MEE 201 ENGINEERING MATERIALS (2 Units)

LECTURE NOTE 3: STEEL AND HEAT TREATMENTS

3.0. INTRODUCTION: STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%.The
carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C), because of its ability to increase the
hardness and strength of the steel. If, however, the carbon is increased above 1.5 %, a
stage soon arrives when no more carbon can be contained in the combined state and
any excess must be present as free carbon (graphite), this state make CAST IRON.
Therefore, for a material to be regarded as STEEL there must be no free carbon in its
composition; immediately free graphite that occurs passes into the category of CAST
IRON. Steel can be classified as:
1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3.1. CARBON STEELS: The factors affecting the properties of carbon steels are carbon content
and the microstructure. Carbon has a strengthening and hardening effect. It lowers ductility,
machineability, weldability, corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Carbon steel does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of
manganese. Most of the steel produced nowadays is PLAIN CARBON STEEL. The plain carbon
steels varying from 0.05% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided into the following types

Table 3.1: Types of Plain Carbon Steels

Plain Carbon Steel % of Carbon
Dead Mild Steel (Low Carbon Steel) 0.05 – 0.15 % carbon
Mild Steel 0.10 – 0.30 % carbon
Medium Carbon Steel 0.30 – 0.50 % carbon
High Carbon Steel 0.50 – 0.90 % carbon
High Carbon Steel (Tool Steel) 0.90 – 1.50 % carbon

1
 Table 3.2: Mechanical Properties and Application of Carbon Steel
Types of steel % carbon BHN No. Tensile Yield % % Reduction
Strength Strength elongation in Area
Dead Mild Steel 0.05-0.15% 100-110 390 260 40 60
Uses: Chains, stampings, rivets, nails, seamwelded pipe, tin plates, automobile body, material subject to
drawing and pressing
Mild Steel 0.10-0.30 120-150 420-555 355-480 36-21 66-55
Uses: Structural steels, universal beams, screw, drop forging, case hardening steel, gears free cutting steel,
shafts
Medium Steel 0.30-0.50 150-350 700-770 550-580 18-20 51-53
Uses: Connecting rods, shafting, axles, crankhooks, forging, gears, dies, rotors
High Carbon 0.50-0.90 350-600 1200-665 750-645 10-12 35-33
Uses: Loco wheels, rails, wire ropes, drop hammer, dies, saws, screw drivers, band saw, hammers, laminated
springs, cable wire, large dies for cold press, drills
Tool Steel 0.090-1.10 550-600 580 415 13 26
Uses: Axes knives, drill, tapes, screws, rings dies, etc.
High Carbon 1.10-1.50 600-750 500 375 13 20
Uses: Ball bearing, files, broaches, boring and finishing tools, machine parts where resistance to wear is
essential

3.2. ALLOY STEELS

In alloy steel, elements other than carbon are added in sufficient amounts to produce
improvements in properties. The most common alloying elements are chromium,
nickel, manganese, silicon, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorous, copper,
titanium, zirconium, cobalt, columbium, and aluminium. They are used separately or
in combination to produce desired characteristics in the steel.
3.2.1. EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON STEEL: The various alloying elements
affect the properties of steel as follows:
i. Silicon: The amount of silicon in the finished steel usually ranges from 0.05 to
0.30%. Silicon is added in low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming
porous. It removes the gases and oxides, prevent blow holes and thereby
makes the steel tougher and harder. Higher percentage of silicon gives rise to
corrosion resisting alloys.
ii. Manganese: It serves as a valuable deoxidising and purifying agent in steel.
Manganese also combines with sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful
effect of this element remaining in the steel. When used in ordinary low carbon
steels, manganese makes the metal ductile and of good bending qualities. In
high speed steels, it is used to toughen the metal and to increase its critical
temperature. The manganese content of carbon steels commonly ranges from
0.30 to 1.00 %.

