BS ENGLISH LITERATURE LINGUISTICS

NOTES.

Department of English Literature & Linguistics

Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.

TEFL-ll

TEFL-ll Full Notes

By : Sir dawood seid
📓.

TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
 . TEFL-ll.

✨↪Syllabus.
___________________

1️⃣ ) Course book .

a) What is acoursebookk? b) background to the design and use of course books c) the
need of course book d)coursebookk assessment e) using acoursebookk f)
supplementary materials.

2️⃣ ) Lesson plan .

a) what does a lesson plan involve b) lesson preparation c)varying lesson components d)
evaluating lesson effectiveness e) practical lesson management.

3️⃣ ) Classroom Discipline.

a) What is discipline b) what does a disciplined classroom look like? c) what teacher
action is conducive to a disciplined classroom? d) discipline problems e) dealing with
discipline problems.

4️⃣ ) Classroom interaction.

a) Patterns of classroom interaction b) questioning c) group work d individualizationn e)
the selection of appropriate activation techniques.

5️⃣ ) Testing .
a) What is testing b) kinds of test and testing c) testing writing d) testing oral ability e)
testing reading f) testing listening.

6️⃣ ) Giving Feedback.

a) Different approaches to the nature and function of feedback b) assessment c)
correcting mistakes in oral work d) written feedback.
 7️⃣ ) Teaching vocabulary .
a) What is vocabulary and what needs to be taught? b) Presenting new vocabulary c)
remembering vocabulary d) testing vocabulary.

8️⃣ ) Teaching Grammar.

a) What is grammar? b) The place of grammar in teaching c) presenting and explaining
grammar d) some grammar practice activities e) grammatical mistakes.

9️⃣ ) Younger and older learners .

a) What difference does age make to language learning? b) Teaching children c) teaching
adolescents d) teaching adults.

Suggested readings:
1) The Practice of English Language Teaching by Jeremy Harmer Longman.
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 Chapter ( 1️⃣ ) TEFL-ll
1️⃣ ) Course book .
a) What is acoursebookk? b) background to the design and use of course books c) the need of
course book d)coursebookk assessment e) using acoursebookk f) supplementary materials.
_________________________

a) What is acoursebook?
The term ’coursebook’ is used here to mean a textbook of which the teacher and, usually, each student
has a copy, and which is in principle to be followed systematically as the basis for a language course.
⭐WHAT IS A COURSE BOOK?
Graves, 2000:175 defines a course book as;
"(a book used as a standard source of information for formal study of a subject and an instrument for
teaching and learning.)"
⭐How necessary is a coursebook?
The answer to this question necessarily depends on your own teaching style, the resources available to
you and on the accepted way of doing things in your institution.

Personally, I very much prefer to use a coursebook. I find that a set framework helps me to regulate and
time my programme; and, perhaps paradoxically, provides a firm jumping-off point for the creation of
imaginative supplementary teaching ideas. Moreover, in my experience learners too prefer to have
one; those classes which I have tried to teach on the basis of a selection from different sources have
complained of a sense of lack of purpose, and, interestingly, that they feel that their learning is not
taken seriously. It seems that the possession of a coursebook may carry a certain prestige.

⭐ Why teachers use textbooks:

▸ Extremely difficult to develop materials.
▸ Time-consuming and demanding process to develop new materials.
►Textbooks lessen preparation time, provide ready-made activities and provide concrete
samples of classroom progress through which external stakeholders can be satisfied.

__________________

b) background to the design and use of course books 📖.

👉 Coursebooks provide basic framework lessons and so save time. Coursebook structure is
especially useful for lower level learners and for inexperienced or busy teachers. ... But teachers need
to be trained to use them effectively. Some students can be reassured by having a coursebook.
👉 There are good reasons why many teachers use published coursebooks, amongst them: They
provide language input for learners. Well-designed coursebooks can be motivating and provide a
logical organization of content. They offer a written record of what has been studied and allow
students to review it later.
____________________
c) the need of course .
⭐ Why do we need textbooks?
👉 Textbooks help teachers and learners in this regard. They play a vital role in the teaching-learning
process. They provide the basic framework within which much of the classroom activities occur and
also give every child the best possible opportunities for learning.
👉 The textbook determines the components' and method of learning. It controls the contents, the
method and the procedures of learning. Students learn what is presented in the textbook, in other
words the way the textbook presents materials is the way the students learn it.
__________________
d)coursebook assessment.
By course book assessment we mean the bases or grounds upon which we select a book (whether it
has enough sources or contents on a specific course) or we reject or criticize it. So there are some
criteria relating to the appropriateness of the book for the population who learn or study it. The criteria
may be general like clear layout and test section etc or specific like relevant materials to the topic or
attractive illustration and photography ( in case of younger learners ).

⭐ Criteria for assessment of course book:

Following are some criteria for assessment of a course book.
Approach socially as well as educationally to the target community.
Clear and attractive layout.
Clear print which is easy to read.
Enough visual materials available especially in case of younger learner.

⭐ Criteria for course book assessment:

Interesting tasks and topics.

Clear instructions.
Gradual movement of topics and tasks.
Variety in topics and tasks.
Cover syllabus systematically.
Tests sections.
Use of authentic language.
Vocabulary explanation and practice.

⭐ Criteria for course book assessment :

Focus on all skills of target language.

Availability of grammar practice.
Pronunciation practice.
 Easily available.
Availability of supplementary materials.
Encourages learning strategies of learners.
Helps learners to become independent.
Enough guidance for teachers
No too much preparation load.

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e) using a coursebook.
A course book should be used in such a way that its positive aspects or advantages could be achieved
while its bad point could be minimized or neutralized. We will deal here with aspects so that we might
make the best use of it. Below are some major contents which are grouped under the headings;

⭐Coverage: Coverage, text, task etc.

A course book should cover the following;

1. Pronunciation practice.
2. Vocabulary explanation and practice.
3. Grammar practice.
4. Recordings for listening practice.
5.Reading and writing tasks.
6. Practice on mixed skills.
7. Dictionary practice.
8. Review of previous materials.
9. Presence of entertaining materials.

⭐text :
It should be consider if the text is of an appropriate level. Text should be varied and interesting. The
text should be of such a level which is neither too much difficult nor too easy. Vocabulary should be
taught carefully by preliminary explanation. Similarly too much difficult bits may be omitted.

⭐task :
Opportunity should be given to the learners to use target language. It should be sought whether the
tasks are of various levels and do they cover language skills. Similarly, it should be considered that
whether the tasks are interesting and relevant or not. Besides, the balance between accuracy and
fluency practice should be considered.

⭐IN FAVOUR OF USING A COURSEBOOK :

1. Framework
A coursebook provides a clear framework:
teacher and learners know where they are going and what is coming next, so that there is a
sense of structure and progress.

2. Syllabus
In many places the coursebook serves as a syllabus: if it is followed systematically, a carefully
planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered.

3. Ready-made texts and tasks

The coursebook provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level
for most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to
prepare his or her own.

4. Economy
A book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner;
alternatives, such as kits, sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be
more expensive relative to the amount of material provided.

5. Convenience
A book is a convenient package.
It is bound, so that its components stick together and stay in order; it is light and small enough
to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is easily packed and stacked; it does not depend for
its use on hardware or a supply of electricity.

6. Guidance
For teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the
language, the coursebook can provide useful guidance and support.

7. Autonomy
The learner can use the coursebook to learn new material, review and monitor progress with
some degree of autonomy. A learner without a coursebook is more teacher-dependent.

⭐AGAINST USING A COURSEBOOK :

1. Inadequacy:
Every class - in fact, every learner - has their own learning needs no one coursebook can
possibly supply these satisfactorily.

2. Irrelevance, lack of interest:

The topics dealt with in the coursebook may not necessarily be relevant or interesting for your
class

3. Limitation:
A coursebook is confining its set structure and sequence may inhibit a teacher’s initiative and
creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the part of the learners:

4. Homogeneity:
Coursebooks have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning approach.They do not
usually cater for the variety of levels of ability and knowledge, or of learning styles and
strategies that exist in most classes.

