Chapter 3 - Urban Energy Systems and Smart Cities

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URBAN LIGHTING
CONCEPT
In recent years, probably no element of urban street design has changed more than
street lighting and its related concepts. In the area of street design, a specific
cautionary word is appropriate. The designer should make every attempt to review
current literature and research results prior to embarking on any design work for
conversion of old lighting systems or installations of new.
CONDITIONS
The design for Street lighting is normally completed by the local utility company for
Jurisdictional review. The design should locate lighting poles outside of the roadway
clear zone. Breakaway poles should not be used on streets in densely developed areas
particularly with sidewalks.
URBAN LIGHTING
One of the consequences of the utilitarianism as mind frame, when it comes to the
design of the lighting infrastructure for the city, is its immediateness. Decisions
regarding the scope of infrastructures are taken as a response to “usefulness”; the car,
for instance, is one of those main elements defining the intent and the extent of a
public lighting projects. Street lighting on residential areas for example, is
implemented to respond mainly to the needs of light for driving. But the Street is not
only the path where vehicles move. The Street is also the arena of social interaction:
social encounters, fairs, markets and other types of communitarian activities that can
take place in streets of city centres or in residential areas too.

The other consequence of this focus on utility is its lack of aesthetical values. When it
comes to public lighting, the analysis that determines the scope of the solutions is the
result of an engineering process. The main objective of this process is to apply a
mantle of light on the asphalt. The three most preferred design criteria applied are: the
density of candelas per meter; the overall uniformity of the luminosity and the energy
consumed according to the zoning of the area. Although it is a severe miscalculation,
public lighting is seldom confronted to aesthetical design criteria although its role for
city centres; heritage areas; pedestrian zones; urban parks, sea side walk boards,
shantytowns, etc. has been demonstrated in different projects throughout the world.
Lighting serves as guidance, land marking, space modifier and atmosphere definer. In
short, light can improve the living conditions of cities by influencing its image,
transforming its blight, renewing its views and above all serving the urban public life.
The planning of lighting in towns requires a deep understanding of the influence light
in the nocturnal environment it helps to create. Without a dedicated strategy that
considers the visual quality of the urban space when artificially illuminated, much of
the urban experience will lose part of its value as a humanistic experience. Public
lighting in urban centres should be designed on the basis of multiple interconnections
to assure that it can become a tool, a medium to produce a more enriching nocturnal
landscape.
ROADWAY LIGHTING LAMP CHARACTERISTICS
1. The incandescent or filament lamp was for many years the most commonly
used. However, its low efficacy and short rated life have made it undesirable for
new installations.
2. The mercury lamp replaced the incandescent lamp in popularity. The initial cost
is higher and it requires ballast, but its high efficacy and long life make it
considerably more attractive than the incandescent lamp. The blue-white colour of
the clear lamp is generally acceptable, and the arc tube size provides a light source
that is small enough to permit good light control. A phosphor- coasted outer bulb is
also available. However, the light source is the size of the outer bulb, presenting a
problem in light control.
3. The metal halide lamp is a type of mercury lamp in which the arc tube contains,
in addition to mercury, certain metal halides which improve both the efficacy and
the colour rendition without the use of a phosphor-coated bulb. The light source
size is that of the arc tube, permitting good light control in the same fixture used for
clear mercury lamps.
4. The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is presently replacing the mercury lamp.
It is characterized by a golden-white colour light output. HPS lamps are normally
operated with special ballasts that provide the necessary high voltage to start the
lamp. However, lamps are available that can be operated from certain types of
mercury lamp ballast, but with poorer lumen maintenance and shorter life.

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Electric Power Systems are systems for the transformation of other types of energy into
electrical energy and the transmission of this energy to the point of consumption. The
production and transmission of energy in the form of electricity is relatively efficient and
inexpensive. Electric power systems make possible the use of hydroelectric power at a
distance from the source.
Electricity is generated when a loop of conducting wire rotates in a magnetic field. In a
hydroelectric plant, water falling over a dam turns turbines that spin the generators that
produce electricity. The electricity flows to a transmission station where a transformer
changes a large current and low voltage into a small current and high voltage. Then the
electricity flows over high voltage transmission lines to a series of transmission stations
where the voltage is stepped down by transformers to levels appropriate for distribution to
customers. Primary lines may transmit electricity at voltages as high as 500,000 volts.
Secondary lines to homes carry electricity at 240 volts or 120 volts.

COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

A modern electric power system consists of six main components: the power station; a set of
transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the transmission lines;
the sub transmission lines; the sub transmission voltage to the level used by the consumer’s
equipment.
A. Power Station
The power station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as turbine driven by
water or steam, which operates a system of electric motors and generators. Most of the
world’s electric power is generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or gas,
with lesser percentages generated by hydroelectric, diesel, and internal-combustion plants.
B. Transformers
Modem electric power systems use transformers to convert electricity into different voltages.
With transformers, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. In a
typical system, the generators at the power station deliver a voltage of from 1,000 to 26,000
volts (V). Transformers step this voltage up to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for
the primary transmission line. At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to
levels of 69,000 to 138,000 V for further transfer on the sub transmission system. Another set
of transformers step the voltage down again to a distribution level such as 2,400 or 4,160 V
or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts (KV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the
distribution transformer near the point of use to 240 or 120V.
C . Transmission Lines
The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper,
aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum - clad steel, which are suspended from tall
latticework towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires
and high towers, the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the
transmission line thus reduced. In modem installations with essentially straight paths, high-
voltage lines may be built with as few as six towers to the mile. In some areas high-voltage
lines are suspended from tall wooden poles spaced more closely together.
For lower voltage sub transmission and distribution lines, wooden poles are generally used
rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a hazard, insulated
underground cables are used for distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core
through which oil circulates under low pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from
water damage to the enclosed wires should be able develop a leak.
D. Supplementary Equipment
To protect all elements of a power system from short circuit and overloads, and for normal
switching operations, circuit breakers are employed. These breakers are large switches that
are activated automatically in the event of a short circuit or other condition that produces a
sudden rise of current. Because a current forms across the terminals of the circuit breaker at
the moment when the current is interrupted, some large breakers (such as those used to
protect a generator or a section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid that is
a poor conductor of electricity, such as oil, to quench the current. In large air-type circuit
breakers, as well as in oil breakers, magnetic fields are used to break up the current. Small
air-circuit breakers are used for protection in shops, factories, and in modern home
installations. In residential electric wring, fuses were once commonly employed for the same
purpose. A fuse consists of a piece of alloy with a low melting point, inserted in the circuit,
which melts, breaking the circuit of the current rises above a certain value.
POWER FAILURES
In most parts of the world, local or national electric utilities have joined in grid system. The
linking grids allow electricity generated in one area to be shared with others. Each pooling
company gains an increased reserve capacity, use of large, more efficient generators, and
compensations, through sharing, for local power failures.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Long transmission lines have considerable inductance and capacitance. When current flows
through the line, inductance and capacitance have the effect of varying the voltage on the line
as the current varies. Thus the supply voltage varies with the load. Several kinds of devices
are used to overcome this undesirable variation, in an operation called regulation of the
voltage. The devices include induction regulators and three-phase synchronous motors
(called synchronous condensers), both of which vary the effective amount of inductance and
capacitance in the transmission circuit.
An operator monitors the master control panel for an electric company in Philadelphia.
The computer screens show the power line connections and routes. From such a Central
location, an operator can quickly identify blackouts, or large system power failures, and
other power interruptions.

Inductance and capacitance react with a tendency to nullify one another. When a load
circuit has more inductive than capacitive reactance, as almost invariably occurs in large
power systems, the amount of power delivered for a given voltage and current is less than
when the two are equal. The ratio of these two amounts of power is called the power factor.
 Because transmission-line losses are proportional to current, capacitance is added to the
circuit when possible, thus bringing the power factor as nearly as possible to 1. For this
reason, large capacitors are frequently inserted as a part of power-transmission systems.

