ELECTRICITY –

DC CIRCUITS

Kirchhoff’s Laws
Potential dividers

Sivakumar Y Thangam
FORMULAE LEARNT SO FAR IN ELECTRICITY

∆𝑄 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞 ∆𝑊
𝐼= 𝑉=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑄
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
𝑉 2 𝑅𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 2
𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼∆𝑡 𝜌 =
𝑅 𝐿
 EMF & POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Potential difference, V, is defined as the energy

transferred per unit charge.
The potential difference between two points, A
and B, is the energy transferred per unit charge as
it moves from point A to point B
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
∆𝑾
𝑽=
∆𝑸

The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of the supply is also defined as the energy
transferred per unit charge.
However, the e.m.f. of a source is the energy transferred per unit charge in
driving charge around a complete circuit.
 EMF & POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of the supply is defined as

the electrical energy gained by each Coulomb of charge
that passes through it to drive through the complete circuit.

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍

𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇. =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆

Potential difference, V, between any two points in a circuit is

defined as the electrical energy converted for each Coulomb
of charge that passes across the points.

𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎

𝒑. 𝒅. =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
All power supplies have
some resistance between
their terminals called their
internal resistance.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
E is the e.m.f. of the supply
r is the internal resistance of
the supply
I is the current delivered by
the supply
𝑉𝑟 is the potential difference across the internal
resistance
𝑉𝑅 is the potential difference across the load
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑟
𝑽𝑹 is terminal potential difference of the cell, p.d
between the terminals of a cell when current is
being delivered or the circuit is closed.

The terminal potential difference is equal to

the e.m.f. of the cell when the switch is open
or current being not delivered.

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 𝑉𝑟 is also called the lost volts, 𝑉𝑟 = 𝐼𝑟

𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑟
The greater the current drawn from the supply, the
lower the terminal potential difference.
So, greater the current drawn, greater the lost volts
𝑉𝑟 = 𝐼𝑟 inside the cell.
EFFECT OF
INTERNAL
RESISTANCE
ON THE
POWER
DELIVERED BY
THE BATTERY –
MAXIMUM
POWER
TRANSFER A battery delivers maximum power to a circuit when
THEOREM the load resistance of the circuit is equal to the internal
resistance of the supply.
 plete Workshee
C om t

2
 CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Use the idea of the energy gained and lost by a 1 C charge to
explain why two 6 V batteries connected together in series can
give an e.m.f. of 12 V or 0 V, but connected in parallel they
give an e.m.f. of 6 V.

In series, the 1 C charge passes through both batteries and gains or loses 6 J
in each.
If the batteries are connected so that both of them move the charge in the
same direction total e.m.f. = 6 + 6 = 12 V.
If the batteries are connected back to front, the charge gains energy in one
cell but loses it in the other, so total e.m.f. = 0 V.
In parallel, half the charge flows through one battery and half through the
other, so the total energy gained is 6 J, meaning the total e.m.f. = 6 V
 CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
You have five 1.5 V cells. How would you connect all five of
them to give an e.m.f. of:
a. 7.5 V
b. 1.5 V
c. 4.5 V?
 KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW
The sum of the currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving that same point.
Σ𝐼𝑖𝑛 = Σ𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

Kirchhoff’s first law is an expression

At Point P,
of the conservation of charge.
𝐼1 = 𝐼2

At Point Q,
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

What is the
current, I?
Calculate the current in the Calculate Σ𝐼𝑖𝑛 and
wire X. State the direction Σ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 . Is Kirchhoff’s
of this current (towards P or first law satisfied?
away from P).
KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW

The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit is equal to

the sum of the p.d.s around the loop.
Σ𝐸 = ΣV

Kirchhoff’s first law is an expression of the

conservation of energy.
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW

Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the

current in the circuit
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW
Use Kirchhoff’s second law to deduce the p.d. across the resistor of
resistance R in the circuit shown and hence find the value of R. (Assume
the battery of e.m.f. 10 V has negligible internal resistance.)
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Calculate the current in each of
the resistors in the circuit shown
How about
applying
Kirchhoff’s laws in
complex
circuits???
SIGNS AND DIRECTIONS
e.m.f.s:
Starting with the cell of e.m.f. E1 and working
anticlockwise around the loop (because E1 is
‘pushing current’ anticlockwise):
sum of e.m.f.s = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 − 𝐸3

Note that 𝐸3 is opposing the other two e.m.f.s

p.d.s:
Starting from the same point, and working
anticlockwise again:
sum of p.d.s = 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼2 𝑅3 + 𝐼1 𝑅4

Note that the direction of current 𝐼2 is

clockwise, so the p.d.s that involve 𝐼2 are
negative.
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Calculate the current in each of
the resistors in the circuit shown
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Use Kirchhoff’s second law to find the current I in the circuit shown
below. Choosing the best loop can simplify the problem.
a) Which loop in the circuit should you choose?
b) Calculate the current I.
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Use Kirchhoff’s second law to deduce the resistance R of the resistor
shown in the circuit loop
LET’S APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to the circuit shown in Figure to determine the
current that will be shown by the ammeters A1, A2 and A3.
RESISTOR COMBINATIONS-
RESISTORS IN SERIES
According to Kirchhoff’s first law, the
current in each resistor is the same.
The p.d. V across the combination is
equal to the sum of the p.d.s across the
two resistors:

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐

𝐈𝐑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐

𝐑 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
What is the combined
resistance of two 5 Ω resistors
and a 10 Ω resistor connected
in series?
The cell shown in the Figure
provides an e.m.f. of 2.0 V. The
p.d. across one lamp is 1.2 V.
What is the p.d. across the
other lamp.
RESISTOR COMBINATIONS-RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
using Kirchhoff’s first law, we can write:

𝐈 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐

If we apply Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop that

contains the two resistors, we have:

𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎𝑽

(because there is no source of e.m.f. in the loop).

This equation states that the two resistors have the

same p.d. V across them.

𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Calculate the total resistance
of four 10 Ω resistors
connected in parallel.
Calculate the resistances of the
following combinations:
a. 100 Ω and 200 Ω in series
b. 100 Ω and 200 Ω in parallel
c. 100 Ω and 200 Ω in series and
this in parallel with 200 Ω.
Calculate the current drawn from a 12 V
battery of negligible internal resistance
connected to the ends of the following:
a. 500 Ω resistor
b. 500 Ω and 1000 Ω resistors in series
c. 500 Ω and 1000 Ω resistors in parallel.
Calculate the current drawn from a 12 V
battery of negligible internal resistance
connected to the ends of the following:
a. 500 Ω resistor
b. 500 Ω and 1000 Ω resistors in series
c. 500 Ω and 1000 Ω resistors in parallel.