5. Over-easiness:
Teachers find it too easy to follow the coursebook uncritically instead of using their initiative,
they may find themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers
in their own right.

______________________
f) supplementary materials.
Supplementary materials:

Most language-teaching coursebooks probably need supplementing to some extent, if only in order to
tailor them to the needs of a particular class or to offer richer options. This unit describes briefly
various types of supplementary materials, their contribution to language learning, advantages and
disadvantages, and invites you to consider which are most useful and important to you.

⭐Task Simulation:
Imagine that you are to be given a grant of enough money to buy a ’package’ of supplementary
materials for your institution out of the catalogue, that each package costs about the same.
You will be given a similar grant every halfyear, so eventually you will be able to buy all the
packages. The question is: in what order will you buy them, and how will you decide? Work
out for yourself an order of priority, or do so together with colleagues. (You may, of course, add
further packages if you wish, or alter the contents of the present ones, before beginning the
task.)
It is assumed that the institution has a reasonable supply of standard stationery and office
equipment, such as paper, pencils, felt-tipped pens, staplers, scissors, etc., and that classrooms
are equipped with black- or whiteboards.
Some comments on the contents of the packages follow; you may find it helpful to read these
before making your decisions about priorities.

⭐PACKAGES OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS:

Package 1: A set of computers for learners’ use, with accompanying language-learning
programs on floppy disk.

Package 2: A set of reference books for the teachers, including: grammars, dictionaries;
various specialized textbooks; handbooks of activities; and a subscription to a teachers’
journal of your choice.

Package 3: A number of overhead projectors and slide projectors, with all necessary film,
slides and markers.

Package 4: Video equipment, with assorted cassettes,including language-learning material and

films in the target language.

Package 5: Computers and printers for teachers’ uses each computer has a hard disk with the
latest word processor and various programs that enable you to compose your own computer
tasks for learners.

Package 6: Several cassette recorders with accompanying earphones (so that several learners
can listen quietly to one machine); a selection of accompanying cassettes for language
learning.
Package 7: A wide variety of posters and sets of coloured pictures, plus board and card games
for language learning.

Package 8: A library of simplified readers in the target language, ranging from very simple to
advanced. There would be enough books in this library to enable all students to borrow freely.

Computers 🤖
Some material are;

📼 📖
, Overhead projectors, books,
video equipment, Audio equipment, Posters, pictures, games.
__________________________

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.

TEFL-ll Full Notes

By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 2️⃣ ) TEFL-ll
2️⃣ ) Lesson plan .
a) what does a lesson plan involve b) lesson preparation c)varying lesson components d) evaluating
lesson effectiveness e) practical lesson management.
__________________

a) what does a lesson plan involve.

. lesson plan:
What does a lesson mean ?
A lesson is an organized social event that occurs in all societies. Lessons are different from
each other on the basis of topic, time, place, method and materials etc. Contrary to these
differences, all the lessons are concerned with learning as the main objective and there is the
participation of teachers and learners.

👉Metaphors for Lesson:

Following are some metaphors for understanding a lesson.
1. Climbing a mountain.
2. Doing the shopping.
3. Eating a meal.
4. A football game.
5. Attending a wedding ceremony.
6. Consulting a doctor etc.

👉Explaining Metaphors :
Transaction or a series of transaction:
Transaction can be seen in the metaphors of attending a wedding ceremony or shopping. So
these metaphors can be compared with lesson as there is ‘give and take’ in both these
metaphors and in teaching learning process.

👉Interaction:
Interaction is another aspect of learning process. It can be seen in metaphors like wedding
or a game.
Goal-oriented effort/ hard work:
There must be clear cut objectives or goals for learning process. It can be explained in terms of
climbing a mountain or a football game.
👉An enjoyable experience:
This aspect can be compared with metaphors like eating a meal. Similarly, aesthetic pleasure
and satisfaction can be achieved from learning.
A Role based Culture:

In metaphors like Consulting a doctor there is a specific role of doctor and patient. Likewise,
the teachers and students play their individual role in the teaching learning process.

👉Rituals:
In metaphors like a wedding, certain rituals are observed. Likewise, certain rituals or customs
are followed in teaching learning process.
Choices:
In metaphor like selection of food item, menu is observed which provides choice. Similarly,
free choices may be observed in the process of learning.
__________________
b) lesson preparation.
Following are some principles which may be observed while preparing a lesson.

👉Preliminary Preparation:
The question given below must be considered while preparing a lesson.
How long before presenting a lesson should be prepared it?
Should it be written in form of notes?
Should a teacher rely on the notes provided by another teacher?
How much lengthy they must be?
What do they consist of ?
Are the objectives included in it?
Do you look these notes during the lesson?

👉Varying Lesson Components:

The learners loss their interest and find a lesson bored and difficult when it consists entirely
on one kind of activity only. In such a situation, learning is not taking place and some time
problems related to discipline may be created. In this section, the ways are discussed which
are used to make a lesson varied and effective.
___________________

c) Varying lesson components.

1. Tempo: Some activities may be quick yet some others may be quite slow like reading a text or
writing.
2. Organization: The learners may work individually, in pairs or even in groups. Similarly, the teacher
may pull the whole class together in interaction.

3. Mode and skill: Activities may be based on different skills of language. Some activities are done
through writing yet few other may be completed through other skills of target language.
4. Difficulty/stress : Tasks may be easy which need less effort or it may be hard demanding more
effort and concentration.

5. Active-passive: Learners are actively involved in some activities which develop their creativity
while they are asked to do what they are told in some other activities.
6. Mood: Activities may vary in mood like fun based or serious, tense versus relaxed etc.
7. Topic: Topic can vary a lesson . For example a topic may be a linguistic or a non linguistic one.
8. Settlement / organization: Some activities excite the students physically yet some other have the
effect to calm them down.
__________________

d) evaluating lesson effectiveness.

After presenting a lesson, it is necessary to think whether it was effective or not. If it was not
effective so why and how the lesson can be made satisfactory. In this section some hints
regarding lesson effectiveness are described.

👉Criteria for lesson evaluation:

1. The leaners were active and attentive : Learning is taking place in such a situation when the
learners are actively involved in the process of learning. For this purpose its necessary to hold
the attention of the learners.
2. The learners seemed to pick the materials : Learning something new is the main goal of
each lesson. If the learners seemed to learn the materials well, then learning is taking place.

3. The lesson went according to plan : There must be a pre-plan while a teacher present a
lesson. If a lesson went according to the plan, it mean that the lesson was effective.
4. Use of the target language : It is important to use the target language communicatively
throughout the lesson. If there is plenty use of target language, the lesson is going to be
effective.

5. The learners were engaged with target language : It is not only important for a teacher to
communicate his/her instructions in the target language, but for learners as well. For a lesson
to become effective, its necessary for the learners to communicate in target language.

__________________

e) practical lesson management.

Sometime a teacher may find extra time at the end of the lesson and nothing to fill it. In this
section, few hints are given which may be useful in such situations.

👉Hints for lesson management:

1. Prepare more than you need : A light reserve activity must be ready in case of extra time at
the end of presenting lesson.
2. Which part to be sacrificed : Its also necessary to consider in advance which part of lesson is
to be sacrificed in case if a teacher find too little time for whole lesson to present.
3. Easily visible watch : A watch which is easily visible should be kept. It will help the teacher
to manage the contents of a lesson according to the available time.

4. Giving Homework : Giving homework at the end of the lesson is the most important part of
presenting a lesson to the learners. Its necessary so that learners may provide feedback to the
teacher.
5. Don’t go to every student : If a teacher distributes papers, it should be given to students and
they should be asked to take one and pass the rest on.
6. Clear instructions : Its necessary to give instructions clearly and make sure if the students
have understood it well.

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.

TEFL-ll Full Notes

By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 3️⃣ )
a) What is classrom dicipline
3️⃣ ) Classroom Discipline.
b) what does a disciplined classroom look like? c) what teacher action is conducive to a
disciplined classroom? d) discipline problems e) dealing with discipline problems.
_________________
a) What is discipline.
What is mean by class room discipline ?
By classroom discipline we mean a state in which both teacher and learner accept and
consistently observe a set of certain rules about their behaviors in class room.