Group…
Identify the function of gerunds and infinitives used in the text.
https://hub.beesmart.city/en/solutions/what-is-iot-and-why-is-it-important-for-smart-cities
WHAT IS IOT AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR SMART CITIES?
May 11, 2021 11:56:18 AM
Written by Joe Appleton

WHAT IS IOT?
According to the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the term Internet of
Things is a broad term that can be used to describe any object connected to the
internet. However, in recent years, the term IoT is increasingly being used to
specifically describe objects that can “talk” to each other.
It references the vast network of digital devices that communicate and interact with
each other, and affect our daily lives. These devices include smart sensors,
monitoring devices, AI programs, and actuators that can evaluate, monitor, and
control certain aspects of city life. For example, data about the weather can be
collected by multiple sensors, which can then be used to manage thermostats in public
buildings, cutting emissions, and saving the city money.
There is no uniform definition of what the Internet of Things is, and different
organizations and individuals may suggest differences from one definition to the next.
However, they all agree that the IoT is “a set of technologies for accessing the data
collected by various devices through wireless and wired Internet networks.”

WHY IS IOT IMPORTANT FOR SMART CITIES?

IoT is important for every city. Currently, the world’s largest cities are Tokyo, Delhi,
Shanghai, and Sao Paolo, with populations of 38 million, 29 million, 26 million, and
21 million respectively. Today, these megacities are notable because of their huge
populations. In the future, there will be many more like them, with even denser
populations.
It’s predicted that more than 60% of the planet’s population will live in cities by the
year 2030. It’s a bold prediction and one that could spell disaster if the appropriate
measures aren’t taken. Large populations demand large resources. Residents will need
access to water, efficient and environmentally-friendly transportation, clean air, and
practical sanitation and waste management. With the clever use of smart city practices
and widespread deployment of IoT technology, the cities of tomorrow will be able to
meet the demands of their residents in an effective and efficient way.
Connected technologies and big data can create smart solutions. These solutions can
solve problems, increase the quality of life for a city’s residents, and lower the
consumption of resources. For a truly smart city to function at its full potential, the
Internet of Things is a vital ingredient.

CONNECTED PUBLIC TRANSPORT

The Polish city of Lublin was awarded the title of Smart City of the Year within its
population class in 2016, largely thanks to its largest smart city project: an innovative
passenger information system for connected public transport.
The system revolutionized the city’s bus transit system. It did this by installing GSM
and GPRS devices on vehicles, that transmits real-time data to a dispatch center
software, which then relays that information to electronic displays at bus stops and to
online portals. This resulted in more efficient public transport, cutting waiting times,
and boosting reliability.
TRAFFIC MONITORING
Managing traffic flow is one of the biggest challenges for smart cities. Thanks to IoT,
there are a number of practical solutions. In Los Angeles, the city government has
installed a vast network of pavement integrated sensors. These sensors transmit real-
time traffic updates to a traffic management platform, which adjusts the timing of
traffic signals to optimize traffic flow.
WATER LEVEL MONITORING
The city of Dublin’s innovative Smart Docklands project has hundreds of exciting
ideas. However, the city’s flood monitoring program is one that directly affects
citizens. In recent years, flooding has become a problem in areas of the city. To
remedy this, the Dublin City Council searched for solutions. The result was the Low-
Cost Gully Management initiative. This program saw six companies rise to the
challenge of developing sensor products that can detect water levels and report
flooding incidents using LoRaWAN and Sigfox technologies.
VIDEO SURVEILLANCE
Smart video surveillance isn’t a new concept. In fact, smart surveillance cameras have
been around for a long time, and they’re commonly used to police the world’s roads
and highways. ANPR (Automatic Number Plate Recognition) or ALPR (Automatic
License Plate Recognition) cameras are commonly used by law enforcement to
identify stolen cars, for traffic control purposes, to collect tolls, and to deter crime in
general.
It’s true that smart surveillance cameras are becoming more advanced and may be
used to predict crimes before they happen in the future. They may also be able to
identify pedestrians and log their movements. However, heavy surveillance methods
like these aren’t popular, with many citizens voicing privacy concerns and
questioning the use of their personal data.
CONNECTED STREETLIGHTS
Connected streetlights and lighting solutions are a very popular way to boost the
productivity of a smart city. The key benefits of smart lighting include a reduction of
energy and maintenance costs, increased public safety, safer traffic, and a measurable
environmental impact. Smart streetlights can also be used to double up as EV
chargers, emissions monitors, and wireless broadband connection points.