2
 iii. Nickel: It improves toughness, tensile strength, ductility and corrosion
resistance.
iv. Chromium: It increases strength, hardness, toughness, and corrosion
resistance.
v. Cobalt: It improves hardness, toughness, tensile strength, thermal resistance,
and magnetic properties.
vi. Molybdenum: It increase wear resistance, thermal resistance, hardness ability
to retain mechanical properties at elevated temperature. When added with
nickel, it improves corrosion resistance.
vii. Tungsten: It increases hardness, toughness, wear resistance, shock resistance,
magnetic reluctance and ability to retain mechanical properties at elevated
temperature.
viii. Vanadium: It improves tensile strength, elastic limit, ductility, shock
resistance and also acts as a degasser when added to molten steel. It is added
in low and medium carbon steels in order to increase their yield tensile
strength properties.
ix. Boron: It increases hardenability and is therefore, very useful when alloyed
with low carbon steels.
x. Aluminium: It is basically used as a deoxidiser. It improves the growth of fine
grains and helps in providing a high degree of hardness through nitriding by
forming aluminium nitrides.
xi. Titanium: It is fairly good deoxidiser and promotes grain growth. Also, it readily
forms titanium carbides but has no marked effect on the hardenability of the material.
xii. Copper: It increases the strength and improves resistance to corrosion. Its
proportion normally varies from 0.2 % to 0.5.
xiii. Niobium: It improves ductility, decrease hardenability and substantially increases the
impact strength.
3.3. SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS
Steel manufactured for special purposes, such as stainless steel, high speed steel, heat
resisting steel, free cutting steel and spring steel are called special steels. These steels
form a very important group of alloy steels which have been developed to meet
specific requirement in respect of properties under specific situations and special
applications. The most common varieties of these steels are:
(1) Stainless steel

3
(2) High speed steel
(3) Cutting alloys
3.3.1. Stainless Steel:
They are also known as corrosion resistant steels. Their principal alloying
element is chromium while some other element like nickel, manganese, etc.
can also be present in small amount. Chromium reacts with the oxygen to form
a strong layer of chromium oxide on the surface of the metal which is
responsible for offering the resistance to corrosion. Stainless Steels carrying
more than 12% chromium are known as true stainless steels. As this steel
cannot be stained easily, so it is called stainless steel. Classification of stainless
steels are generally done on the basis of their structures as followers:
1. Ferritic Stainless Steels
2. Martensitic Stainless Steel
3. Austenitic Stainless Steels
i. Ferritic Stainless Steels: This group of stainless steel carries
chromium content in the range of 11 to 27 %, usually without any other
alloying element. Sometime of course manganese (1 to 1.5%) and silicon (up to
1%) are added. Their ductility and formability are poor. They possess good
weldability. They can be made good heat resistant by the addition of about 3%
silicon and cannot be hardened through heat treatment. These steels are
widely used in dairy equipment, food processing plants, chemical industries,
heat exchangers, surgical instruments.
ii. Martensitic Stainless Steel: This group of stainless steel carries
chromium 12 to 18% but contains a higher percentage of carbon usually (0.15
to 1.2%). The carbon dissolves in austenite which when quenched, provides a
martensitic structure to the alloy, hence the name. They are costlier than
ferritic stainless steels and can be hardened by heat treatment. Their main
applications are in the manufacture of items like springs, bolts, nuts, screws,
valves, and cutlery.
iii. Austenitic Stainless Steels: A steel containing 18% chromium and 8%
nickel is very widely used and is commonly referred to as 18/8 stainless steels.
Such steel may be readily cold-worked. They cannot be hardened. It is non-
magnetic.

