Dr. Silvia B.

Irimiea
Faculty of Letters
Babeș-Bolyai University
Cluj, Romania

A Learner’s Guide to Writing

1. THE PROCESS OF WRITING

1.1. Writing vs speaking

When we write we perform a conscious or voluntary activity and use graphic symbols, such as
letters and clusters of letters to express our ideas, feelings and attitude. The symbols we use are related to
the sounds we make when we speak, therefore a comparison with speaking would clarify the concept of
writing as opposed to speaking. On the simplest level of defining writing we can state that writing is the
process or act of forming or creating graphic symbols. However, writing is much more than the act of
creating symbols or marks on a sheet of paper, just as speech is more than producing sounds.
Writing becomes a complicated and somewhat complex act as the symbols produced need to be
clustered together according to a lawful and meaningful arrangement of conventions and norms, that make
sense to others and build up longer and larger units, such as sentences, texts, discourse and genre. We very
rarely produce single or isolated sentences, or even a number of unrelated sentences. We usually produce a
sequence of sentences aimed at conveying a message. The sentences must be arranged in a particular order
and form, and should be linked together in certain ways according to linguistic and discursive norms.
Regardless of the number of sentences and their length, what makes a text a text and gives
coherence is the way in which sentences are link together to form a complete, unified whole. Only related
and correctly linked sentences, and larger chunks, normally form a clear, coherent text.
Little is known about the methods and particular ways in which texts are produced or composed
by individual writers or text producers, but there is consensus in admitting that writing is neither a
spontaneous nor an easy activity. It requires a mental effort, as we first think out what we want to write,
then consider various ways of combining and arranging the sentences we produce. We may use notes, drafts
and produce several versions before we finally are satisfied with a text. Then, we may permanently re-read,
consider what we wrote, and use re-reading as a stimulus to write further.
All this effort is necessary as we write not for ourselves, but for some other person, ie a reader.
We seldom speak or write for our own sake or purpose. This means that writing and speaking usually
engage at least two participants or communicators. Writing, therefore, is an activity which involves
transmitting a message to somebody else, who becomes the receiver of the message. Consequently, writing
involves first encoding a message of some kind. The message is communicated or transmitted to the
targeted person in a form that is understandable to the envisaged person, who engages in the act of decoding
the message. Viewed from this perspective, the act of writing is a communicative event that takes place
through the medium of language.
Most of the time the reader is someone who is normally not physically present, except for the case
when we write for ourselves- for example, a shopping list or other forms of personal writing. This is also,
perhaps, the reason why we choose this particular channel of communication, rather than the most
convenient one of speech. The difficulty when we write arises from our intention to convey a message to
our reader, who may not be physically present, or may be even unknown to us. In such cases we need to
imagine our reader and anticipate his interests and needs. Because the reader is not present, the writer must
make sure that the text is clear to the reader as it is to the writer and that the reader understands the text
alone from the sentences he reads without any further help from the writer. Therefore, it is extremely

1
important that the writer devotes a great amount of time and attention to the organization of sentences into
a text, ie into a coherent whole, which can be easily deciphered by the reader without any outside help. In
addition, the written text must be complete and as explicit as possible.
So far we have exposed a few features of writing that help us understand why writing is different
from speaking. A comparison between writing and speaking will shed light on further discriminative
features.
First, speech takes place against the background of a situation that sets out the scene for the
communication between the interactants. Consequently, much of what is being said is visually related to
the circumstances in which the dialogue or intercourse occurs, namely the situation, the setting and other
communication inherent characteristics. This enables the participants to draw heavily on the clues lying in
the situational context for their grasping the content of the transmitted message. This means that the speaker
may not be so explicit as he is in writing, as many references are clear or made clear through inference from
or reference to the context. If, for example, we refer to the “thing over there” we assume that this is sufficient
for the reader as he will understand from the context what that thing is.
Second, the person we address is normally present, so there is direct contact between the speaker
and the hearer materialized in a permanent interaction and feedback. Even in the case of a telephone
conversation, where the two communicators are standing at the ends of the wire, there is direct contact and
the possibility of permanently feedbacking on request. In a normal conversation, the speaker and the hearer
are exchanging roles, so that at a time one is the speaker and at another time the other is the speaker. This
exchange of roles makes each participant very active and interested in monitoring each other’s performance.
If there is no feedback and control, there is no verbal interaction, or the normal communication flow may
easily break up.
The feedback one receives from a spoken intercourse is of two kinds: verbal and non-verbal. The
verbal response or feedback ranges from a simple murmur or grunt, to asking questions or making
comments on the spoken issue. Non-verbal feedback takes the form of facial movements or expression, of
eye contact or a simple nod that confirms receipt of message and comprehension thereof.
In addition to the already mentioned elements, during a verbal intercourse the communicators can
depend on and use alternative resources that facilitate their understanding of the message. Such resources
are the prosodic features, which include: pitch of voice, loudness, speed, rhythm and pauses. Facial
movements may accompany other verbal feedback elements as they all support and give consistency to the
uttered words in an attempt to make the message clearer to the listener. Donn Byrne (1988) notes that most
often we convey our meaning not so much through what we say- the linguistic structures of our discourse-
but through how we say it and what we do when we say it. This helps the listener grasp at once what we
say, and the attitude we show towards the discussed topic, which may indicate irony, confidence, doubt etc
will further help the listener make his decision with regard to adapting his role and attitude towards the on-
going conversation.
Finally, as opposed to speaking, which is often a spontaneous activity, writing is a complex activity
in which there is no preliminary context. The context is created by the writer as he goes on writing.
Furthermore, the writer creates an imaginary bond that links him to his reader and tries to anticipate all his
reader’s needs and reactions. The writer stays in contact with his reader only through the words he uses and
the imaginary relationship that the text creates.
Although speech has several advantages over writing, some of which have been already mentioned,
writing also exhibits certain features and partakes of advantages. First, although the writer must rely
exclusively on the linguistic resources he has at his disposal, there are linguistic and rhetorical devices he
can make use of and which help him achieve his intended mission. One device is the rhetorical
organization of the sentence, which means:
• an extremely careful choice of words,
• selection of register,
• position of words in the sentence,
• organization of theme and rheme.