HOW CAN IOT HELP SMART CITIES IN THE FUTURE?

The future of our cities is interconnected with the future of IoT. As city governments
begin to unlock the full potential of urban data platforms, AI, smart devices, and
interconnectivity, the need for IoT will grow exponentially. This will lead to efficient
problem solving, smart mobility, sustainability, and more.
One of the most exciting ways that IoT can benefit future cities is by reducing the
need for private vehicles. With the advent of driverless cars upon us, it won’t be long
until efficient public transport can be made accessible to everyone, powered by IoT
technology. The cars and buses of the future will be able to operate using data
transmitted by street furniture or streetlights, delivering an efficient and seamless
traffic flow.
Though far less glamourous, the future of waste management is another way that IoT
can improve our cities of tomorrow. Right now, waste collection and disposal are two
of the biggest obstacles that cities have. Smart waste management solutions include
route planning tools and real-time bin capacity levels that can reduce collection
volumes and inform citizens on better ways to dispose of their waste.
These are just two of the many ways that IoT will improve the quality of life for
citizens of future smart cities.

INTERNET OF THINGS FOR SMART CITIES: CONCLUSION

IoT has unlimited potential. With large-scale implementation, thoughtful deployment,
and careful management, IoT, urban data platforms, big data, and artificial
intelligence can transform our urban hubs into smart, sustainable, and efficient spaces.
The secret to the success of all sectors, from healthcare to manufacturing, and from
transportation to education, is through the shared use of information. By gathering
data and actuating practical solutions, our next-generation smart cities will be smarter
than ever before.

Group …
Make questions and answer them.
https://www.easytechjunkie.com/what-is-ftth.htm

What is FTTH?
R. Kayne
Last Modified Date: January 20, 2022
FTTH, or Fiber To The Home, refers to fiber optic cable that replaces the
standard copper wire of the local Telco. Many people prefer it because it can carry
high-speed broadband services integrating voice, data and video, and runs directly to
the junction box at a home or building. For this reason, it is sometimes called Fiber
To The Building, or FTTB.

Fiber To The Home refers to fiber optic cable that replaces the standard copper wire
of the local Telco.
Traditional copper telephone wires carry analog signals generated by telephone
equipment, including fax machines. Analog technology is, by nature, a less precise
signaling technology than digital technology. Though multiplexing has allowed digital
signals to be transmitted across multiple channels over copper lines, fiber optic cable
is superior for relaying these signals and allows for faster transfer rates and virtually
unlimited bandwidth. This opens the door to better Internet speed, streaming video,
and other demanding applications.

FTTH can carry high-speed broadband services integrating voice, data and video, and
runs directly to the junction box at a home or building.
The Internet utilizes a backbone of fiber optic cables capable of delivering incredible
bandwidth. This inherent ability makes it a prime source for advancing network
technologies that can be brought to the home or business. Most subscribers, however,
log on to this network through copper lines with limited capacity. This creates a
bottleneck for advancing technologies that increasingly require greater bandwidth.
FTTH bridges this gap.
Fiber optic cables are made of glass fiber that can carry data at speeds exceeding 2.5
gigabits per second (gbps). FTTH services commonly offer a fleet of plans with
differing speeds that are price dependent. At the lower end of the scale, a service plan
might offer speeds of 10 megabits per second (mbps), while typical DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line) service running on existing copper lines is 1.5 mbps. A more
expensive plan might offer data transfer speeds of over 100 mbps — that's about 66
times faster than typical DSL.
FTTH is cost-prohibitive in many cases. Installing it can be expensive, and the
monthly charge for broadband services thereafter can also be off-putting, though these
figures vary widely. Expense is likely to drop with time as fiber becomes more
common.
Because of the cost involved and the logistic difficulty in replacing existing copper
lines in some neighborhoods, fiber optic cable is more often being installed in newly
built communities as an added selling feature. Installing it raises the value of existing
property.
FTTH can be installed as a point-to-point architecture, or as a passive optical network
(PON). The former requires that the provider have an optical receiver for each
customer in the field. PON utilizes a central transceiver and splitter to accommodate
up to 32 clients. Optical electric converters, or OECs, are used to convert the signals
to interface with copper wiring where necessary.
This technology differs from Fiber To The Curb (FTTC) in that FTTC does not run
directly to the home or building. Instead it runs to the curb, and the last leg of wiring
to individual buildings remains copper wire.