4
3.3.2. High Speed Steel:
HSS are used for cutting metals at a much higher cutting speed than plain
carbon tool steels. The HSS have the valuable properties of retaining their
hardness even when heated to red heat. Most of the high speed steels contain
tungsten as the chief alloying element, but other alloying element like cobalt,
chromium, and vanadium etc. may be present in some proportion. Certain
highly alloyed steels, designed as HSS, have been developed which must retain
their cutting properties at temperature up to 600°C to 620°C. Following are the
different types of HSS.
i. 18-4-1 High Speed Steel: This steel containing 18% tungsten, 4%
chromium and 1% vanadium with about 0.75% carbon is considered to
be one of the best of all purposes tool steels. It is widely used for lathe,
planer and shaper tools, drills, reamers, threading dies, punches, and
milling cutters.
ii. Cobalt High Speed Steel or Super HSS: This is also known as Super
High Speed Steel. Normally, cobalt is added from 5 to 8 per cent to
increase better hot hardness and wear resistance than 18-4-1 type. One
analysis of cobalt high speed steel contains 20% tungsten, 4%
chromium, 2% vanadium and 12% cobalt. Since, the cost of this steel is
more, therefore it is principally used for heavy cutting operation which
impose high pressure and temperature on the tool.
iii. Molybdenum High Speed Steel: This steel contains 6% tungsten, 6%
molybdenum, 4% chromium and 2% vanadium and has excellent
toughness and cutting ability. These steel are better and cheaper than
other types of steel. It is particularly used for drilling and tapping
operation.
iv. Vanadium High Speed Steel: This steel contains 0.70% carbon and
more than 1% vanadium. High vanadium with carbon high-speed steel
is superior to 18-4-1 type for difficult to machine materials.
3.3.3. Cutting Alloys:
Cutting alloys are used on tools that operate at very high cutting speeds with
high temperature up to 1000°C to 1100°C developing on cutting edges. This
property enables the use of these alloys for manufacture of cutting tools used
in metal machining at very high cutting speeds. Solid tools are not made from

5
these alloys because if made, they are bound to break due to high brittleness
and also because it is difficult to machine them. According to the method of
production, these alloys can be grouped as:
i. Cemented Carbides: They are made of a powdery mixture of tungsten
and titenium carbides and metallic cobalt which is first compacted and
then sintered, thus employing the well-known powder metallurgy
process. Due to high brittleness they are used as bits. These bits are
available in many standard shapes like triangular, square, diamond, and
round etc. and different sizes. These bits can either be brazed
or held mechanically on the tool shanks. Brazed bits provide better
stability and accuracy but the mechanically held bits (inserts) enable
longer tool life because when their one edge becomes blunt it can be
turned over or rotated to bring another edge in front for cutting. These
tool materials are extremely hard, possess better hot hardness, exhibit
better stiffness and less friction and are chemically more stable. They
can retain their hardness up to 1200°C and, therefore, very high cutting
speeds can be used. Their higher wear resistance makes them suitable
material for making wire drawing, dies and similar other tools.
ii. Cast Cutting Alloys (Stellites): These alloys are rich in cobalt content
and contain tungsten, chromium, niobium, boron, nickel and tantalum
etc. also in varying proportions. As cutting tool materials they perform
better than H.S.S. with the result they can be safely operated at 50% or
higher speeds than H.S.S. tools. They cannot be heat treated but possess
high hardness. These alloys are popularly known as STELLITES. They
are neither forged nor machined to shape. Usually they are cast to shape
and then finished by grinding. They are effectively used for machining
of several hard materials like cast irons, alloy steels, plain carbon steels
and non-ferrous alloys. They are costlier than H.S.S. Tips or rods from 5
to 10 mm thick, cast of these alloys are used in the hard-facing of tools
by welding techniques to increase the life of the cutting edges. Dies and
wear surfaces of various machines parts are hard faced in the same
manner.

6
3.4. HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEELS
3.4.1. Object of heat treatment. Metals and alloys are heat treated to improve their
mechanical properties, to relieve internal stresses or to improve their
machinability. The properties of carbon steels can also be altered significantly
by subjecting them to heat treatment processes. Heat treatment consists of
three basic steps:
(i) Heat the metal/alloy to a predetermined temperature. This temperature
will, ideally, depend upon the actual composition of carbon steel (i.e.
carbon percentage),
(ii) Soaking or holding the metal/alloy at that temperature for some time, so
that the temperature across the entire cross-section becomes uniform,
and
(iii) Cooling the metal/alloy at a predetermined rate in a suitable medium
like water, oil or air. The rate of cooling is the most important factor.
3.4.2. Kinds of Heat Treatments Given to Carbon Steels: Carbon steels are
subjected to the following four basic heat-treatment processes:
(i) Annealing,
(ii) Normalising,
(iii) Hardening, and
(iv) Tempering.
i. Annealing: The purpose of annealing is to soften the material. Along
with softening, the internal stresses, if any, will also get removed.
The approximate temperatures to which the steel-sample should be
heated will depend upon its carbon content. The recommended
temperatures are shown in the following table:
Material Annealing temp. (oC)
Dead mild steel (Carbon < 0.15%) 870-930
Mild steel (Carbon =0.15-0.3%) 840-870
Medium carbon steel (Carbon= 0.3-0.7%) 780-840)
High carbon steel (Carbon=0.7-1.5%) 760-780