👉Concepts related to discipline

Control : Control is imposed by an authority who is invested with superior influence.
Authoritative versus authoritarian : Authoritative is a person who is obeyed because he has the
power legally. Authoritarian, on the other hand is a person who gain authority illegally.
Power : Power is the ability to control one’s behavior.
_________________
b) what does a disciplined classroom look like? ( Or)
👉Characteristics of disciplined classroom
1. Learning is taking place.
2. A disciplined classroom is quiet.
3. Teacher and learners are cooperating smoothly.
4. Students are motivated.
5. The lesson is proceeding according to plan.
6. Teacher and students have the same objectives.
7. Teacher has natural charismatic authority.
8. The class is in control.

_________________
c) what teacher action is conducive to a disciplined classroom?

👉What action of teacher is favorable to a discipline classroom

It is not possible for all of the teachers to have natural charismatic authority. So what are the
strategies that may be helpful for a teacher to produce a state of discipline in classroom. There are
many ways to overcome this problem like how to organize a lesson, how to get the students to raise
their hands instead of shouting the answers, what methodology should be favorable and how the
students can be motivated etc.

👉Practical hints for a teacher on classroom discipline

Following are some useful hints which may help teachers to produce discipline in classroom.
1. Get silence before starting the lesson.
2. Start by being firm with students. You can relax later.
3. Call students by their name.
4. Prepare lesson and structure it firmly.
5. Be mobile. Walk around the class.
6. Start the lesson actively.
7. Sustain interest and curiosity.
8. Speak loudly and clearly.
9. Give clear instruction.
10. Have reserve material prepared.

👉Practical hints for teacher on classroom discipline

11. Look and scan the whole class.
12. Make tasks appropriate to students level.
13. Fit the lesson according to the available time.
14. Vary the teaching techniques.
15. Anticipate discipline problems and avoid them.
16. Avoid confrontation (debate).
17. Act upon rules consistently.
18. Show yourself supporter to the students.
19. Treat learners with respect.
20. Use humor.
21. Be polite with the students.
_________________

d) discipline problems.
In this section various problems related to classroom discipline are discussed. What are the causes of
discipline problems, How to avoid it and what a teacher could have done to prevent it from arising are
discussed here.

👉Boring lesson
This is one of the most prominent causes of problems related to classroom discipline. Some time the
students feel a lesson boring which is often accompanied by a student’s wish to disrupt the whole
class. In such a situation, the priority is to neutralize the class by saying ‘Ok we will do it later if its
boring’ and something else to be started. However, the boring activity should be done later on.

👉Lack of firm and consistent rules:

Sometimes problems happen due to lack of certain rules or the teacher’s failure to be consistent
upon them. As a result some students give no value or attention to the lesson. In such a situation, the
teacher must get silence and attention before starting a lesson. Similarly, he must follow specific rules
consistently.

👉Over lengthy explanation

Here, the problem is caused by the over lengthy explanation of a teacher, a child’s impatience and the
failure of teacher to stop the disturbance in the class. The most effective response in this situation is
to get silence and instruct the class firmly and to start the students work on worksheet. Once the
class start is working, the teacher may go to the student who caused the disturbance and may warn
him about his behavior.

👉Teacher’s argument with a student

The root cause of this problem is the teacher’s mistake in getting into an argument with a student.
This argument leads rapidly the whole class into disturbance. The teacher should have finished the
process of collecting notebooks.
_________________
e) dealing with discipline problems.
In this section, like the previous we are dealing with discipline problems but this time with the
prevention or dealing with the discipline problems. Below are some directions that can be utilized in
order to deal with discipline problems.

👉 1. Careful planning
When a lesson is carefully planned, it runs with consistency. In such a class the learners keep their focus on
the task. Therefore, there is no vacuum for any problem.
👉 2. Clear instructions
: It is necessary that clear instructions should be communicated.. Sometime the uncertainty of the learners
what to do give birth to problems.

👉3. Keep in touch

A teacher must be aware of what is going in every corner of the classroom. He must keep his eyes
and ears in such a way as if they are sensitive antennae or a radar system. It has two benefits: first the
students know the teacher is aware of them and secondly the teacher himself can detect the
students’ loss of interest or any other problem.
_________________

What should be done when the problem is beginning

1. Deal with it quietly : The best option is the response of the teacher by himself. For example if a
student has not opened his book in spite the instructions are given, it is better for the teacher to go up
to him and open the book by himself then draw the attention of the whole class.
2. Dont give threats :

Giving threats are often considered weakness. Its very important for a teacher to defeat learners
morally if they are not obeying the instructions.
3. Don’t take things personally : Its another important advise that a teacher should not pull his
students into personal conflict.

4. Make them an offer they can’t refuse :

In order to avoid the problem, students should be given an offer which they cannot refuse. For
example if they feel bored, the teacher should postpone the activity. Similarly, the teacher may give
extra time to students to do their homework.
_________________________

What should be done when the problem has been exploded:

1. Act quickly : once the problem has been exploded, its necessary to act quickly in order to get the class
into smooth routine.
2. Explode yourself : Command with a loud voice coupled with a display of anger often do work. But the
same time its necessary not to become personally aggressive.
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.
TEFL-ll Full Notes
By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 4️⃣ )
4️⃣ ) Classroom interaction.
a) Patterns of classroom interaction b) questioning c) group work d individualizationn e)
the selection of appropriate activation techniques.
_________________________
a) Patterns of classroom .
Patterns of classroom interaction The most commonly known pattern of classroom interaction is
‘IRF’- Initiation-Response-Feedback. In this type of interaction, the teacher initiates an interaction and
the students take part in turn. The teacher, for example ask a question, in response one of the
students gives answer. The teacher again provides a feedback (comment, correction or initiates
another question). The teacher may not necessarily initiate , sometime the students may also initiate
the interaction.

Group Work : In this pattern of interaction, the students are divided in groups. They are
assigned an activity. They work on that activity while interacting with each other. The
teacher sometimes intervenes a little bit.
Closed ended questioning technique : Closed ended questions are those questions which
has only one right response. This is a kind of IRF pattern. In this pattern of interaction, the
teacher ask a close ended question, to which the students give answer.
Individual task : Sometimes the students are given various tasks and they are asked to
complete it by themselves individually. While doing so, the teacher walks around having a check
and assisting where necessary.
Choral Pattern/Response : In this method, the teacher presents a model which is repeated by
the whole class in the chorus.

Collaboration : This activity is of the same type of individual work but in this method the
students works usually in pairs. They teacher may also intervene.
Students initiates, teacher answers : It is another common pattern of interaction. In this
method, the student (s) initiates by asking a question while the teacher responds.
Full class interaction : In this type of interaction, the students debate or discuss a specific
topic or do another task. In order to stimulate, the teacher may also intervene occasionally.
Teacher talk : It may involve a silent response from students. There is no initiative on the
part of the students rather they do they are directed by their teacher. Writing dictation, for
example may be such an activity.
Students’ self access : Students may select any task of their choice and work autonomously.
Open ended questions : Open ended questions are those which have many possible right
answers. So the teacher may put some open ended questions in front of the class to which the
students may respond.
_________________
b) questioning.
Question may be defined as an utterance usually of a teacher which is aimed to elicit the response for the
learner (s). Questioning is an effective technique in the context of teaching and learning. It is a universally
used teaching technique. Questions are not always identified by interrogative structures. What do you see
in this picture, for example may also be stated as in terms of command like tell me what can you see in
this picture.

👉Reasons of Questioning
Following are given some reasons why questions are asked.
1. To find out something from learners (ideas, opinions)
2. To check the understanding of the learners.
3. To direct attention of the learners to the topic being discussed.
4. To inform the class via the answers of the stronger learners.
5. To provide the weaker learners with an opportunity to participate.
6. To get learners to be active.
7. To stimulate their thinking.
8. To review the previously taught materials.
9. To encourage self expression.
10. To ensure the learners that the teacher is interested in what they think.
11. To provide a model of foreign language.