2
 A second device concerns text organization level, ie:
• linking sentences into paragraphs,
• clustering paragraphs into coherent text units,
• using adequate coherence-conveying devices.
Apart from linguistic devices, the writer can also make use of graphical devices and punctuation
marks, spacing etc. The graphical or graphological devices include: capitalization, use of larger letter types,
use of different fonts, spaces, underlining, italicised words, bold face typing etc. Punctuation marks are
employed and exploited by talented writers/text producers to perform the role prosodic features perform in
oral communication. All these features are discriminative and can be used by skilled writers or text
producers to manipulate the readers and create a desired impact.
Another advantage writing has over speaking is that the writer does not have to write under
pressure. He may take his time and write at his own pace, using his time to reread, to revise and rewrite
until he is fully satisfied with his writing. The reader is also more privileged than the listener, as he also has
time to read the written text at his own pace, to reread it several times, to linger over the text, to return to
sections he did not comprehend or simply to return to favourite lines.
As opposed to speaking, which is a normal, spontaneous activity and which requires no effort for
its production and no previous training, writing is an activity which is learned thorough training/instruction.
This is where the writing instructor steps in and assumes his role of guide through text writing. First, the
trainee must know that he is a communicator and must ensure a good understanding of the message by the
reader. Second, the writer should be aware of and learn the existent forms of writing and their use in order
to be able to use them for rhetorical purposes. Therefore, prior to his commitment, the text producer should
learn how to use the linguistic and rhetorical devices, should learn about text organization, discourse and
genres and the conventions that govern different text types and should master them.
The quality of a writer may therefore not simply lie in his talent, but may be the outcome of an
increased awareness of the factors involved in writing and the outcome of a thorough acquisition of writing
skills.

1.2. The writer’s role in attaining effectiveness

The writer or text producer holds the key role in the process of writing. His role is that of a
communicator who transmits or imparts knowledge, experience, convictions, or feelings to someone else, who
is the receiver of his message. Thus, as a sender of the message he is the key element in the communication
process, while at the other end of the channel there is a receiver, who is eager to receive the message and decode
the meaning thereof.
The overall principle that underlies successful communication is effectiveness, which means that the
message must be conveyed in a way or a form that makes it most accessible and comprehensible to the addressee
(whether a reader or a listener). Effectiveness in communication, whether written or oral, can be assessed vis-
à-vis the purpose of the communicative situation and is guaranteed by the communicator's ability to convey the
message appropriately, ie by his communicative competence. Thus, a communicative encounter may be
considered effective if the intended purpose is successfully attained.
The writer’s communicative competence will account only for the writer’s ability to convey the
message in an appropriate way using the adequate socially and culturally acceptable linguistic and cultural
conventions. Yet, what is needed besides communicative competence in text production, is a string of abilities
summed up as text competence. One of its key components is textual metacompetence, ie the profound
knowledge of the way in which textual competence works, which, in turn, embraces: text production
competence, text analytical competence and contrastive text competence, to mention some of the competences
necessary for a full mastery of writing. The list of competences and sub-competences needed by an expert
writer is far from being complete, as its range depends on the progress made in linguistics, sociolinguistics,
psycholinguistics, on other related disciplines, and on various culture-specific aspects that influence the process

3
of writing and the writing product. Viewed from an integrative, pedagogical-training perspective, the
acquisition of competences seeks to form and consolidate text production skills. If in the acquisition process of
competences the awareness of theoretical prerequisites can be raised through theoretical training, the practical
writing skills require intensive and comprehensive practical work and exercise.
The writer must draw his knowledge and writing competences from a multidisciplinary
‘pandemonium’, as he cannot simply start writing full of confidence that his product will automatically satisfy
the reader or the message receiver. First, texts belong to several well-defined types, all governed by
conventions and norms that set up certain expectations in the mind of the receiver, thus exerting pressure on
the writer, whose primary intention is to please his reader by providing him with the amount of knowledge,
information or delight he needs or expects. Second, writers delve into the field of register and genre, two
areas which are also governed by well-established norms, which he has to consciously observe. Another
important aspect which must be mustered by text producers is working with text sub-genres and being aware
of their discriminative markers.
The text as an outcome of the writing process should be as effective as possible and the information
conveyed by the text must be relevant to the receiver. Texts should be self-referential, and devised to function
by themselves, to communicate in their own right and to be read and understood as such.
Furthermore, effectiveness presupposes that the addressee engages in a decoding process which
entails a "processing effort". This means that in order to comprehend the sender's intentions transmitted via the
message the reader consumes more or less effort. Hence, he expects the message to be transmitted clearly and
consume less decoding effort. Finally, the receiver is interested in taking some benefit from the message, the
communicative benefit, in other words he expects some sort of gratification for his effort. This a further aspect
that the writer should pay attention to.
The writer or text producer should master the long array of texts with their predominant contextual
characteristics and their discriminative functions. Any teaching and training course for writers should therefore
comprise a classification of texts and should point out the minimal descriptions which would enable the traiee-
writer to understand and reproduce text types and genres.
To the traditional text dimension text producers have now added a new visual dimension.
Consequently, more and more text producers in various areas of concern, especially in the area of technical
texts for public consumption, following the promoters of the plain language reform resort to simplifications,
to diagramming techniques, to non-linear alternatives to prose, to graphical and somewhat unfamiliar and
unconventional ways of representing the message/the information content. A comprehensive outlook on the
ingredients necessary for the acquisition of textual competence cannot overlook this dimension either.

The writer needs to answer from the very first moment of engaging upon his writing activity a few
basic questions: What kind of writer does he wish to become?, What kind of texts does he aim to produce?,
Who is his reader?. He might be attracted by fiction and may wish to write novels or fictional texts, or might
be attracted more and find greater pleasure in writing functional texts, which are more practical-oriented and
serve pragmatic purposes.
Once he has answered the questions, he may engage in the process of learning how to write, and then,
later on, start writing. Another problem he faces is the amount of freedom he may benefit from as a writer.
This has to do with several aspects: what can he write, how much should he write, how should he write what
he intends to communicate to the reader?

1.3. The writer’s status

Within this extremely broad and diverse contextual panorama, there is yet another aspect which has
bearing on text (re)production, ie the writer's status, a status which the writer must be well aware of. Before
turning to the act of writing, what requires clarification is the creative freedom of the writer. Presumably, the
functional text producer has less control and influence over the product of his writing than other text

4
 producers, since these texts seem to be more convention-governed than others. In other words, the producer
of an ESP text is less in control of the process he goes through, and consequently has less freedom in choosing
the way in which he moulds his material and uses the inherent language ingredients. His being deprived of
his creative freedom is largely explained by the constraints exercised on him and on his writing, and which
come from the conventions exerted on him, from uniformity and the cognitive linguistic patterns dictated by
the text type or the genre he works in. This so-called linguistic determinism, ie linguistic stringency and
convention, affects the writer in that he undergoes a socialisation process resulting in an unconscious effort
to observe the norm and lose his creative freedom. In addition, the text producer delves into restricted and
specialised areas, a restriction which further restrains and limits his freedom. The texts produced must usually
be wrapped up in a clear and unmistakable language which, however, is 'obscured' by a number of
transformations operated by the writer, who intuitively, intentionally or not, withdraws from the text, thus
creating a distance between him and the message content. The factors causing this "detachment", accounting
for it and broadening the gap between the writer and his text, are at the same time factors which contribute to
the achievement of textual complexity. Such factors are:
• depersonification,
• passivisation transformations,
• premodification,
• nominalisation,
• formalisation (replacement of non-formal lexical forms with formal ones) or increasing
the level of formality,
• complexity of sentence structure etc.
Given the assumption that the linguistic freedom of the technical writer, for example, is dependent on
the degree of specialisation reflected in the text, it follows that texts situated at the highest level of specialisation
often deal with novel and complex concepts and to bring their message at home to the readers the writers must
use their linguistic imagination and creativity. Reversibly, the simpler the text is, the fewer linguistic
alternatives the writer has. Business letters and instructive texts are the best examples to illustrate the linguistic
stringency and conventions that the writer is exposed to and which deprive him of his creative freedom.