https://www.iselect.com.au/internet/nbn/fttb/
Fibre to the Building (FTTB) NBN explained
If you live in an apartment block with nbn™ access, there’s a chance you’ll have
Fibre-to-the-Building (FTTB) connection available. Same goes for some office
buildings. So here’s what you need to know about FTTB.

What is Fibre to the Building?

Put simply, Fibre to the Building is the technology used to connect apartment blocks
and larger office buildings to the NBN™ network. As its name suggests, FTTB does
this via a fibre optic cable that connects directly to your building.
How does Fibre to the Building (FTTB) actually work?
For the technically-minded reader, here’s a slightly more detailed explanation of the
ins-and-outs of FTTB. Inside your MDU (which stands for Multi Dwelling Unit and is
just a fancy way of saying “building”) there will be a communication room that
houses an NBN - installed node. A fibre optic line runs to your building and connects
to this node (that’s the “in” part!). From there, the system hooks up to your building’s
existing communications cabling which then carries the NBN™ to each individual
apartment or office where it pops out ready to connect you to the wonderful world of
the web.
How is FTTB different to other NBN™connections?
The NBN™ has taken a Multi Technology Mix (MTM) approach to connection
methods. Fibre to the Building (FTTB) shares the same technology with another
option, Fibre to the Node (FTTN), which connects homes via street cabinets (or
“nodes”). The distance of an FTTB node connection is usually much shorter than the
distance from the connection to an FTTN node, which averages 450 metres of copper
cabling.
Because the FTTB distance is typically a lot shorter, that means less chance of losing
a signal due to things like line interference. There’s another major MTM technology
being rolled out called Hybrid Fibre Coaxial (HFC). Unlike FTTB/FTTN, it uses
coaxial copper cable traditionally used for digital pay TV services. If you're lucky,
you'll be in an area that has Fibre to the Premises (FTTP). FTTP uses fibre optic cable
all the way to your NBN™ connection box, eliminating copper entirely, along with
many of the speed and stability issues associated with it.
How fast is Fibre to the Building (FTTB)?
The NBN™ offers six different speed tiers but when it comes to choosing an FTTB
plan, only four of these options may be available. (Currently, FTTB connections can’t
achieve speeds faster than NBN 100, so the Super Fast and Ultra Fast options are off
the table.)
What equipment do I need for an FTTB connection?
The only piece of equipment you'll need before connecting to the NBN™ with FTTB
is a compatible modem/router. This plugs into your home phone line using an RJ11
phone cable (just as with an FTTN connection), which is usually bundled with the
router. If your existing ADSL modem is not compatible, a number of contracted
FTTB NBN™ plans come with a modem included (although there may be a delivery
charge) while others may be able to offer a compatible modem at a cost. The latest
modems should allow you to connect to the internet using an ethernet cable or Wi-Fi.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4L31dHXP6i0 (3 minutes)
The Smart Grid Explained - An Understanding for Everyone
https://www.scientificamerican.com/video/what-is-a-smart-grid-and-how-might-one-protect-our-energy-future/
(8 minutes)
Video: What Is a Smart Grid, and How Might One Protect Our
Energy Future?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlhmzVL5bm8 (3 minutes)
The Internet of Things or IoT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVlIPoV3Va4 (4 minutes)
What are Microgrids?