👉Effective Questioning
Various attempts have been made to define various features of effective questioning techniques.
Questions are based on various criteria for example what kind of questions are asked (to recall or to
analyze), whether they are closed ended or open ended etc. In this section, a few basic principles, that
would seem to characterize effective questioning, are discussed.

1.
👉Principles of Effective Questioning
Clarity : Questions should be clear. It means the students not only know what is asked in the
question but also know what kind of answer is required.
2. Learning value : An effective question is that which has some learning value. It will contribute
to further learning.
3. Interest : Effective questions are a great source of interest for learners. It increase the curiosity
of the learners.
4. Availability : Questions are considered effective if most of the members of the class can
answer it.
5. Extension : Effective questions encourage to extend and vary the answers.
6. Appropriate morally : Effective questions are those which are inside the spheres of ethics.
There should be nothing inappropriate.
_________________
c) group work.
By group work we mean when the students of a class are divided in various categories and they are
assigned with specific tasks to complete.
 👉Advantages and disadvantages of group work
Advantages : Group work has a great learning value. Learners when divided in groups get
more opportunities to participate as compared to the whole class organization. It also
contribute to independence, motivation and cooperation.
Disadvantages : Teacher may loss control on the class. There may be too much noise. The
teachers also fear that the learners may over use their mother tongue. Sometimes the
teachers dislike the situation where they cannot constantly monitor the class.

👉Group work organization

1. Presentation : The instructions should be clearly communicated. The groups should be given tasks
which are enough simple and easy so that they may explain. Similarly, An appropriate level of
vocabulary and grammar should be kept in mind. Before giving the sign to start, tell the students how
to do when they have finished the task.
2. Process : When the groups are given their tasks, it’s the responsibility of the teacher to walk from
group to group to monitor and to help them when they face difficulty. Similarly, general approval may
also be provided.

3. Ending : There must be a specific point of time in which the activity should be ended even if the
students are still interested in it.
4. Feed back : The feed back session usually takes place in the context of full class interaction at the
end of the group work. The main objective of the teacher here is to appreciate the effort that has been
invested by the learners and its results.

_________________

d) individualization :
Individualization is referred to the process of providing various kinds of materials which are chosen by the
learners individually. In this process the learners are given freedom to choose any topic or activity which they
are supposed to complete.

👉Procedures of individual work

1. Speed : How fast or slowly each individual may work.
2. Level : Tasks may be presented in easier or difficult versions, so that the learners may choose the
one that suits their level.
3. Language skill : Various language skills may be given so that learners may choose to work on a
specific aspect of language.
 4. Topic : Learners may be able to choose tasks which are different in topic while all are based on
same language skill.

👉Classroom procedures for individual work :

1. Readers : Students Select various readers of various levels and topic from the school library and read it
individually.
2. Textbook questions : The class is presented with the exercise questions and the learners have to answer
them on their own.
3. Work cards : Work cards which are presented by the teacher are put in the center of the class. Each student
choses one and completes it.
4. Exercise for homework : The teacher gives various questions from an exercise of the text book and learners
are asked to complete it.
5. Varied tasks : The work cards prepared by the teacher with various language skills, are given to the students
and they have to complete it by themselves.
6. Response to listening : They teacher play an audio recording of the text and the students are asked to note
down the points they understood.

_________________

e) the selection of appropriate activation techniques.

👉The Selection of Appropriate Activation Technique

THE CONVENTIONAL IRF PATTERN, WHICH IS USED MOST OF THE TIME IS NOT IN FACT THE MOST
EFFECTIVE WAY OF ACHIEVING THE TEACHING GOALS. IN THIS SECTION SOME MORE PATTERNS ARE
DISCUSSED WHICH MAY BE USED TO ACHIEVE VARIOUS TEACHING OBJECTIVES.

1. IRF

IRF is the conventional and most commonly used pattern which provides the teacher with
indication of what the learners know. In this pattern only a few individuals get the opportunity to
express what they know.

2. Group work :
If the learners already know something and they only need for rehearsal, this aim may better be
served by group work or pair work. The advantage of pair or group work is that almost all students
can participate in activity.
3. Teacher’s speech or reading aloud

This pattern is useful for presenting a new language text or repeating the lesson which the
learners have encountered by their own reading.
4. Collaboration :
If a teacher cannot monitor all of the learners in an activity like writing at the same time, then
collaboration is the valuable way. In collaboration learners contribute to each other’s writing and
can monitor their own work.

👉Teacher’s objectives in learners’ activation

1. Comprehension check : After finishing a lesson, the teacher wants to know whether the
learners have understood it or not through using comprehension questions.
2. Familiarity with the text : After completing a text, the teacher wants to know if the learners
are familiar with the plot of the story because they are going to have to appear in the exam.
3. Oral fluency : In a class of business people, the teacher wants to improve their oral fluency.
They are given a topic and are asked to discuss it.
_______________________________

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.
TEFL-ll Full Notes
By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 5️⃣ )
5️⃣ ) Testing .
a) What is testing b) kinds of test and testing c) testing writing d) testing oral ability e)
testing reading f) testing listening.
____________________
a) What is testing.
What is testing ?
Testing is the process to test someone’s behavior.
What a test is ?
In the context of teaching , by the term test we mean to measure learners’ ability or knowledge.

In every day life we make various tests. For example if we are reading a novel, watching TV or
prepare a meal we are testing hypotheses or making judgments. If we are trying something
new like buying a pair of new shoes, we are testing. In the context of language, the learners
test their newly learnt materials by speaking. On the bases of feed back they receive from
their teacher, they make judgments and decisions. Similarly, language teachers also test the
comprehension of their students and make judgments about their performance.

A test may be formal or informal. The difference between formal and informal test may exist
in the nature and method of the test. A layman, for example when speaking of a good tennis
player’s fair performance is an informal test. In formal test on the other hand, carefully
planned techniques of assessment are used.
A test measures a person’s ability. A driving test, for example test a person’s ability to drive a
car. Similarly, a test measure a specific area. A test of pronunciation, for example measures
one’s ability of pronunciation of various phonemic pairs.

👉Criteria for a test

1. Practicality : It is necessary for a test to be practical in terms of time limits,
interpretation and financial constraints etc. It is obvious that an expensive test is more
impractical. Similarly, the tests which are not suitable regarding time and
administration are also impractical.
2. Reliability : A reliable test is the one which is consistent. Reliability is found when a
test to the same subject matter in various places on various occasions yield the same
result. A test is considered a highly valuable if it has the feature of reliability.

3. Validity :
Validity is another feature that is considered in various tests. A good test has the feature of
validity. Validity is the degree to which the test actually measures what it was intended to
measure.
___________________________
b) kinds of test .
👉Proficiency
1. Proficiency test:
tests are used to measure people’s ability in a language. It is based on the
specification of what the candidates have to be able to do in language in order to be
considered proficient. Proficient means a person having enough command on language.

👉2. Proficiency tests conventionally includes;

multiple choice items, vocabulary, reading comprehension, aural comprehension and
sometimes a piece of writing. Such types of tests often lack validity. Example of this type of test
may be a test used to determine a student’s English is enough good to follow a course of study
at a British university.
👉3 Diagnostic test :
Diagnostic tests are used to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses. They are primarily
intended to determine what is necessary further.
👉4 Placement test :
Placement tests are intended to place the students at a stage. They are used to assign students

👉
to various classes.
5 Achievement test :
The purpose of achievement tests is to identify how the students are successful in a specific
course or up to which extent they have been achieving the objectives. Achievement test is
further categorized in final achievement test and progress achievement test. Final
achievement tests are those which are administered at the end of completion of a specific
course. They are usually written and are organized by ministries of education or examination
boards. Progress achievement tests on the other hand, are planned to check the progress that
the students are making during various intervals of time.

👉 6 Aptitude Test:
Aptitude Test: This type of test is used to predict a person’s capacity to learn a foreign
language. This type of test is given to a person before the real exposure to the second
language.
______________________

Other types of testing :

1. Direct testing:
Testing is said to be direct when the student is required to perform directly the skill which we
wish to measure. E.g. we ask students to write compositions if we want to know how well they
can write compositions. We ask them to speak if we want to know how well they can
pronounce a language.

