conductor galloping”
[CIGRE 2008 TB 348] “Tower Top Geometry and Mid Span Clearances,” Cigré Technical Brochure No. 348, 2008.
[CIGRE 2009 TB 388] [14] Cigre TB 388 “Impacts of HVDC lines in the economics of HVDC projects”, 2009
[CIGRE 2013 TB 561] Cigre TB 561 “Live work – a Management Perspective”
[CIGRE 2014] CIGRE Green Book Series “Overhead Lines”, 2014. ISBN 978-2-85873-284-5
[CIGRE 2016 TB 638] “Guide to overall line design”, Cigre Technical brochure 638 2016
[CIGRE 2018 TB 731] “The use of robotics in assessment and maintenance of overhead lines”, Cigre technical
brochure 731 2018
[Dama 2015] Dama, Muftic, Vajeth, “Conductor Optimization for Overhead Transmission Lines”, Inaugural IEEE
PES 2015 Conference and Exposition in Africa Durban, South Africa, 11-15 July 2015
[EN 2012] EN-50.341-1, 2-4: Overhead Lines Exceeding AC 1 kV
[EPRI 2005] “Transmission line reference book 200 kV and above “, 3rd edition EPRI Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1011974
[EPRI 2009] Live working reference book
[Fife 2017] B. Fife, D Calamari, “500 kV Challenges in Congested areas” Presentation given at the Power
Engineers conference, Sun Valley, March 2017.
[Hoffmann 2010] J. N. Hoffmann, R. W. Wiedmer, M. J. Bubniak, I. S. Moreira. “Urban overhead transmission
lines of compact design for 69, 138 and 230 kV” (CIGRE Session, 2010).
[IEC 1993] IEC 71-1 “Insulation coordination. Part 1 Definitions, principles and rules”, 1993
[IEC 1996] IEC 71-2 “Insulation coordination. Part 2 Application Guide”, 1996
[IEC 1997] IEC TR 61774 “Overhead lines – Meteorological data for assessing climatic loads”. Reference number
CEI/IEC 61774: 1997, Geneva, Switzerland.

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[IEC 2003] IEC 60826 “Design Criteria of Overhead Transmission Lines”, International Standard, IEC 60826, Third
Edition 2003-10.
[IEC 2004] IEC 61472 Live working - Minimum approach distances for a.c. systems in the voltage range 72,5 kV
to 800 kV - A method of calculation
[IEC 2008] IEC 61467 Insulators for overhead lines - Insulator strings and sets for lines with a nominal voltage
greater than 1 000 V - AC power arc tests
[IEEE 2009] IEEE 516 Guide for Maintenance methods on energised Power lines. 2009
[Kieslling 2003] Kiessling, F., Nolasco JF et al: Overhead Power Lines – Springer Verlag 2003 ISBN 3-540-00297-
9
[Lapp] LAPP Insulators
[Lilien 2004] Lillien, Snegovski, Capelle, Le Du, “Limiting Windstorm Effects on Tower by a Low-Drag Conductor”,
Cigre Session 2004, B2-312
[Maruvada 2000] Maruvada P.S., Corona Performance of High Voltage Transmission Lines, Research Studies Press
Ltd., Baldock, Hertfordshire, 2000.
[Muftic] Muftic D, Bisnath S, Britten A, Cretchley DH, Pillay T, Vajeth R “The Planning design and construction of
overhead power lines” Published by Crown publications 2005 ISBN 9780620330428
[Papailiou] Konstantin O. Papailiou. Frank Schmuck “Silicone Composite Insulators”
[Qi-Li 2015] Qi Li, Simon M.Rowland, R.Shuttleworth, “Calculating the Surface Potential Gradient of Overhead
Power Lines”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp 43-52, 2015.
[Schmuck 2015] [15] Schmuck Solutions for line compaction using composite insulators: Review of current
situation and future outlook 2015 INMR World Congress Munich, Germany, October 2015
[SABS 60103] “The measurement and rating of environmental noise with respect to annoyance and speech
communication 1993.
[Souza 2018] M.A. Souza, J.N. Hoffmann, F.L.R. Casagrande, U. Chemin. “Copel’s experience on uprating a 69 kV
Compact Overhead Urban Transmission Line into 138 kV (SuperCompact Urban Transmission Line)” (CIGRE
Session 2018)
[Tunstall] CIGRE WG22_11 TF on Galloping Report 89-02 M.J. Tunstall