A sine qua non condition for all communication, verbal and written alike, is the communicators' full
participation in the verbal intercourse and their cooperation.
A further requirement (common to all types of communication) regards the message, which in order
to be optimal should be:
a) as informative as possible,
b) honest (reflect the communicator's beliefs),
c) relevant and
d) expressed in an orderly manner.
These qualities represent Grice's principles of communication and are intended to increase both the
communicative and the informative value of a text/utterance. If observed, all these preconditions will ensure
a successful written or oral communication.
Clarity is, however, not the major aim of all types of communication, as some communicative
situations are characterised by a certain degree of indeterminacy, in that the addresser's intentions are more or
less specific/specified. There are also situations when he deliberately wants to arrive at two or more meanings,
all of which are equally relevant. This is the case of everyday talk and fiction, but certainly not of functional
texts. In fiction the writer's need to obscure his intentions is more obvious and legitimate than in functional
writing or in scientific writing. In fiction the writer may wish deliberately or purposefully to be ambiguous,
while with technical writing or scientific writing this may not happen, as the primary function of such a text is
to inform. Consequently, all information conveyed must be clear and unambiguous.
For example, much technical writing is criticised for being verbose, pompous and lengthy, and
fatigues or at times confuses the reader with long, winding, twisted and interminable sentences. If the linguistic
complexity of a text leads to unnecessary processing effort in expert-to-expert communication (when even

5
specialists fail to interpret the message), or when the communicator goes well beyond the message content, he
flouts the basic principles of communication.
If indeed a text is obscure and incomprehensible even to the expert, the reason for this is not
necessarily the absence of communicative competence or of textual competence. The writer must be
permanently alert to all procedures (scientific, linguistic and otherwise) to all factors that are relevant to the
process of writing, and to all difficulties which may arise with a view to their ulterior settlement.

"How should the writer reach his audience?" is a question that the writer and the writing trainer need
to clarify. Does the writer always communicate with the audience optimally? It is common knowledge that a
considerable number of texts are far from being clear, in the sense that the communicator does not provide
sufficient clues as to what he actually wishes to communicate, thus troubling the reader with an increased
amount of effort needed for deciphering the message. This is indeed not a problem if the technical text is 'far
from clear' to a layman, but it certainly becomes one when the text lacks clarity to the addressee it was intended
for. Hence, a critical issue the writer has to deal with and at the same time one with a high degree of pragmatic
application, is that of the adaptation or adjustment of the message to the envisaged target audience. In this
respect, the writer should pay due attention to the types of audience he wishes to address (high-expert audience,
low-expert audience, lay audience and multiple audience) and the latter's familiarity with the subject matter
which represents the focus of the writer's informative and perlocutionary force. The trainee-writer must
understand the importance of the communicator's communicative competence, ie his ability to transmit the
intended message to the right person in the right way using the right words. The communicator's message
content adjustment to the envisaged audience requires prior knowledge of the audience and its requirements.
From the teaching point of view this is a good opportunity for the writing-trainees to be given practice in
recognising and producing different kinds of text for distinct types of audience with a view to increasing their
own awareness of the differences that discriminate the genre-text addressed to different types of audience.

1.4. The teacher’s role in teaching writing

Undoubtedly, the teaching mechanism for an effective and functional training should be a two-
component subject-specific, student-centred and demand-oriented module, where the components may not be
necessarily roughly separated into a theoretical-input component and a skill-developing component. Trainees
with a prior linguistic background can well immerse into the writing activity inferring many of the necessary
techniques and instruments from what they consider would best meet the genre and register-specific demands
they need to use. The only well accepted teaching paradigm is that the concepts and main principles should be
taught first, as they enhance or guarantee a better acquisition of writing competence and of the accompanying
skills. Skill formation will come as a derivative of the competence-forming process, and, at the same time, will
function as a feedback for the teacher.
The writer’s needs can be determined by the kind of writing the writer undertakes to write. Apart
from the necessary instruments of writing, he needs further knowledge about writing and a great amount of
patience as he writes. The ingredients mentioned in this chapter will undoubtedly assist the writer in improving
his competence and skills so as to fully satisfy the reader’s and his own expectations.
The text production teacher must become involved in a broad spectrum of activities that broadly
cover:
• planning,
• monitoring,
• mentoring and
• evaluating.
Planning further consists of:
• stating a goal for the activity

6
 • stating the purpose (a real-life or teaching purpose- ie involving the use of accurate
grammar etc), audience and details about the mode (letter, magazine article, report
and so on)
• thinking out the writing task(s)
• contextualizing the writing task
• grading the task
• choosing adequate models for the text type that will be used and mimicked
• working out or using a particular approach (discourse, genre etc)
• choosing the kind of text production work that he will use from group, pair, or
individual work, independent, interactive, or fully monitored etc
Using a genre-based approach (or a discourse-based approach) basically involves the analysis and
the use of representative examples of the text genre focused on:
• the macrostructure of the text (ie the obligatory and optional elements that surface in a text,
how they are organized and ordered)
• the texture of the text (ie how the text is made cohesive through specific devices)
• the lower features of grammar and vocabulary that involve the register of the text and
regard: field, tenor and mode.
Studying genre samples will further highlight: text contexts, the (social) purpose of the
text(s), the meaning-making potential of register features, genre-related features, and will
give learners access to means of text production that are highly valued in the target culture.
For example, writing a CV and an accompanying letter/cover letter is a highly formulaic text
production activity relying on a formulaic text type. Writing good CVs and accompanying
letters will help the CV holder acquire certain social advantages, including promotion
opportunities. Such qualities represent valuable assets for immigrants who wish to acquire a
new social status.
On the other hand, overemphasizing the theoretic analysis of the text, may put to risk the entire
activity. Neither would turn successful an entirely non-academic approach to text. The ‘have a go’ approach,
known as process writing is opposed to the genre-based approach and is associated by ardent genre-based
approach promoters as “uncontrolled self-expression and the perpetuation of mediocrity”(Thornbury, 2005,
pg 101).
A relatively softer approach to genre-based text production teaching would include, according
to Thornbury (2005), the following steps:
• the learner reads a text which is expected to be representative, ie comprise all major features
of a particular genre, and is asked comprehension questions, first very general ones, then
more detailed questions that would check the understanding of the text
• the learner is asked, then, to establish the function of the genre-text, its intended audience
and its role in the target culture
• the learner looks at other/further examples of the text type
• the learner is asked to compare the texts and identify their generic features, ranging from
overall structure, genre-specific elements, to the (rhetorical) use of language
• another approach is that of contrasting two texts that share a few features, but are
significantly different in one or more respects; for example, a formal letter on a topic may
be compared with one written in an informal tenor
• in the final stage the learner is asked to (re)produce the genre in a text of his own.
The steps outlined represent common sense teaching steps that help the trainee-writers to
become more familiar with the genre-text features and easy up their way into genuine text
productive activities.