2. Indirect testing:
Indirect testing attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are
interested. E.g. we test pronunciation ability by asking students to identify pairs of words
which rhyme with each other.
3. Objective testing:
It doesn’t require judgement on the part of the scorer because scoring here is objective. It
won’t change even if the scorer has been changed. Multiple choice test is an example of this
kind of tests.

4. Subjective testing:
It requires judgement on the part of the scorer because scoring here is subjective. The grades
in subjective testing depend on the impressions of the scorer. These impressions are not the
same among different scorers. Scoring of a composition is an example of this kind of testing.

5. Discrete point testing:

It refers to the testing of one element at a time, item by item. This kind of testing is always
indirect. Each testing involves a particular item. Testing particular grammatical structures is
an example of this kind of testing.

6. Integrative testing:
It includes many language elements in the completion of a task. It might involve writing a
composition, taking notes while listening to a text and completing a cloze passage.

7. Norm-referenced testing:
This kind of testing relates one student’s performance to that of other students. We don’t say
that student is capable of doing well in the language but we say the student gained a score that
placed him/her in the top five students who have taken the same test.

8. Criterion-referenced testing:
The purpose of this kind of testing is to classify students according whether they are able to
perform some tasks satisfactorily. Who perform the tasks satisfactorily ‘pass’, those who don’t,
‘fail’. We measure students’ progress in relation to meaningful criteria.

_____________________________
6 Types of Tests.

There are six different types of tests. They are as follow:

1. Placement test:
It is used to place new students in the right class in a school. It assesses students’ productive
and receptive skills. It is designed to show how good a student is in English in relation to a
previously agreed system of levels.

2. Diagnostic test:
It is used to discover student problems, difficulties or deficiencies in a course. We use this type
of tests to know students’ strengths and weaknesses so as to be able to do something about
them.

3. Progress/Achievement test:
It is designed to measure students’ language and their skill progress in relation to the syllabus
they have been following. This type is directly related to language courses and done during the
course.

4. Final progress/achievement test:

It is done at the end of the course to measure students’ achievement of the course objectives or
goals.

5. Proficiency test:
It is not necessarily based on certain courses that students may have previously taken. Most
students take this type of tests to admit to a foreign university, get a job or obtain some kind of
certificate. It is designed to measure students’ knowledge and ability in a language.

6. Aptitude test:
It is designed to discover whether a student has a talent or basic ability for learning a new
language or not.

_________________
c) testing writing
Common tasks for writing tests include: (1) gap filling; (2) form completion; (3) making
corrections; (4) letter writing; and (5) essay writing. Any chosen task should be evaluated for
its relevance to the student's eventual use of the language.
_________________
d) testing oral ability.
Oral Proficiency Testing
One of the toughest challenges of communicative testing has been the construction of practical,
reliable, and valid tests of oral production ability. Production, unlike comprehension, takes time,
money, and ingenuity to measure. The best tests of oral proficiency involve a one-on-one tester/testee
relationship, "live" performance (as opposed to taped), a careful specification of tasks to be
accomplished during the test, and a scoring rubric that is truly descriptive of ability.

For several decades now, what was formerly the Foreign Service Institute's (FSI) Oral Proficiency
Interview (OPI) has been widely used across dozens of languages around the world. "FSI1 levels" (zero
through five) have become standard indicators within the profession of a person's speaking proficiency
in a given foreign language (see Table 10-2). In a series of structured tasks, the OPI is carefully designed
to elicit pronunciation, fluency/integrative ability, sociolinguistic and cultural knowledge, grammar,
and vocabulary. Performance is judged by the interviewer, through a detailed checklist, to fall between
level zero (the interviewee cannot perform at all in the language) and level five (speaking proficiency
equivalent to that of an educated native speaker).
_________________
e) testing reading.
Reading tasks frequently begin with assessment of low-level skills and often involve word
and sentence recognition tasks. In testing middle and higher-level students, true/false
questions, multiple-choice items, short answer or completion questions, and ordering tasks
are often used.
👉What are the types of reading tests?
Letter/sound recognition.
Concepts of print awareness.
Phonological awareness.
Phonemic awareness.
 Informal (qualitative) reading inventory.
Reading comprehension.
Oral reading accuracy.
Reading fluency.
___________________

f) testing listening.
Testing listening involves a variety of skills. At the lowest level, it involves discrimination
among sounds, discrimination among intonation and stress patterns, and comprehension of
short and long listening texts.
_________________
Objective testing versus subjective testing

The distinction here is between methods of scoring, and nothing else.If no judgement is required on
the part of the scorer, then the scoring is objective.A multiple choice test, with the correct responses
unambiguously identified, would be a case in point.If judgement is called for, the scoring is said to be
subjective. There are different degrees of subjectivity in testing.
The impressionistic scoring of a composition may be considered more subjective than the scoring of
short answers in response to questions on a reading passage.
Objectivity in scoring is sought after by many testers, not for itself, but for the greater reliability it
brings. In general, the less subjective the scoring, the greater agreement there will be between two
different scorers (and between the scores of one person scoring the same test paper on different
occasions). However, there are ways of obtaining reliable subjective scoring, even of compositions.

_____________________________________

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.
TEFL-ll Full Notes
By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 6️⃣ )
6️⃣ ) Giving Feedback.
a) Different approaches to the nature and function of feedback b) assessment c)
correcting mistakes in oral work d) written feedback.
_________________
a) Different approaches to the nature and function of feedback.
Feedback.
In the context of teaching, Feedback means the information provided to the learners about their
performance in the learning task. The main objective of giving feedback is improve the performance of the
learners. The words ‘yes’ or ‘right’ , a raised eyebrow or to repeat a phrase of a student in language
teaching context are some examples of feedback.

👉Components of Feedback
Feedback has two distinguishing components. They are assessment and correction. In the first
component, the learners are simply informed about their performance. Giving percentage, comments such
as fair or outstanding or grading in an exam are the examples of assessment.
In correction on the other hand, some specific information are given on any aspect of the learner's
performance. In correction, directions, explanation or alternatives (replacement) are given by the teacher
to the learneassessment

👉The provision of assessment

Audio-lingualism : According to this theory, negative assessment should be avoided up to the
fullest possible extent because it functions as a punishment and thus discourage learning. Instead
positive assessment should be given as it support the correct responses and develop learning.
Humanistic Methodologies : An essential function of assessment is to promote a positive self
image. Positive assessment, therefore should be given.
Skill theory: For the successful acquisition of a skill, the learners need feedback. Since learning a
language is also a skill, therefore it is essential to provide the learners with continuous
assessment.
_________________
b) assessment.
In terms of education, by assessment we mean the evaluation of learners’ progress in the process of
learning a foreign language by providing them with various types of tests or activities and their
responses to those activities. The type of evaluation we are dealing here with is sometime called
‘formative’ as it serves to form or to enhance the process of learning. Contrary to formative, the term
summative is used, where a teacher summarize the overall aspects of learners’ knowledge.

👉Gathering information for assessment

I. Tests : Usually information are gathered for assessment through tests. The criterion for tests is the
level to which the learners are expected to have reached and the result is shown in terms of
percentages.
 II. Other ways: Sometimes the learners cannot be assessed through tests because it cannot measure the
overall proficiency of the learners. Therefore, some other ways are used to evaluate them. It may
include;
a. Teacher’s assessment ( the teacher gives a subjective estimate (guess) of learners’ performance).
b. Continuous assessment (the final grade is the combination of grades the learners received for various
assignments).
c. Self assessment (the learners evaluate themselves their own performance).
d. Portfolio ( the learners collects assignments and projects done over a long period into a file).

👉Assessment Grades
I. Percentage : Percentage is the most widely used way of expressing the assessment grades.
II. Letters : Besides percentage, assessment can be expressed through letters like ‘A’ or ‘B’.
III. Phrases : Another way of expressing assessment is Phrases like ‘ Excellent ‘ or ‘Good’.
IV. Profiles : It is another kind of expression of assessment. In this type of expression, a number of
separate grades on different skills is given. It provides a detail description of learners
performance showing his/her strengths and weaknesses.