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APPENDIX C. Airgap calculation

C.1. For slow-front
For phase-to-ground gaps the following equations applies:

= k 500 d 0.6
2<d<5
App Equation C.1

or
3400
𝑉50 = 𝑘 8 5<d<15
1+
𝑑

App Equation C.2

k being the gap factor as shown in the following table.

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App Table C.1 Gap Factor for Slow-front (with and without insulator filling the gap)

For phase-to-phase insulation other values of k applies. Phase–to–phase insulation is influenced by the
ratio α, defined as the ratio of the negative peak and the sum of the positive and negative peaks in
the following figure.

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.
App Figure C.1 Phase to Phase Overvoltage

The following table shows the gap factors to be considered for α equal 0.5 and 0.33.
App Table C.2 Gap Factor (k) for Phase to Phase Insulation

C.2. For fast fronts

For fast fronts the gap factors are:
U50= k+ 500 d
k+= 0,74 + 0,26 k
k is the gap factor for slow-front

C.3. For sustained overvoltage

App Figure C.2 Withstand Characteristic of Gap (power frequency)

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C.4. Example
Consider a 500 kV line, (maximum sustained voltage during line energization of 600 kV), 200 km,
average span=500 m, therefore 400 towers.
Power frequency insulation
Assuming a “light” pollution level in the line region, thus a specific creepage distance of 16 mm/kV
results in the necessary insulator string creepage distance of 16 x 600 = 8800 mm. Assuming a 280 x
170 mm insulator which has a creepage distance of 380 mm, the necessary number of insulators =
8800/380 ≈ 24 insulators in a string with length of 24 x 170 = 4080 mm.
√2
The air gap should withstand 600 = 490𝑘𝑉. From Figure C.1 the air clearance should be ≥ 1.0 m
√3
(to be preserved even with conductor swing due to wind of return period say 50 years; or 40-50°
swing angle).
Similarly the phase-to-phase air clearance should be ≥ 1.7m
As an example of this type of calculation, the line energization overvoltage to ground and phase-to-
phase was calculated for a system mentioned above. The calculation was done with an Electomagnetc
transient software applying 200 shots determining the distributions (mean and standard deviation) in
all phases and within phases in 5 positions in the line (beginning, 25%, 50%,75%, and end from the
energization terminal).
The following table shows the risk calculation values considering the phase-to-ground CFO (critical
flash over) UW50=915 kV and phase-to-phase CFO UW50=1630 kV. To reach a certain level of risk about
three values of CFO can be applied for interpolation, or using a trial and error interactive process in a
spreadsheet (here, the latter process was used to get the CFO values above).

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App Table C.3 Line Energization Risk Calculation