7
 Monitoring permanently the process of writing means the full participation of the teacher in
all text production activities as ‚teacher-as-corrector’. This involves:
• setting the writing assignment specifying
o the kind of text,
o the purpose and
o the reader
• ensuring that the trainee-writers brainstorm the kinds of questions that the readers
would be likely to have answered
• making sure that/helping the writers answer all the (imagined or anticipated)
questions and expectations
• making sure that the trainee-writers give cohesion and coherence to texts
• assisting the writers in writing out the first draft
• assisting the writers in improving
• assisting in writing and re-writing
• assisting in proofreading and editing.
The mentoring responsibility of the teacher consists in offering permanent support and
intervening through teaching devices when the trainee-writer needs it or solicits it.
The assessment responsibility of the teacher will be dealt with in the chapter devoted to evaluation.
The assessment of the results and achievements through an accurate assessment ensures rapid
and effective adjustment to the changing professional needs and socio-linguistic or scientific
requirements.
The surveyed activities in which the teacher is involved foregrounds the major role played by him
in familiarizing writers with writing-related issues, both theoretical and practical, and giving him sufficient
practise in writing to enable him to produce good pieces of writing.

1.5. Free vs planned writing

Writing is a complex, challenging, and slowly developing process, which incorporates several sub-
component activities, that all play different parts in the overall scheme of text production. For teaching
purposes, we shall oversimplify the classification of writing into two approaches or categories: a somewhat
free-form approach to writing and a planned form approach.
We shall first tackle the free-form approach. The first activity involved in writing is that of thinking.
This means that a writer does not start writing without a preliminary act of thinking or contemplating, which
relates to:
• the topic he wishes to tackle,
• the form of writing he wishes to adopt,
• the audience he intends to address,
• the register he writes in,
• the amount of information/ideas he pours into his writing product.
This is the stage in which the writer thinks, dreams and imagines. Although, generally
speaking, writing is a planned activity, the writer may allow himself the freedom to react to
various stimuli and thoughts which occur as he writes. There will be moments when the ideas
or thoughts will refuse to come easily, when the writer feels blocked, and there will be others
when the words will simply pour down onto the paper. Although a writer should, in broad
lines, work out a writing timetable and follow it, he should take his time when engaging upon
8
 the task of writing, as he will probably get through a few drafts until he is completely satisfied
with his writing. While representing the expression of the writer’s thoughts, writing is a means
of helping the writer:
▪ absorb new knowledge, impressions, feelings into the material,
▪ develop new ideas,
▪ change assumptions,
▪ re-consider old ideas, and
▪ reflect on what he learns as he moves on with his task.
If the writer seeks to find the best way to communicate with his reader successfully and effectively,
he must be clear from the very outset about what he wants to transmit to his reader. This is why a conscious
writer makes a plan first, and then goes through several drafts before the final version is produced. For such
a writer, the final writing product is a serious commitment and he pays utmost attention to all the elements
and activities that he undertakes.

The planned approach has been adopted by good and experienced writers and by researchers.
Despite the fact that studies in text production were relatively few, they have developed in
the last decade as a result of the impetus given by the progress made in several related disciplines.
Studies of writing have been the outcome of the growth of linguistics, of English for Specific
Purposes, of first and second language teaching/learning, of applied linguistics etc. While dealing
with other aspects, these emerging disciplines shed light on various aspects of text production as
well.
The questions that troubled the minds of researchers who tackled writing circled first around issues
like: what do writers do when they write? What kind of behaviour do writers have, including experience
and skills, what stages and what activities do writers become involved in before and during writing? The
researchers, however, agreed on one thing, that writing is a process. In fact, they admitted that it is a complex
process made up of a number of operations that are going on simultaneously. Apparently, some writers
seem to have a better and clearer understanding or awareness of their mission, of how to make the process
work effectively for them and heir readers, and, as a consequence, they produce better pieces of writing.
There is common recognition that the process of writing contains a number of stages which were
represented graphically by Tricia Hedge (1988) in the following order: being motivated to write- getting
ideas together- planning and outlining- making notes- making a first draft- revising- re-planning- re-
drafting- editing- getting the material ready for publication. The diagram drawn by T. Hedge is an
oversimplified graphical representation. Although writing, in general, involves all the stages mentioned,
the process of writing, in particular that of composition, is not a linear one moving from planning through
composing to revising and editing. Researchers agreed that the process of writing looks rather like a
recursive process or activity, in which the writer moves backwards and forwards between drafting and
revising, with stages of planning in between. As Shaughnessy (1977) describes it, “it is a messy process
that leads to clarity”
A good writer answers two basic questions while he writes: one, which has to do with the purpose
of his piece of writing and another which refers to his audience. Both answers provide him with a writing
context, which significantly influences the first stages of writing or composing process, particularly that of
exploring possible content areas and planning outlines.
Good writers usually have a plan for writing at the stage of answering the two questions,
while others do not. The representation taken from Tricia Hedge (1988, pg 22) provides a diagram
with the kinds of writing ranging from relatively spontaneous writing to carefully planned forms
of writing.

a letter of complaint an academic paper

9
spontaneous to a manufacturer for publication planned

A postcard a memo to a
to family colleague

The amount of time spent by the writer on any of the parts will depend in the first place on the type
of writing the writer engages in. For example, for writing a letter to a friend for the sole purpose of updating
her on the latest news, the writer will only scribble down a few things, and will certainly not spend a long
time planning ahead what and how to write the ideas. If, for example, the writer wishes to draw up a report
for the next company board meeting, s/he will spend mush more time not only on planning, but on all
sections and stages of writing.
Planning as a process may involve a variety of component activities, ranging from some points
jotted down to be included on a list, to drawing mind maps or spidergrams, and writing extensive and
elaborate outlines. Planning will be dealt with in the following section, Pre-writing.
However, in general, the process of writing has been frequently described as consisting of three
major activities: pre-writing, writing and post-writing.