_________________
c) correcting mistakes in oral work.
On the whole, feedback on oral work is given through speech and on written through writing. On some occasion
feedback may be given through other ways as well. For example writing a letter while providing feedback on a
speech. In this section, some techniques of oral corrections are enlisted.

👉Techniques of oral correction

Teacher does not react at all and correct the mistake later on.
Teacher indicates there is a mistake but does not provide extra detail about what was wrong.
Teacher says what was wrong and provides a model of acceptable version.
Teacher indicates something was wrong and produce acceptable versions from the learner who
made the mistake.
Teacher asks the learner who made the mistake to reproduce the corrected version.
_________________
d) written feedback.
Written works not only include compositions but also various types of assignments, vocabulary and
comprehension questions’ answers. Teacher is liable to provide sufficient written feedback to all such
works. For this purpose a teacher should read closely any written composition on which the feedback is be
to given. During reading, various mistakes should be highlighted. After that written feedback is to be given.
Following are some questions that should be kept in mind while giving written feedback.

_________________________________________
 Chapter ( 7️⃣ )
7️⃣ ) Teaching vocabulary .
a) What is vocabulary and what needs to be taught? b) Presenting new vocabulary c)
remembering vocabulary d) testing vocabulary.
_________________
a) What is vocabulary and what needs to be taught?

What is vocabulary ?
Vocabulary can be defined as the words that are taught to learners of a foreign language. The new
item which are taught may be more than a single word. Post office or father-in-law, for example are
compound words. Compound words though are formed of more than single word but represent a
single idea. Similarly, there may be multi-words idioms where the meaning cannot be derived by the
analysis of the component words.

👉What needs to be taught ?

Form : Pronunciation and spelling
It is necessary for teachers to teach the learners how a word sounds like (pronunciation) and how it looks like
(spelling). These two aspects are of great concern for the learners to learn. In teaching foreign language, a
teacher needs to make sure both of these aspects are accurately considered and learned.
Grammar : It is necessary to teach the grammar of the newly taught item. The grammatical form may
have various forms in various contexts. While presenting a new verb, for example, it is necessary to tell
the learners what is its past and present participle forms, whether it is regular or irregular and transitive or
intransitive. Furthermore, the teacher may tell the learners when it is followed by a preposition. For
example responsible to etc.
Similarly in case of noun, for instance, the teacher may tell learners its plural form, regular and irregular or has
no plural at all ( Advice, information etc.).
Collocation (association) : Another piece about a new item is to inform the learners from its
collocation that is the connection or association of a word with others. In such connection, it is seen
whether an item sound right or wrong when it is combined with a certain word. When introducing the
words like decision and conclusion, we may say that the one (decision) is taken then the other
(conclusion) comes.
Aspect of meaning:
1. Denotation, Connotation and appropriateness;
The meaning of a word what primarily refers to in the real world, is its denotation. On other words,
denotation is the dictionary meaning of a word. For example dog refers to a kind of hairy, four-legged
domestic animal. Similarly, moistly mean slightly wet. Connotation on the other hand, are the additional
information which are associated to a world which may be used positively or negatively. Such information
are not indicated in dictionary definition. The word dog, for example is taken by British for positive
connotation of friendship, loyalty where as the equivalent in Arabic has negative connotation of dirt and
inferiority.
Another aspect of meaning is suitability. It is useful for learners to know whether a word is suitable in a
specific context or not. The word weep for example is synonymous with cry but it is more formal and more
tend to be used in writing than in speech.

Aspects of meaning : 2. Meaning relationships:

Another aspect of vocabulary is to know how words are related to each other on the basis of meaning. Here the
major relationships of words are discussed.
1. Synonyms : Synonyms are the items which mean the same or nearly the same. Synonyms are often
intersubstitutable in a sentence. Bright, clever, keen, and quick for example, may serve as the synonyms
of the term intelligent. Similarly, Cab and Taxi are synonyms.
2. Antonyms :Antonyms are words of opposite meanings. Poor for example, is the antonym of the term
rich. Antonyms are divided in two categories; gradable and non-gradable. Gradable Antonyms may be
used in comparative structures like bigger than and smaller than etc. Non gradable are those which
cannot be used in comparative constructions like we cannot say more deader than etc.
3. Hyponyms : Hyponyms are the words which represent a whole class of things or when the meaning of
one thing is included in the meaning of another thing. For example dog and horse are the hyponyms of
the whole class animal. Similarly, chair is the hyponym of furniture while Daffodil is he hyponym of the
flowers.
4. Co-hyponyms/Co-ordinates : All other items belonging to the same category are termed as co-
hyponyms or coordinates. Red, blue, yellow and pink are all coordinates of the superordinate color.
Similarly, Sparrow, robin, parrots and pigeon are the coordinates of bird.

5. Superordinate : The general concept which cover certain items (coordinates) is called its superordinate.
Animal for example is the superordinate of the terms dog, horse, cat and lion.
6. Translation : Translation is the expression of the items equivalent in meaning in the native language of the
learners.

Words formation : The next basic information which needs to be given to the learners is that how words
are formed, how the basic units comes in a combined pattern to form words. Prefixes and suffixes, for
example are used with root words and new words are thus formed. –able, -un and –ful, for instance, are
added to other words and form new words ;like readable, uneducated and grateful. The learners should be
informed that some affixes have no obvious relation with the root words like the word super-hero.
Similarly, other processes of words formation like blending and combining two separate words to form a
new single word etc. should be taught.

_________________
b) Presenting new vocabulary.
This section deal with the ways of presenting the new vocabulary to the learners of the foreign language.
Following are some hints about presenting new vocabulary in the classroom of foreign language teaching.

I. Concise definition: Clear and concise definition of words (like that which are given in a dictionary)
should be presented. Dog for example should be defined as a four-legged, hairy barking animal.
II. Detailed description: Enough detail about shape and size etc. should be given.
III. Example: clear example with coordinates etc. are also necessary.
IV. Illustration: design and pictures etc. should be given.
V. Context: Reference to the story or line where an item occurs.
VI. Synonyms: the words with same or near meanings should be provided.
VII. Antonyms: the words with opposite meanings are also necessary.
 VIII. Translation: the equivalent of an item in learners’ native tongue should be conveyed.
IX. Associated ideas: Connected or associated concepts like plough, irrigation, tractor and farming with
agriculture, should be given.
_________________
c) remembering vocabulary.
Sometimes some words are remembered more easily than others. It depends upon various factors like the
nature of words, circumstances under which they are learnt, the method of teaching etc. Following are some
conclusions.

A teacher will get better results if the words have clear and easily understandable meanings.
A teacher may get better results regarding memorizing vocabulary if the newly introduced items are
linked with each other.
The new words may be memorized easily if they have connection with already learnt items.
Words may be memorized easily which has some connections with other words regarding meanings
or sound association.
It is better to teach vocabulary in separated sessions than to teach it all at once. In other words it is
better to introduce a new item at the beginning of the lesson and to revised later on.
Some words are remembered easily with which the people have personal or emotive significance like
Mom, Dad etc.
Words which are linked with other words like farming, irrigation and plough with agriculture are easily
remembered.
The first words which comes at the beginning of a list, when they are placed in a list, tends to be
remembered better as compared to that which are placed at last. Thus it is necessary to put the
most important words at the beginning of the list.

Another strategy for remembering words is to write a single word in the center of the board and to ask the
learners to brainstorm all the words they can think of that are connected with it. This activity is generally
for revising the already known words to the learners. For example in connection with the word tree the
learners may response words like forest, family, leaves, trunk, roots, fruits, trunk and flowers.
Furthermore, a teacher may give the students a new text and are asked to underline the words that are
already known to them. After that they try to guess the meaning of the remaining unmarked items. After
checking the guesses, the teacher may bring the class together and teach new words where necessary.
The advantage of this method is that the learners are encouraged to cooperate and they are also
exposed to the text.