Overv. Mean Overv. Dev R50=US50-

Zr Risk
Phase (US50) (ZS) UW50
kV p(x) ≤ 0
kV kV kV
Phase A 516.0 28.1 -399.0 61.7 4.9088E-11
Phase B 572.4 26.7 -342.6 61.1 1.0063E-08
Phase C 547.1 36.9 -367.9 66.2 1.3468E-08
send
Phase A – B 897.7 35.0 -732.3 103.9 9.0183E-13
Phase B – C 983.5 51.5 -646.5 110.5 2.4608E-09
Phase A – C 903.9 60.3 -726.1 114.9 1.3074E-10
Phase A 530.3 32.4 -384.7 63.8 8.0083E-10
Phase B 589.1 29.5 -325.9 62.3 8.4721E-08
Phase C 563.8 40.9 -351.2 68.5 1.4642E-07
25%
Phase A – B 914.5 36.8 -715.5 104.5 3.7725E-12
Phase B – C 1006.3 55.0 -623.7 112.2 1.3525E-08
Phase A – C 926.3 65.7 -703.7 117.8 1.1650E-09
Phase A 547.5 35.4 -367.5 65.3 9.2883E-09
Phase B 610.7 31.3 -304.3 63.2 7.3933E-07
Phase C 583.0 42.1 -332.0 69.2 7.9525E-07
50%
Phase A – B 936.5 39.8 -693.5 105.6 2.5556E-11
Phase B – C 1039.8 60.5 -590.2 115.0 1.4332E-07
Phase A – C 948.4 68.1 -681.6 119.2 5.3321E-09
Phase A 554.8 35.6 -360.2 65.4 1.8477E-08
Phase B 620.9 33.2 -294.1 64.2 2.2848E-06
Phase C 588.3 43.1 -326.7 69.8 1.4311E-06
75%
Phase A – B 952.9 43.9 -677.1 107.2 1.3424E-10
Phase B – C 1057.8 64.3 -572.2 117.0 5.0429E-07
Phase A – C 956.9 70.7 -673.1 120.7 1.2150E-08
Phase A 556.9 37.5 -358.1 66.5 3.5631E-08
Phase B 620.9 33.6 -294.1 64.3 2.4382E-06
Phase C 589.5 43.6 -325.5 70.1 1.7333E-06
end
Phase A – B 952.4 45.0 -677.6 107.7 1.5471E-10
Phase B – C 1057.8 63.8 -572.2 116.8 4.7628E-07
Phase A – C 955.3 70.8 -674.7 120.7 1.1457E-08

The phase-to-ground risk in a line position is the sum of the risks in the three phases, similarly the
phase-to-phase risk. These risks are plotted in Figure below.

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log(risk)
phase-ground
phase phase

0
-1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
distance %

App Figure C.3 Risk Versus Distance

The risk of failure for all the line is obtained by integrating the values in App Figure C.3 or simply
dividing the line by sections of 5 to 10% of the length. The results are in the following table.

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App Table C.4 Risk by Section and Total

Number Log
Line Dist. Risk Log (risk) Risk
of (risk)
pu ph-g ph-g ph-ph
Towers ph-ph
40 1 4.21E-06 -5.38E+00 4.88E-07 -6.31E+00
40 0.9 4.17E-06 -5.38E+00 6.31E-07 -6.20E+00
20 0.8 3.98E-06 -5.40E+00 6.31E-07 -6.20E+00
20 0.75 3.73E-06 -5.43E+00 5.17E-07 6.29E+00
40 0.7 3.16E-06 -5.50E+00 3.98E-07 -6.40E+00
40 0.6 2.51E-06 -5.60E+00 2.51E-07 -6.60E+00
40 0.5 1.54E-06 -5.81E+00 1.49E-07 -6.83E+00
40 0.4 1.00E-06 -6.00E+00 7.94E-08 -7.10E+00
20 0.3 5.01E-07 -6.30E+00 3.98E-08 -7.40E+00
20 0.25 2.32E-07 -6.63E+00 1.47E-08 -7.83E+00
40 0.2 1.58E-07 -6.80E+00 1.00E-08 -8.00E+00
40 0.1 5.01E-08 -7.30E+00 5.01E-09 -8.30E+00
0 0 2.36E-08 -7.63E+00 2.59E-09 -8.59E+00
Total (400) 8.41E-04 1.04E-04

The risk above matches the desired risk 1E-03 and 1E-04 for phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase
The next step is the determination of air gaps (d) to match the calculated phase-to-ground CFO 915
kV and CFO phase-to-phase 1630 kV.
App Equation C.3

CFO  k 500 d 0.6

With k being the gap factors

Table below shows the phase-to-ground values of gap d.
App Table C.5 Values

k= d (m)
conductor window 1.15 2.17
conductor to tower 1.35 1.66
conductor to guy wire 1.40 1.56
conductor to 4.5 m object 1.35 6.16

Related to phase-to-phase, IEC 71-2 [IEC 1993] indicates the gap factor to be used in the calculation
as function of α = V- / (V++ V-)

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Figure below shows the worst case phase-to-phase overvoltage calculated.