1.6. Pre-writing

1.6.1. Purpose, content and audience

It has become common knowledge that before putting down pen to paper, the skilled writer considers
two important issues. The first refers to the purpose of his writing, and stands for the function of his
piece of writing. The first question he asks himself is: What is the purpose of my writing? For example,
is it an explanation of how something works, which has to be accurately and carefully detailed, and
extremely clear? Is it a report in which the writer needs to be persuasive and stimulate action? Is it an
advertisement or a job application letter? Identifying the purpose becomes really important, since it will
influence the choice of format, the choice of organizational pattern, the choice of register, language,
style etc. that the writer will use.
The purpose must be considered the ultimate goal of the writing process and must be permanently kept
in mind. If the writer is clear about his purpose, this will be evident also to the reader.
Long before writing, the composer or text producer begins thinking about and contemplating the topic
and the message he intends to convey to the reader. Some pieces of writing are answers to a question
posed by an examiner, by an academic authority or a company official. If this is the case, what the
writer writes is governed by the question posed and the ideas are carefully constructed around the
question. Therefore, a writer should start with a careful analysis of the question, as, most of the time,
the question contains clues that help the writer define his own writing purpose. Analysing the question
represents an attempt to understand what the question-setter expects from the writer. The analysis of
the question must focus on the identification of verbs, since strong clues come from them. Verbs
customarily provide clear instructions about what is requested from the writer. Such verbs include the
range: define, assess, discuss, narrate, describe, analyse etc. Often looking for the verb is not enough,
as clues also come from the other value-laden words in the question. For example in the requirements
given below, the key words have been underlined:
Narrate the main events of the Prime Minister’s term of office.

10
 Milton’s minor poems are major ones. Discuss.
Analyse causes of violence in our society.

As the writer writes in response to different questions he goes through several analytical thought
processes, which are instruments in organizing his thinking and writing properly in compliance with the
given requirements. The instruments lie in a few broad categories of question, which also represent basic
linguistic functions:
▪ comparison and contrast
▪ narration
▪ description
▪ cause and effect
▪ theories and opinions
▪ explanation and argument.

Comparison and contrast makes the writer consider similarities and differences regarding
concepts, terms, events, people, feelings etc ranging from familiar to unfamiliar, from known to
unknown.

Narration as a distinct type of writing orders a sequence of events correctly and logically. Narrative
writing also contains an element of description. Narratives are likely to occur in historical accounts
and fiction writing.

Description. The purpose of a description is to convey an accurate, clear and coherent picture of a
person, object, process, event or procedure. A description often serves a particular aim, such as: to
make popular a person, to highlight or advertise a place, to inform people on processes or
procedures. The aim also establishes the function of the description and dictates what will receive
emphasis and what will not be emphasised. For example, a description commissioned for official
purposes, e.g. a police report, will focus on the person’s physical appearance, conveying an
accurate, and clear description, while other types of description may focus on his habits, lifestyle,
strengths etc.

Sometimes the writer is requested to provide a presentation in terms of cause and effect. This
function is based on logical thinking and allows the writer to explore ideas and possibilities, to use
his imagination and be creative. A prime requirement is that the writer should use accurate evidence
for what he writes under the form of personal experience, experiments, hypotheses, research etc.
Such a type of writing is used particularly in historical and scientific writing.

In many cases the writer comes across theories and opinions. Theories are principles suggested to
explain observed facts or phenomena. All disciplines have underlying doctrines and principles,
which are expressed in theories. In order to better explain to the reader the theory the writer should
practise explaining it to himself. A guiding question for the writer in such a case would be: What
is the significance of the theory to me and to others?
If the writer is asked to offer his opinion on a matter, he should do so without any hesitation. He
can compare theories, contrast them, and finally, even provide his own theory to the reader.

Explanation and argumentation is argumentative writing. Explanation means clarifying,

illustrating the meaning of something. The writer may have to explain a theory, a principle, a
concept, an issue, event, procedure etc. If the writer wishes to persuade the reader of the validity of
the explanation, he may further defend his stance by developing and exposing a well-thought out
and reasoned argument.

11
 The second issue is the addressee and the question that the writer should ask himself is: Who am I
writing for? This question refers to the target audience. The reader may be an individual the writer knows
well, or may be an unknown person, or a group of persons, an institution or an examiner. Knowing the
reader and his expectations and/or requirements helps the writer
• select his material, the amount of necessary material he wishes to communicate to the
reader,
• choose the best way to convey his intended message, and finally,
• use the most appropriate style and tone (formal, informal, serious, tentative, directive etc).
A conscious writer devotes a considerable attention to the audience he writes for. He considers his
audience carefully, focusing on the elements that link him to his audience, including: language, common
assumptions, beliefs, shared experiences etc.
The audience has a considerable bearing on what the writer writes and how he writes. The audience
represents the second great influence that is exerted on the writer. Writing will be different according to
who the writer is writing for. For example, the description of an accident witnessed will be described
differently to different persons. If the accident must be described to the ambulance people who arrive at the
site of the accident, and who need to act thereon, the description will insist on how the accident happened
and how it impacted the injured, using more medical terms and vocabulary. If the description is addressed
to a policeman, it must accurately render the conditions in which the accident occurred to help the police
establish the guilty party; it should be carried out in a formal manner, insisting on technical and traffic-
related details. If the description is made to a bystander whose first language is not English then the
description should avoid technical or medical terms, or highly formal vocabulary. If the description is
solicited by a friend, an informal description may well communicate what happened.
The answers to both questions (What is the purpose of my writing? and Who am I writing for?)
provide the writer with clues about the purpose of his piece of writing and the audience, in other words
with a writing context, which significantly influences the first stages of writing or composing process, that
of exploring possible ideas and planning ahead.

1.6.2. Choosing the format

Depending on the subject the writer wishes to write about, he will choose a certain format. The
most common formats are:
▪ essays
▪ reports
▪ reviews
▪ articles
▪ questionnaires
▪ theses or dissertations.
Again, before starting writing, the writer must ask himself the questions:
▪ What is the overall purpose of my writing?
▪ Who will read the work?
▪ What are the envisioned objectives?
These questions will have a great influence on the chosen format, as for most of the required
written activities there are certain norms and conventions established by the domain or field that the writer
writes in and by the chosen topic.
This means that certain subjects use certain formats rather than others. For example, if the writer’
domain is maths or a science he is more likely to use questionnaires, statistics, tables etc. and less likely to

12
write essays. Business researchers and experts will write reports, statistics etc, while humanity subjects will
be expressed in essays or theses.
The chosen format will depend partly on the amount of material, on the audience, and their
expectations, and partly on the writer’s own approach. However, some subjects can be best expressed in a
certain format. It is, indeed, helpful for writers to be aware of the functions or purposes of some writing
formats.

Essays explore a studied topic, bringing together the writer’s knowledge on the subject and
applying some of the writer’s knowledge to a particular question

seminar papers communicate ideas on a particular topic which may

serve as a basis for discussions

reports put together information on a solicited or unsolicited topic

make recommendations based on the writer’s conclusions
indicate that the methods used for research are as important as the research itself

questionnaires elicit information from other people on a particular topic

theses or
dissertations show personal contribution(s) to a topic, or knowledge;
they involve research, evaluation and interpretation and are customarily completed
at the end of a form of study

reviews express personal opinion and interpretation of a book, a film, a play or other
performance

articles provide information to a wider audience in a journal or periodical.

The subject will also call for the use of a particular style or structure.