Soaking time may be given at the rate of 3-4 minutes for every 1mm
thickness of the cross section of material. In annealing, the work piece is
allowed to cool inside the furnace only after switching off electrical
power or oil supply to the furnace. This ensures that the work piece

7
 cools at a very slow rate. This process results in softening of material
and increase in ductility due to grain growth.
ii. Normalising: Normalising entails heating to the same temperatures as
recommended for annealing (except for high carbon steel specimens,
which are to be heated to much higher temperatures than for annealing
particularly as carbon percentage in sample increases), soaking and then
cooling the sample in still air. Main object of normalising is getting rid of
internal stresses and grain-refinement.
iii. Hardening. Hardening involves heating (to the same temperatures as in
case of annealing) and soaking. Thereafter, the work piece is taken out of
the furnace and quickly cooled at a very fast rate in a tank of cold water
or oil, agitating the water/oil vigorously. (This cooling operation is
called ‘‘quenching.’’) The result is hardening of the work piece. However,
in order to harden, the carbon content in the work piece should be at
least 0.25%. Therefore, dead mild steel cannot be hardened in this way.
Mild steel will also harden slightly for specimens containing over 0.25%
carbon. Higher the carbon percentage, higher will be resulting hardness.
Hardened pieces become brittle and their extreme brittleness becomes a
great disadvantage. They tend to fail in-service. Therefore hardening
process is invariably followed by a tempering process.
iv. Tempering: Tempering means giving up a certain amount of hardness
but shedding a great deal of brittleness acquired in the process of
hardening. It is a tradeoff between hardness and brittleness, so that
hardened component may give useful service without failure. Tempering
involves heating the carbon steel part to a temperature varying from
150°–600°C (depending upon how much tradeoff is required) and
cooling the component in an oil or salt bath or even in air.
v. Case hardening. As mentioned above, only those carbon steels can be
hardened whose carbon content is about 0.25% or more. How do we
harden dead mild steel? The answer is by case hardening. In this process,
the work piece is packed in charcoal and heated as in annealing. It is kept
at that high temperature for a few hours. The result is that carbon enters
into the surface of the work piece to the depth of 1mm or 2mm
depending upon the heating time. The work piece now has a case where

8
 carbon percentage is as per requirement for hardening. It is then heated
and quenched in the usual manner. The result is a component whose
surface acquires hardness, but core remains soft and tough.

3.5 HEAT COLOURS FOR STEEL

Steel takes on several colours and shades from the time it turns a dull red until it
reaches a white heat. These colours and the corresponding temperatures are listed in
table below. During hardening, normalizing, and annealing, steel is heated to various
temperatures that produce colour changes. By observing these changes, you can
roughly determine the temperature of the steel.

Colour Temperature
oF oC

Faint red visible in dark 750 399

Faint red 900 482
Blood red 1050 565
Dark cherry 1075 579
Medium cherry 1250 677
Cherry or full red 1375 746
Bright red 1550 843
Salmon 1650 899
Orange 1725 940
Lemon 1825 996
Light yellow 1975 1079
White 2200 1204
Dazzling white 2350 1288

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:
1. What is the importance of ferrous materials in our daily lives?
2. What is steel? How is it different from iron? Differentiate between plain carbon steels
and alloy steels.
3. What are the characteristic properties of cast iron?
4. Describe the object of annealing. How is it different from ‘‘normalising’’?
5. Describe the process of hardening steel. Why are hardened objects subjected to
tempering treatment after hardening them?
6. Write a brief note about stainless steels. What constituent of such steels render them
corrosion resistant.
7. What are different types of cast irons?
8. What is the object of alloying steels?