_________________

d) testing vocabulary.
There are many techniques which are used to test vocabulary. Some of these techniques are as under;
I. Multiple choice: In this method, multiple choices are given and the learners are asked to choose the
correct one of them. For instance,
Choose the nearest word in meaning to the word reluctant. a. Unprepared b. unwilling c. refusing.
II. Matching: In this method, the corresponding words are matched across the column. For example
Match the opposite words of A and B.
(Column A ) ( Column B)

Male brave
Coward Expensive
Cheap Female
___________________________________________________
III. Matching columns: Match the prefixes of column A with words of column B.

Column A Column B
Inter Flow
Mis national
Dis information
Over satisfaction
_____________________________________
IV. Use in sentences: In this method, the given words are used in sentences. For example.
Use the given words in meaningful sentences of your own.
1. Wealth 2. society 3. culture 4. expensive.
V. Dictation: The teacher dictates the mother tongue equivalent of words and the learners are asked to write
its target language versions.
VI. Filling the Gaps: In this method, the learners are provided with the bank of words. They are asked to
choose the suitable one from that and to complete the sentences. For example,
Choose the right word from the given words to complete the sentences. ( Fetch Century Pirates
Attacked ships )
In seventeenth ----- the Americans used to sail --------- in order to ------- gold. They were often -------- by the -------.
VII. Translation: Sometimes the learners are given a text and they are asked to translate it into their
mother tongue equivalent or vice versa.
VIII. Sentence Completion: In this technique, incomplete sentences are given and the learners are asked
to complete it by their own. For example,
1. I fell depressed when ------.
2. I felt great relief when ------.
3. Once I used to --------.

_____________________________________

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.
TEFL-ll Full Notes
By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________

8️⃣
 Chapter ( 8️⃣ )
8️⃣ ) Teaching Grammar.
a) What is grammar? b) The place of grammar in teaching c) presenting and explaining d)
some grammar practice activities e) grammatical mistakes.
_________________
a) What is grammar?
What is Grammar ?
Grammar is defined as the way through which words are combined in a proper sequence to make
correct sentences or grammar is a set of rules through which meaningful utterances are made.
Through grammar, the words in a language are combined in a specific order. For example the constructions in
English like I am a teacher and Her name is Sana are grammatically correct but I a teacher and She name Sana
are not. Similarly, the phrase a tall man is acceptable whereas a man tall is unacceptable. The same is true in
case of a single word. The term went for example, is acceptable but goed is not.
The minimal components that are combined together may not necessarily be the whole words. For example
the -ed suffix which indicates the past tense of a regular verb in English or the –s which is used to make plural
of the regular nouns.

👉Grammatical Structures
Any specific instance of grammar is known as ‘structure’. For instance the past tense, noun plurals, forms of
articles and degrees of adjectives etc. All languages of the world are not having the same grammatical
structures. English verbs have for example aspects i.e progressive form which some languages may lack.
Grammatical meaning: Grammar of a language may not only affect how the units of the language are
combined but also affects its meaning. Often this aspect of grammar is neglected but it is necessary as one
can not make a new form of verb if he/she is not aware of what the difference in meaning is made when it is
used. This aspect of meaning often makes difficulty for foreign learners. Sometimes teaching the grammatical
meaning may be easy but mostly its not as quite simple. It is easy to teach the learners that the addition of –s
to noun makes its plural but to tell them how to use present perfect (he has gone) and when the simple past
(went) is to be used.

________________________

b) The place of grammar in teaching.

The Place of Grammar in Teaching

For most of the people the knowledge of a language mean, among other things, knowing its
grammar. Therefore teaching of grammar to the foreign learners has a basic position. In this
section, we deal with the question Is it necessary to teach grammatical structures or does the
formal rules need to be learnt ? Following are the extracts expressing various opinions relating to
this question.
• Extract 1.
It is not necessary to learn grammar in order to learn a language. A speaker can learn his/her native
language without studying its grammar. But this statement is a bit misleading. The basic question is not
whether teaching and learning grammar is necessary for learning a language, but whether it helps or not.
So the answer to this question is yes. It does help if it is taught consistently.
•Extract 2.
According to this opinion, it is better for learners to study grammar independently on their own not as a
necessary part of classroom lesson. The writer has given no reason to support the claim of learning grammar
out side the classroom. If the learners are interested and find it desirable to study grammar as a part of their
learning, then it is necessary for the teacher to help them where his/her support is necessary.
• Extract 3.
The writer’s claim here is that teaching learners how to construct grammatical sentences does not enable
them to create practical discourse (speech), rather the learners need to know how to make meaning within real
context. Here we should not conclude that the writer thinks teaching grammar is of no use. The point is that
grammatical accuracy on its own is of no benefit unless it is used to produce and receive purposeful meanings
within the context of real life language usage.

• Extract 4.
Here the writer is supporting the usefulness of grammar in order to learn a language effectively. He affirms that
grammar can be interesting (a voyage of discovery) in itself. All the learners may not find as such interest in
grammar still it has its value as a way to help language learning.
_________________
c) presenting and explaining grammar.
It seems difficult to teach and explain a grammatical structure to the learners of a foreign language. The
problem, first is that how to present them what is included in the structure and second, how to present
them with suitable examples and explanation so that they may become able to get the necessary
information. in this section, the guidelines for presenting a grammatical structures are discussed.

👉Guidelines for presenting grammar

I. Structure: In general, a good presentation of grammar should include both oral and written forms.
Similarly, it should present both form and meaning.
II. Illustrations: It is necessary to present learners with plenty of easily comprehensible examples.
III. Terminology: simple as well as book’s (special terminology, if any) is to be used.
IV. Language: In some situation, grammatical structures may be presented in learners’ mother
tongue if it is effective.
V. Explanation: there must be enough explanation of the grammatical structure so that the learners
may find it understandable whenever encounter.
VI. Delivery: The grammatical structure should be presented both in written form and orally as well.
VII. Method: It is necessary to decide whether to give a grammatical item through inductive
(examples are given first and a grammatical item is explained then on the basis of the given
examples) or deductive ( grammatical item is explained first then examples are given) method.

_________________

d) some grammar practice activities.

The main aim of teaching grammar is that the learners may become aware of the structure so that they
may become able to reproduce various structures based on that knowledge. Sometimes many learners
get full marks when they are tested in grammar but still making mistakes when they are composing
structures on their own.
They still needs consistent monitoring to create correct structures on their own. One of the teachers’ job
is to help their student to make leap from accurate work to fluent one. In this section, various activities
are given which ranges from a very controlled and accuracy oriented one at the beginning to the
fluency at the end.

👉 Types of Grammar Practice:

From Accuracy to Fluency;

Awareness: After the learners have been presented with a structure, they are given opportunity to face it within
practice by doing a task which focuses their attention on its form and/or meaning. For example the learners are
given an article of a newspaper and they are asked to find past tense in it.
Controlled drills: Learners are asked to produce examples of a learnt structure which are conform to a very
close ended cues. For example they are asked to write a statement about Peter on this model; Peter drinks tea
but he doesn’t drink coffee.
Meaningful drills: Here the learners can make a limited choice of vocabulary. For example to practice simple
present tense, the learners are asked to select a name and to compose a statement about him/her according to
the given model, He/she likes ice cream but doesn’t like coffee.
Sentence composition: Learners are provided with a visual cue and are invited to compose their own
responses by using the structure. For example a picture is shown to the class in which people are doing
various jobs. They are asked to describe them using suitable tense.
Discourse composition: Learners hold a discussion or write a passage on a given situation . They are
directed to use at least some examples of the given structure in their discourse. For example they are
given a dilemma situation ( your friend is cheating in an important test) and are asked to recommend a
solution. Models like might, should, can and must etc. may be given to them to use.
Free discourse: In this activity, no specific directions to use a structure are given.
_________________
e) grammatical mistakes.
What is Mistake ?

Mistakes are occasional and inconsistent slips whereas errors are consistent and based on mis-learned
generalization. Mistakes usually produce a slight feelings of discomfort in the readers or hearers.

Mistakes are an integral part of the learning process. It comes naturally when the learners are making progress
in the process of learning. It is not necessary to correct mistakes all at once rather it will disappear as the
learners are advancing. Mistakes may not be used as a sign of failure or inadequacy (to say for example the
learners have failed to learnt it) but as a mean of advance learning (to say for example here is something what
we need to pay attention to).