1.6.3. Choosing the discipline

Both the content and the form of writing will be influenced by the discipline in which the writer
delves. The writer is expected to use and comply with the conventions of the subject area.
Traditionally, there are several areas of study:
▪ humanities
▪ natural sciences
▪ social sciences
▪ computer science and IT
Our decade is marked by a great deal of interdisciplinarity and there is a notable and sustained
emergence of computer science and new technologies. However, despite the variety of areas and the
differences between them, the elements that remain constant are:
o the need for clarity,
o the need to observe the cultural norms and institutional conventions.
It is noteworthy to know, however, that each discipline has its own substance and methodology.
The main areas of study or scientific inquiry are given below with their substance:

13
 Humanities include: art, languages, history, literature, media, philosophy etc. and deal with the
study of human experiences and their forms of representation. It is believed that most work
performed in the humanities is a matter of interpretation, but on the other hand, experiments and
logic are not ignored as methods of investigation and interpretation.

Social sciences focus on the individual, society and the relationship established between them.
They investigate and explore human nature, looking for behavioural and social patterns. The
observations and findings of experiments carried out in the area of social sciences are likely to be
expressed in essays and scientific reports.

Natural sciences integrate: chemical, biological, geological and physical processes which take
place in our world. The investigations and experiments presented aim at finding and describing
patterns in natural phenomena in an attempt to explain and predict other phenomena. The
resulting findings and observations will be laid down in scientific reports.

Applied sciences, branch out from natural sciences and refer to: engineering, medicine, nursing,
agriculture. They will make use of the same methods and express recommendations and practical
solutions to problems.

Computer science/IT is a new, emerging discipline with a scientific substance but which uses the
same methods as those used by science-related disciplines.

1.6.4. Further operations. Brainstorming, note-taking

After having completed a few of the preliminary operations, the writer must make an inventory of the
valid ideas, thoughts, and the material, in general, that would go into his piece of writing. In this respect,
he may use some of the following techniques and operations:
1 brainstorming
2 making notes
a. jotting notes
b. making lists
c. making random notes
d. mind-mapping
e. taking notes
f. making elaborate notes
g. making mental plans like
”I’ll start by describing the problems…”
3 gathering information, storing information
4 organising information and material
5 planning

14
The mentioned techniques can be re-arranged in an array going out from the simplest forms like: jotting
down a few words that the writer finds helpful, making simple lists with ideas enumerated in a logical
or chronological order, making mind maps or spider diagrammes, taking (additional) notes, making
more elaborate or patterned notes and, finally, making elaborate plans or outlines.
Making a mental plan may be helpful but not extremely consistent. Therefore, after having a broad
mental plan, a good writer will think his material thoroughly through and finally produce an elaborate
plan or an outline.
For teaching purposes we shall briefly survey the techniques below.
Brainstorming is a way of stimulating ideas and finding answers to different problems. It helps the
writer in several ways. First, it helps him to survey what he already knows on the topic and bring
in new ideas. It also builds confidence in the writer’s own cognitive and writing capacity and helps
him to gradually clarify the way the known things can be further structured and organised. De facto,
brainstorming means thinking about anything that springs to one’s mind and is related to a given
or suggested topic.

Mind-mapping is another way of finding out all one knows about a topic. As a pre-requisite to
mind-mapping, the writer must put aside all other concerns, ie clear his mind from everything else
except for the task he needs to accomplish. He may then write his thoughts related to the topic in
the form of a mind-map, also called a spider diagram. This technique stimulates thinking by
replicating the associations made in someone’s mind. It can also be successfully used as a note-
taking form for lectures and other purposes. It is helpful in that, if a writer thinks he does not know
anything about the subject, and finally works out a mind-map, it may build confidence in the
writer’s resources. Such a map grows out from a single word or the title, or the subject matter
written in the middle of a blank sheet of paper, and progresses as the writer adds new words, items
etc that radiate from the central idea.
The technique is based on the use of free cognitive associations. The main purpose thereof is to
stimulate ideas and creativity. Another advantage of this technique is that it also indicates the
relationship between ideas and thoughts, the way ideas are stringed and related together.

Making notes is a useful procedure often resorted to by writers. It can be however carried out in at
least three ways.
First, the writer or note-taker can simply copy everything he comes across in his readings that is
directly related to the investigated topic. This procedure is not helpful in that it does not help the
writer understand the matter.
Another way is to start taking notes after having finished reading or interviewed the interviewee.
This will serve as a reminder to the writer of certain, relevant items, and, at the same time, it will
teach him something.
Yet, there is a third way of making notes, one which deals with unknown and unfamiliar issues,
theories, terms, concepts. If the writer or note-taker comes across such items, he will try to
understand their meaning first and then try to find a place for them in his knowledge on the subject.
This kind of making notes is helping the note-taker to become involved in the material.
The way the notes are taken is not very important; what is really crucial is the thought one puts into
it. It is generally assumed that, in time, each individual will develop his own method of taking notes
that best works for him and will gradually improve it.

1.6.5. Gathering material

15
 Part of the material the writer intends to use is there in his mind, while a great amount of material
is out there awaiting to be gathered from various sources and explored. The sources used depend on the
subject and the nature of the investigation. Different subjects and disciplines will require different sources.
In the following lines you will find some typical sources of information, that are generally accessible to all
writers:
▪ libraries and resource centres
▪ record offices
▪ personal interviews
▪ books
▪ newspapers and periodicals
▪ television and radio
▪ laboratory, experience
▪ your own personal experience and ideas.
Gathering material is not easy. Careful consideration and scrutiny must be given to the sources of
information which are most likely to provide the writer with accurate, up-dated information.
Prior to undertaking any information-collection activity, the writer will need to carry out some
reconnaisance to discover if each of the intended sources really meets his needs and expectations. A
writer can do this by:
▪ skimming the contents and indexing pages of a book
▪ questioning the librarian and talking to him
▪ interviewing briefly the interviewee/those involved
▪ skimming the contents of newspapers, periodicals and reviews.

1.6.6. Organizing information

Notes are useful only if they are organized adequately. Here are some suggestions of organizing
the material:
▪ use index cards with one main point on each; further information can be added
subsequently, and the cards can be numbered and coloured to foreground certain ideas;
▪ write on scraps of paper with a main point on each scrap; they can be shuffled until the
writer obtains the desired and valid order;
▪ use ordinary paper, but leave plenty of space between the main points; cut up the pieces
and stick together all papers that relate to one main point;
▪ make mind-maps or spider diagrammes;
▪ write the questions you need to answer on separate sheets and fill each with the ideas that
relate to them.
The material planned out for a piece of writing can be organized in different ways. Often it seems
appropriate to organize the material chronologically or by different categories, or by a hierarchy that is
implicit in the subject matter. Regardless of the method used for organizing the material, the task must
be completed prior to writing.
Sometimes a writer tries out several ways of organizing his material before he draws up the outline or
plan for his work. Particular attention should be paid to the subject matter, which sometimes requires a
particular organization and approach.