App Figure C.4 Phase to Phase Overvoltage (α=0.5)

The value of α is near 0.5 and for this the gap factor is 1.62. Others case may lead to lower values of
α. For α=0.33 the gap factor is 1.52, therefore the phase-to-phase distance shall be about 3.57 m.

C.5. Calculation of swing angle

The swing angles are calculated by:
App Equation C.4

(𝜌/2)𝐶𝑥𝑉𝑅 𝐺𝐿 𝑎𝑑𝑛
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 ( )
𝑛𝑝𝑎

Where:
 air density depending on temperature, humidity and altitude above sea level (equal to 1,225 kg/m³,
12,25N/m3 at standard conditions)
Cx drag factor equal to 1,0 for standard conductors;
VR reference wind velocity [m/s];
a wind span [m];
GL span factor taking into account the effect of span length equal to (0,6 + 80/a) according to EN
50341-3-4;
d conductor diameter [m];
n number of sub-conductors;
p effective conductor weight taking into account the differences in the level of conductor attachment
points [N/m].
Taking into account the calculated swing angle, possible differences between swing angles of
neighbouring phases are considered with a probability lower than 98%. For this limit the conductors
may deviate between themselves with the following swing angles:
Conductor 1: 1 =  + 2*
Conductor 2: 2 =  - 2*
where
App Equation C.5


  2.25. 1  exp VR 2 / 230 . 

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Application example
Consider a 500 kV line (Vmax = 525 kV), using Cross rope or Donau towers, without metallic parts
between phases in a horizontal configuration. The separation between phases is 6.2 m in the typical
tower, which will be examined in this approach. The data used in equations above are:
 = 12,25 N/m³; Cx = 1.0; VR = 32.44 m/s; a = 500 m;
GL = 0.6 + 80/500 = 0.76; d = 0.02445 m; n = 4; p= 9.5863 N/m
The conditions of swing angles of conductors were determined and analysed as follows:
For the wind speed corresponding to power frequency voltages (VR = 32,44 m/s), the following swing
angles and standard deviations have been determined by equations above:

 = 51.34°;  = 2.23
Therefore:
1 = 55.8°
2 = 46.9°
For the wind speed corresponding to switching surges (VR = 19,46 m/s), the following swing angles
have been determined:

 = 24.17°;  = 1.82°
Therefore:
1 = 27.8°
2 = 20.6°
The minimum electrical distance between phases for the power frequency conditions should be 1.7 m
and for switching surge 3.6 m as determined above in this section:
The asynchronous swing of conductors is a rare phenomenon and it is not necessary to consider
electrical distances higher than the ones needed for power frequency voltages, thus meaning that the
probability of asynchronous swing simultaneously occurring with switching surges or lightning
overvoltages is very low, so that if such overvoltages were considered, there would be an unnecessary
increase in the project costs.
The Figure below shows the electrical distances obtained when considering asynchronous swing in the
conditions of power frequency and switching surge overvoltage. It has been conservatively considered
the conductor sag at EDS condition for a 500 m span length. It can be observed that for power
frequency condition the distance obtained is higher than the minimum 1.7 m (for two wind
conditions). Therefore it can be concluded that the existing phase distance of 6,2 m is sufficient for
the correct operation of the line.

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6,2m

4,
17
m

°
,8
27,8° 55 ,9°
20,6° 46

23
m

4,
36
m

2,7
7m

App Figure C.5 Asynchronous Swing of the Conductors at Mid Span Position

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