👉Learners’ Error
Here a sample of inquiry is given which may be used to deal with learners’ errors.
Stage 1. Gathering samples:
Collect various samples of learners’ writings (essay, paragraph etc.)
Stage 2. Categorizing:
classify those mistakes in various categories. It will become easy to note the most common ones.
Stage 3. Ordering:
make a list of the most frequently occurring ones.
Stage 4. Reordering:
Rearrange the list of mistakes/errors so that they become in order of importance for correction. There are
sometimes less urgent corrections which does not affect comprehensibility than one that does. For example
people often omit third person –s in simple present and less commonly substitute a present form of verb when
they mean past. The second mistake, on the whole lead to misunderstanding and is therefore, more important
to correct.

👉These information may be used for three main purposes;

1) As a guide for presentation and practice of new structures: If a teacher knows he/she may have the
possibility to produce a new structure with mistakes, he/she will work with more effort to present it. Thus
the learners may also appreciate his/her effort.
2) As a guide for correction: Due to these information, a teacher may concentrate on the most important
correction which are most urgent.
3) As a guide for remedial work: having diagnosed that certain structures are mostly problematic for the
learners, a teacher may give extra time and practice to that specific structures.

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.

TEFL-ll Full Notes

By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________

9️⃣
 Chapter ( 9️⃣ ) TEfL-ll
9️⃣ ) Younger and older
a) What difference does age make to language learning? b) Teaching children c) teaching
adolescents d) teaching adults.
_________________
a) What difference does age make to language learning?

What difference does age make to language learning?

In the present section, we are going to discuss what is the role of age in language learning. Following are
some assumption regarding age and language learning.

1) Young children learn language better than adults:

This is a common belief that young children, when exposed to a foreign language, are assumed the better
learners as compared to older learners (but this view has not been confirmed by research). On the contrary, in
the situation of same exposure to a foreign language there is evidence that the older the child the more
effectively he/she learns. Probably, the teenagers are overall the best learners (Exception to this case is
pronunciation, which is more effectively and easily learnt by the younger learners). The main reason for the
children’s speedy learning a foreign language may be the sheer amount of time they are exposed to the
language, teachers’ support and sometimes the interaction with foreign language speakers around them. This
assumption is sometime doubtful in case of formal classroom where there is only one teacher and a limited
time of exposure. The reason is that they rely more on initiative acquisition.

2) Foreign language learning in school should start early:

Some people assume that after the critical period, learning a language seems more difficult thus learning a
language early in school is essential. But there is no research evidence to this theory. According to Singleton
(1989) and Long (1990), there may not a such a period or there may be several. However, it is true that an early
start to language learning leads to better long term results if maintained (Long, 1990).

3) Children and adult learn languages the same way:

When people are learning a foreign language for survival, this statement may be true. In the context of formal
courses, however, the adults’ capacity for understanding and logical thought is greater. Besides, they have
already developed a number of learning skills. Moreover, adults are more disciplined and cooperative. This is
because the adults are learning voluntarily with a clear purpose i.e. working, travel, trade etc. that’s why they
feel committed and motivated. Most of the children on the other other hand, have little choice in why, how and
whether they are taught.

4 . Adults have a longer concentration span:

It comes often in teachers’ notice that they cannot get children to concentrate on certain learning tasks
whereas they can get the adults to do so. Here the problem is not of the concentration span as the children may
spend many hours in activities but without interest in it. The adults on the other hand, do possess a superiority
as they are considered to be more self disciplined and thus they intrinsically concentrate on activities.
5. Motivating children is easier:
This notion is true that younger learners can be motivated and their enthusiasm can be raised easily by
choosing various interesting activities as compared to the older ones. Likewise, they may demotivate easily by
needless and boring activities all the time. It would, perhaps, be more accurate to say that younger learners’
motivation is subject to immediate surrounding influences including teacher whereas the older learners tends
to be more stable.
_________________
b) Teaching children.
In general, children needs more motivation as compared to the older learners for effective learning.
For this purpose, it is necessary for a teachers to arouse their extrinsic motivation through rewards etc.
so that their intrinsic motivation may be enhanced. Various sources of interest for younger learners
may be aural or visual. Similarly, other important sources of interest for younger learners in a
classroom are posters, pictures and stories etc. They are discussed in detail below.

1) Pictures:
Pictures are the visual source for learners. It is a dominant source of input for them. Leaners find it
difficult to do an activity without having visual materials available to them. On the whole along with
professionally drawn pictures like that from textbooks, magazines and other photographs, there is a
specific place for teacher’s drawn sketches on writing board.
2) Stories:
Mostly the younger learners like stories. In contrast to pictures, there is practical use of language.
Narrating a story to learners, is one of the richest way of providing input to the learners in foreign
language.

_________________
c) teaching adolescents.
Since adolescents’ learning potentials are greater as compare to younger learners therefore, for
most of the inexperienced teachers, teaching the classes of adolescents are a daunting task.
Furthermore, it is fair difficult to manage and motivate them. Here some hints are given which an
inexperienced teacher may adopt while teaching a class of adolescent learners.
1. A teacher must be clothed properly and must be looking good.
2. A teacher must care a lot about his/her teaching.
3. The whole class must be in control.
4. It is necessary to treat the learners with respect and politeness.
5. All the students’ names should be known to him/her.
6. His/her behavior should be friendly toward the learners.
7. He/she should be interested in each student personally.
8. There must be a set of fixed rules.

9. There must be consistency upon the rules.

10. He/she should change his/her teaching methods if the learners wanted so.
11. He/she must make the lesson funny and interesting.
12. He/she should be aware what is going in every corner of the classroom.
13. It is necessary to get the students work hard.
14. It is necessary for a teacher to ask personal opinions of the learners in the class.
15. A good teacher should use corporal punishment occasionally.
16. If the learners need personal support, the teacher may support them outside the class.

_________________
d) teaching adults.
The teaching of older, worldwide, is considered less important as compared to the teaching of
younger learners. Teaching adults is easier and less effortful. Similarly, it is often directed towards
special purposes for example, for business or for academic purposes. Furthermore, the teacher is
often expected to be the native speaker of the target language.

Relationship between teacher and older learners :

Following are some relationship between a teacher and a class of older learners.
1) Authority – Subjects to Authority: Even in older learners’ class the authoritative status of the
teacher is maintained. The teacher is expected to give instructions, the learners on the other hand,
to respect and obey him. The learners, respecting and obeying him, demand in turn learning
outcomes.
2) Assessor – Assessed: The teacher has the authority to evaluate the learning process of the
learners and this contribute to his/her authority.
3) Transmitter – Receivers : Just like the classroom of younger or adolescent learners, the teacher
communicate or transmit information which are received by the older learners. Since the older
learners tend to be more disciplined and demanding more than younger learners, therefore, they
are active receivers.
4) Motivator – Motivated: The teacher act as motivator which encourages learners while the
learners are motivated. Although the raising and maintaining learners’ motivation is an essential
and basic part of teaching with all age groups, it is usually demanded less in the class of adults.
5) Activator – Activated: Just like transmitter-receiver relationship, this relationship depends
more on the teacher’s chosen methodology.
6) Counselor – Clients: This relationship entail the view of the teacher as a professional whose job
is to supply support the learners needs.
7) Seller – Buyers: This is basically a business relationship. The teacher has a commodity of
knowledge which the learners are willing to pay money to acquire. The learners demand
appropriate results for the value of money and even dismiss the teacher if the results are not
forthcoming.
8) Resource – Users: Here the teacher is the source of knowledge for the learners. The teacher is
passive in classroom interaction especially in older learners’ classroom. Where the learners are
experienced, disciplined and know what they want and how to get it.

_____________________________________
Department of English Literature & Linguistics
Government Degree College, Gulabad Dir Lower.

TEFL-ll Full Notes

By : Sir dawood seid
📓.
TEFL-ll Composed by :
Nafees Ahmad, BS-ENGLISH Semester 6th
_________________________________________