1.6.7. Planning

16
 If the writer has gathered his material and has broadly sorted it out, he is prepared to move on to
the next stage, ie to creating a structure, writing a plan or an outline for his intentions. No matter how much
material he has gathered he will not be able to handle more than a few points, in addition to the introduction
and summary.
The structure should consist mainly of three parts:
Introduction- in which the reason or purpose for writing is stated and
an outline of the content is displayed
Main body in which the points are addressed and dealt with
Conclusion an ending, which summarizes the content and draws a
conclusion to what has been presented.

An efficient way of planning the structure of a piece of writing is by creating an outline, which
consists of the bare bones or the backbone of a piece of writing. This will be ‘fleshed out’ later on in the
first draft. As this is the skeleton that holds together the construct, it is important that it be well-designed,
strong and suggestive. The outline must follow the norms and the conventions that govern the discipline in
which the writer writes, indicating a carefully constructed hierarchical structure/organization. If the piece
of writing is an essay, for example, the structure moves from general to specific, or in an argumentative
text, the examples follow and support the argument.
Plans can also take other forms, such as: a mind map, a flow chart or a tree diagram. Mind mapping
is both a strategy for note making and a simple way of planning ahead. In both latter cases the main points
are arranged in order of importance with the most important ones at the top, or higher on the page. This will
enable the writer to visualize the structure, including the way the points relate to one another. Irrespective
of the form of the plan, it is crucial that it shows clearly:
▪ the sequence of points
▪ the structure
▪ the relative importance of points to one another.

In any type of writing, including the essay, it is important that the structure moves form general to
specific, from assertion to proof.

Some good pieces of advice or suggestions regarding the outline are the following:
▪ Indicate the main, general or abstract points by Roman numerals, I, II, III.
▪ Support these by more specific statements, represented by letters: A, B, C.
▪ Give examples and precise information (1,2,3).
▪ Offer quotations, references, examples a, b, c. to maintain interest
▪ Even more specific details (i, ii, iii) help to stir and create interest.

Plans, just like the entire writing process, are subject to subsequent changes and improvements.
Even when relatively elaborate plans are prepared, good writers change their ideas as they write and re-
shape their plans, a phenomenon acknowledged by H. Widdowson (1983), who admitted that ‘in writing
one so frequently arrives at a destination not originally envisaged, by a route not yet planned for in the
original itinerary’.
In fact, as observed by T. Hedge (1988) it is poorer writers who regard plans as ‘straight–jackets’
and who follow the original plan without deviating from it, and not allowing into it any novel ideas or
further improvements.

17
 Planning ends up the pre-writing stage, which basically frames the preliminary activities. Once
these have been completed, the writer can confidently move on to the next step, ie drafting, which is part
of the second stage, writing.

1.7. Writing and re-writing

The second stage in writing is writing and re-writing. With most writers this means producing several
drafts until the piece of writing clearly expresses the writer’s intentions in a way that the reader will
understand and find satisfaction in.
Writing proper with some writers consists in making a first draft.
Drafting is the process through which the writer begins transforming the notes and plans into a
coherent, logical piece of work, consisting of sentences and paragraphs. This is the operation that
necessitates full focus on getting the thoughts down on paper in the right order and the right way. This
means ‘fleshing out’ the plan or the outline with all the prepared material, and filling out all gaps. At this
stage writers concentrate on getting the ideas right and pay little attention to spelling, punctuation and
grammar errors etc, which they check during the editing and proofreading stage.
Making the first draft is generally interrupted as the writer stops to read over and review what he
has written, in order to:
▪ get an idea of how the text is unfolding
▪ revise the plan
▪ bring in new ideas or
▪ re-arrange the already expressed ones.

Revision involves evaluating what has been achieved and deciding on the following points:
▪ clarity in conveying the message to the reader
▪ capacity to convey the message completely
▪ strength and power of argumentation or persuasion
▪ accuracy and adequacy of vocabulary vis-à-vis the writer’s intention
▪ deletion of redundancies, insertion of missing parts
▪ overall structure, paragraph structure,
▪ section links, coherence
▪ sentence complexity.
Generally speaking, the drafting process focuses primarily on what the writer wants to say, while
the redrafting process focuses on how to say it most effectively.
The amount of time devoted to this stage varies according to:
1. writing-determinants
2. the writer’s own skills and work experience.
The writing and re-writing stage is an involved activity that involves what the writer wants to say
and how he wants to say it. It consists of making one or several drafts which turn into a coherent, unified
whole. The writer’s craft is best reflected in the product’s capacity to clearly, meaningfully and powerfully
transmit the message as a result of the writer’s observing the writing norms.

1.8. Post-writing. Editing

The third stage in writing is post-writing or editing. This stage consists of reading through the
text, applying to it the reader’s perspective, and making the necessary adjustments. This is done with a

18
view to assessing how clearly the reader may follow the ideas and understand the message. Editing makes
the final re-adjustments and checks accuracy so that the text is rendered maximally accessible to the reader.
Some writers tend to think that if the text is clear to them, it should be clear to the reader as well.
Poorer writers have the tendency to concentrate more on spelling and grammar instead of getting their ideas
right and observing the overall structure. They move forwards and backwards from drafting to editing
without any consideration and attention devoted to rethinking, reorganizing writing etc.
Good and skilled writers, alike, pour down their streams of thought onto paper first during the writing
and rewriting stage, and, then, focus on editing and proofreading.
Proofreading is fundamentally an activity which is indicative of the writer’s intention to serve his
audience. It also shows the courtesy the writer pays to the reader. If the text is accurate, clear and
grammatically correct it will be more accessible to the reader, who will consume less effort to decipher it.
If the writer does not verify and remedy the grammar, spelling and punctuation errors, the text will still
make sense to the reader, but he will enjoy it less, and reading it will be more difficult. Consequently, the
reader’s benefit will depend on the writer’s capacity to clearly and correctly transmit his message. Equally,
the writer’s attention will be directed towards observing the aspects or processes that are crucial for the
qualities of the final product. The aspects that the writer needs to pay attention to are:
▪ chunking
▪ spelling
▪ punctuation
▪ style
▪ grammatical awkwardness.
Chunking is the devise that assists the writer in segmenting the text into meaningful units. At the
same time, chunking rests on the writer’s skill to use commas, full stops and other punctuation marks in the
right place to make the written text meaningful, and reduce the reader’s effort of phrasing the material
intelligibly. In developing this skill there are two techniques: the first is to use a reliable reference book on
punctuation, the second is to ask somebody else, a friend or a teacher etc to read the material through and
indicate the places where the text is less intelligible. This enables the writer to correct the errors easily and
make the text accessible through chunking.
There are two further strategies used by writers that can improve intelligibility. One is dividing very
long sentences into shorter ones. It is common knowledge that the longer the sentence, the more unlikely
it is that the writer can control linguistically the logical connections between its parts. The other is
rearranging the parts of a sentence. Both devices or techniques can be used to keep the parts of a sentence
that are most related together, and to position the topic of a sentences as early as possible in the sentence.
These devices represent a few suggestions or guidelines for breaking very long and unintelligible
sentences into shorter ones in order to make them more accessible to the reader. However, there is no
guarantee that the writer uses the devices to the full benefit of the reader.
Spelling errors distract the reader rather than impede comprehension. The suggested techniques for
precluding errors are:
▪ to identify the errors
▪ have someone else identify them and correct them.
Nowadays word processors offer an instrument bar with a spelling corrector, which automatically
identifies the errors and gives suggestions for their rectification. The old dictionaries which have been
extremely helpful in correcting spelling errors have been overtaken by more elaborate and extensive
computer on-line dictionaries and glossaries which give you suggestions and a fast correction of the
misspelled word.
Many spelling errors are caused by the difference between American and British spelling. The
confusion has been fuelled by the more frequent use of American spelling over the English spelling. There

19
are fields, like computing literature and sciences where even English writers or scientists adopt the
American spelling for at least two reasons:
• the scientific community may be dominated by Americans, and, in that case, they set the
rule, and
• the other users have become so familiar with the American spelling, that they started using
it.
However, the writer is at liberty to adopt any spelling he chooses, but once he made a decision
regarding the spelling norms he uses, he must be consistent about it.
Being consistent in the way the writer makes use of punctuation turns out to be extremely
important, as punctuation marks, like full stops and commas, frame thought units and for this purpose they
must be used adequately. Their misuse may turn the text unintelligible to the reader.
Regardless of the type of writing approached, functional or fictional, the writer should pay
particular attention to the use of punctuation. The following uses may function as reminders of the
punctuation norms which are in use both for functional and for fictional writing:

Use of period
▪ after a complete sentence
▪ after a polite request
▪ after an indirect question
▪ after most abbreviations
▪ after a number or letter that shows an enumeration.
No period is used after:
▪ a centred title
▪ even amounts of money in sentences
Spacing after a period:
▪ one space/ two spaces after a period at the end of the sentence
▪ one space after a period at the end of an abbreviation
▪ no space after a period within an abbreviation
Use of colon
▪ after the salutation in letters
▪ to introduce a list of items
▪ between hours and minutes when time is expressed in figures
▪ in expression of proportion to represent the word to
Spacing after colon:
▪ one space/two spaces after a colon in sentences
▪ no space between reference initials, proportion and time of day
Use of semicolon:
▪ to replace a conjunction between independent clauses in a compound sentence
▪ if the clauses in a compound sentence contain one or more commas, a semicolon is used
before the conjunction
Spacing after semicolon
▪ one space is used after the semicolon.
Use of comma:
▪ to connect two independent clauses connected by a conjunction

20
 ▪ to separate items or a series of words, phrases or clauses
▪ after a subordinate clause when it comes first in a sentence
▪ before and after an abbreviation when it completes a series
▪ to introduce a short quotation
▪ with parenthetical expressions
▪ to separate the day from the year in dates
▪ after the complimentary close in letters
▪ before titles, degrees
▪ between cities and provinces.

Consistency also refers to the use of capitals, and underlining, or italicised words, as an alternative
to inverted commas for the title of books, journals, and articles.
Consistency should be also related to the use of commas after sentence modifiers such as ‚however’,
when they appear in initial position, and both before and after, when they are used in other positions.
The use of semi-colons is fairly difficult, therefore it is easier for the writer to replace them with
commas and full stops, or occasionally with a connecting word preceded by a comma.
Next in importance to punctuation rules are grammar rules. Mastery of grammar rules and of
writing skills gives the writer not only confidence in his potential but contributes significantly to the
avoidance of grammatical awkwardness. Grammar errors occur even with writers who are well cognizant
of grammar rules, when they write very fast and follow their stream of thought. It lies in these writers’
power to deal with the errors, if only they reread their material carefully and thoroughly. It is time only that
can make the difference.
Stylistic inelegance is achieved through the use of a tedious rhythm, an inadequate rhyme, verbal
repetitions etc in prose writing or writing where they should be avoided. Another common and disliked
stylistic fault is uniformity, ie being too monotonous, particularly in terms of sentence length and type. This
can be avoided by alternating the length of sentences and their type. Too choppy and short sentences make
the reader jerk from one idea to another, while too long sentences containing too many words will bury the
message and bore the reader quickly. To maintain the reader’s interest and not confuse him, every sentence
should contain one main idea. Shifts in tenses and voice, in person and number should be equally avoided,
as such changes will only confuse the reader, who will not be able to follow the logical development of
ideas. Writers should beware of the use of a balanced structure of sentences, which means that similar ideas
should be expressed in the same kind of grammatical pattern. According to this principle, a parallel structure
matches an adjective with an adjective, a noun with a noun, a phrase with a phrase, a clause with a clause.
Further, paragraph writing is equally difficult, as the writer has again to be aware of a few rules or
norms:
▪ the paragraph should be made of several related sentences
▪ it should form a complete thought unit
▪ it should show a logical development of the topic
▪ must form a unified, coherent whole
▪ it should contain a topic sentence, the most general thought, and other/adjoining sentences
that explain, expand, exemplify, illustrate the central idea
▪ it may move either from general to specific or may follow the specific-to-general pattern
▪ it must be well connected through adequate sentence connectors.

The mentioned rules and principles are extremely relevant to the process of writing as they have a
direct impact on the final product. Awareness of the tasks involved in the post-processing stage of writing
is a first step in improving the quality of the product of writing.

21
 Awareness of the writer’s skills can be raised through two means: either through sheer experience,
ie going through all writing stages and looking thoroughly at all operations completed, including the
product, or surveying the necessary skills by answering a few questions which make up a potential checklist
of the writer’s profile. The checklist or profile (also given below) is far from being complete. However, it
gives the writer an overview of the resources he possesses, thus enabling him to make writing predictions.
At the same time, it offers him the opportunity to know what areas he needs to improve on.
In general, writing skills evaluation regards two broad categories of skills: writing skills and
language skills. Though there is no clear-cut distinction between the two categories, we can, however,
isolate them in the following checklist models.

Checklist for writing skills

No Skills Very Good Poor

good
Organising ideas
Understanding writing and
cultural customs
Understanding and using
particular types of writing
Taking the reader into account
Linking paragraphs
Using sources
Writing skills: summarising,
reporting, comparing. etc
Forecasting
Relating new ideas and own ideas
to existing knowledge
Selecting ideas for the reader
Expressing complex ideas
Accurate writing

Checklist of language skills

Skills Very Good Poor

good

1. Accurate writing: being

exact
2. Use of verb tenses
3. Propositions/transitional
expressions/sentence
connectors
4. Punctuation

22
 5. Long sentences

The third step in writing is going through some or all devices and procedures recommended above.
Following them will further help the writer settle most of his process and product-related problems and
ensure the production of a good piece of writing.

23